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CHAPTER
TEN
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10 AREA NAVIGATION SYSTEMS (RNAV)

10.1 INTRODUCTION
An area navigation (RNAV) system is any system that allows the aircraft to be navigated to
the required level of accuracy without the requirement to fly directly over ground based
facilities. The required accuracy is achieved by using some, or all of the following inputs of
information:
 VOR/DME
 ILS/MLS
 LORAN
 GNSS
 INS/IRS
 ADC
 Time
The information is processed within the system to give the most accurate and continuously
updated position and the necessary outputs to provide the pilot with course, ETA etc

10.2 BENEFITS OF RNAV

RNAV allows aircraft to take a more direct flight path appropriate to the route they are
flying thereby improving the operating efficiency and helping in relieving congestion on the
overcrowded airway system. To facilitate this air traffic control centres have established
RNAV routes which are more direct than the traditional airways system allows and do not
require aircraft to regularly fly to the overhead of beacons. Hence the benefits are:
 a reduction in distance, flight time and fuel (and hence costs) by giving airlines and
pilots greater flexibility and choice of routes;
 an increase in the present route capacity by making full use of the available
airspace, by providing more direct routes, parallel or dual routes and bypass routes
for overflying aircraft in high density terminal areas;
 a reduction in vertical and horizontal separation criteria.

10.3 TYPES AND LEVELS OF RNAV

There are two types of RNAV:
Basic RNAV (B-RNAV) which is required to give a position accuracy to within 5 nm on
95% of occasions. It is now mandatory for all aircraft to have B-RNAV capability under
IFR within controlled airspace
Precision RNAV (P-RNAV) must be accurate to within 1.0 nm on 95% of occasions. This
is the general accuracy for VOR and DME systems within the terminal manoeuvring area.
This is now approved within the UK

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There are three levels of RNAV capability:

 2D RNAV which relates to the capabilities in the horizontal plane only.
 3D RNAV indicates the addition of a guidance capability in the vertical plane.
 4D RNAV indicates the addition to 3D RNAV of a timing function.

10.4 A SIMPLE 2D RNAV SYSTEM

The flight deck of a simple 2D RNAV system includes:
 a Navigation Computer Unit;
 Control Display Unit (CDU);
 an Indicator in the form of a CDI (course deviation indicator) or HSI (horizontal
situation indicator).

Figure 10-1 VOR/DME RNAV System

10.4.1 Operation of a Simple 2D RNAV system
A simple RNAV system uses rho/theta (range/bearing) to define position, which is derived
from range and bearing information from VOR/DME stations. The pilot defines waypoints
along the route to be flown as range and bearing from suitably located VOR/DME Then the
equipment, using the VOR/DME bearing and range, computes the QDM and distance to
the waypoint and presents the information to the pilot on a CDI or HSI as if the waypoint
itself is a VOR/DME station, hence these waypoints are known as phantom stations.

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Figure 10-2 RNAV Waypoints and Route

In Figure 10 – 2 the pilot has defined waypoints along the planned route from SND to
NEW using available and sensibly placed VOR/DME.
Waypoints may be selected and programmed for:
 en-route navigation;
 initial approach fixes;
 locator Outer Markers;
 ILS frequencies (when selected the instrumentation automatically reverts to ILS
mode).

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The following table shows the inputs that would be required for the above RNAV route.

Frequency Distance
Waypoint Station Radial Application
MHz (nm)
1 DTY 116.4 067 42 En Route
2 POL 112.1 066 29 En Route
3 NEW 114.25 218 26 En Route
4 NEW 114.25 251 4 Holding
5 I-NC 111.5 NA NA ILS

Figure 10-3 Creation of RNAV Route

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10.4.2 Principle of operation of a Simple 2D RNAV System

Refer to Figure 10 – 3. The aircraft is flying from waypoint 1 (WP 1) defined by DTY
VOR/DME to waypoint 2 (WP2) defined by POL VOR/DME. As the aircraft arrives at WP1
POL is selected and the range and bearing measured (145(R)/104 nm). The RNAV knows
its position with respect to POL and the pilot has already input waypoint 2 with respect to
POL so the computer can now compute the track and distance from WP 1 to WP2
(340(M)/102 nm) since it has two sides and the included angle and the orientation of
magnetic north. The RNAV now continually computes the aircraft position with respect to
POL and compares this position with the computed track to determine the cross track error
and the distance to go. Steering demands are fed to a CDI or HSI for the pilot to keep the
aircraft on track, and give a continuous range readout to WP2. It should be noted that on
such a system the indications of deviation from track are in nms.

10.4.3 Limitations and Accuracy of simple RNAV systems

The beacons are selected by the pilot during the pre-flight planning and the pilot must
ensure that each waypoint is within DOC of the VOR/DME designating that waypoint and
of the VOR/DME designating the next waypoint.
Slant range error in DME must be considered in selecting facilities close to track.
The pilot must ensure that the information is correctly input into the CDU, because the
computer cannot recognise or rectify mistakes.
To avoid positional errors the aircraft must, at all times be within the DOC of the in use
facility. The accuracy of the fixing information is dependent on range and whether the VOR
or DME element is predominant. If the VOR/DME is close to the planned track to/from the
waypoint, then the along track element will be most accurate. If the VOR/DME designating
the way point is perpendicular to the track; then across track will be most accurate.

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10.5 LEVEL 4 RNAV SYSTEMS

The area navigation function in modern passenger aircraft is carried out by a flight
management computer (FMC) which also provides guidance and performance functions.
The system outlined below is specific to the BOEING 737-800, but the principle is true for
all aircraft.
10.5.1 Overview Of 737-800 FMS Operation

Figure 10-4 FMS Schematic

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The 737-800 FMS comprises:

 Flight Management Computer System (FMCS)
 Autopilot/Flight Director System (AFDS)
 Autothrottle (A/T)
 2 Inertial Reference Systems (IRS)
Each component is an independent system which may be used individually or in various
combinations. The term FMS implies the joining of all these systems into one integrated
system which provides automatic navigation, guidance and performance management.
The FMS provides 4D area navigation (latitude, longitude, altitude and time) and optimises
performance to achieve the most economical flight possible. It provides centralized cockpit
control of the aircraft's flight path and performance parameters.
The Flight Management Computer (FMC) is the heart of the system, performing all the
navigational and performance calculations and providing control and guidance commands.
A control display unit (CDU) allows the crew to input the flight details and performance
parameters into the FMC. The navigation and performance computations are displayed on
the CDU for reference and monitoring. The related FMC commands for lateral (LNAV) and
vertical (VNAV) navigation may be coupled to the AFDS and A/T.

Figure 10-5 B737-800 FMS

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In the navigation functions the FMC receives inputs of position and heading from the IRS
and fixing information using twin DME. The FMC compares these inputs and by a process
known as Kalman filtering (see paragraph 10.6) produces a system position. In the
operation with radio position updating, the FMC is combining the short term accuracy of
the IRS with the long term accuracy of the external reference (see paragraph 13.16). If the
FMS is using just the IRS information to derive position a warning is displayed to the crew
indicating the positional information is downgraded.
The crew may select the level of automation required, from simply using the data displays
to fly the aircraft manually, eg for heading or TAS/Mach No., to fully automatic flight path
guidance and performance control (see Figure 10 – 5).
Even with full FMS operation, the crew have absolute control of the management and
operation of the aircraft. Furthermore, certain functions can only be implemented by the
crew, eg. thrust initiation, take-off, altitude selection, ILS tuning, aircraft configuration and
landing rollout. The crew should always monitor the FMC navigation throughout the flight,
to ensure the flight plan is being accurately followed by the automatic systems.
The FMC contains a performance data base and a navigation data base. The performance
database contains all parameters of the aircraft performance and the company's cost index
strategy. The navigation data base contains aeronautical information for the planned area
of operations of the aircraft, comprising:
 aerodrome details, positions, elevations, runways and lengths etc;
 navigation facilities, including location, altitude, frequency, identification and DOC,
airways routes, including reporting points;
 SIDS and STARS and runway approaches;
 company routes.
The navigation data is updated every 28 days and the FMC contains the current and next
28 days database (this coincides with the ICAO navigation data cycle). The data may be
customised any specific airlines requirements.

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10.5.2 Control Display Unit (CDU)

The CDU is the means of communication with the FMC, it is used before flight to initialise
the performance and navigation requirements for the flight.

Figure 10-6 Control Display Unit

In addition to the alphanumeric keypad and the specific function keys, alongside the
display are line select keys (LSK) which are used for inserting or selecting data into the
FMC and moving through the various function pages. The format of the display is; in the
top field the title of the selected page and, where the selected function has more than one
page, the page number (eg 1 of 3). In the centre of the display are up to 10 data fields, 5
on the left and right respectively which are accessed using the LSKs. At the bottom of the
screen are two or more page select fields and below them the scratchpad. The scratchpad
is used to input or modify data for insertion into the appropriate data field.
10.5.2.1 Operation of the CDU
The following shows a typical initiitisaltion and inpout sequence for a CDU. These notes
will only cover pre-flight, but the operation of the CDU is similar in all modes. Each CDU,
Collins, Honeywell etc. operate slightly differently.
The pre-flight initialization of the FMC in the navigation mode require the pilot to check the
validity of the database and input:
 the aircraft position;
 departure and destination aerodromes
 intended SID and STAR procedures;

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 the planned route.

Figure 10-7 CDU Ident Page

If the aircraft is flying a standard company route then the route designator is inserted,
otherwise the pilot will have to input the route manually. Data is initially typed into the
scratchpad at the bottom of the screen then inserted in the appropriate position using the
line selection keys. Once a valid position has been input it is passed to the IRS.
When power is applied the FMS executes an internal test sequence. When the test is
successfully completed it presents the IDENT page on the CDU. This page contains
information on the aircraft model and engine thrust from the performance database at I L
and 1 R, the identification of the permanent navigation database at 2L with 2R and 3R
showing the currency periods of the navigation data in the database. At 4L is the
identification of the operating programme and at 5R is the date of the supplementary data.
The only information that can be changed on this display is the current nav data at 2R. If
this is out of date a prompt will appear in the scratchpad. To change the data select LSK
3R to downselect the next period of data to the scratchpad then 2R to insert the data into
the active data line. Note, that at 6R is the prompt for the next page in the initialisation
sequence and at 6L is the prompt for the page index. Where any input data is used on
other CDU pages the data will automatically `propagate' to those pages.

10.5.3 Principle Of Operation - Twin IRS, Twin FMC

In a twin IRS system the left FMC will normally receive information from the left IRS and
the right FMC from the right IRS. The systems compare the IRS positions but if there is a
discrepancy, cannot determine, in isolation which system is in error. The FMC must have
the input of an external reference in order to determine the correct position. Using Kalman
filtering, the external reference is compared with the IRS positions to determine the system
position. At the start of a flight the IRS position will predominate but as the flight
progresses, the IRS positions will degrade and the weighting for the external reference will
increase, commensurate with the selection of external reference, and the range from that
reference.
There are four possible modes of operation of a twin FMS system.

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a) In the dual mode one FMC acts as the master and the other as the slave. The
systems independently determine position and the positional information is co-
related, to check for gross errors, before being passed to the EFIS. This means that
the position presented on the EFIS may differ from that on each CDU.
b) With independent operation each FMC works in isolation with no communication. The
information from one of the FMC's will be used to feed the other systems and their
will be a difference in position between the two FMC's and between the EFIS and the
non-selected FMC.
c) If one FMC is inoperative then the functions can be carried out by the serviceable
FMC.
d) If both FMC's are inoperative then IRS information will be used directly in the EFIS
but the automatic performance functions will not be available.

10.5.4 Principle Of Operation - Triple IRS, Twin FMC

Positional information and heading from the triple INS/IRS is fed into the FMC where the
information is compared to check for any system having gross errors and then averaged.
This position may then be compared with an external reference which may be DME/DME,
VOR/DME LORAN C or GNSS. The FMC uses Kalman filtering to produce position and
velocity. This filtering may be purely done using the IRS information or using a
combination of IRS and external reference.
When operating at latitudes in excess of 84° the FMC will de-couple the IRS with the left
FMC using the IRS in the order left, centre, right and the right FMC in the order right,
centre, left. Over a short period of time each FMC will change the FMC position to the
appropriate IRS position. The reason for the de-coupling is that the calculation of change
of longitude from departure is a function of the secant of latitude, which, at values
approaching 90°, is increasing rapidly (eg sec86°00'=14.3356, sec86°01'=14.3955). This
means that a small error in latitude will result in a large error in the calculation of change of
longitude. This would give an apparent large divergence between the IRS positions in
terms of the longitude calculated, although in fact the actual difference in position would be
small.

10.6 KALMAN FILTERING

Kalman filtering is the process used within a navigation computer to combine the short
term accuracy of the IRS with the long term accuracy of the external reference. The model
assesses the velocity and position errors from the IRS by comparing the IRS position with
the external reference to produce its own prediction of position and velocity. Initially the
IRS information will be the most accurate, but as the ramp effect of IRS errors progresses
the external reference information will become the most accurate. The weighting system
applied within the model will initially favour the IRS information, but, as a flight progresses
will become more biassed towards the external reference. Consequently the position will
be most accurate after the position update on the runway threshold but will gradually
decay to the accuracy of the external reference. The position information will again
improve when the aircraft is on final approach using a precision system (ILS or MLS). The
more complex the model used (ie the more factors are included) the better will be the
quality of the system position and velocity.

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10.7 DME - IRS ACCURACY

The position accuracy of the IRS continually degrades throughout the flight, although the
heading and groundspeed maintain a high degree of accuracy. The measurement of
position is subject to random errors which are dependent on range and the cut of the
position lines. The second problem is solved by the computer selecting DMEs positioned
such that a good cut will be obtained. Slant range error is compensated for in the
calculation, but the DME error is constant at +/-0.25 nm +/-1.25% of range, so at 100 nm
the error will a maximum of 1.5 nm. At the start of a flight this error will be large compared
with the IRS error, but as the flight progresses the IRS is degrading at around 1 nm/hr so
after several hours, since the DME error is constant, the DME fixing will be significantly
more accurate than the IRS.

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