PRACTICAL NO 1

Aim: Use devices pliers, nose pliers, cutter, screw driver.

Theory:
1. PLIERS:
 Pliers, hand-operated tool for holding and gripping small articles or
for bending and cutting wire. 
 Slip-joint pliers have grooved jaws, and the pivot hole in one member
is elongated so that the member can pivot in either of two positions
in order to grasp objects of different size in the most effective way.
 On some pliers the jaws have a portion that can cut soft wire and
nails. For bending wire and thin metal, round-nose pliers with
tapering, conical jaws are used. Diagonal cutting pliers are used for
cutting wire and small pins in areas that cannot be reached by larger
cutting tools.
 Because the cutting edges are diagonally offset about 15 degrees,
these can cut objects flush with a surface.
Different types of Pliers
1. Waterpump pliers
Often called waterpump pliers in the UK, but sometimes known as
angle-nosed, tongue-and-groove and groove-joint pliers, these pliers
are ideal for working on larger objects, like pipes.
Featuring serrated jaws at 45 to 60 degrees and expandable mouths,
they’re ideal for gripping large objects and holding them in place,
and are available in multiple sizes.
2. Cutting, crimping & stripping pliers
Featuring an extremely sharp end and robust handles, these pliers are
ideal for cutting through a variety of wires, as well as crimping and
stripping.
They’re an essential tool for electricians or those simply performing
wiring-based jobs around the house. Side cutters might have long,
curved or short noses, and end cutters can be used on wire, rivets and
bolts. There are a wide variety of cutting, crimping and stripping
blades available.
3. Locking pliers
Locking pliers perform a similar function to that of a wrench, with a
knurl screw that allows you to lock your pliers into position to stop
them slipping. Sometimes called vice grips, they allow you to pull or
twist without losing your grip. You’ll find that locking pliers will
feature a release that can disengage the lock, and will have serrated
jaws for greater grip.
4. Long-nose pliers
Long-nose or needle-nose pliers are ideal for working in tight spaces
and are ideal for a wide range of tasks, from jewellery work to
cutting small-gauge wire. They feature long, slender jaws with a
pointed tip which makes it easy for the pliers to reach small spaces.
5. Fencing pliers
Designed exclusively to cut and pull heavy-duty staples from things
like fencing, featuring two wire cutters. The heavy head can also be
used for hammering too, in a pinch.
6. Combination pliers
The ideal tool for the DIY user but still a popular choice amongst
professionals, combination pliers combine attributes from a number
of other pliers, like the ability to cut, crimp, strip, pull and twist.
2. CUTTER
 A cutting tool or cutter is any tool that is used to remove some
material from the work piece by means of shear deformation.
 Cutting may be accomplished by single-point or multipoint tools.
Single-point tools are used in turning, shaping, planing and similar
operations, and remove material by means of one cutting edge.
 Milling and drilling tools are often multipoint tools.
 It is a body having teeth or cutting edges on it. Grinding tools are
also multipoint tools.[1] Each grain of abrasive functions as a
microscopic single-point cutting edge (although of high negative rake
angle), and shears a tiny chip.
 Cutting tool materials must be harder than the material which is to be
cut, and the tool must be able to withstand the heat and force
generated in the metal-cutting process.
 Also, the tool must have a specific geometry, with clearance
angles designed so that the cutting edge can contact the work bpiece
without the rest of the tool dragging on the work piece surface.
 The angle of the cutting face is also important, as is the flute width,
number of flutes or teeth, and margin size. In order to have a
long working life, all of the above must be optimized, plus the speeds
and feeds at which the tool is run.
3. SCREW DRIVER
 A screwdriver is a tool, manual or powered, used for screwing
(installing) and unscrewing (removing) screws.
 A typical simple screwdriver has a handle and a shaft, ending in a
tip the user puts into the screw head before turning the handle.
 This form of the screwdriver has been replaced in many
workplaces and homes with a more modern and versatile tool,
a power drill, as they are quicker, easier, and also can drill holes.
 The shaft is usually made of tough steel to resist bending or
twisting.
 The tip may be hardened to resist wear, treated with a dark tip
coating for improved visual contrast between tip and screw—or
ridged or treated for additional 'grip'.
 Handles are typically wood, metal, or plastic and usually
hexagonal, square, or oval in cross-section to improve grip and
prevent the tool from rolling when set down.
 Some manual screwdrivers have interchangeable tips that fit into a
socket on the end of the shaft and are held in mechanically or
magnetically.
 These often have a hollow handle that contains various types and
sizes of tips, and a reversible ratchet action that allows multiple full
turns without repositioning the tip or the user's hand.
Different types of screw Driver
1. Power Screwdriver
The power screwdriver is the most heavy-duty of tools available. It
gets jobs done easier and faster and is also the most versatile. A
power drill screwdriver has the torque that is much stronger than an
ordinary battery-powered electric screwdriver.
2. Interchangeable Head
Like power screwdrivers, these types of screwdrivers have
removable heads to quickly and easily swap, depending on your
 project. An interchangeable screwdriver is a great addition to your
toolbox, eliminating the need for more tools. 
3. Flat-head Screwdriver
This is the most common type of screwdriver on the market. Like its
name states, it has a flat head and a straight blade that fits into
various slotted screw heads. The flat blade can differ in thickness and
comes in a variety of sizes and shapes. 
4. Phillips Screwdriver
A Phillips screwdriver has a head with pointed edges in the shape of
a cross, which fit neatly into the cross slots of a Phillips screw.
Phillips screwdrivers are available in five different sizes, ranging
from zero (smallest) to four (largest).
5. Allen Key Screwdriver
The Allen key screwdriver is an L-shaped tool with a hexagonal cross
section. Think: the little tool that’s used to assemble an entire piece of
furniture.

Result: Thus, we studied and understand the use of different devices like
Pliers, cutter and screw driver in this practical.
 PRACTICAL NO 2
Aim: Use devices tester, Test lamp of different sizes.
Theory:
 Tester :
 An electrical tester can measure a variety of electrical
parameters, from current and voltage to resistance, continuity
and beyond.
 An electrical tester is used by electrical contractors to assess
everything from live wires and circuit breakers to electrical
panels and power transformers.
 An electrical tester goes by many different names, including but
not limited to clamp meter, current clamp, digital multimeter,
oscilloscope, circuit tester, ground checker, voltage detector,
milliohm meter, phase rotation meter and power quality
analyzer.
Different Type Of Testers
1. Non-Contact Voltage Testers (Inductance Testers)
 Non-contact voltage testers (also known as inductance testers) are
probably the safest testers around, and they're certainly the easiest to
use.
 A non-contact tester allows you to check for voltage in wires or
devices without you having to touch any wires or parts.
 The device is like a mini wand with a small tip on the end that senses
voltage in such things as electrical wiring, outlets, circuit breakers,
lamp cords, light sockets, and switches.
 You can get a reading simply by sticking the tip of the tester into an
outlet slot or even touching the outside of a wire or electrical cable. 
2. Neon Voltage Testers
 Neon voltage testers, or neon circuit testers, are as simple as they
come. They have a small body with a neon light inside and two short
wire leads with a metal probe on each end.
 Neon voltage testers tell you only whether a voltage is present or not;
they don't tell you how much voltage is in a circuit.
  Unlike the non-contact voltage tester, this tool requires you to touch 
the circuit wires, screw terminals, or outlet slots with the wire probes.
 This device does not use a battery, making it a very dependable
tool. 
3. Plug-In Circuit Analyzers
 Plug-in circuit analyzers are inexpensive, easy-to-use testers that
can tell you a great deal about the functions of an electrical circuit
when you plug it into an outlet.
 These testers are designed to test ordinary electrical outlets, but
only grounded outlets that have three slots.
 Older two-slot outlets cannot be tested with the testers because no
ground wire is connected to these outlets.
 Two-slot outlets are best tested with a neon circuit tester. 
4. Continuity Tester
 A continuity tester is a device that is powered by batteries and has a
probe at one end and a cord with either an alligator clip or another
probe at the other end.
 If you touch the two together, you complete a circuit and light is
illuminated on the body of the tester, indicating a complete circuit.
 These testers are great for checking to see if something like
a single-pole switch is working properly.
 Unlike other testers, a continuity tester is always used when a circuit
is turned off or on wiring or devices that are disconnected from the
circuit.
 If you are using a continuity on a device attached to circuit
wiring, always turn off the power to the circuit or device that
you're be testing. 
5. Multimeter
 Solenoid voltage testers, also known in the trade by the nickname
"wiggies," are also multi-function testers, but they are somewhat
simpler and easier to use than the battery-operated multimeters.
 Both analog and digital models are available. Solenoid volt meters
are capable of testing for both voltage and polarity.
 Electricians use them frequently because they can test both AC
voltage and DC voltage in a range from 100 to 600 volts.
 Pros often prefer this tool over the multimeter for many applications,
since it is very rugged and has no batteries to monitor.
  It is not, however, quite as accurate as a multimeter for providing a
numerical measurement of how much voltage is present.

6. Solenoid Voltage Tester

 Solenoid voltage testers, also known in the trade by the nickname
"wiggies," are also multi-function testers, but they are somewhat
simpler and easier to use than the battery-operated multimeters.
 Both analog and digital models are available. Solenoid volt meters
are capable of testing for both voltage and polarity.
 Electricians use them frequently because they can test both AC
voltage and DC voltage in a range from 100 to 600 volts.
 Pros often prefer this tool over the multimeter for many
applications, since it is very rugged and has no batteries to
monitor.
 It is not, however, quite as accurate as a multimeter for providing a
numerical measurement of how much voltage is present. 

7. Digital Clamp Meter

 A digital clamp meter is a tool normally used only by professional

electricians.  It combines the function of a multimeter with a current
sensor, and is slightly more expensive than a multimeter. 
 There are subtle differences in function between a multimeter and a
clamp meter, but the most obvious one is that this tool features
clamping jaws that can grip wire conductors.
 This makes the tool somewhat safer and easier to use in some
applications, such as when working inside an open circuit breaker
panel to test individual circuits. 
 The tool also features wire leads that allow the tool to be used in the
same manner as a standard multimeter. 
8. Wand Voltage Meter

 A wand voltage meter is another specialty tester usually owned only by

professional electricians. This is a numerical voltage tester that can work in
two ways.
 The tool includes wire leads similar to those found in a neon voltage tester
or multimeter, which can be used to measure voltage or continuity by
touching the leads to bare wires or metal contacts.

 But the tool also has electrostatic wands that can detect and measure
voltage simply by holding them in proximity to wires or metal contacts.

 For example, placing the wand ears around an NM cable will give a digital
readout of the amount of voltage being carried. 

 The wand meter is a somewhat expensive tool that is often found in the
toolboxes of pros, but one which only the most advanced DIYers will want
to own. 

Test Lamp Of Different Size

Result: Thus, we studied and understand the use of different devices like
tester, Test lamp of different sizes in this practical.

PRACTICAL NO 3
Aim: Use measuring instrument ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter.
Theory:
1. Ammeter :
 The meter uses for measuring the current is known as the
ammeter. The current is the flow of electrons whose unit is
ampere.
 Hence the instrument which measures the flows of current in
ampere is known as ampere meter or ammeter.
 The ideal ammeter has zero internal resistance. But
practically the ammeter has small internal resistance.
 The measuring range of the ammeter depends on the value of
resistance.
Types of Ammeter :

The classification of the ammeter depends on their design and the type of
current flows through the ammeter. The following are the types of an
ammeter regarding construction.

1. Permanent moving coil ammeter.

2. Moving iron ammeter.
3. Electro-dynamometer ammeter.
4. Rectifier type ammeter.
By the current, the ammeter categorises into two types.
  AC ammeter
 DC ammeter
 1. PMMC Ammeter – In PMMC instrument the conductor is placed
between the pole of the permanent magnet. When the current flows
through the coil, it starts deflecting. The deflection of the coil depends
on the magnitude of current flows through it. The PMMC ammeter
used only for the measurement of the direct current.
 2. Moving Coil Ammeter (MI) – The MI ammeter measures both
the alternating and direct current. In this type of ammeter, the coil
freely moves between the poles of a permanent magnet. When the
current passes through the coil, it starts deflecting at a certain angle.
The deflection of the coil is proportional to the current passes through
the coil.
 3. Electro-dynamometer Ammeter – It is used for the
measurement of both AC and DC. The accuracy of the instrument
is high as compared to the PMMC and MI instrument. The calibration
of the instrument is same both for AC and DC, i.e. if DC calibrates the
instrument then without re-calibration, it is used for AC measurement.
 4. Rectifier Ammeter – It is used for measuring the alternating
current. The instruments using the rectifying instrument which
converts the direction of current and pass it to the PMMC instrument.
Such type of instrument is used for measuring the current in the
communication circuit.
 The instrument which measures the DC is known as the DC ammeter
and ammeter which measures AC is known as the AC ammeter,

2. Voltmeter
  The instrument which measures the voltage or potential
difference in volts is known as the voltmeter. 
 It works on the principle that the torque is generated by the
current which induces because of measurand voltage and this
torque deflects the pointer of the instrument.
 The deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the
potential difference between the points.
 The voltmeter is always connected in parallel with the circuit.
Types of Voltmeter
The voltmeter is classified into three ways. The classification of the
voltmeter is shown in the figure below.

On the basis of the construction, the voltmeter is of the following types.

 1. PMMC Voltmeter
It works on the principle that the current carrying conductor placed in the
magnetic field and because of the current the force acting on the
conductor. The current induces in the PMMC instrument because of the
measurand voltage, and this current deflects the pointer of the meter.

 2. The PMMC voltmeter uses for DC measurement. The accuracy

of the instrument is very high and having low power consumption.
The only disadvantage of the instrument is that it is very costly. The
range of the PMMC voltmeter increases by connecting the resistance
in series with it.
 3. MI Voltmeter

The MI instrument means moving iron instrument. This

instrument uses for the measurement of both the AC and DC
voltage. In this type of instrument, the deflection is directly
proportional to the voltage of the coil. The moving iron instrument is
classified into two types.

 Attraction Type Moving Iron Instrument

 Repulsion Type Moving Iron Instrument
 4. Electro-dynamometer Voltmeter

The electro-dynamometer voltmeter is used for measuring the

voltage of both AC and DC circuit. In this type of instruments, the
calibration is same both for the AC and DC measurement.

 5. Rectifier voltmeter

Such type of instrument is used in AC circuits for voltage

measurement. The rectifier instrument converts the AC quantity
into the DC quantity by the help of the rectifier. And then the DC
signal is measured by the PMMC instrument.

The following are the classification of instruments regarding the

displays of output reading.

 6. Analogue Voltmeter

The analogue voltmeter uses for measuring the AC voltage. It

displays the reading through the pointer which is fixed on the
calibrated scale. The deflection of the pointer depends on the torque
acting on it. The magnitude of the develops torque is directly
proportional to the measuring voltage.

 7. Digital Voltmeter

The voltmeter which displays the reading in the numeric

form is known as the digital voltmeter. The digital voltmeter
gives the accurate result.

The instrument which measures the direct current is known as

the DC voltmeter, and the AC voltmeter is used in the AC circuit
for alternating voltage measurement.

Result: Thus, we studied and understand the use of different

devices like ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter in this practical.
 PRACTICAL NO 4
Aim: Use measuring instrument clip on meter, multimeter, megger.
Theory:
1. Clip on meter :
 A clamp meter is an electrical test tool that combines a basic digital
multimeter with a current sensor.
 Clamps measure current. Probes measure voltage. Having a hinged
jaw integrated into an electrical meter allows technicians to clamp the
jaws around a wire, cable or other conductor at any point in an
electrical system, then measure current in that circuit without
disconnecting/deenergizing it.
 Beneath their plastic moldings, hard jaws consist of ferrite iron and
are engineered to detect, concentrate and measure the magnetic field
being generated by current as it flows through a conductor.

2. Multimeter :
 A multimeter or multitester is a measuring instrument that can
measure multiple electrical properties.
 A typical multimeter can measure voltage, resistance,
and current, in which case it is also known as a volt-ohm-
milliammeter (VOM).
 Analog multimeters use a microammeter with a moving pointer
to display readings. 
 Digital multimeters (DMM, DVOM) have numeric displays and
have made analog multimeters obsolete as they are cheaper,
more precise, and more physically robust than analog
multimeters.
3. Megger :
The Megger is the instrument uses for measuring the resistance of
the insulation.
It works on the principle of comparison, i.e., the resistance of
the insulation is compared with the known value of resistance.
If the resistance of the insulation is high, the pointer of the moving
coil deflects towards the infinity, and if it is low, then the pointer
indicates zero resistance.

The accuracy of the Megger is high as compared to other

instruments.

Result: Thus, we studied and understand the use of different

devices like clip on meter, multimeter, megger in this practical.

PRACTICAL NO 5
Aim: Use different types of resister, Inductors, capacitors, potentiometer,
Thermistor, Transformer, auto transformer from the given components.
Theory:
1. Resister :
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that
implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic
circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal
levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and
terminate transmission lines, among other uses.
High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical
power as heat, may be used as part of motor controls, in power
distribution systems, or as test loads for generators.
Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with
temperature, time or operating voltage.
Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as
a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for
heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

2. Inductors :
 An inductor, also called a coil, choke, or reactor, is a passive two-
terminal electrical component that stores energy in a magnetic
field when electric current flows through it.  
 An inductor typically consists of an insulated wire wound into
a coil around a core.
 When the current flowing through an inductor changes, the time-varying
magnetic field induces an electromotive force (e.m.f.) (voltage) in the
conductor, described by Faraday's law of induction. According to Lenz's
law, the induced voltage has a polarity (direction) which opposes the
change in current that created it. As a result, inductors oppose any
changes in current through them.
 3.Capacitors :
A capacitor is a device that stores electric charge in an electric field. It is
a passive electronic component with two terminals.
The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance. While some capacitance
exists between any two electrical conductors in proximity in a circuit, a capacitor
is a component designed to add capacitance to a circuit. The capacitor was
originally known as a condenser or condensator.[1] This name and
its cognates are still widely used in many languages, but rarely in English, one
notable exception being condenser microphones, also called capacitor
microphones.

4. Potentiometer
A potentiometer is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating
contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider.[1] If only two terminals are
used, one end and the wiper, it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat.
The measuring instrument called a potentiometer is essentially a voltage
divider used for measuring electric potential (voltage); the component is an
implementation of the same principle, hence its name.
 Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices such as
volume controls on audio equipment. Potentiometers operated by a
mechanism can be used as position transducers, for example, in a joystick.
Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control significant power (more
than a watt), since the power dissipated in the potentiometer would be
comparable to the power in the controlled load.

5. Thermistor
A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance is strongly dependent
on temperature, more so than in standard resistors. The word is a combination
of thermal and resistor. Thermistors are widely used as inrush current limiters,
temperature sensors (negative temperature coefficient or NTC type
typically), self-resetting overcurrent protectors, and self-regulating heating
elements (positive temperature coefficient or PTC type typically).
Thermistors are of two opposite fundamental types:

 With NTC thermistors, resistance decreases as temperature rises

usually due to an increase in conduction electrons bumped up by
thermal agitation from valency band. An NTC is commonly used as a
temperature sensor, or in series with a circuit as an inrush current
limiter.
 With PTC thermistors, resistance increases as temperature rises
usually due to increased thermal lattice agitations particularly those of
impurities and imperfections. PTC thermistors are commonly installed
in series with a circuit, and used to protect
against overcurrent conditions, as resettable fuses.
 
6. Transformer
A transformer is a passive electrical device that transfers electrical energy
from one electrical circuit to another, or multiple circuits. A varying current
in any one coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic flux in the
transformer's core, which induces a varying electromotive force across any
other coils wound around the same core. Electrical energy can be
transferred between separate coils without a metallic (conductive)
connection between the two circuits. Faraday's law of induction,
discovered in 1831, describes the induced voltage effect in any coil due to
a changing magnetic flux encircled by the coil.

7. Auto Transformer from the given Component:

An autotransformer is an electrical transformer with only
one winding. The "auto" (Greek for "self") prefix refers to the single
coil acting alone, not to any kind of automatic mechanism.
In an autotransformer, portions of the same winding act as both
the primary winding and secondary winding sides of the transformer.
In contrast, an ordinary transformer has separate primary and
secondary windings which have no metallic conducting path
between them.
 The autotransformer winding has at least three taps where electrical
connections are made.
Since part of the winding does "double duty", autotransformers have
the advantages of often being smaller, lighter, and cheaper than
typical dual-winding transformers, but the disadvantage of not
providing electrical isolation between primary and secondary circuits.

Result: Thus, we studied and understand the use of different

devices like resister, Inductors, capacitors, potentiometer, Thermistor,
Transformer, auto transformer from the given components in this
practical.
 PRACTICAL NO 6
Aim: Identify the terminals of the following component: Diode, Zener
Diode, Varactor diode, LED , Photo Diode, BJT, Photo transistor,
FET ,LDR ,Solar cell, photocell, Opto-coupler, 7Segment Display, Relays.
Theory:
1. Diode :
A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that
conducts current primarily in one direction
(asymmetric conductance); it has low (ideally zero) resistance in one
direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A
diode vacuum tube or thermionic diode is a vacuum tube with
two electrodes, a heated cathode and a plate, in which electrons can
flow in only one direction, from cathode to plate. A semiconductor
diode, the most commonly used type today, is a crystalline piece
of semiconductor material with a p–n junction connected to two
electrical terminals.

2. Zener Diode :
 A Zener diode is a special type of diode designed to reliably
allow current to flow "backwards" when a certain set reverse voltage,
known as the Zener voltage, is reached.
 Zener diodes are manufactured with a great variety of Zener voltages and
some are even variable. Some Zener diodes have a sharp, highly
doped p–n junction with a low Zener voltage, in which case the reverse
conduction occurs due to electron quantum tunnelling in the short space
between p and n regions − this is known as the Zener effect,
after Clarence Zener. Diodes with a higher Zener voltage have a more
gradual junction and their mode of operation also involves avalanche
breakdown. Both breakdown types are present in Zener diodes with the
Zener effect predominating at lower voltages and avalanche breakdown at
higher voltages.

3. Varactor diode
Varactor diode is a type of diode whose internal capacitance varies with
respect to the reverse voltage. It always works in reverse bias condition
and is a voltage-dependent semiconductor device. Varactor diode is
known by several names as Varicap, Voltcap, Voltage variable
capacitance, or Tunning diode.

4 . LED
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source that emits
light when current flows through it. Electrons in the semiconductor
recombine with electron holes, releasing energy in the form of photons.
The color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photons) is
determined by the energy required for electrons to cross the band gap of
the semiconductor.[5] White light is obtained by using multiple
semiconductors or a layer of light-emitting phosphor on the semiconductor
device.[
5. Photo Diode
A photodiode is a semiconductor p-n junction device that
converts light into an electrical current.[1] The current is generated when
photons are absorbed in the photodiode. Photodiodes may contain optical
filters, built-in lenses, and may have large or small surface areas.
Photodiodes usually have a slower response time as their surface area
increases. The common, traditional solar cell used to generate
electric solar power is a large area photodiode.
Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they
may be either exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with
a window or optical fiber connection to allow light to reach the sensitive
part of the device. Many diodes designed for use specially as a photodiode
use a PIN junction rather than a p–n junction, to increase the speed of
response. A photodiode is designed to operate in reverse bias.

6.