BABU BANARASI DAS

NORTHERN INDIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, LUCKNOW

MBA 1st YEAR 2nd sem – MODEL PAPER
ACADEMIC SESSION 2022-23(EVEN SEMESTER)
Management Information System (KMBN208)

NOTE: Attempt all sections

CO: Course Outcomes / BTL: Bloom's Taxonomy Level
SECTION A
Q01. Attempt ALL parts in brief:

Course Outcome(CO) & Bloom's Taxonomy Level(BTL) for CO BTL

each question
1A Define MIS? CO1 K2
1B Define Objective of MIS? CO1 K2
1C Define Office Automation Systems? CO1 K2
1D Define DSS? CO2 K1
1E Define Expert System? CO2 K1
1F Explain features of DSS? CO2 K2
1G Define Executive information System. CO2 K2
1H Define Data redundancy. CO3 K2
1I Define Data Management. CO3 K1
1J Define field ? CO3 K1

SECTION B
Q:2 Attempt ay Three from this section. Each Question is of 10 marks-:
Course Outcome(CO) & Bloom's Taxonomy Level(BTL) for each question CO BTL
2A Describe various component of information system. CO1 K1
2B “Information as strategic resource used for competitive advantage”. Justify CO1 K2
statement with suitable example
2C Explain Herbert Simon’s model of decision making CO2 K2
2D Explain the importance of data independence with suitable example. CO3 K2

SECTION C
Attempt all questions from this section
Q 03 Attempt ONE Part of the Following
Course Outcome(CO) & Bloom's Taxonomy Level(BTL) for each question CO BTL
3A Explain Contemporary approaches to MIS? CO1 K2
3B Explain main functions of TPS? CO1 K2

Q 04 Attempt ONE Part of the Following

4A Discuss emerging trends in information technology. CO1 K2
4B What is the role of information in Decision Making? CO2 K2

Q 05 Attempt ONE Part of the Following

5A Discuss attributes of information and explain its relevance to decision making. CO2 K2
5B Explain applications of Executive information System CO2 K2
Q 06 Attempt ONE Part of the Following
6A What do you mean by hierarchical data model, network data model, and CO2 K2
relational data model?
6B Difference between data warehouse and data mining? CO3 K1

Q 07 Attempt ONE Part of the Following

7A Define SQL and its constraints? CO3 K2
7B Explain in brief Challenges of data management CO3 K2

SOLUTION

SECTION -A

ANS-1a) MIS is the use of information technology, people, and business processes to record,
store and process data to produce information that decision makers can use to make day to day
decisions. The full form of MIS is Management Information Systems. The purpose of MIS is to
extract data from varied sources and derive insights that drive business growth.
MIS is the mechanism that offers the managers ' required information as the operational
information source and prepares them for their decision-making. MIS is used by managers as a
tool to identify the issues facing them. MIS helps managers understand the issues and find
solutions.
ANS-1b) Main objectives of a management information system

Followings are the main objectives of a management information system,

1.Data Storage - it is important to store information or processed data for future use.
2.Data Retrieval - the data should be smoothly retrieved from storage devices whenever needed by
different users.
3.Data Propagation - data should be distributed periodically through the organizational network to
its users.
4.A system of efficient and effective planning - MIS controls functions of management to provide
quick and timely information to the management. The process is very effective to make decisions.
5.An MIS's goals are to incorporate the company's organizational structure and processes in order
to better control the enterprise and maximize the information system's potential for competitive
advantage.
6.Graphical reports - give an idea about the performance of different resources employed in the
organization.
7.Controlling the organization - MIS helps control the organization to provide the latest
information as well as historical data whenever required.
8.Standard and budgeted performance - Through matching actual performance with standard and
budgeted performance, MIS brings variances to management attention that can be resolved by
taking remedial action.
9.MIS provides the notification of the organization's management power to take advantage of
available opportunities.
10.MIS reports on re-production statistics which helps management people to take fruitful
decisions.
ANS-1c) An office automation system (OAS) is a collection of communication technology,
computers, and persons to perform official tasks. It executes office transactions and supports
official activities at every organizational level. These activities can be divided into clerical and
managerial activities.
Clerical activities performed with the help of an office automation system include preparing
written communication, typesetting, printing, mailing, scheduling meetings, calendar keeping. etc.
Under managerial activities, an office automation system helps in conferencing, creating reports
and messages, and controlling the performance of the organization. Many applications like word
processing, electronic filing, and e-mail are integrated into the office automation systems.
ANS-1d) A decision support system (DSS) is an interactive computer-based information system
that, like MIS, also serves at the management level of an organization. However, in contrast to
MIS, it processes information to support the decision-making process of managers. It provides
middle managers with the information that enables them to make intelligent decisions. A decision
support system in a bank, for example, enables a manager to analyze the changing trends in
deposits and loans in order to ascertain the yearly targets.
Decision support systems are designed for every manager to execute a specific managerial task or
problem. Generally, they help managers to make semi-structured decisions, the solution to which
can be arrived at logically. However, sometimes, they can also help in making complex decisions.
To support such decisions, they use the information generated by OASs and TPSs.
Decision support systems have more analytical power as compared to other information systems.
They employ a wide variety of decision models to analyze data or summarize a vast amount of
data into a form (usually form of tables or charts) that make the comparison and analysis of data
easier for managers. They provide an interactive environment so that the users could work with
them directly, add or change data as per their requirements, and ask new questions.

ANS-1e) An expert system is a computer program that is designed to solve complex problems and
to provide decision-making ability like a human expert. It performs this by extracting knowledge
from its knowledge base using the reasoning and inference rules according to the user queries.

The expert system is a part of AI, and the first ES was developed in the year 1970, which was the
first successful approach of artificial intelligence. It solves the most complex issue as an expert by
extracting the knowledge stored in its knowledge base. The system helps in decision making for
complex problems using both facts and heuristics like a human expert. It is called so because it
contains the expert knowledge of a specific domain and can solve any complex problem of that
particular domain. These systems are designed for a specific domain, such as medicine, science,
etc.

ANS-1f) DSSs have the following features that make them distinct from other types of
information systems:

a) DSS does not aim at any specific type of decisions. It has the flexibility of use in various
unexpected decision situations.
b) The user friendly interface of DSS makes it different from other types of information systems.
Once a manager has used a DSS for some time, its irregular use does not adversely affect the ease
of use.
c) The report generators and graphic facilities in DSS provide better ways of representing the
information generated by use of models in DSS. These facilities add value to the information.
d) DSS offers any user complete control over the system. The input, method of processing and
output are controlled by the user.

ANS-1g) An Executive Information System (EIS) is a kind of decision support system (DSS)
used in organizations to help executives in decision making. It does so by providing easy access to
important data needed in an organization to achieve strategic goals. An EIS usually has graphical
displays on a user-friendly interface.

Executive information systems can be used for monitoring company performance in many
different types of organizations as well as for identifying opportunities and problems.

Early executive information systems were developed on mainframe computers as computer-based

programs to provide the description, sales performance and/or market research data for senior
executives of a company. Executives, however, were not all literate or confident about the
computers. Also, EIS data endorsed only executive-level decisions that did not necessarily
support the entire company or enterprise.
ANS-1h) In computer main memory, auxiliary storage and computer buses, data redundancy is
the existence of data that is additional to the actual data and permits correction of errors in stored
or transmitted data. The additional data can simply be a complete copy of the actual data, or only
select pieces of data that allow detection of errors and reconstruction of lost or damaged data up to
a certain level.
Data redundancy occurs when the same piece of data is stored in two or more separate places.
Suppose you create a database to store sales records, and in the records for each sale, you enter the
customer address. Yet, you have multiple sales to the same customer so the same address is
entered multiple times. The address that is repeatedly entered is redundant data.

ANS-1i) Data management is an administrative process that includes acquiring, validating,

storing, protecting, and processing required data to ensure the accessibility, reliability, and
timeliness of the data for its users. Organizations and enterprises are making use of Big Data more
than ever before to inform business decisions and gain deep insights into customer behavior,
trends, and opportunities for creating extraordinary customer experiences.

ANS-1j) A database is a set of data arranged in a particular way so that a computer program can
use the necessary parts from it. Every database has several fields, records, and files.

A database field refers to a set of values arranged in a table and has the same data type. A field is
also known as a column or attribute.

It is not necessary for the values included in a field to be in the form of text alone, as this is not a
requirement. Some databases have the capability of having fields that contain images, files, and
other types of media, while others have the capability of having data that links to other files that
can be accessed by clicking on the field data.
 SECTION-B
ANS 2a) Components of MIS

The major components of a typical MIS long-form (Management Information System) are:

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• People – people who use the information system

• Data – the data that the information system records

• Business Procedures – procedures put in place on how to record, store and analyze data

• Hardware – these include servers, workstations, networking equipment, printers, etc.

• Software – these are programs used to handle the data. These include programs such as
spreadsheet programs, database software, etc.

ANS-2b)) Use of information for competitive advantage

Information and its use has become the competitive advantage of today’s world. The efficiency
with which a firm manages its information determines its success in the marketplace. This
enormous power of information unleashed in today’s world has brought down reaction times for
decision-making of managers, made customers more aware, competitors more efficient and
regulators more alert.

Today, one can no longer hide behind excuses of ‘plausible deniability’. These changes have
resulted in a change in mindset of managers and have transformed the way business is conducted.
Management of information itself has become a key success factor for firms. However,
information is not to be seen in isolation. Information in the current competitive business
environment is available to business firms in a computerized environment. Computerization is
required to make the information supplied to be timely and accurate, which are critical factors for
success in these competitive times.

Hence, the study of information management entails an understanding of information and

communication technology also. However, information management is a distinct subject not
related (other than the practical considerations of providing the output information timely and
accurately) to information and communication technology. Let us now delve deeper into the
subject to get a clear understanding of the basic concepts that drive management information
systems.

As is clear, the advantage that a modern corporate house enjoys can be traced to its management
of information. If the business house cannot manage its information, then it is likely that it will not
have any competitive advantage. Typically an organization can develop competitive advantage if
it can, does or have what others can’t, do or have. In modern times, the advantages on account of
raw materials, technological edge, etc., is being neutralized by the forces of modern business. The
last frontier so to say is information management. Companies that have managed to do it
successfully like Dell, Google, etc., have generated an unparalleled competitive advantage as their
reaction time to changes in the market and/or competition is much less and hence, they can shift
business gears faster than their competitors and hence the advantage. Competitive advantage
through managing information can accrue to an organization if it:

Manages information to reduce reaction time for change

Managing information makes the organization efficient

Information management leads to insights into the business that the competitors cannot
have

Information management is used for predictive analysis so that the organization is one step
ahead of competition.

This competitive advantage gained by managing information also requires changes in organization
cultures. Companies need to create a culture of information based management and decision-
making to take advantage of the opportunities of information management. This is a challenge, as
installing an organizational culture is not as straightforward as installing an information
management system. It is a process that takes a lot of time.

ANS-2c) Administrative Model of Decision-making

Bounded Rationality Model or Administrative Model:

Decision-making involve the achievement of a goal. Rationality demands that the decision-maker
should properly understand the alternative courses of action for reaching the goals.

He should also have full information and the ability to analyse properly various alternative
courses of action in the light of goals sought. There should also be a desire to select the best
solutions by selecting the alternative which will satisfy the goal achievement.

Herbert A. Simon defines rationality in terms of objective and intelligent action. It is characterised
by behavioural nexus between ends and means. If appropriate means are chosen to reach desired
ends the decision is rational.

Bounded Rationality model is based on the concept developed by Herbert Simon. This model does
not assume individual rationality in the decision process.

Instead, it assumes that people, while they may seek the best solution, normally settle for much
less, because the decisions they confront typically demand greater information, time, processing
capabilities than they possess. They settle for “bounded rationality or limited rationality in
decisions. This model is based on certain basic concepts.

Herbert A. Simon was of the first few scholars to recognize that decisions are not always made
with rationality and logic. Simon, a winner of the Nobel Prize in Economics, instead of
prescribing how decisions should be made, describes how decisions often actually are made.

The Administrative model holds that managers:

(i) Have incomplete and imperfect information,

(ii) Are constrained by bounded rationality, and

(iii) Tend to satisfies when making decisions.

As a matter of fact, the classical and administrative models paint quite different pictures of
decision making. The classical model is prescriptive: it explains how managers can at least
attempt to be more rational and logical in their approach to decisions.

The administrative model can be used by managers to develop a better understanding of their
inherent biases and limitation.

ANS-2d) Data Independence

A database system normally contains a lot of data in addition to users’ data. For example, it stores
data about data, known as metadata, to locate and retrieve data easily. It is rather difficult to
modify or update a set of metadata once it is stored in the database. But as a DBMS expands, it
needs to change over time to satisfy the requirements of the users. If the entire data is dependent,
it would become a tedious and highly complex job.
If a database system is not multi-layered, then it becomes difficult to make any changes in the
database system. Database systems are designed in multi-layers as we learnt earlier.
A database system normally contains a lot of data in addition to users’ data. For example, it
stores data about data, known as metadata, to locate and retrieve data easily. It is rather difficult
to modify or update a set of metadata once it is stored in the database. But as a DBMS expands, it
needs to change over time to satisfy the requirements of the users. If the entire data is dependent,
it would become a tedious and highly complex job.
Metadata itself follows a layered architecture, so that when we change data at one layer, it does
not affect the data at another level. This data is independent but mapped to each other.

Logical Data Independence

Logical data is data about database, that is, it stores information about how data is managed
inside. For example, a table (relation) stored in the database and all its constraints, applied on that
relation.
Logical data independence is a kind of mechanism, which liberalizes itself from actual data
stored on the disk. If we do some changes on table format, it should not change the data residing
on the disk.

Physical Data Independence

All the schemas are logical, and the actual data is stored in bit format on the disk. Physical data
independence is the power to change the physical data without impacting the schema or logical
data.
For example, in case we want to change or upgrade the storage system itself − suppose we want
to replace hard-disks with SSD − it should not have any impact on the logical data or schemas.
IMPORTANCE

 Data independence allows changing the schema at one level without the need to change
the schema at another level.
 It helps to improve the data security of the database.
 With the help of physical data independence, we can change the storage and file structure
of the database without affecting the application program.
 Logical data independence helps us to add and delete the data in the database without any
effect on the application program.
 Data independence provides us the facility of data abstraction which means we can use the
functions without worrying about the internal structure of that function. Ex- in a vehicle
we used to apply breaks to decelerate the vehicle without worrying about the internal
mechanism of the break.
 Data independence saves a lot of time and price in case, we want to change the location or
file structure of the database or we want to alter the data.

SECTION-C

ANS 3a) Contemporary approaches to MIS

MIS combines the work of computer science, management science, and operations research with a
practical orientation toward developing system solutions to real-world problems and managing
information technology resources. It is also concerned with behavioral issues surrounding the
development, use, and impact of information systems, which are typically discussed in the fields
of sociology, economics, and psychology

When an information system is being developed, much importance should be given to the
structure of the organization, culture of the organization, etc. But along with these, special
attention should also be given to the technical side of MIS. The various contemporary approaches
to MIS development can be summarized as:

1. The Technical Approach

a) Based on the mathematical and the normative models.

b) Physical technology forms the back bone of such an approach.

c) Such an approach mainly finds much needed contributions from the disciplines like computer
science, management science, operations research etc.

2. The Behavioral Approach

a) Based on the impact of the behavior and also on the response of the people in the organization.

b) Motivational Feasibility forms a very important and demanding part of such an approach
towards MIS development.

3. The Socio Technical Approach

a) In the beginning, this approach was finding it hard to survive – but now it is being accepted
worldwide and is also being implemented at a very large scale.

b) Involves key involvement of both of the above explained approaches.

c) Improves the performance of the information system as a whole.

ANS 3b) Main functions of a TPS(Transaction Processing System)

The main functions of a TPS are conducted by the above-mentioned primary components. These
include:
1. Input functions: Securing and inputting the data of the transactions that have taken place
2. Output functions: Producing the report and record of the input data to be used for future
references and validating the transaction
3. Storage functions: Storing the data from both input and output operations and ensuring the
availability of data for operations like information access, retrieval, sorting and updating.
4. Processing functions: Computing, calculating, sorting, and defining the input data to get
the desired results.
Examples of Transaction Processing System

There are several examples of transaction processing systems we use in day-to-day life. Some of
these are:
1. Hotel reservation: It is extremely useful in reservations of all types wherein the customer
needs an instant verification of the request.
2. Cheque Clearance: Like in physical banks, all the cheques are collected in dropbox and
processed together as a batch with a certain delay (batch processing).
3. POS(Point of Sale): IT reduces the work of sales executives as once the product is tagged
and the related information is entered into the system, the executive only needs to scan the code
and the complete information will be withdrawn from the database.
Transaction Processing System Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages of using TPS
1.It is a highly cost-effective and fast solution to all the revenue-related operations of any given
organization.
2.It works through a highly stable and reliable database that stores and reflects the information as
and when desired without any risk of information loss.
3.It allows for a quick recovery from any operational failure causing very little delay in the
transaction processing.
4.It allows remote functioning giving the freedom of free operation to businesses who want to
grow across the globe.
5.It can be used both in a real-time manner and batch-processing manner.
Disadvantages of using TPS
1.Every business has different needs that must be dealt with exclusively. This calls for designing a
customized solution for every single business that has some specific requirements.
2.Though it is a cost-effective solution, the initial cost of setting up and installation can be on the
higher side.
3.Even with a highly sophisticated setup, you may need to deploy a large number of workforces
for data input, managing and recording inventory, etc.
4.Though TPS is designed for handling a lot of data and work, overloading may lead to a system
crash.
5.You need to have a certain specification of the hardware for TPS software to work smoothly.

ANS 4a) Emerging trends in IT

Computers and the internet are already a part of practically every aspect of business. Information
technology has played an important role as a change agent in agriculture, mining, manufacturing
and the service industries. This trend will continue and a greater number of activities will be
impacted by IT in the coming days. Further developments in areas that are already computerized
will evolve as technology finds faster and simpler ways for work to be done.
Some of the important new areas in the field of information technology are:
Cloud Computing – This involves the use of computing services over the internet. Businesses do
not need to invest in hardware or software for their requirements. Instead, they can opt for IaaS
(Infrastructure as a Service), PaaS (Platform as a Service), and SaaS (Software as a Service).
Another advantage businesses gain with cloud computing is that the entire organisation, regardless
of the location of employees, uses exactly the same servers and storage devices. This makes for
greater standardization and instant access to the same information across the company.

Digital Analytics – Practically all companies capture a large amount of data about their customers
through their web properties and mobile apps. But putting this data to use and deriving
information that is of help in serving customers better or getting new ones, is a complicated task.
Digital analytics is the analysis of this information to achieve greater customer satisfaction,
increase client acquisition rates and improve the online experience of the people who visit the
company’s website.
Internet of Things – This refers to a situation where everyday objects have network connectivity
which allows them to send and receive data. The basic ingredients which are required for this to
happen are already in place as broadband internet is getting cheaper and more widely available.
Additionally, more devices with Wi-Fi abilities are being made and Smartphone penetration is
growing at a rapid pace.
As devices get the ability to “talk” to a central server and to each other, the possibilities for
businesses to use this information present a number of opportunities.
Mobile Applications – An increasing number of people access the internet and company websites
through Smartphone’s and tablets instead of desktop computers or laptops. This trend is expected
to accelerate and businesses need to develop mobile-friendly websites and applications if they
want to retain existing customers and attract new ones.
The question before businesses is no longer whether to invest heavily in information technology
or not. It is not even whether employees across the organisation need to be extremely tech-savvy
and capable of using the information technology available to them. The current challenge before
business leaders of organisations of all sizes is how they will use their digital advantage to keep
ahead of the competition.

ANS 4b) Information plays a vital role in decision-making. Even to take very simple decisions,
we need information. To understand the role played by information in decision-making, we have
to understand how decisions are taken. Decision-making is basically a process that includes the
following stages:

Stages of Decision- Role of Information

making

Identification and One needs information to identify a problem and put it in a

structuring of structured manner. Without information about a problem or
problem/opportunity opportunity, the decision-making process does not even start.

Putting the problem/ Without information about the context in which the problem has
occurred, one cannot take any decision on it. In a way, the
opportunity in .information about the context defines the problem.
context

Generation of Information is a key ingredient in the generation of alternatives

alternatives for decision-making. One has to have information about possible
solutions to generate alternatives.

Choice of best Based on the information about the suitability of the alternatives,
alternative a choice is made to select the best alternative.

Decision-making is the most important task of managers in an organization. Therefore, to enable

managers to take good quality decisions, it is very important to provide them with the right kind
of information. Information management in organizations therefore assumes a special
significance. In most organizations, business or otherwise, a systematic systems based method is
used for information management. Systems based information management works best under a
computerized environment and such computer based information management system is normally
called ‘Management Information Systems (MIS)’, which provides the service of information
supply to the managers enabling them to take informed decisions. It may be worthwhile to
mention here that MIS does not necessitates the use of computer based technology, but the use of
computers and information technology makes MIS suitable for business organizations in a
competitive environment as it helps to provide timely and accurate information. MIS done
manually, without the help of computers is neither timely nor accurate.

ANS 5a) Different attributes that influence the quality of information

Quality of information refers to its fitness for use or its reliability. Some of the attributes of
information which influence the quality of information are as follows:
1) Timeliness
Timeliness means that information must reach the recipients within the prescribed time frame.
Timely information can ensure correct executive action at an early stage. The characteristic of
timeliness, to be effective, should also include current information.
2) Accuracy
Accuracy is another key-attribute of management information. It means that information is free
from mistakes and errors, is clear and accurately reflects the meaning of data on which it is based.
It conveys an accurate picture to the recipient, who may require a presentation in graphical form
rather than tabular form.
3) Relevance
Relevance is yet another key attribute of management information. Information is said to be
relevant if it answers specifically for the recipient what, why, where, who and why? In other
words, the MIS should serve reports to managers, which are useful, and the information helps
them make decisions.
4) Adequacy
Adequacy means information must be sufficient in quantity. MIS must provide reports containing
information, which is required in deciding processes of decision-making.
5) Completeness
The information, which is provided to a manager, must be complete and should meet all his needs.
Incomplete information may result in wrong decisions and thus may prove costly to the
organization.
6) Explicitness
A report is said to be of good quality if it does not require further analysis by the recipient for
decision-making. Thus the reports should be such that a manager does not waste any time on the
processing of the report, rather he should be able to extract the required information directly.
7) Exception based.
Top managers need only exception reports regarding the performance of the organization.
Exception reporting principle states that only those items of information, which will be of
particular interest to a manager, are reported. This approach results in saving precious time of the
top management and enables the managers to devote more time in pursuit of alternatives for the
growth of the organization.

ANS 5b) Applications of EIS:

Executive Briefing:
EIS offers up-to-date information on different aspects of the executive’s interest. The briefing is,
generally, related to the performance of various profit centres and offers status reports on various
activities of the enterprise. Though a certain amount of briefing takes place in DSS as well the
information comes as and when it is asked for, from the databases.

In EIS, the information is automatically downloaded periodically from databases in the form of
finished reports. This automatic downloading ensures that executive does not remain out of touch
for long during the days of extreme pressure of workload.

Personalized Analysis:
EIS offers facilities for data analysis using the models of user’s choice. Spreadsheets and
statistical techniques are available in EIS for asking. The difference, here, is that EIS not only
helps the user in analysis of data, but also in interpretation of the outcome of the analysis.

Exceptions Reporting:
An important component of EIS is the exception reporting module. EIS caters to this requirement
of executives effectively and forewarns the executive of the substantial variations from the plans.

They permit, with varying degrees, further investigation into the reasons for deviations and
possible impact of proposed salvage operations. This ability to probe into the matter to get a little
more than just the exception makes EIS a very useful tool for the executive in the efficient
discharge of his functions.

Model Based Analysis:

EIS has facilities for model based information analysis and this feature is common with DSS. But,
the model based analysis in EIS is different from that in DSS in the sense that the input data in
EIS is limited and obtained from both internal and external sources.
It may be noted that EIS is not an isolated collection of computer reports of information for
executive. EIS is a set of integrated tools and technologies woven into the total information
system environment of the enterprise.

It may be noted that EIS supports all the users and not necessarily the top executives of the
enterprise. All those who help top executives should have access to EIS and it must cater to the
information needs of all such people.

ANS 6a) Types of Data Models in DBMS

Though there are other data models in use today, the Relational model is the most used. Aside
from the relational model, there are a variety of different data models that we shall discuss in-
depth in this article. Data Models in DBMS include the following:

Hierarchical Model

This concept uses a hierarchical tree structure to organise the data. The hierarchy begins at the
root, which contains root data, and then grows into a tree as child nodes are added to the parent
node.

Network Model

The main difference between this model and the hierarchical model is that any record can have
several parents in the network model. It uses a graph instead of a hierarchical tree.

Entity-Relationship Model

The real-world problem is depicted in visual form in this model to make it easier for stakeholders
to comprehend. The ER diagram also makes it very simple for developers to comprehend the
system.

Relational Model

The data in this model is kept in the form of a table that is two-dimensional. All of the data is kept
in the form of rows and columns. Tables are the foundation of a relational paradigm.

Object-Oriented Data Model

Both the data and the relationship are contained in a single structure that is known as an object in
this model. We can now store audio, video, pictures, and other types of data in databases, which
was previously impossible with the relational approach (Although you can store video and audio
in relational DB, it is advised not to store them in the relational database

Object-Relational Data Model

It is a hybrid of relational and object-oriented models. This model was developed to bridge the
gap between the object-oriented and relational models.
Ans-6b)

Difference Between Data Warehousing and Data Mining

Data Warehousing Data Mining

Data warehousing is using a database It is a process performed to predict or analyse
system for the analysis of data. unknown patterns.
Comparing large amounts of data.
It is used to centralize data.
Preferred by business analysts.
Preferred always before data mining.
Used to detect errors.
Used to keep the system updated.
Keeps track of volatile factors such as buying
It is used to improve the integrity of the
habits of customers, sales records, etc.
business.
Not always 100% correct.
Highly accurate.
Data is regularly updated.
Data is periodically updated.

ANS 7a) Data Management Challenges

While some companies are good at collecting data, they are not managing it well enough to make
sense of it. Simply collecting data is not enough; enterprises and organizations need to understand
from the start that data management and data analytics only will be successful when they first put
some thought into how they will gain value from their raw data. They can then move beyond raw
data collection with efficient systems for processing, storing, and validating data, as well as
effective analysis strategies.

Another challenge of data management occurs when companies categorize data and organize it
without first considering the answers they hope to glean from the data. Each step of data
collection and management must lead toward acquiring the right data and analyzing it in order to
get the actionable intelligence necessary for making truly data-driven business decisions.

Data Management Best Practices

The best way to manage data, and eventually get the insights needed to make data-driven
decisions, is to begin with a business question and acquire the data that is needed to answer that
question. Companies must collect vast amounts of information from various sources and then
utilize best practices while going through the process of storing and managing the data, cleaning
and mining the data, and then analyzing and visualizing the data in order to inform their business
decisions.

It’s important to keep in mind that data management best practices result in better analytics. By
correctly managing and preparing the data for analytics, companies optimize their Big Data. A
 few data management best practices organizations and enterprises should strive to achieve
include:

 Simplify access to traditional and emerging data

 Scrub data to infuse quality into existing business processes
 Shape data using flexible manipulation techniques

It is with the help of data management platforms that organizations have the ability to gather, sort,
and house their information and then repackage it in visualized ways that are useful to marketers.
Top performing data management platforms are capable of managing all of the data from all data
sources in a central location, giving marketers and executives the most accurate business and
customer information available.

ANS 7b)

Structured query language (SQL) is a programming language for storing and processing
information in a relational database. A relational database stores information in tabular form,
with rows and columns representing different data attributes and the various relationships between
the data values.

Constraints in SQL

Constraints in SQL means we are applying certain conditions or restrictions on the database. This
further means that before inserting data into the database, we are checking for some conditions. If
the condition we have applied to the database holds true for the data which is to be inserted, then
only the data will be inserted into the database tables.

Constraints in SQL can be categorized into two types:

1. Column Level Constraint:

Column Level Constraint is used to apply a constraint on a single column.
2. Table Level Constraint:
Table Level Constraint is used to apply a constraint on multiple columns.

Some of the real-life examples of constraints are as follows:

1. Every person has a unique email id. This is because while creating an email account for
any user, the email providing services such as Gmail, Yahoo or any other email providing
service will always check for the availability of the email id that the user wants for
himself. If some other user already takes the email id that the user wants, then that id
cannot be assigned to another user. This simply means that no two users can have the same
email ids on the same email providing service. So, here the email id is the constraint on the
database of email providing services.
2. Whenever we set a password for any system, there are certain constraints that are to be
followed. These constraints may include the following:
o There must be one uppercase character in the password.
o Password must be of at least eight characters in length.
o Password must contain at least one special symbol.
Constraints available in SQL are:

1. NOT NULL
2. UNIQUE
3. PRIMARY KEY
4. FOREIGN KEY
5. CHECK
6. DEFAULT
7. CREATE INDEX