13-1 Introduction

Primary Cementing Techniques

Bernard Piot and Gérard Cuvillier—Schlumberger

Primary cementing is a technique for placing cement

slurries in the annular space between the casing and the
13
accommodate the expected completion for the antici-
pated production rate, and the design works backwards
to the surface, adding one more casing size as particular
borehole. After placement, the cement hardens to form zones must be protected or isolated. The complete pro-
a hydraulic seal in the wellbore, preventing the migra- gram, which depends on the availability of drilling and
tion of formation fluids in the annulus. Therefore, pri- completion tools and equipment for each size, is
mary cementing is one of the most critical stages during designed to ensure that the well is drilled and operated
the drilling and completion of a well. This procedure safely throughout its lifetime.
must be planned and executed carefully, because there Casings are primarily classified by their size (outside
is only one chance to complete the job successfully. diameter [OD], or outside diameter of the body of the
In addition to providing zonal isolation, the set- pipe), material (carbon steel or corrosion-resistant alloy
cement sheath should anchor and support the casing material), weight (lbm/ft or kg/m), yield strength (psi or
string (preventing formation sloughing or caving into the N/mm2), type of connection (thread or coupling), and
wellbore) and protect the casing string against corrosion range (length of each casing joint). These characteris-
by formation fluids. Uncemented steel casing can cor- tics give the casing string certain mechanical properties,
rode rapidly when exposed to hot formation brines and such as tensile-, burst-, and collapse-pressure ratings.
hydrogen sulfide. It can also be subjected to erosion by The most common casing connections are threaded con-
the high velocity of produced fluids, particularly when nections, although quick-makeup mechanical connec-
solid particles such as formation sand are being trans- tors are available in the large sizes.
ported. Lateral loads on poorly cemented casing strings Figure 13-1 also shows casing strings known as liners.
can result in buckling or collapse because of overloading A liner is a string of standard casing that does not extend
at certain points. On the other hand, properly cemented all the way to the surface; instead, it is hung from inside
casing is subjected to a nearly uniform loading approxi- the previous casing string. Liners are covered in detail
mately equal to the overburden pressure. later in this chapter.
In principle, primary cementing techniques are the The string type and its function govern the casing-
same regardless of casing-string purpose and size. The string design. The selection of a particular casing pri-
cement slurry is pumped down inside the string to be marily depends on the
■ depth
cemented, exits the bottom, and displaces drilling mud
as it moves up the annulus. Details vary from casing to ■ hole sizes in which the casing string is to be set
casing, and the differences in placement technique are ■ required tightness and torque resistance of connec-
discussed in this chapter. It is assumed that the reader tions
is familiar with the previously presented supporting ■ mud-column and formation pressures
material: Chapters 5 (Mud Removal), 9 (Annular
■ condition of the formation
Formation Fluid Migration), 11 (Cementing Equipment
and Casing Hardware), and 12 (Primary Cement Job ■ drilling objectives.
Design) in particular.
The casing is designed to withstand the mechanical
and chemical stresses in the well (Lubinski, 1951;
Oil-Well Cementing Practices in the United States,
13-2 Classification of casing strings American Petroleum Institute [API], 1959; Smith, 1987).
A series of casing strings is necessary to complete most A methodology known as the Service Life Model
oil and gas wells and produce the desired fluids success- (Klementich and Jellison, 1986) analyzes the influence
fully (Fig. 13-1). The design of the casing program is con- of any drilling, completion, or production event on the
tingent upon several factors. It starts with the produc- burst, collapse, and tension and/or compression resis-
tion casing, which must be large enough to

Well Cementing ■ Chapter 13 Primary Cementing Techniques 459

 28-in. hole 30-in. conductor
Conductor casing

26-in. hole 22-in. surface casing

Surface casing
20-in. hole 16-in. intermediate casing

171⁄ 2-in. hole 133⁄ 8-in. intermediate casing

Intermediate casing
14-in. hole 111⁄ 4-in. contingency liner

12 3⁄ 4-in. hole 9 7⁄ 8-in. production casing

81⁄ 2-in. hole 75⁄ 8-in. contingency liner

Production liner

81⁄ 2-in. hole 7 or 51⁄ 2-in. production liner

Simple Program Complex and Heavy Program in Deep Well

Fig. 13-1. Example of simple and complex casing programs.

tance of the casing. A model by Johnson et al. (1987) Expandable casing tubulars are an alternative to
considers triaxial loading, and one by Rodriguez et al. conventional casings. They are covered in detail in
(2003) simulates the influence of cement mechanical Section 13-6.2.
properties on the casing-collapse load.
The casing must be designed to withstand all loads
imposed during installation and throughout the lifetime 13-2.1 Conductor pipe
of the well. In particular, the innermost string of casing The conductor is usually the first and shortest casing
(hereafter defined as production casing) is an integral string. Its purpose is to protect shallow formations from
part of the well architecture, designed to maintain well being contaminated by drilling fluids and help prevent
integrity under severe conditions. Such conditions washouts that can easily occur near the surface in
include: a well full of gas (subsequent to a tubing fail- unconsolidated topsoils and sediments. The conductor
ure), an empty well, hot flowing production fluids, and pipe also serves as a conduit to raise the circulating fluid
injection of cold treatment fluids. The cements support- high enough to return to the mud system and enables a
ing and isolating these respective casings must also diverter to be installed should gas sands, for example, be
withstand the same conditions throughout the life of the encountered at a shallow level. The conductor pipe is
well. In this section, the functions of the casing strings, designed to provide structural support for all subsequent
the depths to which they are normally set, and special casing and tubing strings and blowout preventers
considerations for each are discussed. (BOPs) as well as the wellhead when the ground support

460 Well Cementing

is inadequate. Therefore, the conductor must be set casing. Most often, a guide shoe is welded on to help
deeply enough into firm ground that it will not subside lower the conductor into the well. Cementing of the con-
when subjected to the additional loading. Offshore, the ductor is performed through a swage, which is screwed
conductor should be designed to withstand loads to the top of the conductor. The cement slurry is pumped
imposed by waves and currents. through the swage and into the pipe. If the length of the
At certain offshore locations or during swamp barge conductor is short, the annular and pipe volumes are rel-
operations, driving or jetting the conductor into the atively small, and cement slurry is pumped until returns
ground is a common practice. A pile-driving hammer is are observed at the surface. Cement slurry is then dis-
used, and sections of conductor casing are welded placed from the casing without the use of plugs.
together as they are driven into the ground. Increasingly, Alternatively, and particularly for longer conductors, the
mechanical connectors are used because they offer sig- stab-in technique or inner string cementing can be used.
nificant rig time savings over welded connections. These techniques allow pumping of a minimum volume
However, the mechanical connectors must be driveable. of cement slurry and limit slurry contamination during
The setting depth is usually less than 300 ft [91 m]. It is displacement (see Section 13-3.1).
often determined by the limitations of the pile driver as In deepwater wells, conductor casings were initially
the conductor begins to encounter firmer ground. Once drilled and cemented, because techniques for driving
driven to the maximum depth (depth of refusal), the piles at such great depth were not available.
conductor is then cut to the appropriate height below Unfortunately, this often resulted in large, washed-out
the drill floor (and above the water line in offshore holes owing to the presence of soft and fragile surface
applications), and a casing head is welded into sediments. It was not uncommon to pump 300% excess
place (Fig. 13-2). cement slurry yet not observe cement returns on the
The hole for the conductor is sometimes drilled (e.g., seafloor. Today, the conductor casing, such as a 30-in.
a 36-in. hole for a 30-in. conductor), and the pipe is made casing, is more frequently attached to a 26-in. or 24-in.
up and lowered in a manner similar to conventional bit and drilling assembly and lowered at the same time
the hole section is drilled. This jetting casing-drilling
operation minimizes the disturbance of the soft forma-
Drill floor tions. At casing depth, the conductor is simply discon-
nected from the drilling assembly and left uncemented
as a guide for the fluids. Drilling of the 20-in. or 18 5⁄8-in.
Rotary table surface-casing section can then proceed without delay.
In shallow-casing jobs, washouts and lost circulation
often prevent the cement from reaching the surface.
Normally, the necessary volume of cement slurry is esti-
Flowline mated before the job, then mixed and pumped down-
Fill line hole. If the washouts prevent the cement slurry from
reaching the desired height, a top-up job must be per-
Annular-type formed (Section 13-3.2). If lost circulation occurs after
blowout mixing is completed, the casing volume must be dis-
preventer placed, requiring the pumping of large quantities of
cement into the loss zone (Chapter 6).
Casing head
13-2.2 Surface casing
The second string of casing, which serves to case off rel-
atively shallow unconsolidated formations and aquifers,
Ground level is known as surface casing (Fig. 13-3). In addition to
maintaining hole integrity, the surface casing prevents
Cellar (optional)
the contamination of fresh groundwater by drilling
fluids, subterranean brines, oil, or gas. Depending on the
country, there are usually government regulations stipu-
Conductor lating minimum casing requirements and set-cement
properties (Chapter 12), particularly regarding the pro-
tection of aquifers.
Fig. 13-2. Conductor ready for drillout with the casing head welded
on and the BOP connected.

Chapter 13 Primary Cementing Techniques 461

 Circulating Mud Pumping Wash, Spacer, and Cement Slurry
Plug releasing pins

Bottom cementing plug Top cementing plug Tail slurry

Lead slurry

Spacer
Centralizers
Wash

Float collar

Shoe

Displacement Displacement

Displacement fluid

End of Job

Fig. 13-3. Typical one-stage primary cement job on a surface casing string.

Surface casing must be set within competent forma- sizes and setting depths vary considerably; generally
tions to allow the installation of BOPs (Fig. 13-4) before speaking, diameters range from 7 to 26 in. and depths
drilling into potentially hydrocarbon-bearing and pres- can reach 12,550 ft [3,825 m] (Fontenot, 1986).
sured formations. It is the first casing string for pres- A major problem associated with cementing surface
sure-control purposes. Therefore, the selected casing casing is placing the required annular height of cement
must be strong enough to support a BOP and withstand slurry (often to surface) when the hydrostatic pressures
the fluid pressures that may be encountered. Surface of the slurries exceed the formation fracture pressure.
casing also provides a solid anchor for the casing head The use of low-density slurries and foamed cement slur-
when the well is put on production. The surface-casing ries is becoming more common in such circumstances

462 Well Cementing

 and the large annular cross-sectional area (even in a
Rig floor Rotary table gauge hole) often prevents achieving the flow properties
required to ensure efficient mud removal. High-solids,
high-performance lightweight cements, which combine
Fill line
fast setting characteristics and high viscosity at low den-
Flowline sity (Chapter 7), are particularly useful in deepwater
Annular preventer wells. Effective laminar flow is the recommended dis-
placement regime in such large annuli (Chapter 5).
Choke line Large-diameter casings, with ODs equal to or greater
Kill line
than 18 5⁄8 in., are subject to large upward forces during
Blind rams cementing. Such casings have a large cross-sectional
area upon which the pumping pressure can act. Unless
preventive measures are taken, the upward forces may
exceed the buoyed weight of the casing, and the casing
Pipe rams will rise out of the hole (Appendix C). To prevent such
problems, the pump pressure can be controlled, the den-
sity of the mud used to displace the slurry can be
adjusted, or the casing can be physically restrained by
various methods.
Surface casing head
Conductor pipe
Surface casing
13-2.3 Intermediate casing
The intermediate casing isolates hydrocarbon-bearing,
Cement abnormally pressured, fractured, and lost-circulation
zones, as well as problem shales and similar geological
horizons. Intermediate casings are set within more com-
Figure 13-4. Surface casing support of blowout prevention equipment. petent formations than the surface casing, providing
greater blowout protection when drilling deeper than
the previous casing would allow. Any casing string run
between the surface casing and the production casing is
an intermediate casing string.
(Chapters 3 and 7). Washouts are another frequent prob-
One or several intermediate casings are often neces-
lem. When the borehole is enlarged by washouts, its size
sary to maintain borehole integrity at greater drilling
often exceeds the measuring capability of caliper tools.
depths. Typical casing sizes range from 6 5⁄8 in. to 16 in.,
Unless adequate information is available from similar
and the depth can vary from 1,000 to more than 17,000 ft
offset wells, accurate hole volumes may not be obtain-
[305 to more than 5,180 m]. Intermediate casing is usu-
able.
ally run to surface and once again anchors and connects
A through-drillpipe stab-in cementing system can be
BOPs with a higher pressure rating for subsequent
used in some surface casing cementing operations, but
drilling.
often this is not possible when using smaller-size surface
Depending on well depths and prevailing pressure
casing or when larger sizes are run beyond 4,500 ft
regimes, intermediate casings can fulfill several func-
[1,500 m]. Drilling rig design constraints become the
tions.
limiting factor in these applications.
■ One or several intermediate casings are generally
Cementing of surface casings traditionally has been
performed in stages when severe lost-circulation zones employed to seal off weak zones that might fracture
or other troublesome intervals were encountered. Today, and cause lost circulation in the presence of high-
they are frequently cemented in a single-stage operation density mud. Such muds are usually required as well
using high-performance, low-density cement systems depth increases.
(Chapter 7; Al-Suwaidi et al., 2001). ■ Occasionally, salt or anhydrite formations might dis-
Surface casing strings often encounter sloughing solve and leach out, causing drilling-fluid contamina-
shales and shallow gas pockets (Chapter 9). These are tion or pipe sticking. Salt formations have a natural
some of the most difficult casing strings to cement suc- tendency to creep or swell, a phenomenon likely to
cessfully. Low formation temperatures prolong the thick- cause stuck pipe while drilling and casing collapse
ening times of conventionally extended cement slurries, unless precautions are taken (Chapters 6 and 7).

Chapter 13 Primary Cementing Techniques 463

■ Sometimes an intermediate string seals off older pro- should be sufficient to drill the next hole section without
ducing zones, allowing the operator to drill deeper. the hydrostatic pressure of mud exceeding the formation
■ Intermediate strings may seal shallow permeable for- fracture pressure.
mations containing uneconomical hydrocarbons or With the advent of high-performance lightweight
permeable zones that have been charged by gas leak- cements, the casing string can usually be cemented in a
ing through poorly cemented annuli in nearby wells. single-stage primary job. However, a multistage job may
■
be necessary under certain circumstances:
Intermediate casings protect the hole in deviated sec-
■ if the column of cement slurry would exert a hydro-
tions, particularly through unstable formations.
■
static pressure greater than the formation-fracture
High-pressure, noncommercial fluid zones, which
pressure
may be encountered well above the targeted pay
■ for the isolation of a lost circulation zone
zone, can be hydraulically sealed.
■ for imperatively isolating an hydrocarbon layer.
An intermediate casing also provides better protec-
tion against well pressure than the surface string, owing Figure 13-3 is an illustration of a single-stage primary
to its smaller diameter and the availability of higher job. Figure 13-5 depicts a typical two-stage cement job
steel grades. The setting depth of an intermediate casing on an intermediate casing string.

First-Stage Displacement Opening Bomb

Seated in Stage Collar

Displacement fluid

First-stage Opening
sealing plug bomb

First-stage
slurry with
excess cement

Wash-ahead
spacer

Circulating First-Stage Cementing Start Second Stage Stage Collar Closed

Upper Section Sequence Completed 1,500 psi

First-stage
excess slurry

Ports opened

Cement basket
or packer

Fig. 13-5. Typical two-stage cementing sequence of an intermediate casing string.

464 Well Cementing

13-2.4 Production casing lost to the zone. Good fluid-loss control minimizes
The production casing or production liner is the last damage to the critical wellbore matrix and prevents pre-
tubular element in the well. It isolates the different mature slurry dehydration in the annulus, which could
zones above and within the production zone and with- result in annular bridging and a failed cement job. Fluid-
stands all of the anticipated loads during testing opera- loss rates should be less than 100 mL/30 min, preferably
tions and production throughout the well’s life. Any in the 50 mL/30 min range (Chapter 6). In the case of
casing or liner that creates an annular space with the high-pressure, high-temperature wells, the fluid-loss rate
production tubing is treated as a production casing or must be less than 50 mL/30 min.
liner. Achieving hydraulic isolation across, above, and
Setting the production casing string is one of the prin- below the pay zone is essential. With conventional
cipal objectives when drilling a well. In many respects, cement slurries, an important property of the set cement
the production string is the oil well. It is the protective is compressive strength. The set cement must also have
housing for the tubing and other equipment used in a low permeability to prevent fluid invasion. Set-cement
well. Tubing may be pulled out of the hole for change or permeability is directly related to water content and
inspection, or if there is a completion equipment mal- inversely related to cement content and strength. The
function, but the production string is cemented in place. general guideline for adequate zonal isolation is
Indeed, special attention is usually devoted to ensure a 1,000-psi [7.0-MPa] compressive strength and less than
pressure-tight bond between the formation and the pro- 0.1 mD water permeability. Strength retrogression must
duction string. Common sizes range from 4 1⁄2 to 9 5⁄8 in. be prevented when the bottomhole static temperature
Depths can vary from 1,500 to more than 25,000 ft [460 exceeds 230°F [110°C] (Chapter 10). This condition,
to more than 7,620 m]. which also applies to any cement used in surface and
The production casing is normally run and cemented intermediate strings that will be exposed to producing
through the zone to be produced and then perforated to temperatures greater than 230°F [110°C], is generally
allow communication with the formation of interest fulfilled by adding 30% to 40% by weight of cement silica
(for producing reservoir fluids or injecting fluids). flour to the Portland cement.
Sometimes it is set just above the zone of interest, and When pressure and temperature variations are antic-
an openhole completion is performed. The casing should ipated during production, injection, or well mainte-
be the best-quality pipe that is appropriate for the con- nance, special cements with tailored mechanical prop-
ditions involved, including the potential for long-term erties (Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio, and tensile
corrosion. A small leak can develop into a blowout; strength) are available to maintain isolation throughout
therefore, the threaded connections should be appropri- the life of the well (Chapter 7).
ate for the anticipated pressures. To guard against leaks, In shallow wells that are not prolific producers, a
the casing joints should be carefully connected as the small cemented casing can be substituted for the pro-
casing is run into the well. Torque should be applied cor- duction tubing. Such tubingless completions are less
responding to the thread compound used. If casing rota- expensive. Sometimes this technique is used in minia-
tion is an element of the mud-removal strategy, premium turized dual completions, in which two separate casing
connections that can withstand the torque should be strings are run and cemented in the same wellbore. Such
used. Different designs with proprietary pipe-thread completions are cemented in a single operation using
geometries and metal-to-metal seals are available for gas completion brine as the displacement fluid.
tightness and should be used whenever the operating
conditions demand reliable pressure-tight sealing and
100% connection efficiency. 13-2.5 Combination casing strings
Excellent primary cementing of production casings is In casing-string design, it is common to vary the casing
essential. The cement slurry must be designed to keep weights (internal diameters) or grades within a nominal
the producing zone under control by providing adequate size range because of load considerations, cost savings,
hydrostatic pressure. Preflushes and spacers run ahead and the available casing inventory. However, to minimize
of the slurry must also be checked to maintain hydrosta- the risk of errors in the pipe running sequence, one
tic overbalance and to maintain well control at all times should not use more than two types of casing joints in a
(Chapter 12). given casing string. These factors must be known when
Zonal isolation is imperative both to protect the pay designing the cement job, because burst and collapse
reservoir from fluid migration and crossflow and to iso- ratings are affected, internal diameters vary, and thread
late the pay hydraulically for any future stimulation treat- connections may change within a particular string.
ments. In addition, the cement slurry must have ade- Another technique is to actually vary the nominal
quate fluid-loss control to minimize the amount of filtrate casing size. Commonly used combinations include

Chapter 13 Primary Cementing Techniques 465

10 3⁄4 in. and 9 5⁄8 in. and 7 5⁄8 in. and 7 in. Installing such annulus (also called reverse circulation cementing) is
combinations requires the casing to remain stationary in sometimes performed in the extreme case in which
the rotary table for a substantial amount of time—the important lost circulation zones or fragile formations
time required to change the casing handling equipment occur near the shoe but some cement is required to seal
(slips and elevators). The end result is similar to a liner off an upper interval. This is typically a last-resort
completion. The larger-internal-diameter (ID) casing option, because fluid placement is largely uncontrolled
may be desirable in dual completions or in gas wells in and the shoe is never cemented. Modifying the float
which additional tubular completion equipment is equipment is necessary to allow careful control and pre-
required, such as side-pocket injection mandrels or in cise monitoring of the returns through the casing.
offshore wells requiring subsurface safety valves. For large-diameter casings, the traditional cementing
Figure 13-6 depicts a typical tapered string comple- technique is frequently inadequate; consequently,
tion. This particular example was completed to accom- cementing through the drillpipe or a grouting technique
modate an additional tubing string that could be run to in which the cement is circulated into place by pumping
the bottom of the 7 5⁄8-in. casing. the slurry down one or more small-diameter pipes
placed in the annular gap is performed. When cementing
intermediate or production casings, well conditions and
the length of interval to be cemented influence the
placement technique to be used. Usually, the maximum
permissible downhole pressures determine whether a
job should be performed in a single stage or in multiple
stages. In this section, the most common procedures are
7 5⁄8-in. casing described.

9 7⁄8-in. open hole

13-3.1 Cementing through drillpipe (stab-in or
Crossover swage
inner-string cementing)
As discussed earlier, performing the job through
8 3⁄4-in. open hole drillpipe can prevent many problems related to cement-
ing large casings. With the stab-in technique, which can
7-in. casing only be used on stationary rigs (land rigs and jackup or
platform rigs), the casing is run in place with a stab-in
float shoe. The casing is set in the casing slips, thus sus-
pending the string off bottom. Drillpipe made up with a
stab-in stinger (Fig. 13-7) is then run in the casing until
Fig. 13-6. Typical tapered string completion. it is approximately 3 ft [1 m] above the float shoe.
Circulation with the drilling fluid is then established,
and returns come from the annulus between the
drillpipe and the casing. Circulation is stopped and the
The only special cementing considerations for combi-
drillpipe is lowered, enabling the stinger to stab or screw
nation strings are for the displacement plug. The most
into and seal in the float shoe. While a constant watch is
common practice involves modifying the displacement
maintained on the fluid level in the casing-drillpipe
plug of the larger-diameter casing. The core of the plug
annulus, which must remain stationary, circulation is
is machined to a size less than the ID of the smaller
broken again, and one typically observes returns flowing
casing. As a result, the wiper fins aid displacement in the
between the conductor pipe and the casing. Cement is
larger-diameter casing. Because of their flexibility, the
mixed and pumped through the drillpipe and up the
plug will fold and pass through the smaller casing. First-
annulus until the slurry reaches the surface. As soon as
stage wiper plugs of the type used in stage cementing
mud contamination is no longer evident in the cement
could also be considered.
returns, mixing can be stopped and the drillpipe volume
displaced.
If lost circulation is noticed before the cement reaches
13-3 Cement placement procedures the surface, mixing should be stopped and the cement
Most primary cement jobs are performed by pumping the displaced, avoiding the pumping of large quantities of
cement slurry down through the casing and up the annu- cement into the fractured zone. Also, care must be taken
lus. Other techniques exist for solving various well-com- to avoid casing collapse because of excessive differential
pletion problems. For example, cementing through the pressure between the outer annulus and the drillpipe-

466 Well Cementing

 Float
collar

Float
shoe

Circulating Mud Pumping Cement Dropping Dart and Dart Landed; Pulling Out Stinger
Displacement End of Cementing

Fig. 13-7. Through-drillpipe stab-in cementing.

casing annular space. Special packoff cement head to the right for several turns, and the coarse threads
assemblies can be used to seal the drillpipe-casing annu- release the stab-in tool. Simpler stab-in tools are also
lus and allow pressure to be applied. This pressure serves commonly used that omit the latch-in design and simply
to offset the pump pressure that creates collapse loading rely on the drillpipe weight to hold the stinger in place
whenever inner-string cementing operations are con- while cementing. Special drillpipe centralizers central-
ducted. Alternatively, mud of an adequate weight can be ize the stinger and the last few joints of drillpipe, partic-
pumped in the drillpipe-casing annulus before stabbing. ularly in deviated wells.
Through-drillpipe cementing has several advantages. Collapsing the casing is the greatest risk in stab-in
Accurate hole volumes (most often unknown in conduc- cementing operations. This may occur if the annulus
tor or surface holes) are not required, because the becomes blocked for any reason. A preferred adaptation
cement slurry is mixed and pumped until returns are of through-drillpipe stab-in cementing is therefore
observed at the surface. This procedure optimizes the offered by using a cementing mandrel (Fig. 13-8) with
total volume of cement mixed and pumped and virtually the drillpipe (or tubing) hanging freely to within 15 to
eliminates the possibility of overdisplacement because 30 ft [4.6 to 9.2 m] of the shoe or collar. This type of
the subsequent volume displaced from the drillpipe is arrangement, often called inner string cementing, offers
negligible. This method also eliminates the need for the additional possibility of casing reciprocation. In
large-diameter swages or cement heads, as well as large- addition, unlike the stab-in technique, it can be used on
casing wiper plugs. Also, minimal cement contamination a floating rig, in which the drillpipe hangs underneath
occurs during through-drillpipe cementing. the conductor (or surface casing) wellhead-housing run-
Various options are possible with the through- ning tool. Above all, it eliminates the possibility of casing
drillpipe stab-in technique. A backup check valve (float collapse, because the pressures in the annulus and
collar and float shoe) can be run as depicted in Fig. 13-7. within the casing are equal. Pressure inside the casing
Alternatively, a stab-in float shoe alone could be used. (the drillpipe-casing annulus) can be monitored at the
The types of available stab-in tools offer the possibility to packoff head (on a stationary rig). However, during
latch into the float collar or shoe, thus preventing U-tubing, the column of fluid in the drillpipe-casing
pumpout of the stinger while cementing. Upon comple- annulus is not controlled, resulting in possible cement-
tion of the cementing operation, the drillpipe is rotated slurry contamination.

Chapter 13 Primary Cementing Techniques 467

 tional manner and pumped—often with centrifugal
pumps—only until cement slurry is circulated to the
surface. The lines and tubing are flushed with water, and
the tubing (if still hanging freely) is withdrawn from the
annulus (Fig. 13-9).
18-in. combination lift

Macaroni (small-ID) tubing

Mandrel

11-in. diameter
casing bore (279.4 mm)
O-ring
Tong area
Macaroni tubing
moved during job
Circulating port
Drillpipe to casing
adapter Fig. 13-9. Top-up cementing.

Collar
The cement slurry can also be mixed and pumped
directly into the annulus with the tubing string in place.
Free-hanging drillpipe In extreme cases, such operations may have to be
above shoe or collar repeated several times until the cement slurry returns to
Casing string to the surface and sufficient gel strength builds to support
be cemented the slurry until it sets. However, when attempting to fill
Fig. 13-8. Cementing mandrel.
the casing annulus from the surface, there is no method
to determine how deeply the cement has fallen, and the
casing annulus may not be uniformly cemented.
Small-diameter tubings are not as easy to use off-
13-3.2 Grouting (top-up cementing) shore. Therefore, a special tool, called a Titus Assembly,†
When lost circulation occurs during large-casing slurry is run as a contingency measure on the landing joint at
displacement, the immediate solution is to recement the same time as the casing. The primary cementation is
down the annulus. On land, a small-diameter tubing performed through the swivel in the open position. After
string is run down the annulus between the casing and the primary job is complete, a ball is dropped, which
the open hole (17⁄8-in. [5-cm] tubing is a common size). diverts the flow through the swivel down a hose to the
Several joints can be made up together and pushed down Titus Ring.† Slow circulation for approximately 3 hr,
the annulus as far as possible. The tubing string is then while waiting for the cement at the shoe to set, removes
connected to the cementing unit through a high-pres- any contaminated cement from the top of the annulus.
sure treating line, and circulation with drilling mud or Several 50-bbl [8-m3] top-up jobs are then performed
water is established. Caution must be exercised, because though the ring to ensure the placement of strong
friction pressures will be high because of the small cement to the surface.
tubing ID. Cement slurry is then mixed in the conven-
† Mark of Titus Tools

468 Well Cementing

 Exposed weak formations make cementing to the sur- role of the bottom wiper plug is to prevent heavy fluids
face problematic. When a top-up job is anticipated, (spacer or cement slurry) from falling through lighter
cement baskets are positioned within the previous ones (chemical washes and drilling fluid).
casing. They allow a first cementing operation to form a When a spacer is used, sinking of the cement slurry
ring of cement, used later after its initial set to support through the spacer will occur to a lesser extent, because
further top jobs until the cement reaches the surface. the density differential between the two is usually not
very large. If a plug is run between the spacer and the
slurry but not between the spacer and the mud, the
13-3.3 Single-stage cementing spacer will become contaminated with mud during the
With the development of new ultralow-density cement trip down the casing. In addition, the plug will sweep the
systems (Chapters 3 and 7), the need for multistage casing wall clean, pushing accumulated mud film ahead
cementing has been significantly reduced, if not elimi- and contaminating the last portion of the spacer. Once
nated. A long column of low-density, high-solids, or the bottom-plug diaphragm breaks, a mud-contaminated
foamed cement can often be placed in the annulus in spacer will be in contact with the cement slurry—a sit-
one stage without the risk of breaking down weak for- uation the spacer was supposed to prevent. Depending
mations. on the type of mud and its compatibility with spacer or
with cement, this situation can be circumvented by
13-3.3.1 Mud conditioning pumping a sacrificial volume of spacer or cement.
Clearly, the ideal situation would be to use two bottom
After the casing is in place, the mud is circulated as long plugs to avoid intermixing of all fluids during the trip
as necessary to remove high-gel-strength mud pockets down the casing. Three-plug cement heads are used at
formed during the semistatic period of removing the times (Fraser et al., 1996); however, these are not
drillpipe, logging, or running the casing. Mud circulation common. With present plug containers (cement heads),
is usually performed through the cement head to avoid more than one shutdown would be necessary to load the
stopping for an excessive period of time after the mud plugs.
has been conditioned. Under static conditions, mud gel The following sequences are normally recommended
strength can develop quickly and may greatly reduce the when only one bottom plug is used.
mud removal efficiency (Chapter 5). In case of gas cut- ■ Bottom plug—spacer—cement slurry
ting, mud circulation must continue until a steady in-out
■ Wash—bottom plug—spacer—cement slurry
mud weight is obtained. In addition, cementing should
not take place before the well is completely static. ■ Wash—bottom plug—cement slurry
If a single-plug cement head is used, circulation must
As a general practice, the bottom wiper plug should
be stopped before cementing to load both cement plugs.
be placed between the fluids of highest density differ-
The bottom plug must be placed below the lower 2-in.
ence, provided a sacrificial volume is tolerated for the
[5-cm] inlet to allow room for the upper plug between
contamination between the other fluids, usually spacer
the two inlets. If a double-plug cement head is used,
and cement. These latter fluids are designed to be rheo-
both cement plugs can be loaded before starting mud
logically compatible, but contamination of the cement
circulation.
by the spacer may result in retardation. Therefore, the
bottom plug is often dropped in the last portion of the
13-3.3.2 Bottom wiper plug spacer, meaning that the actual sequence is
The bottom cement wiper plug is a key element in a ■ Spacer—bottom plug—spacer
cementing operation. It serves two functions: it prevents (last portion or sacrificial volume)—cement slurry.
the intermixing of fluids and it sweeps clean the inner
wall of the casing. The most obvious function of the
bottom plug is to prevent mud from contaminating the 13-3.3.3 Displacement procedures
cement slurry. Fraser et al. (1996) and Griffin and Valkó Dropping the top wiper plug is an easy operation and
(1997) demonstrated that failing to use a bottom wiper should not take longer than the time needed to open and
plug was the cause of many primary cementing failures. close the valves at the cement head. Cement heads are
However, if the bottom wiper plug is properly located, it very reliable tools under normal working conditions and
can also contribute to the conservation of spacer or are designed to minimize time delays. Stopping circula-
slurry properties. As discussed in Chapter 5, rheology tion for long periods of time (5 to 10 min) allows down-
has a crucial effect on the ability of a spacer fluid to hole fluids to develop high gel strength. Remotely oper-
remove mud. A small amount of mud contamination can ated cement heads (Lavaure and Galiana, 1991)
alter characteristics and reduce effectiveness. Another facilitate the wiper plug dropping exercise and increase

Chapter 13 Primary Cementing Techniques 469

safety by not requiring someone to climb the mast to Surface pressure is then released, and backflow is
operate the valves and launch the plugs. There are two observed to test the functioning of the float equipment.
principal consequences when plug launching is delayed. If no returns are observed, the line is left open during
■ Additional applied pressure may be required to the waiting-on-cement (WOC) period. If the float-collar
restart fluid movement. In extreme cases, this pres- valve does not hold the backpressure, the fluid returned
sure may exceed the fracture pressure resulting in during the test must be pumped back into the well, leav-
lost circulation. ing the casing pressurized until the cement gels and
■ Poor removal of gelled mud may occur, leading to poor
loses mobility. However, it is very important to bleed off
the excess casing pressure (caused by thermal expan-
zonal isolation.
sion) before the cement begins to develop compressive
The spacer and slurries are then displaced through strength; otherwise, a microannulus may form because
the casing, isolated between the two wiper plugs. In real- of expansion and contraction of the casing.
ity, because of U-tubing (Chapter 12), the top of the Once the cement slurry has started to set, the normal
cement column may be at a considerable depth below practices and operations of putting the string in tension
the surface at the time the top plug is released. and landing it in the wellhead can be performed accord-
Depending upon the mud density and the cement ing to the casing landing procedure (see Section 13-7.8).
volume and density, the first part of the cement column
may have already rounded the shoe. Computer programs
for cement-job design (Chapter 12) can predict such 13-3.4 Multistage cementing
phenomena. The rate at which the cement is displaced As mentioned previously, high-performance lightweight
into the annulus is not the same as the pumping rate; cements have made multiple-stage cementing a rela-
instead, it varies depending upon the different fluid den- tively rare event. However, multiple-stage cementing
sities and volumes. This phenomenon continues until may still be necessary if
the fluid level inside the casing reaches the surface. ■ downhole formations are unable to support the hydro-
Continuous flow can then take place. static pressure exerted by a long column of cement
In general, there is a tendency to disregard the impor- ■ the upper portion of the annulus must be cemented
tance of displacement rates during the period of with a higher-density cement system
U-tubing. If the job is designed for turbulent flow, the
■ cement is not required between widely separated
maximum pump rate possible is recommended during
this period, because downhole fluid velocities are proba- intervals.
bly one-third to one-half of the surface pumping rate. For Most multiple-stage cement jobs are performed to
jobs pumped in laminar flow, the surface rate must be alleviate high hydrostatic pressure. It is not uncommon
controlled to maintain the desired flow regime. Again, to cement a long string to the surface to protect the
computer programs can calculate the optimal pump casing from corrosion. Another scenario might be the
rates according to the well geometry and fluid proper- presence of lost circulation zones below the last casing
ties. A tool to control U-tubing was introduced by Head shoe that prevents cement slurries from reaching the
et al., 1995. It did not gain popularity because the main surface. Two-stage cementing, with the top of the first-
use was in large casings. To be efficient, such tools must stage covering the weak zone, will permit safer, more
restrict the flow rate; as a result, the duration of the complete filling of the total annular space.
cement job increases and, owing to the low flow rates, Three standard multistage techniques are commonly
mud removal may be questionable. employed.
Once continuous flow is restored, the annular flow ■ regular two-stage cementing, in which the cementing
rate is equal to the pump rate, and the surface pressure of each stage is a distinct and separate operation
begins to increase as the rest of the cement is placed
■ continuous two-stage cementing, with both stages
behind the casing. Displacement then continues at the
programmed rate until the top wiper plug bumps in the cemented in one continuous operation
float collar. However, the pump rate is usually reduced at ■ three-stage cementing, in which each stage is

the end of the displacement to avoid a sharp pressure cemented as a separate operation
increase when the plug reaches the collar. On bumping The longer execution time of stage cementing
the plug, one should watch for leaks. If pressure holds increases the rig time. In addition, most cement heads
after bumping, the casing can be immediately pressure cannot accommodate the preloading of all the plugs and
tested, provided that the plugs and collar have been bombs required in the operation sequence. As a result,
selected to withstand such extra differential pressure the cement head must be opened to release the opening
without collapsing or breaking.

470 Well Cementing

bomb, assuming the first-stage plug was preloaded. The the opening bomb to reach the collar by gravity and seal
shutoff plug could be loaded after the bomb is released, properly to operate the opening sleeve. However, even
but caution should be exercised to ensure that all of the when using a hydraulically operated tool, it is prudent to
plugs and bombs are compatible with the cement head. have an opening bomb available as a contingency.
In addition, the plugs should be carefully checked for Figure 13-10 shows the operation of mechanical and
correct fitting in the head. hydraulic stage tools.
Hydraulically operated stage collars are commonly
used in deviated wells in which it would be difficult for

Closing
plug
Brass shear balls

Closing sleeve

Opening sleeve Fluid ports Double

Brass shear seals
balls
Antirotation Broken shear Lock
mechanism balls ring
Free-fall
Body connection
opening device
with metal-to-
metal seal and
elastomer
backup

Running Position Opened Position Closed Position

Closing
plug
Brass shear balls

Closing sleeve

Differential Fluid ports Double

opening sleeve seals

Brass shear
balls Broken shear Lock
balls ring

Body connection
with metal-to-
metal seal and Shouldered
elastomer antirotation
backup mechanism
(not shown)

Running Position Opened Position Closed Position

Fig. 13-10. Operation of mechanical (top) and hydraulic (bottom) stage collars.

Chapter 13 Primary Cementing Techniques 471

13-3.4.1 Conventional two-stage cementing cementing jobs. The first-stage slurry should cover the
In addition to conventional casing equipment (e.g., stage collar. Any excess can be circulated out when the
guide shoes and float collars), a stage-cementing collar ports are opened. Some types of stage collars allow the
(Chapter 11) is run to the desired depth. There are sev- use of first-stage wiper plugs. First-stage displacement
eral types of two-stage collars. It is important to be com- plugs are mandatory and must be compatible with the
pletely familiar with the operation of the selected type original stage collar and the float collar. Plugs and stage
and to follow the manufacturer’s operating recommen- collars from different manufacturers should never be
dations. All stage collars must be handled with care, as mixed.
they are manufactured to close tolerances. Smooth slid- It is a common mistake to leave a portion of the first-
ing and sealing of the concentric sleeves is necessary for stage openhole section uncemented. Unless an annular
proper operation. Rough handling before or during packer is coupled to the stage tool, the second-stage
installation can “egg” or misalign the moving parts, caus- cement slurry will fall downhole, resulting in a poor
ing a job-execution failure. One must also be absolutely second-stage cement job.
sure that the float collar and the stage collar are com- In case of high incompatibility between the cement
patible. The first-stage wiper plug (if used) and the first- and mud, it may be desirable to run a bottom wiper plug
stage displacement plug must fit and seal against the ahead of the slurry in the first stage. To do so, the fol-
float collar. lowing additional equipment must be used.
To explain the sequence of stage cementing opera- ■ Flexible plug: This special wiper plug is pumped

tions, a brief explanation of the equipment is necessary ahead of the first-stage slurry.
(Fig. 13-5). Conventional stage equipment consists of ■ Bypass insert: This part, located above the float collar
the following. or float shoe, provides a seat for the flexible plug but
■ A stage cementing collar is basically a casing joint allows continued circulation of slurry through its
with ports, which are opened and closed or sealed off ports.
by pressure-operated sleeves. ■ Special insert collar: This collar, located one casing
■ A rubber sealoff plate is a part installed in the top joint above the bypass insert, provides a seat for the
float collar to assure a positive shutoff. special first-stage plug that follows the cement.
■ A first-stage plug is a rubber plug used to separate the ■ Special first-stage plug: This plug, provided with a

slurry from the displacement fluid; it gives a positive head that is shaped to seal off in the insert collar,
indication of the end of displacement. replaces the first-stage plug in conventional stage
■ An opening bomb is a device that is dropped after the equipment.
first stage and allowed to gravitate to the opening The sequence of operations is similar to that of the
seat in the stage collar. Subsequent application of conventional two-stage cementing procedure, except
pressure will move the sleeve downward, opening the that the additional wiper plug is launched ahead of the
collar’s ports. first-stage slurry or spacer.
■ A closing plug is a rubber plug that is pumped to a
shutoff on the closing seat. 13-3.4.1.2 Cementing the second stage
After the first stage is completed, the opening bomb of a
13-3.4.1.1 Cementing the first stage mechanically operated stage collar is dropped and
The mixing and pumping of spacers and slurries during allowed to fall by gravity to the lower seat in the stage
the first stage are similar to those of a single-stage job, collar. Once the bomb is seated, pressure is applied until
except that in most cases there is no bottom wiper plug. the retaining pins are sheared, forcing the lower sleeve
After the mixing of the slurry, the first-stage plug is to move downward and uncover the ports. Usually 1,200
dropped and displaced until it lands in the float collar. to 1,500 psi [8.4 to 10.5 MPa] will shear the retaining
When cementing production strings, some operators dis- pins. A sudden drop in surface pressure indicates the
place the first stage using two fluids, leaving the casing opening of the ports. This operation is performed as soon
below the stage collar filled with completion fluid and as possible after the completion of the first stage. Under
the upper casing filled with drilling mud. This mud is normal circumstances, the excess cement from the first
subsequently used to circulate the hole through the stage will sit above the stage collar and must be circu-
stage-collar ports. lated out of the hole before it develops excessive gel
Accurate hole volumes are necessary to determine strength.
the correct slurry height in the annulus; therefore, a
caliper log should be mandatory on all multistage

472 Well Cementing

 When using a hydraulically operated stage tool, the
displacement of the first stage must be complete; i.e.,
the first-stage plug must have landed on the float collar.
Then pressure is gradually increased until the opening
pressure is attained.
Once the stage-collar ports have been opened, the
well must be circulated until the mud is conditioned for
the second stage and the first-stage cement is set.
Otherwise, the weak zones along the first-stage section
may not withstand the hydrostatic pressure from the
second-stage cement column. For cementing the second
stage, spacers and slurries are mixed as in any single-
stage job. The closing plug is dropped after the slurry
mixing and displaced to its seat in the stage collar. After
the plug has seated, a minimum of 1,500 psi [10.5 MPa]
above the second-stage displacing pressure is required
to close the stage-collar ports. Pressure is usually
released from the casing after the ports are closed.
Most second stages of two-stage jobs are performed
using low-density filler slurries to allow circulation to
the surface. Normal-density slurries are used when a
high-pressure zone or an aquifer must be thoroughly iso-
lated. Protection of the weakest point in the casing
string, the stage collar, can be improved by simply
increasing the density of the last portion of the cement
slurry.

13-3.4.2 Continuous two-stage cementing

Sometimes the situation demands that the cement be
mixed and displaced without stopping to wait for an
opening bomb to gravitate to the seat in the stage collar. Fig. 13-11. Continuous two-stage cementing.
This is known as the continuous-stage cementing
method (Fig. 13-11). This method is presented as a his-
torical reference, because it is rarely used. This tech- off when the plug lands and permits some tolerance in
nique requires tight control of fluid volumes and does the displacement fluid volume. After this displacement
not address the objective of a multistage operation—to fluid has been pumped, the stage-collar opening plug is
isolate the top section when lower weak zones are pre- released.
sent. The second stage of cement may be pumped immedi-
The first stage of cement is mixed and pumped into ately behind the opening plug. The closing plug follows
the well. A wiper plug follows the cement to separate it this slurry. Displacement of this slurry will cause the
from the displacement fluid. Following the plug, suffi- opening plug to seat on the opening sleeve. When pres-
cient water or mud is pumped to displace the cement out sure is applied, the sleeve will open the collar ports.
of the casing below the stage collar. Allowance must be Further pumping will displace the slurry through the
made for compression and pipe stretch so that the ports and eventually land the closing plug on the closing
cement is not overdisplaced around the casing shoe. seat. Application of 1,500 psi [10.5 MPa] above the cir-
Overdisplacement is also possible owing to a bypass culation pressure will close the tool.
insert that is installed above the float collar on which
the cement wiper plug lands. This insert prevents a shut-

Chapter 13 Primary Cementing Techniques 473

13-3.4.3 Three-stage cementing to shut off at the float collar. The second stage could be
The three-stage cementing technique is also presented performed at any time after the first, depending upon
as a historical reference, because it is rarely applied. It the cement program.
multiplies the operating time, complicates the opera- A regular opening bomb is used to open the ports of
tion, increases the number of weak points in the string, the lower-stage collar. The well is circulated, and the
and significantly increases the failure risk. A single spacers and slurries are pumped through the ports. The
collar malfunction is sufficient to ruin the entire job. ports are closed using a special closing plug, which
Weak zones in deep wells, combined with gas chan- replaces the regular closing plug. This flexible type of
neling or potential casing corrosion problems, may plug passes through the top-stage collar and seats on the
require a three-stage cement job. The basic procedure is lower collar, allowing the application of pressure to close
similar to two-stage cementing (Fig. 13-12). The first the ports.
stage is performed through the shoe, the second through The final stage can also be performed at any time
a regular two-stage collar, and the final stage through a after the second one. An opening bomb (larger than the
top-stage collar. The first stage is performed through the one used for the second stage) is dropped and allowed to
shoe in the conventional manner, using a first-stage plug gravitate to the lower seat of the top-stage collar. Ports
are opened, and the final stage is performed as usual. A
special closing plug is then used to close the collar ports.
Figure 13-13 summarizes the different types of plug
used in multistage cementing operations.

Overlap to isolate
Three-Stage Continuous Two-Stage with Two-Stage
Two-Stage Plug Bypass
Third-stage collar
Third stage

Closing plug Closing plug Closing plug Closing plug

Weak Zone 2

Free-fall Pumpdown
Zone to isolate opening device opening plug Free-fall Free-fall
opening device opening device

Second-stage collar
Second stage

Closing plug

Weak Zone 1 Bypass plug First-stage First-stage

shutoff plug sealing plug

Shutoff baffle
Free-fall
opening device
First stage

First stage

First-stage
sealing plug Bypass plug

Fig. 13-13. Plugs used in multistage cementing operations.

Fig. 13-12. Three-stage cementing.

474 Well Cementing

13-4 Liners 13-4.1 Running a liner
A liner is a string of standard casing that does not extend Like a standard casing string, a liner is assembled joint-
all the way to the surface; instead, it is hung from inside by-joint at the rotary table and lowered into the well.
the previous casing string. The overlap depends on the When liner rotation is planned during the cement job,
purpose of the liner and could vary from 50 ft [15 m] for premium connections that can withstand high torque
drilling liners to as long as 500 ft [152 m] for production are required. Float equipment is also included, and
liners. Liners can be classified as follows (Fig. 13-14). sometimes a landing collar (typically one joint above the
■ Production liners are run from the last casing to total float collar) is used to provide a seat for the liner wiper
depth. They replace production casing. Cementing is plug. The dart and plug system must be compatible with
usually critical, because zonal isolation is essential the float collar.
during production and any subsequent stimulation Centralizers are essential in liner cementing.
treatments. Because annular clearances are usually small, the liner
must be kept clear of the borehole wall. The mud dis-
■ Drilling or intermediate liners are set primarily to
placement efficiency improves significantly with better
case off and isolate lost-circulation zones, overpres- centralization (Chapter 5). Centralizers also help pre-
sured zones, sloughing shales, or plastic formations. vent the liner from becoming stuck while running in the
This is necessary to resume drilling. Cementing these hole and make liner reciprocation and rotation during
liners is often difficult. cement displacement easier and more effective.
■ Tieback stub liners extend from the top of an existing A liner hanger is placed at the top of the liner
liner to a point uphole inside another casing. They (Fig. 13-15). The hanger is often combined with a packer,
are generally used to repair damaged, worn, corroded, or sometimes provision is made for a tieback receptacle
or deliberately perforated casing above the existing to allow running an isolation packer at a later date, if
liner and to provide additional protection against required. When set at the desired depth, this supports
corrosion or pressure. In addition, they must be
designed to perform within the casing-design enve-
lope for the well.

Seal
Tieback casing Wiper plug

Slips

Intermediate casing

Drilling liner

Tieback stub liner

Landing collar

Production liner
Float shoe

Fig. 13-14. Types of liners. Fig. 13-15. Liner setting tool and hanger assembly.

Chapter 13 Primary Cementing Techniques 475

the weight of the liner string. Therefore, the liner is kept setting tool are then raised slightly to verify that the set-
under tension, which prevents it from buckling under its ting tool is released from the liner. The seal assembly
own weight. The liner hangers have slips that, when set, holding the liner wiper plug is usually 10- to 15-ft [3.0- to
close tightly into the upper casing and provide 4.6-m] long to enable this operation to be performed
the anchor to suspend the liner. There are two types of without breaking the seal between the liner and the
liner hangers, depending on the hanger setting mecha- drillpipe.
nism: hydraulic (pressure-activated) or mechanical. The If reciprocation is planned during cementing, the
choice between the two types of hanger primarily hanger can only be set after cementing.
depends on the rig type (floater or stationary rig) and
the well type (deviated or not). In addition, the hanger
design may provide the ability to rotate and/or recipro- 13-4.2 Liner cementing procedure
cate the liner. The liner hanger remains permanently in 13-4.2.1 Mud removal
place once the liner is cemented. In addition, the liner The success of any cement job depends upon the mud
hanger may be coupled to or complemented with a removal efficiency. Liner cementing can be one of the
packer. most difficult cases. The annular space is small, and the
Liners are usually run into the well using drillpipe pipe may not be well centralized. This subject is covered
and a special setting tool. The setting tool is retrievable; thoroughly in Chapter 5; nevertheless, there are certain
i.e., it is pulled out of the well with the drillpipe after points that deserve reinforcement.
the liner is run and cemented. It performs the following A 5-in. OD liner, hung from a 7-in. casing inside a
functions. 6 1⁄8-in. drilled open hole, will have a maximum clearance
■ It provides a pressure-tight seal between the drillpipe of 9⁄16 in. [1.4 cm] if the liner is perfectly centered. The
and the liner. Thus, fluids pumped into the drillpipe annular clearance will be less in some parts of the hole
must circulate down inside the liner and out of the because of a thin, nonremovable mudcake on the wall
shoe before returning up the annulus. of permeable formations. Crooked hole and small
■ It holds the weight of the liner as it is run into the clearances between the casing and formation often
well. inhibit the use of normal centralizers, resulting in liner
■ It provides attachments for the liner wiper plug eccentering. Under severe conditions, actual borehole
system. The liner wiper plug, attached by shear pins, contact occurs. Under these circumstances, it becomes
has a hole through its center to allow the passage of much more difficult for cement slurries to remove mud.
fluids and cement slurry until the drillpipe pump- Small clearance centralizers, including those that allow
down dart closes it. Applied pressure will then shear liner rotation, are available and should be used to
the pins, and the wiper plug can be pumped down the increase the chance of success of this critical cementing
liner behind the cement slurry. Because this system operation.
does not accommodate a bottom plug, drilling fluid It is for these reasons that pipe movement during dis-
contamination inside the liner often occurs, resulting placement becomes critical. Bowman and Sherer (1988)
in poor isolation. This is particularly troublesome in reported that less than 20% of liner jobs include plans
long liners. Systems with bottom and top plugs, called to move the liner during cementing. There are many
two-plug-dart systems, are available but are not industry concerns about liner reciprocation and rotation:
widely used. ■ not becoming unlatched from the liner after
cementing
During the last trip out of the hole before a liner job,
■ that a large, stronger drillstring may be required for
it is a common practice to gauge or drift the landing
string to ensure the passage of the balls and pumpdown fear of drillstring parting during pipe movement
dart. ■ excessive drag caused by centralizers

With the liner at the desired depth, but before the ■ swabbing or surging the pay zone
hanger is set, connections are made and the liner and ■ hole deterioration caused by moving pipe, which
hole are completely circulated. This conditions the mud could lead to annulus bridging
and ensures that circulation is possible before the liner
■ that the liner may become stuck and have to be
is hung. In some deep liner-setting assemblies, a circu-
lation valve is included, which allows circulation to be cemented without the designed tension.
established above the liner before closing the valve.
If the liner is not or cannot be reciprocated during
cementing, the liner hanger is set, and the drillpipe and

476 Well Cementing

 In fact, the advantages of liner movement during the chances of a good cement bond. In conventional
cementing far outweigh the concerns listed above. With casing strings, contact time can be improved by simply
the hole in good condition and correctly selected cen- increasing the volume of the scavenger slurry. However,
tralizers on the liner, fewer problems should be experi- in a liner situation, slurry volumes can be critical
enced, and certainly better cementing results should be because of the formation’s hydrostatic-pressure limit.
achieved. Bowman and Sherer (1988) stated that, in Turbulent flow displacement is efficient for mud
their study of more than 300 liner jobs, the inability to removal, but care must be taken not to exceed allowable
release the liner setting tool had only occurred twice. downhole pressures. Fortunately, small annular clear-
Premature cement setting caused one failure, and the ances make it easier to accomplish turbulent flow at low
other involved a very early tool design that was subse- pump rates. If a job must be performed in laminar flow,
quently modified. spacer volumes, rheological properties, and rates may be
Rotation frequently has advantages over reciproca- adjusted to allow for the adequate mud displacement.
tion. If the liner were in contact with the hole at any
point, up-and-down motion would not remove the
drilling fluid effectively (Chapter 5). However, pipe rota- 13-4.2.2 Regular liner cementing
tion would allow slurry to be dragged behind the pipe, The liner cement head and manifold are installed on the
ensuring a cement sheath all around the liner. As stated drillpipe with the pumpdown slurry displacement dart
by Bowman and Sherer (1988), the inability to rotate placed between the two inlets. The dart-releasing stem
liners is often caused by insufficient starting torque. holds the dart in the cement head (Fig. 13-16). After the
Once this has been overcome, the torque required for cementing lines are rigged up and pressure tested, the
rotation will probably be much less (assuming good cen- chemical wash or spacer is pumped down the drillpipe.
tralizer design). Usually, a bottom wiper plug is not used ahead of the
Because of the above problems, using adequate vol- spacer or slurry. However, two-plug liner cementing sys-
umes of washes and spacers is even more critical in liner tems exist and are preferred. Figure 13-17 shows the
cementing than in casing cementing. Maximizing the single and tandem liner plugs.
contact time of the spacer or wash generally increases

Integral Liner Cement Head Topdrive Liner Cement Head System

Topdrive manifold

Manifold and Drillpipe pumpdown

dart-dropping dart (enlarged)
component

Ball-dropping
component
Dart-dropping container

Ball-dropping sub
(not pictured)

Fig. 13-16. Liner cementing heads.

Chapter 13 Primary Cementing Techniques 477

 Upper liner-wiper plug

Drillpipe pumpdown dart

Upper pumpdown plug

Lower liner-wiper plug

Lower pumpdown plug

Liner wiper plug
(with ball seat)

Single Liner Plug and Tandem Liner Plugs and

Pumpdown Dart Their Pumpdown Darts

Fig. 13-17. Liner cementing plugs and dart systems.

Figure 13-18 shows the typical steps of liner cement- liner wiper plug. The surface pressure will rise when the
ing with a single plug system, and Fig. 13-19 depicts the dart lands. Further applied pressure, approximately
operation with a two-plug liner system. If possible, the 1,200 psi [8.4 MPa], will shear the pins that hold the
cement slurry should be batch-mixed to obtain a homo- liner wiper plug in place. Such a pressure peak is often
geneous slurry at the proper density. Once the slurry is easily detectable from surface. Therefore, this is a refer-
mixed and pumped into the drillpipe, the pumpdown ence point in the displacement volume because, until
dart is dropped and displaced to the liner hanger. At this this moment, only the drillpipe has been displaced. After
point, the pumpdown dart passes through the liner set- this moment, only the liner is displaced.
ting tool and then latches into and seals the hole in the

478 Well Cementing

 Mud Circulation Pumping Wash and Cement Slurry

Plug releasing pins

Pumpdown plug Cement slurry

Liner hanger

Wash

Landing collar

Float shoe

Displacement Displacement

Displacement Setting Tool Released from Packer

Fig. 13-18. Typical liner cementing sequence.

Chapter 13 Primary Cementing Techniques 479

 Drillpipe Drillpipe

Setting collar

Liner hanger

Upper liner- Upper liner-

wiper plug wiper plug

Lower Upper pump-

pumpdown down plug
plug
Upper liner-
Lower wiper plug
liner-wiper
plug
Landing collar Lower
liner-wiper
plug
Lower
pumpdown Lower
plug pumpdown
plug
Setshoe

Launch lower pumpdown Continue pumping Displace cement in Displace cement in liner.
dart and pump cement. cement. Lower plug drillpipe. Upper dart Plug lands on float collar.
Lower dart launches lands on float collar launches in upper plug. Remove liner setting tool
in lower plug. and reverse out.

Fig. 13-19. Liner cementing with two liner plugs.

Once released, the dart-plug combination moves as into the hanger, the reversing out depends on the quan-
one plug inside the liner while displacement continues. tity of excess cement expected and whether lost circula-
When the internal volume of the liner has been com- tion is observed. This is an important decision in liner
pletely displaced, the plugs seat on the float or landing cementing design, because proper isolation of the liner
collar and another pressure rise occurs, indicating job overlap is critical. Software helps to make sure the well
completion. Monitoring the returns after bleeding off is kept under control when reversing out. If gas releases
the pressure allows one to test the float equipment. (kicks) or losses occur, the quality of isolation may be
It can be noted that the displacement of the cement compromised.
slurry for a liner generally takes place using the cement- The amount of cement excess must be carefully cal-
ing unit rather than the rig pumps, because of the rela- culated by taking into account the well conditions and
tively small volume to displace. Hence, control of the dis- operator requirements. The following factors must be
placement volume is made much easier. balanced.
If a packer-type liner hanger has been used, the ■ Sufficient excess cement slurry must be available to
packer between the liner and the upper casing may be ensure the placement of uncontaminated cement in
set at this time, the setting tool is pulled free from the the liner overlap. A caliper with at least four arms
liner hanger, and any excess cement is reversed out. If should be run before the liner operation, and the
lost circulation is observed while displacing cement, the slurry volume should be determined from the caliper
packer is not set, thus allowing eventual squeezing of logs. Graves (1985) pointed out that hole volumes
cement in the liner-casing annular space (also called could vary by as much as 31%. When the liner is not
liner overlap) (Chapter 14). If no packer is incorporated too long, it is common practice to use a slurry volume

480 Well Cementing

 corresponding to the annular volume with its normal fore, the excess slurry volume may have to be limited.
excess, plus the overlap volume between the liner and This could definitely affect the quality of cement
the casing, plus any volume above the hanger. This around the overlapped interval.
procedure typically doubles the slurry volume but sig-
Once the job is completed, the setting tool and
nificantly increases the success by reducing cement
drillpipe are pulled out, leaving the cement to cure
contamination.
throughout the recommended WOC time. A checklist for
■ Displacement efficiency also becomes a key variable running liners is published in API Bulletin D17 and is
in determining cement-slurry volumes. Although reproduced in the sidebar.
100% efficiency is the ideal, it is not uncommon to To reduce slurry contamination inside the liner, par-
have 60% to 80% displacement efficiency in liner ticularly when the liner is fairly long, a two-plug system
cementing (Smith, 1990). The efficiency suffers as called a dual liner wiper plug system or tandem liner-
the interval length increases. wiper plug system is preferred (Fig. 13-17). This system
■ If excess slurry is to be reversed out while not having features two darts to launch their corresponding plugs.
a liner top packer, weak formations could pose a prob- An inner string liner cementing process was proposed by
lem. Also the thickening time of such slurries must be Fuller et al. (1998) which, in addition to reducing conta-
extended to allow for the reversing operation. mination inside the liner during the cementing opera-
■ If reversing out is not scheduled, operators usually do tion, also allows cleaning the liner after cementing and
not want to drill out long columns of cement; there- displacing the well before tripping out of the hole with
the hanger setting assembly.

Lining Running Procedures Checklist†

The following procedure is taken from API Bulletin D17. The 6. Circulate bottoms-up with __ bbl/min to achieve __ ft/min
reader will note that it should be modified if the intent is to annular velocity (approximately equal to previous annular
reciprocate or rotate the liner. The procedure is as follows. velocities during drilling operations).
1. Run drillpipe and circulate to condition hole for running liner. 7. Cement liner as follows: _________________.
Temperature subs should be run on this trip if bottomhole circu- 8. If unable to continue circulation while cementing because of
lating temperatures are not known. Drop hollow rabbit (drift) to plugging or bridging in liner and hole wall annular area, pump
check drillpipe ID for proper pumpdown plug clearance. On trip on annulus between drillpipe and liner to maximum __ psi and
out of hole, accurately measure and isolate drillpipe to be used attempt to remove bridge. Do not overpressure and fracture
to run the liner. Tie off remaining drillpipe on the other side of the formation. If unable to regain circulation, pull out of liner
the racking board. and reverse out any cement remaining in drillpipe.
2. Run __ ft of __ liner with float shoe and float collar spaced __ 9. Slow down pump rate just before pumpdown plug receives
joints above float collar. Volume between float shoe and plug the wiper plug. Drillpipe capacity is __ bbl. Watch for plug
landing collar is __ bbl. Sandblast joints comprising the lower shear indication, recalculate or correct cement displacement,
1,000 ft and upper 1,000 ft of the liner. Run thread-locking com- and continue plug displacement plus __ bbl maximum
pound on float equipment and bottom eight joints of liner. Pump overdisplacement.
through the bottom eight joints to be certain that float equip-
ment is working. 10. If no indication of plug shear is apparent, plug calculated
displacement volume plus __ bbl (100% + 1% to 3%).
3. Fill each 1,000 ft of the liner while running, if automatic fill-up
type equipment is not used. 11. Pull out 8 to 10 drillpipe stands or above top of cement,
whichever is greatest. Hold pressure on top of cement to
4. Install liner hanger and setting tool assembly. Fill dead space (if prevent gas migration until cement sets.
packoff bushing is used in lieu of liner setting cups) between
liner setting tool and liner hanger assembly with inert gel to 12. Trip out of hole.
prevent solids from settling around the setting tool. 13. Wait on cement __ hr.
5. Run liner on __ (size, type connection, weight, and grade) 14. Run __-in.-OD bit and fill cement to top of liner. Test liner over-
drillpipe with __ pounds minimum overpull rating. Run in hole at lap with differential test, if possible. Trip out of hole.
1 to 2 min per stand in casing and 2 to 3 min per stand in open
hole. Circulate last joint to bottom with cement manifold 15. Run __-in.-OD bit or mill and drill out cement inside liner as
installed. Shut down pump. Hang liner 5 ft off bottom. Release necessary. Displace hole for further drilling. Spot perforating
liner setting tool and leave 10,000 lbm of drillpipe weight on set- fluid (if in production liner) or other conditioning procedures
ting tool and liner top. as desired.

†From Bowman and Sherer (1988). Reprinted with permission from World Oil.

Chapter 13 Primary Cementing Techniques 481

13-4.2.3 Planned squeeze The advantages of the method are
Long liners can be cemented in two stages when they ■ it avoids damaging weak productive formations
traverse weak formations that would not withstand the ■ uncontaminated cement is placed at the liner hanger
hydrostatic pressure of the entire cement column. As ■ no excess cement is necessary.
illustrated in Fig. 13-20, the first stage is performed
through the shoe using a limited, calculated amount of Disadvantages include
cement to cover the weak zone and place the cement top ■ the complete annular space around the liner in the
as close to the last casing shoe as possible, but not in the overlap may not be cemented
overlap. After the first stage is completed, the setting ■ it may not be possible to inject anything (at safe pres-
tool and drillpipe are pulled out of the hole and the sures)
cement is allowed to cure. Drillpipe with a standard
■ the technique is more expensive.
squeeze packer is then run into the hole, and the packer
is set two or three joints above the liner hanger. The With the advent of high-performance ultralow-density
second stage consists of squeezing a premixed amount of and foamed cement systems, this procedure is rarely
cement around the liner hanger. To be able to squeeze performed.
cement into the annular space, the formation fracture
pressure in the openhole section must be overcome.
13-4.2.4 WOC for liners
When long liners are set, there may be a considerable
First Stage Squeeze Stage temperature difference between the bottom and the top
of the liner. A slurry designed to have sufficient thicken-
Squeeze ing time at the total depth may take longer to set at the
packer liner top. A range of cement retarders (Nelson and
Casabonne, 1992) allows the cement slurry to set and
Liner develop strength quickly, even when a large temperature
hanger difference exists between the circulating temperature
and the static temperature at the liner top (Chapter 3).
Drilling of cement must be performed after the cement
develops the minimum compressive strength at the top
of the liner to withstand the shock caused by drilling
tools.

13-4.2.5 Tieback liners

There are situations when it may be necessary to extend
an existing liner farther uphole, with a tieback “stub”
liner, or to surface with a tieback casing string. For
example, from a well-architecture and casing-design
point of view, if a well must be cased from bottom to sur-
face, it will be much easier and safer to run and cement
the string as a liner first. Later, one can connect and
eventually cement a tieback string. Other reasons for
running tieback stub liners or tieback casings include
Landing
■ covering up damaged casing above the top of an exist-
collar
ing liner
■ installing larger-diameter casing above the existing
liner to allow for multiple production strings
■ selective testing of multiple zones to design future
Float production assemblies and the production casing size
shoe

Fig. 13-20. Planned squeeze after liner cementing.

482 Well Cementing

■ cementing troublesome intervals (e.g., high pressure, Tieback sealing nipple
sloughing shales) before running the casing string to Run at the bottom of the tieback stub liner or casing, the
surface. tieback sealing nipple (Fig. 13-22) has multiple packing
To accomplish this, special tools must be used to con- and sealing elements, which provide a seal against the
nect the two liner strings. polished surface of the tieback sleeve. The arrange-
ments differ depending on pressure and temperature
Tieback sleeve conditions and whether an additional metal-to-metal
Also called a tieback receptacle, polished-bore recepta- seal is required.
cle, or packer-bore receptacle, the tieback sleeve Tieback casings are usually cemented by convention-
(Fig. 13-21) is either installed on top of the liner hanger ally circulating the slurries. The job is performed before
or it comes as an integral part of the liner packer itself. landing the seal nipple into the tieback sleeve. However,
The tieback sleeve provides a receptacle for the sealing the cementing may also be conducted with the tieback
nipple. Its internal surface is usually polished and casing in place, using a stage collar above the sealing
beveled on the top to guide the entry of the different nipple.
tools used during the operation.

Standalone Sleeves

Receptacle
(polished
bore area)

Sleeve Integral to Liner Packer

Receptacle
(polished
bore area)

Fig. 13-22. Different seal arrangements for the tieback sealing

nipple.

Mechanically set
liner packer
Hydraulically set
liner packer

Fig. 13-21. Examples of tieback sleeves.

Chapter 13 Primary Cementing Techniques 483

 Tieback liners must be cemented after their liner formed between casings. The same care must be exer-
hangers have been set with the seal nipple landed into cised with slurry designs and cementing procedures as
the sleeve (Fig. 13-23). A stage collar can be run on top for a regular primary cementing operation. A tieback
of the seal nipple in the open position. The liner wiper casing is often a key design element for well integrity.
plug must be able to land on the upper seal and close the The temperature difference between the bottom and top
collar ports. of the tieback string may be significant. Slurries must be
Apart from the special procedures given above, the stable at all downhole temperatures. Although light-
considerations applicable to all cement jobs also apply weight slurries are more economical, normal-density
to tieback liner cementing. In most cases, hydrostatic slurries are preferred because they are much more effi-
pressures are not significant because cementing is per- cient in terms of displacement mechanics.
The use of washes and spacers ahead of cement slur-
ries will prevent mud and/or cement contamination and
Cementing Stub Liner Cementing Tieback Casing help to remove the mud from the annular space. This is
especially important in tieback liner cementing, in which
Completion
no bottom plug separates the mud from cement inside
fluid the liner. If there is completion fluid in the hole, com-
Completion patibility with the cement must be checked or large vol-
fluid umes of fresh water must be pumped ahead of the slurry.
Setting tool Salts used in completion brines may drastically affect the
cement slurry’s thickening time, causing a premature set
Tieback or delaying compressive strength development.
casing

Liner hanger
Cement 13-5 Special offshore techniques
slurry
As discussed in Chapter 12, the logistics of offshore
cementing operations are often very different from those
Cement
slurry
for land-based operations, but the cementing procedure
Tieback
seating employed on offshore drilling rigs (such as jackups) or
Stub liner nipple platforms fixed to the seabed is similar to primary
cementing operations on land. However, considerable
differences exist in the plug release technique used on
floating rigs.
Special Figure 13-24 illustrates the general arrangement of
stage the subsea cementing system with respect to the subsea
collar
wellhead system.
Liner
Tieback hanger
sealing nipple
13-5.1 Conventional subsea plug system
Tieback sleeve The subsea plug system is similar in operation to the
Cement Cement liner plug system, apart from the larger size of the plugs.
Except for the largest size, it consists of a top and
Liner
bottom plug. The bottom plug is normally launched with
Liner a ball gravitating through the drillpipe to the seabed.
Some recent models use a two-dart plug launching
Liner hanger system instead of a ball and a dart. The technology devel-
oped for these subsea release plugs has been adapted
to liner cementing as a single-plug system in 8 5⁄8-in.
[219-mm] liners and larger. Most of the models available
today are top-drive compatible (Fig. 13-25).
Fig. 13-23. Tieback liner cementing.

484 Well Cementing

 Top plug launching dart (a) (a)
Dart release
Bottom plug launching ball Cement/
mud inlet
Ball release (b) (b)

Drillpipe

Rig floor

Installation tool
(h) (c)
Casing hanger
Running mandrel
Swivel (g)
Ocean
Top cementing plug (six shear pins) floor
(d)
Dart seat (c)
Plug connector (d)
Bottom cementing plug (three shear pins) (e)
(e)
Ball catcher (f)
Casing to be cemented
Outer casing (cemented)
(f)

Fig. 13-24. Single-stage subsea cementing system.

Figure 13-24 illustrates a conventional subsea plug

release system. It consists of a special subsea assembly
in the casing below the casing hanger. The cementing
head on the floating drilling vessel is made up to the
drillpipe serving as the casing landing string and con-
trols the cementing plug release. The head contains a
launching ball and dart, while the subsea assembly con-
tains the top and bottom casing plugs. Modern heads are
top-drive compatible. Referring to Fig. 13-24, and by
chronological order of usage, (b) is the bottom plug-
launching ball, which, when released before pumping
the cement slurry, seats in the bottom plug (e). A 100-
to 275-psi [0.7- to 1.9-MPa] pressure increase allows
the connector pins to be sheared (d), and permits the
bottom plug (e) to travel down the casing until it bumps
on the float collar and casing shoe.

Ball and Dart Two Darts

Fig. 13-25. Top-drive subsea cement heads.

Chapter 13 Primary Cementing Techniques 485

 Extra pump or hydrostatic pressure extrudes the ball Surface Dart Launcher Subsea Tool
(b) through its orifice seat, and cement displacement
continues. A ball catcher attached to the lower end of
the bottomhole plug retains the ball.
Once the cement slurry has been pumped, the top-
plug launching dart (a) is released. It will seat into the
body of the top cement plug (c). Increased circulation
pressure will then shear the retaining pins and release
the top plug (c) from the launching mandrel. The
cementing operation thus continues. At the end of the
slurry displacement, the top plug (c) bumps on the float.
In the subsea assembly, before cementing, the top
plug is pinned at the lower end of a running mandrel
that has a swivel (g). This avoids any rotation of the
cementing plugs inside the casing that could damage the
shear pins. The upper part of the mandrel is made up to
the lower part of the casing hanger running tool (h).
This casing hanger running tool is a tool connecting the
casing hanger to the drillpipe of the casing landing
string. One of the major limitations, and often a source
of cementing failure, is the reduced flow area through
the plug-retaining mandrel. This restricted flow area is
susceptible to fluid erosion and failure owing to high
pump rates (often required for turbulent flow) and large
fluid volumes of either mud or cement. Fig. 13-26. Two-plug top-drive remote-controlled subsea cement
head system.

13-5.2 Innovative system for launching plugs with

subsea wellheads The darts release casing wiper plugs when they reach
Brandt et al. (1998) introduced a two-plug launching the subsea tool. Because the dart launcher is modular,
system (Fig. 13-26) adapted to subsea operations from adding segments is easy. This increases the number of
its original fixed installation concept (Lavaure and darts that can be launched.
Galiana, 1991). This cementing head offers enhanced
reliability because of a simpler cement-plug design in
which the plugs are isolated in their container from the 13-5.2.2 Subsea tool
main fluid flow. Plugs are released from the subsea tool After dart launch, mud flows down the drillpipe, through
without physical contact between the darts and the the sliding sleeve of the subsea tool, and out of the ori-
plugs, avoiding dart-to-plug or ball-to-plug sealing prob- fices. The dart lands on a rod, and continued pumping
lems. forces the dart and rod down, pushing the plug out of a
basket. A spring retracts the sliding sleeve, allowing
complete, unobstructed flow through orifices.
13-5.2.1 Dart launcher A pressure differential resists rapid rod motion and
A surface dart launcher contains two identical darts stops rod movement after the plug releases. Combined
launched during cementing. Darts are remotely with plug friction, this pressure differential increases
released, reducing rig time and increasing the safety of pumping pressure and provides a positive indication at
the operation. Using darts instead of a free-fall ball helps the surface of plug launch. Physical spacers prevent the
prevent contamination, provides positive fluid displace- plugs from sticking and are retrieved with the tool.
ment, wipes the drillpipe clean, and saves time. The downhole subsea tool encases the plugs inside a
Uninterrupted high pump rates improve mud removal, container, eliminating difficulties associated with pump-
because the fluid is neither resting nor allowed to gel at ing fluids through the inside of plugs. Simplified plug
any time. design allows use of high-performance, but easily drill-
able, plugs.

486 Well Cementing

 The dart launcher has a high-pressure rating, and the Water Flow Zones in Deep Water Wells (RP 65, 2003),
plugs have a high collapse resistance; therefore, this which gives a number of recommendations for managing
system allows the operator to conduct a casing pressure the well and minimizing hazards before, during, and
test immediately upon bumping the plug. This saves rig after the cement job. Apart from needing ideal mud dis-
time and reduces the risk of creating a microannulus or placement to remove the viscous kill fluid in the often
damaging the cement sheath—a danger when this oper- enlarged holes, shallow water formations require a
ation is carried out at a later stage (Carré et al., 2002). cement slurry that sets very quickly to prevent water
migration into the annulus. When a low fracture gradi-
ent imposes the need for low-density slurry, foamed
13-5.3 Deepwater cementing considerations cement or high-performance lightweight cement pro-
Other significant considerations in subsea cementing vides the required level of performance (Cuvillier et al.,
are hydrostatic pressure and temperature. The hydrosta- 2000). A foam cement job on an offshore rig is more dif-
tic pressure of the seawater above the subsea assembly ficult, especially in remote areas or with difficult
can be a significant factor. In addition, the temperature weather conditions. In these situations, a high-perfor-
at the sea bottom and the first several hundred meters mance lightweight cement system is often preferred
of hole must be considered (Ward et al., 2003). when adequate bulk storage is available. However, the
Frequently, the temperature is close to freezing at the two options should be weighed and compared on techni-
ocean floor, and the underlying formation is substan- cal and economical merits for each local situation and
tially cooler than what is observed on land. This has for each well requirement, because both can be success-
implications for numerical simulations to predict the ful (Carré et al., 2002).
temperature profile during the cementing operation and Deepwater development often requires extended-
laboratory testing to design cement systems appropriate reach wells to minimize the number of subsea templates
to the conditions. Therefore, the International Organ- or to allow a dry tree development using a surface well-
ization for Standardization (ISO) (2003) and API (2004) head platform (tension-leg platform, deep-draft caisson
issued special recommendations for testing cement sys- vessel). In West Africa, for example, the departure of the
tems for deepwater applications (Appendix B). longest extended-reach subsea well is about 8,200 ft
One of the major difficulties in drilling deepwater [2,500 m] in the Girassol field in Angola (Anres, 2003).
wells is the small pore- and fracture-pressure window. Extended-reach well technologies under development
Enabling technology such as dual gradient drilling is will allow subsea wells to reach between 26,000 and
emerging for deepwater and ultradeepwater wells. This 30,000 ft [7,925 and 9,144 m] of departure (Anres et al.,
method eliminates the excessive hydrostatic pressures 2003). Such developments may require changes in the
caused by heavy mud and cuttings in the marine riser. way casings are run and cemented.
The riser is filled with seawater; therefore, the subsea
wellbore is exposed to the hydrostatic pressure of sea-
water. This technology is not only important from a
drilling and well architecture point of view (Cuvillier
13-6 Cementing techniques and new
et al., 2000), but the reduced hydrostatic pressure also enablers
reduces the risk of losses during the cementing opera- A number of emerging techniques enable the industry to
tion. The Subsea Mudlift Drilling Joint Industry Pro- drill more complex wells and produce hydrocarbons
ject (Eggemeyer et al., 2001) developed the first dual- from the reservoir in a more efficient manner. This short
gradient drilling system in the industry. From a cementing section does not attempt reviewing and detailing them,
perspective, this technology requires the use of a special but rather describes a few particulars regarding cement-
float collar and, above all, a flow restrictor to limit any ing operations in these special wells.
free fall of the heavy cement slurry (Schumacher et al.,
2002). This technology has been successfully used in a
well in 910 ft [277 m] of water, but more work is required 13-6.1 Extended-reach wells
to develop a system that can tolerate the severe free fall Extended-reach wells are highly deviated wells with a
in wells drilled in 10,000 ft [3,048 m] or more of water. high measured-depth (MD)/total-vertical-depth (TVD)
Shallow water-producing formations compound the ratio. Horizontal wells are a subset of extended-reach
already difficult problem of cementing deepwater wells. wells in which part of the wellbore is inclined 90° from
For such situations, API issued Cementing Shallow vertical. With existing technology, the length of the

Chapter 13 Primary Cementing Techniques 487

extended-reach section decreases with increasing TVD There are numerous technical challenges associated
(Fig. 13-27). Well departures can be more than 33,000 ft with extended-reach wells (Fig. 13-28). Hole cleaning
[10 km] at vertical depths ranging from about 5,000 ft (Cunha et al., 2002), hole stability, and running casing
[1,500 m] in the United Kingdom, to about 5,250 ft (Mason et al., 2003) are issues that strongly influence
[1,600 m] in Argentina, to about 7,200 ft [2,200 m] in cementing. Mud removal is also a key issue during the
Germany. Companies are working to push this limit cementing operation. Special centralizers that signifi-
beyond the 50,000 ft [15 km] mark. cantly reduce drag are used to help run the casing
Many applications exist in which extended-reach and (Chapter 11). When the last cemented casing is not the
horizontal wells can achieve production more economi- production pipe, only a short section near the shoe is
cally than vertical wells: cemented to minimize the equivalent circulating density
■ gas and water coning (ECD) and avoid losses. When long sections of the pro-
■ tight reservoirs and heavy oil
duction casing must be cemented, more precautions are
taken, and high-performance lightweight cements are
■ fractured reservoirs
used to achieve successful cementing of the entire sec-
■ edge-water or gas-drive reservoirs tion without losses (Frank et al., 1998).
■ inaccessible reservoirs Running the casing to bottom is the next important
■ enhanced oil recovery
challenge in extended-reach wells (Mason, 2003). When
the casing cannot be run to bottom by ordinary means
■ reducing the number of platforms and wells needed
like centralizers and mud lubricants, flotation is one of
to develop a field.

5,000

10,000
Industry extended
True vertical depth reach drilling
below rotary table 15,000 envelope
(ft)
20,000
Technology challenge is
outside the black line
25,000

30,000
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000
Departure (ft)

Fig. 13-27. Technical envelope for extended-reach wells (from Rae et al., 2004). Reprinted with permission of SPE.

No vertical exaggeration
Feet
(MD) 30-in. casing shoe at 651 ft MD
0
Seabed
–500
16-in. casing shoe at 1,713 ft MD
–1,000 1,000
95⁄8-in. casing shoe at 7,262 ft MD 8.5-in. hole TD at 15,360 ft MD
True vertical –1,500 Top chalk
00
depth subsea 2,0
(ft) –2,000
00

11,000
10,000

13,000

14,000
12,000

15,000

–2,500
8,000
5,000

9,000
4,000

6,000

7,000
3,0

–3,000
–3,500 Upper Captain sand

Fig. 13-28. Example of an extended-reach well (from Rae et al., 2003). MD stands for measured depth.
Reprinted with permission of SPE.

488 Well Cementing

the simplest mechanical means to reduce effective drag 13-6.2 Solid expandable tubulars
and assist in running the casing (Mason et al., 1999). Solid expandable tubulars were first tried as a contin-
This imposes some rig modification as well as the use of gency measure to allow drilling to proceed through prob-
a specific flotation sleeve and flotation collar, a sacrifi- lematic zones (heavy losses or unstable formations)
cial plug, and a three-plug cement head to minimize without having to set an intermediate drilling liner. This
manual handling (Rae et al., 2004). Figure 13-29 shows technology prevents the loss of one casing diameter.
the string configuration and position of fluids when the Today, the technology has matured sufficiently to allow
casing is landed and after bursting the flotation collar. well architects to plan and engineer cost-effective wells.
After the sacrificial plug picks up the flotation sleeve Demong and Rivenbark (2003) and Demong et al. (2004)
and opens the flotation collar, mud circulation adjusts showed that this technology could be successfully
mud properties, because the well could not be circulated applied in extended-reach wells, allowing the operator
until this moment. Then the cementing operation is per- to significantly reduce the torque and drag without
formed normally, often with high-performance light- losing casing size.
weight cements because the pressure-operating window
is narrow in such long horizontal wells.

Landing the Casing Bursting the Flotation Collar

Vent line to choke-and-kill manifold
Surface cement head 9 5⁄8-in., 47-lbm/ft premium connection
113⁄4-in., 40-lbm/ft premium connection 13 3⁄8-in. surface cement
113⁄4-in. head (loaded with sacrificial plug)
Mud inlet
landing
string 113⁄4-in. landing string
Fullbore running tool
with hanger
Fluid level in casing drops Fullbore running tool
with hanger
113⁄4-in.,
40-lbm/ft
premium Air
connection

9 5⁄8-in. × 113⁄4-in. crossover

at 2,226 ft MDRT
Mud-filled 9 5⁄8-in. × 113⁄4-in. crossover
(active drilling at 2,226 ft MDRT
fluid) Selective flotation
collar joint Theoretical top of mud at 3,244 ft MDRT
Mud-filled
4,000-ft air-filled casing (active drilling fluid)
Air at Selective flotation collar
atmospheric 9 5⁄8-in., 47-lbm/ft at 4,000-ft MDRT
pressure premium connector

Float collar
200-ft filled active mud
Float collar
Connection
Active drilling mud

Active drilling fluid

9 5⁄8-in. eccentric shoe 9 5⁄8-in. shoe joint with eccentric shoe
Air
at 7,894 ft MDRT

Fig. 13-29. Landing the casing and bursting the flotation collar in extended-reach wells (from Rae et al., 2004).
MDRT means measured depth below rotary table. Reprinted with permission of SPE.

Chapter 13 Primary Cementing Techniques 489

 Campo et al. (2003) realized the ultimate goal for cement after inflation is below the overlap; otherwise,
which solid expandable tubulars were invented: they the expansion and sealing of the hanger may be affected.
successfully completed the first monobore well. This After mixing the slurry, the latch-down plug is dropped.
resulted in significant savings compared to conventional When it reaches and latches onto the launcher, increas-
wells or even slim wells for the same production-casing ing pressure initiates the expansion process. The liner is
size. Figure 13-30 compares the monobore architecture then expanded from the bottom up in stages of one stand
with that of conventional and slim wells. at a time. The cement slurry must remain stable and
Figure 13-31 details the installation process for a fully liquid until the expansion process is completed;
solid expandable tube and shows the cementing opera- otherwise, the expansion may be impaired by gelled
tion. With the tube on bottom before inflation, the slurry or by solids deposits from settled or dehydrated
cement slurry is pumped down the drillpipe and up the slurry. The entire expansion may require several hours,
annulus like a normal inner-string cementing operation. as much as 10 hr for long liners, after which the slurry
The slurry volume corresponds to the annular volume of should set and develop strength quickly.
the inflated tube. One must ensure that the top of

Conventional Plan Slim-Well Plan Monodiameter Plan

36 in. 30 in. 30 in.

30 in. 22 in. 22 in.

26 in. 16 in. 16 in./141⁄2 in.

20 in. SET 133⁄8 in. × 16 in. SET 113⁄4 in. × 141⁄2 in.

16 in. 133⁄8 in. 113⁄4 in.

133⁄8 in. SET 113⁄4 in. × 133⁄8 in.

9 5⁄8 in. MDDL

113⁄4 in. Nested 9 5⁄8 in. × 113⁄4 in. 9 5⁄8 in. MDDL

95⁄8 in. 9 5⁄8 in. 9 5⁄8 in.

SET 75⁄8 in. × 9 5⁄8 in. SET 75⁄8 in. × 9 5⁄8 in.

75⁄8 in. 75⁄8 in. 75⁄8 in.

7 in. FJ 7 in. FJ

Fig. 13-30. Monobore well with conventional and slim-well plans (from Campo et al., 2003). SET means solid expandable
tublar; FJ means flush joint; and MDDL means monodiameter drill liner. Reprinted with permission of SPE.

490 Well Cementing

 Drill Hole Run Condition Pump Plug Latch Plug; Expand Drill Out
Expandable Mud; Start Expansion Hanger Shoe
Liner Cement Liner Joint

Fig. 13-31. Installation sequence of a solid expandable tubular (from Demong and Rivenbark, 2003).
Reprinted with permission of SPE.

13-6.3 Multilaterals The junctions in Levels 2 to 5 are in fact laterals side-

Multilaterals are multiple wellbores (or multiple hori- tracked from the cased and cemented mother wellbore.
zontal wells) that emanate from a single wellbore Then a completion with varying levels of complexity
(Economides et al., 1998). They were invented in the assures mechanical or pressure integrity at the junction.
1920s and installed in Russia in the 1950s. However, it With respect to the mother wellbore, one must ensure
was not until the 1990s that interest in this technique that the cement sheath is resilient enough to resist the
became widespread and the technology was accepted by shocks incurred while the junction window is milled out.
the industry for effective reservoir management. A joint If the cement around the junction is brittle, it may frac-
industry project of North Sea operators, called ture in chunks or blocks. Such blocks may fail at the
Technology Advancement for Multilaterals (TAML) wrong time, increasing the risk of an expensive bottom-
(Diggins, 1997), classified multilateral wells in six dif- hole assembly (BHA) or completion string becoming
ferent categories (Chambers, 1998; MacKenzie and stuck. Figure 13-33 shows the result of milling a window
Hogg, 1999) depending on the mechanical integrity and with conventional cement and a special cement system
pressure integrity required at the junction. The junction toughened by adding fibers (Chapter 7).
is defined as the point at which two separate wellbores Fiber cements have very good impact resistance and
merge. As seen in Fig. 13-32, the TAML classification good postfailure behavior. However, such systems are
ranges from Level 1, with an openhole sidetrack or expensive and, if a small volume is used, placing it
unsupported junction, to Level 6, which includes both exactly at the right place may prove difficult. On the
reformable and nonreformable splitters to provide pres- other hand, flexible systems (Chapter 7) are more
sure integrity. Level 5 provides pressure integrity with affordable. They are highly elastic, deform easily without
the downhole completion equipment. Levels 3 to 6 pro- cracking, and have relatively good shock resistance.
vide mechanical strength at the junction. Latex-modified cements (Chapter 7) also provide

Chapter 13 Primary Cementing Techniques 491

 TAML Classification System
Level Description Level Description
1. Open unsupported junction 4. Motherbore and lateral
Barefoot motherbore and lateral or cased and cemented
slotted liner hung off in either bore Both bores cemented at the junction

2. Motherbore cased and cemented, 5. Pressure integrity at the junction

lateral open Pressure integrity provided by using
Lateral either barefoot or with slotted straddle packers
liner hung off in open hole

3. Motherbore cased and cemented, 6 Pressure integrity at the junction

lateral cased but not cemented Integral mechanical casing seal
Lateral liner anchored to motherbore (cement alone is NOT sufficient)
with a liner hanger but not cemented Includes reformable junctions as well as
nonreformable, full-diameter splitters
that require larger-diameter wellbores

Fig. 13-32. Classification of multilaterals (from Moritis, 2003). Reprinted with permission from Oil & Gas Journal.

Conventional Cement Tough Cement

Fig. 13-33. Cement sheaths after milling junction window in a multilateral well.

increased flexural and tensile strength and have found Throughout the industry, the emphasis is now shifting
application in cementing some multilateral wells. from providing an open, unsupported Level 1 junction in
However, in a multilateral Level 4 system, when the competent, consolidated formations to high-end Level 5
liner hanger of the lateral bore is drilled out after and 6 systems that offer full hydraulic and mechanical
cementing to leave the main bore entirely free, only junction integrity (MacKenzie and Hogg, 1999). Even for
tough and resilient cement can provide the adequate the Level 6 system, in which pressure integrity does not by
mechanical support without failing. design depend on the cement job quality at the junction

492 Well Cementing

(Hogg, 2002), it still seems preferable to use a small Retrieving head
volume of tougher cement around a short junction at the
bottom of the motherbore. This would ensure that the
formed-metal structure of the splitter remains fully sup-
Seal elements
ported at all times when drilling and completing the two
legs. Then pressure integrity at the junction can be
assured. Therefore, all the different types of multilateral Bypass ports
Centralizer
wells benefit from having an advanced tough cement
around the junction. Axial lock
Stop dogs
Axial and
13-6.4 Casing drilling torque lock
Torque lock
The concept of screwing a bit on a joint of casing, then
drilling into the ground and cementing through the bit
has been around for more than 100 years. It started in
Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century. In the Spacer collar
1950s and 1960s, this technique was also used in the
United States. However, the technique did not become Stabilizer
widespread, because it was more suitable for one-trip
applications. Therefore, it was limited to softer forma- Casing shoe
tions, relatively shallow wells (as in the mining indus-
Underreamer
try), and wells in which there were no openhole evalua-
tion requirements. Bit
The industry tried for many years to develop effective
retrievable systems but it is only in the last few years Fig. 13-34. Wireline-retrievable casing drilling BHA (from Warren et
that mechanically reliable, retrievable drilling systems al., 2000). Reprinted with permission of SPE.
appeared on the market. Casing drilling could therefore
be rejuvenated (Tessari and Madell, 1999) as a tech-
nique to eliminate the use of drillpipe, significantly ultimate size of the production casing or tubing may be
reduce tripping times, and reduce lost time caused by smaller than planned. In some cases, that limitation is
unscheduled events such as reaming, fishing, and taking not acceptable. During drilling with a shoe, the stuck
kicks while tripping. At about the same time, significant casing is cemented in place as usual though the drilling
progress was made with a drillshoe system attached to shoe. However, during drilling with a retrievable system,
the end of the casing. Although casing drilling technol- the BHA must first be recovered on wireline if it is not
ogy is still in its infancy, experience so far has demon- stuck. The use of casing drilling technology is expanding
strated that standard oilfield casing can be used to to directional wells (Warren et al., 2003) and deepwater
simultaneously drill and case the well. wells (Galloway, 2003).
Casing drilling is performed by attaching the bit to Cementing during a casing drilling operation differs
the bottom of the casing or through a BHA that extends slightly from conventional cementing. First, from a
beyond the casing. Bit rotation originates from rotating cement-slurry placement point of view, the casing is
the casing string using the topdrive or by using downhole poorly centralized because only hard-facing wear bands
motors. The latter method employs wireline-retrievable and sometimes solid hydroformed centralizers are used.
BHAs so that bits or BHAs can be changed without trip- Both are crimped onto the casing. For a production
ping the casing (Fig. 13-34). casing string, when the string is drilled to total depth
Surprisingly, casing drilling can reduce some lost-cir- with a conventional bit attached to the bottom of the
culation problems. It appears that the casing drilling casing, stabilizers are sometimes used near the bottom
process consolidates and strengthens the wellbore by to provide a stiffening effect and maintain verticality.
plastering the cuttings into the borehole walls. The stabilizers are not designed for cementing central-
The occurrence of stuck pipe, long a major drilling ization, so the rest of the casing string is not centralized.
problem, is also relatively rare during casing drilling Wear bands and stabilizers are solid and do not have
(Fontenot et al., 2003). When it does occur, the casing any restoring force. They are sufficient to prevent the
is cemented in place and drilling can continue with the casing from touching the borehole walls and being worn
next size; however, prematurely giving up a casing size out during the drilling operation. For cementing pur-
may have a negative impact on production, because the poses, this is likely to be sufficient in a gauge hole, but

Chapter 13 Primary Cementing Techniques 493

may become problematic and largely inadequate for tools, it is normally first pulled out by wireline
casing centralization in a washed-out hole. This imposes (Warren et al., 2000). However, in this situation, the
constraints on the cement slurry, which must efficiently casing does not have a float collar to land the cement
remove the drilling fluid at pressures below the fracture plug. To overcome this problem, special bottom and
gradient. Diaz et al. (2004) showed that friction losses top wiper plugs (Tessari and Madell, 1999) were
and the equivalent circulating density can be fairly well designed; however, this equipment was not suffi-
estimated; therefore, flow rates, rheologies, and fluid ciently robust. Today, a pump-down float (Vert and
densities can be adjusted to minimize the annular fric- Angman, 2001) is pumped in place before the cement
tion pressures and avoid losses during cementing. injection (Warren et al., 2000). A pressure increase
Although a few directional wells have been drilled confirms that the float has correctly landed in its pro-
with casing drilling technology, most of the experience file nipple. An alternative solution (Skinazi et al.,
today is with vertical or near-vertical wellbore sections, 2000) provides a single cement top wiper plug that
in which the casing is not centralized as discussed locks into its landing collar (Fig. 13-36). The cement-
above. Little information is available regarding cement- ing operation can now proceed conventionally, and
ing operations in directional wells drilled with casing. the casing can be rotated and reciprocated. In opera-
The cementing procedure differs with the type of bit tions in which a poor bond was obtained across gas
installed on the casing. intervals, casing rotation greatly improved zonal iso-
■ If the bit is attached to the casing, a special casing- lation in subsequent operations.
drilling bit (Fig. 13-35), derived from an expandable
drill bit (Brown and Gledhill, 2003), drills like a con-
ventional polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) Water
bit. At casing depth, a pressure cycle displaces the
PDC cutters into the borehole wall or extrudes them
to a greater diameter than the next hole section,
opening the bottom of the casing. The casing is then
cemented normally, but this technique does not allow
rotation or reciprocation. Following the cement job,
the rest of the bit assembly can be drilled out with a
conventional PDC bit.
■ After casing has been drilled to its setting depth,
using a retrievable bit assembly that can incorporate Locking
cement
measurement while drilling and logging while drilling plug

Cement plug
Landing lands and
collar locks into
collar
Cement

Fig. 13-36. Example of cement wiper plug and lock collar used in
casing drilling operation (Skinazi et al., 2000). Reprinted with per-
mission of SPE.

Fig. 13-35. Expandable bit for casing drilling (from Brown and
Gledhill, 2003); reprinted with permission of SPE.

494 Well Cementing

■ If a pumpdown cement float or a locking cement plug ends when the top plug lands on the float collar, an event
is not available for the casing size used, then the commonly known as bumping the plug. During some
casing is cemented through a composite retainer run cementing operations, the plug does not bump after
on drillpipe (Warren et al., 2001a and 2001b). Floats pumping the theoretical casing displacement volume.
and retainers can also be run on wireline. As a con- Under these circumstances, to avoid leaving a wet shoe
tingency measure, the cement slurry can also be (shoe surrounded by unset cement), an additional
placed volumetrically, a common approach on surface volume corresponding to half the shoe track volume is
casing strings. However, this should be the last resort, often pumped before stopping the operation. However, in
because fluid intermixing and bypassing inside the most cases, a significant volume of cement is found
larger casing will occur. above the float collar.
The displacement volume is normally calculated
During the drilling of the last string in the well with
according to the nominal casing capacity for its size and
casing, a knock-off sub is commonly used to drop the bit
weight. However, casing manufacturers do not make
before performing any other cementing or completion
casing for a fixed internal diameter. Casing specifica-
operation.
tions include mechanical properties, outside diameters,
wall thicknesses, and drift diameters, but not the inter-
nal diameters. Not accounting for the true casing diam-
13-7 Operational considerations eter is the principal cause of not bumping the plug. For
Planning is basic to successful primary cementing. It example, the internal displacement volume of 9,843 ft
begins with accurate knowledge of the well conditions. [3,000 m] of a 9 5⁄8-in., 47-lbm/ft casing is 720.5 bbl
The cement job is designed for these conditions, and job [114.6 m3]. This volume would be 735 bbl [116.9 m3] if
parameters must be monitored and recorded during job the internal diameter is 1% larger than the nominal
execution. Later, the actual job can be compared to the value. This difference exceeds 12.6 bbl [2 m3], and a
design. two-joint shoe track has a capacity of 6.3 bbl [1 m3].
Therefore, to avoid such costly errors, some operators
have adopted a policy to systematically gauge either all
13-7.1 Calculations the casing joints or a statistically significant number of
13-7.1.1 Slurry volume joints in the string.
Because of the difficulty of gauging large open holes, sur- A second cause of displacement-volume errors is fail-
face casing hole volumes are rarely known. The volume ing to account for the compressibility of the displace-
of cement slurry must be based on common field prac- ment fluid, especially when using oil-base muds.
tice in the area. If this is not known, excess slurry vol- Although pressure and temperature work in opposite
umes of 50% to 100% should be used. Excess slurry vol- directions, the displacement-volume error can be signif-
umes of up to 200% are common in some areas; the icant (several barrels). Drilling fluid companies can
volumes may exceed 300% for the top sections of some provide the compressibilities of their muds, allowing
deepwater operations. the operator to calculate the correct volumes to be
Even when a caliper is run and the theoretical volume safely pumped to achieve bumping the plug.
is calculated, an excess volume is often required to
ensure proper fill-up. As much as 50% in excess of the 13-7.2 Hole condition
calipered hole volume may be used. In many countries, In addition to the physical hole parameters (i.e., depth,
the volumes of slurries are governed by regulations that diameter and direction), the drilling reports should be
can be very stringent (Chapter 12). reviewed to identify potential problems that could affect
the cement job. Hole washouts, lost circulation, and
13-7.1.2 Displacement tight spots should be noted and addressed in the design.
The displacement fluid pushes the cement slurries out of A caliper log should be mandatory on most jobs. When a
the casing to fill up the annulus and isolate the respec- caliper cannot be run, pumping a marker (such as a car-
tive horizons. It is important to achieve complete dis- bide pill) while drilling is always a good practice to
placement not only to ensure that correct fill-up and iso- assess the degree of washout before cementing.
lation are achieved in the annulus, but also to avoid Drilling mud types and properties have a significant
wasting time drilling out excess cement left in the effect on the state of the borehole wall and the quantity
casing. In addition, incomplete displacement eliminates of cuttings left downhole. This necessitates conditioning
the ability to pressure test the casing. Displacement the hole before the cement job and influences the per-
formance of the cement slurry. Drilling muds are

Chapter 13 Primary Cementing Techniques 495

designed to drill the hole efficiently, but the mud engi- the capabilities of temperature simulators to deepwater
neer rarely considers the cement job. Therefore, after operations, which were validated with field measure-
drilling, the mud properties must be optimized to satisfy ments (Ward et al., 2003).
cementing requirements. Proper practices must also be When strength development time is a key parameter,
implemented to ensure that the modified mud effec- it is equally important to know the time required for the
tively displaces gelled mud left over from the drilling cement-slurry temperature to reach the static tempera-
process. ture. Only temperature simulators can provide such
information, which is used by laboratory personnel to
test the performance of the cement systems under real-
13-7.3 Temperature istic conditions. Deepwater wells particularly benefit
Knowledge of the bottomhole circulating temperature from this capability.
(BHCT) is vital. The cement-slurry pumping time is a When dry cement is added to water, the subsequent
direct function of the bottomhole temperature. Overly hydration generates heat that raises the temperature of
long slurry pumping times can be as disastrous to pri- the cement slurry. The cement-slurry temperature also
mary cementing as those that are too short. depends on the temperature of the dry cement and the
Temperature also affects the cement and mud charac- mix water. The nomograph shown in Fig. 13-37 has been
teristics; consequently, the flow regimes, U-tubing effect, used for many years to estimate the cement-slurry tem-
and friction pressures are all directly affected (Chapters perature during mixing. Today, this nomograph is incor-
4, 5, and 12). If the BHCT is unknown, it can be deter- porated in cement-slurry design software applications.
mined through logging, circulating temperature probes The initial cement-slurry temperature can have a sig-
(Jones, 1986), or mathematical simulation of cementing nificant effect on the bottomhole circulating tempera-
circulating temperature (Beirute, 1991; Mitchell and ture during a cement job. If a job is performed in a hot
Wedelich, 1989). Temperature simulators (Guillot et al., or cold climate and the cement and mix-water tempera-
1993) have been introduced and validated (Merlo et al., tures differ significantly from 80°F [27°C], prejob labo-
1994; Davies et al., 1994) with field measurements on ratory testing should reflect these conditions. Jestes
land wells. Romero and Touboul (1998) further extended et al. (2003) presented a case study that illustrates the

Slurry Temperature for Various Temperatures

of Water and Cement
130
Based on 46% water
by weight of cement
120 (neat slurries) This is recommended
temperature limit
for receiving cement
140
110 130
Above this temperature 120
excessive gelation and 110
100 mixing troubles may be 100
encountered 90
80
90 70 Cement
Slurry 60
temperature 50
temperature
(°F) 40 (°F)
80 30
Acceptable slurry 20
temperature range 10
70 0
–10
–20
–30
60

Below this temperature,

50 many cement additives
lose their effectiveness

40

40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Water temperature (°F)

Fig. 13-37. Nomograph to estimate cement-slurry mixing temperature.

496 Well Cementing

importance of the cement and mix-water temperatures 13-7.5 Quality control
on slurry performance. If these temperatures are not A quality control program should be employed to test all
taken into account, WOC times may be too long in the materials before cementing. Laboratory conditions
winter and too short in the summer. The performance of should simulate the job as closely as possible from
cement additives, particularly accelerators, can vary known well conditions. Actual field samples of cement,
widely with temperature. additives, and mix water should be used for testing.

13-7.4 Pressure Because ISO and API specifications for cements are nec-
essarily broad in scope, additional testing should be per-
Accurate knowledge of downhole pressure is necessary
formed whenever the cement quality is suspect. ISO and
for well control and successful primary cementing. A
API rheology tests may help to identify potential prob-
minimum slurry density is required for well control
lems. Liquid additives should also be checked and thor-
during and after placement, and slurry rheology governs
oughly blended with the mix water before cementing.
the friction losses during placement. Excessive slurry
Certain dry additives are prone to separation (particu-
density together with a high displacement rate can lead
larly weighting agents), and care should be taken to
to fractured formations and lost circulation: when lost
verify proper blending with the dry cement exists before
circulation is feared, the ECD in the annulus must be
the job (Gerke et al., 1990).
projected at the design stage. A typical intermediate
casing string cement job, with its minimum and maxi-
mum hydrostatic pressures, is shown in Fig. 13-38. This 13-7.6 Casing movement
type of plot should be generated for all primary cement Casing movement—reciprocation, rotation, or both—
jobs (Chapter 12). positively improves the quality of primary cement jobs
Well control is also of concern after displacing the (Fig. 13-39). Casing movement breaks up areas of stag-
cement slurry, especially while WOC. On stationary rigs nant mud, which can cause cement channeling.
(land, jackups) using conventional wellheads, it is Scratchers and wipers are of little benefit, unless they
extremely important to WOC before lifting the BOPs for are put to work by casing movement.
slips and packoff installation.

Fluid Sequence Static Well Security

0
Hydrostatic
pressure

600
Mud
(displacement)
Fracturing
pressure
Depth 1,200
(m)

1,500 Lead
slurry

Pore
Tail pressure
slurry
2,000
0 10 20 30 40
Pressure (MPa)

Fig. 13-38. Pressure plot for intermediate casing cement job.

Chapter 13 Primary Cementing Techniques 497

 13-7.7 Cement job monitoring
Double-plug Rotation
cementing head The recording of critical parameters during cementing,
from the commencement of mixing cement to the final
displacement, is paramount. Pressure, slurry rate, den-
sity, and integrated volume are factors that must be
known in real time. These data should also be recorded
for future playback and analysis to evaluate and optimize
the design of future jobs (Piot and Loizzo, 1998).
Reciprocation Recording devices also verify that the correct volumes
and densities of preflushes, spacers, and cement slurry
were pumped into the well. Before cementing takes
place, it is particularly important to ensure that the
pressure-monitoring equipment is functioning correctly.
A typical recording device output is shown in Fig. 13-40.
The sensor package is equally important. For pres-
sure, accurate and fast-responding electronic transduc-
ers have replaced traditional hydraulic gauges. It is
important to monitor and record the pressure until the
Swivel sub
Reciprocation top plug is bumped. Slurry densities and flow rates are
accurately recorded with Coriolis mass-flow vibrating
Bails tube devices (Benabdelkarim and Galiana, 1991;
Chapter 11). Such devices have largely replaced tradi-
Elevator tional radioactive densitometers.
Traditionally, pressure, rate, and density are recorded
during a cement job. In 2003, Vigneaux et al. introduced
Casing joint
a cement monitoring and control system based on the
Rotation slurry volumetric balance. The slurry quality is guar-
anteed by assuring that it contains the designed quan-
Fig. 13-39. Rotating and reciprocating a casing head during cementing. tity of cementitious solids, regardless of the slurry
density. Although originally engineered for high-perfor-
mance, low-density cements, this monitoring system
Casing that cannot be moved before cementing con- (which records several other process parameters) offers
firms that something is wrong. Often, not much can be improved accuracy at all slurry densities and for all types
done at this point other than to cement the casing in of cement slurries.
place; however, the chances of a successful cement job
are diminished before even mixing the slurry.
Some operators prohibit the use of reciprocation 13-7.8 Casing operational sequence
when cementing from a floating rig, for fear of the casing 13-7.8.1 Stationary rig (e.g., land rig, jackup rig)
getting stuck protruding above the subsea wellhead.
Also, it should be noted that reciprocating is particularly When the conductor pipe has been driven to the desired
difficult, not to say impossible, in deviated wells. depth (or cemented), a mud return line or flowline is
Although it can be easily accomplished on almost installed underneath the rig floor so that drilling fluid
every drilling project, casing rotation is in fact seldom can return to the pits. The hole is then drilled to the
performed because of either wellhead design or other depth required for the surface casing. After the casing
equipment or rig limitation. From the very beginning, has been run and cemented (always to surface), it is cut
the overall well design and equipment selection should off underneath the rig floor at the desired height. The
aim towards making casing movement possible. When casing head (which will enable the next size of casing to
conventional casings are being cemented, the highest be hung and connects to the BOPs) is then welded to the
torque load is generally reached when the lead end of surface casing, inside and outside. Some casing heads
the cement reaches the shoe. Therefore, the casing con- screw onto a casing thread.
nection strength requirement must be calculated to con- The BOPs, with the connections for the kill line and
sider this load, not just the drilling load. choke line, are flanged onto the casing head. Before
drilling can continue, the BOPs must be tested to the

498 Well Cementing

 Cementing Job Report
Well Well #1 Client Company, Inc.
Field Gas field SIR No. 123456789
Engineer Name Job Type 4.5-in. production casing
Country Country name Job Date 02-11-2002
Time Pressure Rate Density Messages

14:59:14
Pressure test lines

15:14:00
Start pumping wash
Start pumping spacer
15:29:00

Start cement slurry

15:44:00

15:59:00

16:14:00

16:29:00

16:44:00

16:59:00

17:14:00

17:29:00

Wash up lines
17:44:00
Start displacement

17:59:00

18:14:00
End displacement
18:29:00

18:43:42

hh:mm:ss 0.00 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 0.00 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0
(psi) (bbl/min) (lbm/gal)

Fig. 13-40. Recording device output from a primary cement job.

desired pressure. A sealing plug is run into the casing on

drillpipe, and the BOPs are closed one by one. The BOP
elements are pressure tested one after the other. Intermediate casing
will be hung from here
All BOPs and wellhead connections must hold pres-
sure before drilling can continue (Fig. 13-41). Then, Surface casing head
when the next size of hole has been drilled to the desired
depth, the next size of casing is run in and cemented.
Cement may or may not be required to reach the surface. Surface casing
The cement is usually allowed to set while the casing
is hanging from the elevators. After it has set and while
the casing is still hung from the elevators, the BOPs are
lifted from the casing head and suspended from the sub-
structure. Slips and the packoff assembly are then set
between the casing and the casing head.
To avoid buckling of the casing downhole, it is very
important that the casing be set with the same weight Fig. 13-41. Connection of casing strings.
hanging from the slips as that hanging from the elevator.
The casing can then be cut off at the same level as the

Chapter 13 Primary Cementing Techniques 499

casing-head flange, or 1 or 2 ft higher. A sealing mecha- Each intermediate casing and the production casing
nism is normally placed above the slips to seal the annu- are similarly run and cemented. They are connected to
lus between the two casing strings. Then, a new casing the top of a casing hanger, which lands in the wellhead
head is flanged to the previous head, the BOPs are reat- housing, and an annular seal assembly is installed to seal
tached (or replaced by BOPs with a higher pressure the annulus. The successive casing hangers pile up on
rating), and (after pressure testing the connection) top of each other.
drilling can recommence. This entire process is known
as nippling up.
In this way, each time a new string of casing is run, it 13-8 Conclusion
is hung from a casing head that was attached to the pre-
The basic mechanics of common primary cementing
vious casing head. The production casing will have a
techniques have been presented in this chapter. When
head from which to hang the tubing—the tubing head.
decoupled from the other related issues, such as fluid
Therefore, the weight of all the strings is partly sup-
rheology, cement-slurry design, cement-slurry mixing
ported by the surface casing (Fig. 13-42).
procedures, and annular gas migration, these proce-
dures may appear to be very simple. Such an impression
13-7.8.2 Floating rig (e.g., semisubmersible, is deceptive. It is essential that the engineer be inti-
drillship) mately familiar with the procedures and devices that are
On a floating rig, the wellhead and the BOPs are at the used for primary cementing. In addition, it is critical
seabed. In some ways, the sequence is simpler than on a that the engineer verify that all equipment is in proper
stationary rig because the BOPs are not removed each working order before the job; otherwise, the long and
time a casing is run and cemented. meticulous planning process before each job may be
The surface casing is run and connected to the top of wasted.
the wellhead housing. The subsea BOPs are then run and
connected to the wellhead housing by a hydraulic con-
nector. Drilling can continue after pressure testing of
the wellhead-BOP system.

Surface Wellhead Subsea Wellhead

Tubing hanger The wellhead

Tubing head system
Tubing
15-in.
wellhead
Inner casing hanger connector

Inner casing head

Inner casing
Intermediate casing

Sealing medium
Intermediate
casing hanger
Surface casing
head

Surface casing

Fig. 13-42. Typical surface and subsea wellhead assembly on wells.

500 Well Cementing

13-9 Acronym list
API American Petroleum Institute
BHA Bottomhole assembly
BOP Blowout preventer
ID Inside diameter
ISO International Organization for Standardization
MD Measured depth
MDRT Measured depth below rotary table
OD Outside diameter
TAML Technology advancement for multilaterals
TVD True vertical depth
WOC Waiting on cement

Chapter 13 Primary Cementing Techniques 501