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Interview as a Tool for Data Collection in Educational Research

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Abstract:
Research tools play a most significant role in carrying out
research. It helps researchers in the gathering of data with which
they are able to test the hypotheses or answer the research
questions. There are numerous tools for data collection in
educational research, and each tool employs distinctive ways of
describing and quantifying the data. One of the widely employed
tools for data collection is the interview. It is a purposeful interaction
in which one person obtains information from one or more
individuals. It is essentially the oral, in-person administration of a
questionnaire to each member of the sample. There are many
situations in which an interview is the most appropriate as it allows
for greater depth of information which is not possible by any other
means. In the light of the above, this paper aims to familiarize the
researcher with the interview as a data-gathering technique and
attempt to develop skills in their use and sensitivity to their
effectiveness in specific situations. The intention is also to enable
the researchers to choose the most suitable case in which to use
 Tools fo Data Collection
interviews as an instrument for data collection. Furthermore, certain crucial characteristic which distinguishes an interview from a
key ideas such as the role of interview along with its various types; conversation is that interview interaction is designed to achieve a
guidelines that a researcher should follow while conducting an conscious purpose. If the interaction has no purpose, it may be a
interview; reliability and validity of an interview; and some of the conversation, but it may not be termed as an interview.
strengths and limitations of the interview as a data-gathering In social science, interviews are a method of data collection
technique are also set out, so that decisions on their suitability do that involves two or more people exchanging information through
not become arbitrary and the criterion of fitness for purpose is a series of questions and answers. It is essentially the oral, in-
held high. person administration of a questionnaire to each member of the
Keywords: Structured Interview; Unstructured Interview; sample. In this process, the interviewer can observe certain aspects
Semi-structured Interview; Personal and Group Interview; of a person’s behavior, such as his manner of speaking, poise,
Telephone Interview; Online Interview; Reliability and Validity tendency, etc. (Sahoo, 2021). The questions may be pre-decided.
Invariably it is seen that for data collection, the interview method
Introduction includes only open-ended questions. The questions are designed
One of the widely employed methods of data collection is by a researcher to elicit information from interview participants on
the interview. It is a purposeful interaction in which one person a specific topic or set of topics. These topics are informed by the
obtains information from one or more individuals. It is an art which author’s research questions.
is practiced in many situations with varying degrees of satisfaction Now, you may be wondering when you should choose
to the interviewer and interviewee. Many people representing many interviews as your data collection method. Interviews are an
different professions conduct interviews. Some people, because of excellent way to gather detailed information. Interviews are also
the nature of their work spend a substantial part of their time in useful when your topic is rather complex, requires a lengthy
interviewing such as lawyers, counsellors, doctors, journalists, etc. explanation, or needs a dialogue between two people to investigate
You must have also witnessed many programmes on TV, which are thoroughly. Additionally, interviews may be the best method to
basically interview-based. These programs usually invite celebrities, utilize if your study involves describing the process by which a
film personalities, politicians, industrialists, etc. to get information on phenomenon occurs, like how a person makes a decision. For
their life, works or they may be asked questions pertaining to some example, you could use interviews to gather data about how people
social theme or current political event. But can all interactions between reach the decision not to have children and how others in their
two or more than two people be termed as interviews? When two lives have responded to that decision. To understand these
friends are talking to each other, is it an interview? When a father processes, you would need to exchange dialogue with respondents.
and son are conversing with each other, is it an interview? No, it is When they begin to share their story with you, new questions that
not. You have to distinguish between mere conversation and an hadn’t occurred to you in prior interviews will arise because each
interview. Not all the talks that take place between two or more person’s story is unique. Further, closed-ended questions would
than two people can be termed as an interview. An interview is not not be as effective in capturing the complex process of choosing
a mere conversation but a purposeful, directed conversation. The not to have children.
 Tools fo Data Collection
Let us discuss some of the definitions to know the meaning • A purposeful interaction in which one person obtains
of this term. information from one or more individuals.
According to Monette et al., “an interview involves an • It is a verbal interchange, often face to face, though the
interviewer reading questions to respondents and recording their telephone may be used, in which an interviewer tries to
elicit information, beliefs, or opinions from another person.
answers.”
• It is an interchange of views between two or more people
According to W. J. Goode & P.K. Hatt, “interviewing is
on a topic of mutual interest, sees the centrality of human
fundamentally a process of social interaction.” interaction for knowledge production.
According to Burns, “an interview is a verbal interchange, • It is a process where the interviewer can observe certain
often face to face, though the telephone may be used, in which an aspects of a person’s behaviour, such as his manner of
interviewer tries to elicit information, beliefs or opinions from speaking, his poise, his tendency, etc.
another person.” • It involves a series of questions and answers.
According to Kvale, “an interview is interchange of views • It includes questions that a researcher designs to elicit
between two or more people on a topic of mutual interest, sees information from interview participants on a specific topic
the centrality of human interaction for knowledge production.” or set of topics.
Krishan Kumar (1992) defines “interviewing is a process • It is not a mere conversation but a purposeful, directed
of personal interaction between a researcher and a respondent.” conversation.
Ranjit Kumar, in his book Research Methodology • It is more useful when the research topic is rather complex,
(1999), opined that “any person-to-person interaction between requires a lengthy explanation, or needs a dialogue.
two or more individuals with a specific purpose in mind is called • It helps the investigator to gain an impression of the person
interview.” concerned.
O’ Leary (2004) of the view that “Interviewing a method of • It can deal with delicate, confidential, and even intimate
topics.
data collection which involves researchers asking respondents
basically open-ended questions.” Types of Interviews
The research interview has been defined as a two-person
conversation initiated by the interviewer for the specific purpose There are basically three main kinds of interviews: the
of obtaining research-relevant information and focused by him on structured interview, the unstructured interview, and the semi-
content specified by research objectives of systematic description, structured interview.
prediction, or explanation. Structured Interview: A structured interview, sometimes
On the basis of the above discussion, the characteristics of called a standardized interview, entails the administration of an
the interview may be written as: interview schedule by an interviewer. In a structured interview,
the interviewer asks a predetermined set of questions, using the
 Tools fo Data Collection
exact wording and order of questions as specified in the interview • It requires fewer interviewing skills than does unstructured
schedule. This means that each respondent receives precisely the interviewing because of listed questions.
same interview stimulus as any other. In many structured interviews, • It provides an opportunity to interviewer to remain unbiased.
not only the questions, but also the probable responses, are
Limitations:
predetermined. It’s critical to have pre-coded replies so that all
responders can be compared. The goal of this style of interviewing • It follows a rigid procedure, as the interviewer asks only
is to ensure that interviewees’ replies can be aggregated, and this the pre-drafted questions.
can be achieved reliably only if those replies are in response to • No freedom is given to the interviewer, as they cannot
identical cues. Interviewers are supposed to read out questions change the questions or their sequence.
exactly and in the same order as they are printed on the schedule. Example (Model Questions)
The intention of the structured interview is also for the interviewing
1. Do you make use of ICT in your class?
of respondents to be standardized so that differences between
interviews in any research project are minimized. Hence, while Yes .................
conducting a structured interview, it is critical that the interviewer
No ..................
strictly adheres to the interview instructions, which are as follows:
• Only interview those subjects who meet the sample criteria. 2. Are you aware of the concept of artificial intelligence?
• Maintain proper order and filtering throughout the Yes .................
questionnaire.
No ..................
• Keep personal ideas to oneself.
• Where necessary, readout pre-codes and prompts. 3. Do you communicate with students in their mother tongue?
Yes .................
• For questions demanding spontaneous responses, do not
read out pre-codes. No ..................
• Completely write down open-ended replies. 4. Do you have anything more to add?..............................
In addition to the above, there are certain strengths and …………………………………………………...........................
limitations of structured interviews, which are as follows: ...................................................................................................
Strengths:
• It is easy to conduct. Unstructured Interview: Unstructured interview is also
• In this type of interview, desired data can be collected called an in-depth interview. It is also said that this type of interview
without omitting anything. is best suited to those situations where very little is known. Such
• It provides uniform information, which assures the interviews aim to elicit information from the respondents which
comparability of data. otherwise may not be procured. Kothari (2004) opined, “depth
interviews are designed to discover underlying motives and desires
 Tools fo Data Collection
and are often used in motivational research. Such interviews are • The flexibility of unstructured interviews helps in generating
held to explore the needs, desires and feelings of the respondents.” spontaneous, useful responses in the area of research.
In this type of interview, the questioning is situational. The Limitations:
interviewer is free to develop the conversation along the lines that
• It is costly in time, both for subjects and researchers.
seems most suitable to them. They may choose questions
depending upon the situation and the topic about which the data • The interviewer can be biased.
are required. The interviewer is free to decide the form and timing • It may be ineffective since subjects may not limit
of the questions. There is no set typed questions. One question themselves to the research topic of interest.
leads to another and so on. The main aim of the interviewer is to • It is challenging to analyse the result of an unstructured
get the personal viewpoint of the respondents on a given topic. interview, as it resulted least uniform answer.
Therefore, in carrying out an unstructured interview, it is very much • It requires sufficient knowledge background, good
important that the interviewer should keep the interview guide/ interviewing skills, command of language, and ability to
schedule with him/her at the time of the interview. It helps him/her convince the respondent to answer.
know the areas to be covered and provides guidelines for smooth
• It demands specialised training to be imparted to the
conduct of interview sessions. There are also certain strengths
interviewer/researcher to get the best results.
and limitations of unstructured interviews which are as follows:
Example (Model Questions)
Strengths:
1. What are some of the changes you are making when you use
• It enables extended data collection from subjects.
ICT tools in the classroom?……................................……
• It provides complete freedom to the interviewer in terms …… ……………………………………………… …… …… …… … …… ………
…………… …… …… …… …… …… …… …… … …… …… …… …… ……
of content and structure.
2. How are strategies changing with regard to ICT in the
• It has flexibility and there is no set typed questions.
classroom?……..............................................................……
• It can make cross-questioning possible. ……………………………………..........................................
• It provides freedom to the interviewer to formulate 3. Do you think there is a need for change in classroom
questions and raise issues on the spur of the moment,
depending upon the context of the discussion. dynamics and traditional time structures?
Yes .................
• It provides the personal viewpoint of the respondents on
a given topic. No ..................
• As it allows people to ‘speak for themselves,’ the data’s If yes, give reasons.……......................................................…
validity is increased. …… …………………………………………… …… … …… …… …… … …
………
……… … …… …… …… …… … …… …… …… …… … …… …… ……
• It provides complete autonomy to the interviewer in asking If no, give reasons.…................................................... .......…
questions whatever comes to their mind on a particular …… …………………………………………… …… … …… …… …… … …
………
……… … …… …… …… …… … …… …… …… …… … …… …… ……
research problem under investigation.
 Tools fo Data Collection
Semi-structured Interview: It usually refers to a situation • It provides opportunities for the interviewer and
in which the interviewer has a set of questions in the basic form of interviewee to discuss the subject matter in more detail.
an interview schedule but can change or modify the order of the • It helps in collecting attitudinal information on a large scale.
questions. The questions are generally more wide in scope than
• It helps when little is known about the subject area.
those found in a structured interview schedule. Additionally, in this
type of interview, the interviewer is typically given considerable • Here, the interviewer has the freedom to probe.
leeway to ask follow-up questions in response to noteworthy Limitations:
responses. So, in short, we can say that a semi-structured interview • It is much more time-consuming than structured interviews.
is one that contains structured and unstructured sections with • As it uses open-ended questions, it is difficult to maintain
standardized and open-type questions. uniformity across respondents.
The open-ended character of the question in semi-structured • Here, there is a possibility that the interviewer can be
interviewing, not only specifies the topic under inquiry but it also biased.
allows the interviewer and interviewee to discuss some topics in
• It necessitates careful planning and preparation in
more depth. If the interviewee is having trouble answering a
developing the interview schedule, performing the
question or just gives a quick response, the interviewer might
utilise cues or prompts to further encourage the interviewee to interview, and analysing the interview data.
consider the question. In this type of interview, the interviewer
also has the option of probing the interviewee further to clarify
the original response or to pursue a line of inquiry initiated by
the interviewee.
An example would be:
Interviewer: I’d like to hear your perspectives
on how incorporating ICT tools into the classroom
has affected the teaching-learning process. Has
your teaching style altered in any way? The above all three types of interviews can be conducted in
Interviewee: Absolutely! various forms. It can be conducted in the form of a personal or
Interviewer: In what way has it altered? group interview or telephone interview.
Some of the strengths and limitations of semi-structured interview Personal Interview: In a personal interview, the interviewer
are as follows: reads the questions to the respondent in a face-to-face setting
and records the answers. One of the most critical aspects of this
Strengths: form of interview is its flexibility. The interviewer has the opportunity
• It has flexibility. to observe the subject and the entire situation in which he/she is
responding. Questions can be repeated, or their meanings explained
 Tools fo Data Collection
in case they are not understood by the respondents. The • Double-check that your phone bill (not your respondent’s)
interviewer can also press for additional information when a is being charged for the call.
response seems incomplete or not entirely relevant. • Avoid utilising conference calling to conduct group
There are many advantages of a personal interview like it allows interviews: it is difficult to create rapport among a group
for greater depth of information which is not possible by any other of individuals over the phone.
means. It has a greater response rate as respondents become more Nias (1991), Oppenheim (1992), and Borg and Gall (1996)
involved. It allows better control over the interview. It provides suggest several attractions to telephone interviewing. It is
direct data about the feelings, attitudes, or emotions of the sometimes very effective and economical than face-to-face
interviewer. The interview is more appropriate for complex situations. interviewing. It can be conducted over a relatively short time span
It is useful for collecting in-depth information (Sahoo, 2021).
with people scattered over a large geographical area. It is useful
On the contrary, there are also so many limitations of personal for gaining rapid responses to a structured questionnaire. Many
interviews, such it is time-consuming and more expensive. There groups, particularly busy people, can be reached at times more
is a possibility of interviewer bias. There is subjectivity due to the convenient to them. They are safer to undertake than, for example,
interviewer’s bias. There is also a possibility of social desirability having to visit dangerous neighborhoods. They can be used to
bias, in which respondents want to please the interviewer by giving collect sensitive data, as possible feelings of the threat of face-to-
socially acceptable responses. The validity and reliability of the face questions about awkward, embarrassing, or difficult matters
data obtained through personal interviews greatly depend upon are absent. Response rate is higher than, for example,
the interviewer’s skill (Sahoo, 2021). questionnaires (Sahoo, 2021).
Telephone Interviews: The telephone interview is popular, In addition to several strengths, there are also several
and studies show it compares quite favourably with face-to-face weaknesses of telephone interviewing. It provides less opportunity
interviewing. This method of collecting information involves
for establishing rapport with the respondent than in a face-to-face
contacting the respondents on the telephone itself. This can be
situation. It takes a great deal of skill to carry out a telephone
utilised when a face-to-face interview is not feasible and may be
interview so that valid results are obtained. Complex questions
appropriate when the topic is not sensitive and non-verbal
are sometimes difficult for respondents to follow in a telephone
behaviour is less significant. In carrying out a telephone interview,
interview. The phenomenon of multitasking may affect the quality
as an interviewer, you need to adhere to some specific
of telephone interviews. There is a chance of skewed sampling,
practicalities, such as:
as not all of the population have a telephone. Respondents may
• You need to ensure that the line quality is adequate and not disclose information because of uncertainty about
that your respondent can hear you. confidentiality. Respondents may withhold important information
• You must ensure that you are able to capture both sides of or tell lies, as the non-verbal behaviour that frequently accompanies
the discussion using proper recording technology. this is not witnessed by the interviewer. It is often more difficult for
• Ensure you agree for the interview to take place at a time complete strangers to communicate by telephone than face-to-
when your respondent will not be disturbed. face, particularly as non-verbal cues are absent (Sahoo, 2021).
 Tools fo Data Collection
Group Interview/Focus Groups: A specific category of • To come to an agreement among participants on the ‘best
interviews is the focus group. It is like a group interview where method’ to do something (the ‘Delphi’ technique).
you are trying to collect shared understanding from several Online Interview: Over the last few decades, the
individuals at the same time. In this type of interview, the interviewer technological changes and growth of the Internet have developed
invites people who are interested in the same general topic to opportunities for online interviewing in social science research and
assemble to discuss it. They are assured that they will be free to have reduced the problems related to face-to-face interviews.
express themselves in their own words and to respond not only to The Internet has altered the nature of the context in which research
the interviewer but also to other participants and their responses. can take place and how knowledge is constructed by offering a
When conducting a focus-group interview, it is also important to different space and dimension in which conventional research
ensure that all participants have their say and not something to be
designs and methods can be used and adapted. The use of online
dominated by one or two participants. Using a structured or semi-
research methods in social science research has enabled
structured interview schedule, an interviewer can pose questions
researchers to communicate with geographically dispersed
to the group and encourage all participants to respond.
individuals and groups, not only with real-time and non-real-time
Some of the advantages of focus groups are here participants conversation but also with the ability to actually see the person on
respond not only to the researcher but also to other participants the other end of the technological device. Online interviews can
and their responses. The interaction between participants usually be used to gather original data via the Internet with the intention of
reveals more about the subjects’ point of view than would be the analysing it to provide new evidence in relation to a specific
case with an interviewer-dominated interview. It enables the research question (Kivits, 2005).
researcher to see how subjects incorporate the viewpoints of
others in structuring their own understanding. Online interviews have some distinct advantages. This is
extremely cheap to conduct compared to a face-to-face interview.
In addition to the advantages mentioned above, group
They are likely to take longer, however, especially when conducted
interviews may be beneficial in the following situations:
asynchronously. It involves people with almost no time for
• To develop a research question by drawing on the participation. It also makes it easier for participants to discuss
collective wisdom of participants. potentially embarrassing issues or to divulge potentially unpopular
• When the researcher lacks the necessary expertise or skill views. Participants are less likely to be influenced by characteristics
to conduct in-depth individual interviews and intends to like the age, ethnicity, or appearance of other participants. The
encourage participants to converse in order to offer useful interviewer bias is less likely (Bryman, 2015).
information about the setting. There are also several disadvantages of online interviewing.
• Where there may be a variety of viewpoints, and the There are certainly significant issues with developing rapport, and
amount to which participants agree or disagree on anything nonverbal behaviour will be completely overlooked. However,
is of interest to the researcher. some research shows that in this style, respondents may be more
• To evaluate the theoretical proposition of the researcher, likely to be candid about personal problems. Issues of the
based on past data gathering and analysis authenticity of identity may also be an issue. It demands greater
 Tools fo Data Collection
commitment and motivation for completing an interview. Only
Procedure of Interview
people with access to online facilities and/or who find them relatively
straightforward are likely to be in a position to participate in this The effectiveness of an interview depends on the quality of
type of interview (Bryman, 2015). the interviewer. Whether the interview is conducted in person or
In addition to the above, Patton (1980) suggested variations by telephone, the interviewer’s main job is to conduct the interview
in interview instrumentation with respect to various types of in such a way that it helps obtain valid responses accurately and
interviews, their characteristics, and strengths and weaknesses. completely. Kvale (1996) sets out a range of qualifications for an
effective interviewer that he/she should be structuring in making
clear the purpose, conduct, completion of the interview;
knowledgeable of the subject matter so that an informed
conversation can be held; clear in the choice of language and in
the presentation of subject matter; gentle in enabling subjects to
say what they want to say in its entirety and in their own time and
way; sensitive in employing empathic, active listening, taking
account of non-verbal communication and how something is said;
open and sensitive to which aspects of the interview are significant
for the interviewee; remembering means recalling earlier statements
and relating to them during the interview; and should be critical in
questioning to check the reliability, consistency, and validity of
what is being said. Regarding the procedure of an interview, it
mainly involves three broad phases: (1) preparing for the interview,
(2) conducting the interview, and (3) recording the interview.
1. Preparing for the interview: In order to obtain valid
information, the interview must be planned beforehand. The
interviewer should decide which type of interview will be suitable
to the nature of the data required, whether it will be structured or
unstructured or semi-structured. The researcher should also decide
the procedure of recording the interview. If required, a try-out
may be done. The interviewer should also plan the questions fit
for eliciting the desired data. Patton (1990) observed that the
quality of the information obtained during an interview is largely
dependent on the interviewer. Hence, he suggested an interviewer
must keep a few things in his mind before conducting an interview.
 Tools fo Data Collection
 The interviewer needs training in how to contact and  He/she should be responsible for creating a friendly
approach potential participants. atmosphere of mutual trust and confidence.
 Possible participants should be approached in a friendly  He/she should not show any surprise or disapproval to
and professional manner, and, whenever possible, these the answers of the respondent, but at the same time, he/
first contacts should be in person. This is very important she should be supportive of the respondent’s answers.
because potential participants may decide not to  He/she should have a friendly, courteous, unbiased
participate if they are approached poorly. approach.
 The interviewer must understand his role. He should not  He/she should be non-judgemental and should not try to
express any opinions and should advise the participants change or influence the reactions or opinions of the
that he is not going to be judgmental in any way. respondents.
 The interviewer should be clear in mind regarding the  The interviewer should not indulge in any argument, even
objectives, scope of the research area under study. though he/she may know that respondent’s replies are
2. Conducting the interview: Rapport is an essential not accurate.
element of the interview. So, first of all, the interviewer should  At the end of the interview session, the interviewer must
establish a good rapport with the interviewee so that the interviewee show gratitude for their cooperation. The respondent
feels comfortable in revealing his feelings. The interviewer should should feel that they are actively participating in the research
behave in a friendly manner with the interviewee. The interviewer process and their views are valuable and important to
should follow the certain guideline for conducting interviews which research.
are as follows:
Turny & George (1970) have suggested the following techniques
Guidelines for Conducting Interviews of interviewing:
 The interviewer should plan in advance the venue, time,  Relevant questions should be drafted based on the area
etc., of the interview session. of research.
 He/she should have a friendly approach so that a proper  Ask only one question at a time.
understanding/rapport can be established between the
 Repeat a question if necessary.
interviewer and interviewee.
 Try to make sure that the interview understands the
 He/she should have the ability to mobilise the respondent
questions.
to answer freely and frankly on the subject.
 Complex, emotional and sensitive types of questions should
 Questions should be well framed. Complex questions
be avoided.
should be avoided. Such questions should be added, which
will elicit the desired answers.  Listen carefully to the interviewee’s answer.
 He/she should be properly trained to have proper control  Observe the facial expression, gesture, tone of voice, etc.
of the interview session.
 Tools fo Data Collection
 Allow sufficient time to answer questions. instrument cannot be so but also because it is impossible to control
 Do not suggest an answer to questions. the factors affecting the reliability and validity. Interview as a tool
also suffers from several factors such as the wording of questions,
 Do not show signs of surprise, shock, anger if unexpected
physical setting, respondent’s mood, interviewer’s mood, nature
answers are given.
of the interaction, and many more. However, one of the most
 Maintain a neutral attitude. important factors that strongly affect the reliability and validity of
 Take note of answers. an interview is the amount of bias. Cohen, Manion & Morrison
(2018) suggest perhaps the most practical way of achieving greater
According to Field and Morse (1989), there are several
reliability and validity of an interview is to minimize the amount of
problems in the actual conduct of an interview that can be
bias as much as possible. The sources of bias are the characteristics
anticipated and, possibly, prevented, ensuring that the interview
of the interviewer, the characteristics of the respondent, and the
proceeds comfortably, for example:
substantive content of the questions. More particularly, these will
 Avoiding interruptions from outside (e.g., telephone calls, include the attitudes, opinions, and expectations of the interviewer;
people knocking on the door). a tendency for the interviewer to see the respondent in their own
 Minimizing distractions. image; a tendency for the interviewer to seek answers that support
 Minimizing the risk of ‘stage fright’ in interviewees and his/her preconceived notions; misperceptions on the part of the
interviewers. interviewer of what the respondent is saying; and misunderstandings
 Avoiding asking embarrassing or awkward questions. on the part of the respondent of what is being asked.
 Jumping from one topic to another. Similarly, Oppenheim (1992) suggests several causes of bias
in interviewing like biased sampling; the poor rapport between
 Summarizing too early or closing off an interview too soon. interviewer and interviewee; changes to question wording; poor
 Being too superficial. prompting and biased probing; poor use and management of
3. Recording the interview: It is the third important aspect support materials; alterations to the sequence of questions;
of interviewing. The interviewer may use a schedule or a voice inconsistent coding of responses; elective or interpreted recording
recording device like a tape-recorder or microphone or a video of data/transcripts; and poor handling of difficult interviews. In
camera to record the interview. These electronic devices provide addition to the above, studies have also shown that race, religion,
an opportunity to evaluate the gesture and facial expressions of gender, sexual orientation, status, social class, and age in certain
the interviewee. But when these devices are not available, the contexts can be potent sources of bias, i.e., interviewer effects
interviewer may take note of the data. (Lee, 1993; Scheurich, 1995). Interviewers and interviewees alike
bring their own, often unconscious experiential and biographical
Reliability and Validity of an Interview baggage with them into the interview situation. Indeed Hitchcock
In the social sciences, it is impossible to have a research tool and Hughes (1989) argue that because interviews are interpersonal,
that is hundred percent accurate, not only because a research humans interact with humans, it is inevitable that the researcher
 Tools fo Data Collection
will have some influence on the interviewee and, thereby, on the References
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much as possible. Cohen, Manion & Morrison (2018) suggest in Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.
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the interviewer is quite essential as it will make the interviewer USA: Pearson Education
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