EUROPEANS AND THE KIKUYU TO 1910:

A STUDY OF RESISTANCE, COLLABORATION AND CONQUEST

by

THOMAS TOULSON
B.A; (Hons".), " U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia,.-1970

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ARTS

in

THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

Department o f H i s t o r y

We a c c e p t t h i s t h e s i s as conforming
to the required standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

F e b r u a r y , 1976

c) Thomas T o u l s o n
In p r e s e n t i n g this thesis in p a r t i a l fulfilment of the requirements for

an advanced degree at the U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that

the Library shall make i t freely available for r e f e r e n c e and study.

I f u r t h e r agree that permission f o r e x t e n s i v e copying o f this thesis

for scholarly purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or

i
by h i s representatives. It is understood that copying or publication

of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my

written permission.

Department.of

The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia
2075 W e s b r o o k P l a c e
V a n c o u v e r , Canada
V6T 1W5

Date
 ABSTRACT

The t h e s i s deals w i t h the Kikuyu t r i b e s o f East A f r i c a ,

t h e i r e a r l y h i s t o r y , ethnography and r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h Europeans

to 1 9 1 0 . Kikuyu s o c i e t y i s described as i n f l u x r e s u l t i n g from

i t s migration t o a new h a b i t a t from Shungwaya. P e r i p h e r a l areas

o f t h e h a b i t a t were s t r e s s e d by t h e p r o x i m i t y o f t h e M a s a i , Arab

and S w a h i l i t r a d e r s , European e x p l o r e r s , armed t r a d e r s , officials

o f t h e I m p e r i a l B r i t i s h E a s t A f r i c a Company and l a t t e r l y officers,

c i v i l and m i l i t a r y , o f t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e Administration.

Masai p r o x i m i t y forced the Kikuyu i n t o a defensive

p o s t u r e and c o n d i t i o n e d t h e i r attitudes with respect tothe

intrusion of others. E v i d e n c e p r e s e n t e d s u g g e s t s t h a t K i k u y u were

i n i t i a l l y hospitable to coastal traders. By t h e l 8 T 0 ' s , however,

K i k u y u were r e l u c t a n t t o a l l o w f r e e passage o f Arab and S w a h i l i

caravans. H o s t i l i t y had been engendered by Arab and S w a h i l i

propensities f o r r a i d i n g K i k u y u mashamba f o r f o o d and d e p a r t i n g

the a r e a w i t h o u t making r e s t i t u t i o n .

European a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d t h e K i k u y u were i n f l u e n c e d b y

rumours o f K i k u y u f e r o c i t y d e l i b e r a t e l y s p r e a d by c o a s t a l and Wakamba

traders. E a r l y e x p l o r e r s were p r e p a r e d t o " f i g h t e v e r y i n c h o f t h e

way" across the Kikuyu h a b i t a t . European a p p r e h e n s i o n c o u p l e d w i t h

Kikuyu suspicion featured prominently i n the e a r l y contact period.

ii -
 - iii -

These a t t i t u d e s and t h e o c c a s i o n a l v i o l e n t c l a s h e s were c o n d i t i o n i n g

f a c t o r s i n t h e subsequent, more e x t e n s i v e , r e l a t i o n s h i p s between

K i k u y u and Europeans.

K i k u y u ethnography i s examined and r e v e a l s t r i b a l society

as b e i n g acephalous and e g a l i t a r i a n . Power r e s i d e d i n t h e hands o f

e l d e r s who assumed a u t h o r i t y a f t e r s u c c e s s f u l l y n e g o t i a t i n g a s c a l e

of ascendancy i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e - i r i t e s du passage. P r o v i s i o n was

made w i t h i n t h e system f o r young men t o r i s e t o p o s i t i o n s o f eminence

and t o be h u r r i e d a l o n g t h e r o a d t o s e n i o r i t y . Known as a t h a m a k i ,

t h e y were i n no sense c h i e f s . Because m i l i t a r y a f f a i r s p l a y e d a

large part i n Kikuyu l i f e — t h e threat o f the Masai, the behaviour

of Arab and S w a h i l i t r a d e r s , t h e i n t r u s i o n s o f European t r a v e l l e r s ,

armed t r a d e r s , IBEA Co. men and t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e Administration—

athamaki o f m i l i t a r y a b i l i t y s w i f t l y r o s e t o prominence.

Lugard's attempts t o e s t a b l i s h t h e I m p e r i a l B r i t i s h E a s t

A f r i c a Company a r e d e a l t w i t h a t some l e n g t h . Company f a i l u r e t o

e s t a b l i s h i t s e l f s u c c e s s f u l l y i n K i k u y u l a n d i s iseen as b e i n g due t o

manifold f a c t o r s ; under f i n a n c i n g , poor communications, l a c k o f

c o n t r o l o v e r A f r i c a n l e v i e s , poor l e a d e r s h i p and r e c o g n i t i o n by t h e

K i k u y u o f t h e Company's i n t e n t i o n t o s e t t l e t h e a r e a p e r m a n e n t l y .

H o s t i l i t y a g a i n s t t h e Company was g r e a t l y e x a c e r b a t e d by t h e use o f

Masai and K i k u y u armed l e v i e s f o r r a i d i n g , and t h e death o f W a i y a k i ,

a K i k u y u athamaki o f l o c a l eminence. 1 8 9 5 saw t h e end o f Company

hegemony and i t s replacement by i m p e r i a l a u t h o r i t y .

 - iv

The e f f e c t s on t h e K i k u y u t r i b e s by armed t r a d e r s a r e

analyzed. John Boyes, d e s c r i b e d by h i m s e l f as "King o f t h e WaKikuyu",

Gibbons and o t h e r s , a r e seen as d a c o i t s who a f f e c t e d t o some

c o n s i d e r a b l e degree t h e a t t i t u d e s and d i s p o s i t i o n o f K i k u y u w i t h whom

t h e y came i n t o c o n t a c t . As w i t h t h e Company, d i v i d e and r u l e t a c t i c s

were p r a c t i s e d and armed t r a d e r s a l l i e d themselves w i t h athamaki

c o l l a b o r a t o r s a g a i n s t o t h e r K i k u y u opposed t o t h e European p r e s e n c e .

Though t h e armed t r a d e r s p r o f o u n d l y d i s t u r b e d t h e K i k u y u between 1 8 9 5

and 1 9 0 0 , t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n was p o w e r l e s s t o p r e v e n t

their activities.

Conquest o f t h e K i k u y u t r i b e s was two-phased. The f i r s t

phase (1895-1902) i s r e f e r r e d t o as a " h o l d i n g " e x e r c i s e . During t h e

period•obvious p r e p a r a t i o n s were made t o t i g h t e n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e

net on K i k u y u l a n d . The armed t r a d e r s were a r r e s t e d and d e p o r t e d .

Masai were b e g i n n i n g t o be c o n t a i n e d i n areas away from Kikuyuland.

Roads began t o r a d i a t e n o r t h i n t o t h e K i k u y u i n t e r i o r from t h e new

administrative centre of N a i r o b i . Ukamba P r o v i n c e was s p l i t and

Kikuyuland became K e n i a P r o v i n c e . The c r i t i c a l p r o b l e m o f t h e

Mombasa-Lake V i c t o r i a r a i l w a y t r a v e r s i n g t h e K i k u y u h a b i t a t was

solved. The P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n p o s s e s s e d an e l i t e c a d r e

o f K i k u y u c o l l a b o r a t o r s on whom t h e y r e l i e d t o r e n d e r a i d i n t h e

subjugation o f other Kikuyu. A re-organization of military forces

was t a k i n g p l a c e and by 1 9 0 2 t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n was i n

a s t r o n g p o s i t i o n t o make a c o n c e r t e d e f f o r t t o d i s l o d g e and d e f e a t
the remaining pockets of Kikuyu o p p o s i t i o n .

The second phase o f t h e K i k u y u conquest i s seen as a

" m i l i t a r y " exercise: i t l a s t e d roughly eight years (1902-1910).

S u b j u g a t i o n o f t h e K i k u y u , founded on a p o l i c y o f mounting s t r o n g

p u n i t i v e e x p e d i t i o n s , was b a r b a r i c and excesses were common.

" O v e r k i l l " was s u b s t i t u t e d f o r t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m i l i t a r y t a c t i c o f

skirmishing. "On t h e s p o t " d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g was more t h e r u l e t h a n

the exception. Contrary t o t h e expressed i n t e n t i o n of s e n i o r

o f f i c i a l s , p u n i t i v e e x p e d i t i o n s , l e d by j u n i o r m i l i t a r y officers

and s u p p o r t e d by c o n s e n t i n g j u n i o r c i v i l o f f i c e r s , i n f l i c t e d large

numbers o f c a s u a l t i e s , ' b u r n t h u t s , d e s t r o y e d c r o p s , and c r i p p l e d

the K i k u y u economy by c o n f i s c a t i n g thousands o f c a t t l e and g o a t s .

Both j u n i o r o f f i c e r s and Commissioner E l i o t h i m s e l f f a l s i f i e d

c a s u a l t y f i g u r e s ; thus g i v i n g London a wrong i m p r e s s i o n o f e v e n t s .

By 1 9 1 0 , a f t e r s u s t a i n e d m i l i t a r y a c t i o n , K i k u y u r e s i s t a n c e was

eliminated.

The t h e s i s concludes t h a t K i k u y u athamaki r o s e t o

prominence i n t h e m i l i t a r y atmosphere o f t h e c o l o n i a l e n t e r p r i s e .

As c o l l a b o r a t o r s athamaki became t h e prime agents o f change i n t h e

t r a n s i t o r y p r o c e s s from t r i b a l i s m t o c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . They

h e r a l d e d a p o w e r f u l and s u s t a i n e d d i s r u p t i o n o f t r i b a l s o c i e t y and

speeded t h e p r o c e s s e s o f change. The i m p e r i a l o r d e r , ever w a t c h f u l

f o r means t o a c h i e v e i t s o b j e c t i v e s a t minimum expense, used athamaki

for i t s unique p u r p o s e s . C o n v e r s e l y , athamaki used t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e

 - vi -

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o r e a l i z e t h e i r own a m b i t i o n s . A l l i a n c e s between

athamaki and Europeans were r e c i p r o c a l i n b o t h c o n s t r u c t i o n and

purpose. There e x i s t e d a d u a l r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t one element c o u l d

not p r o c e e d w i t h o u t t h e c o n c u r r e n c e o r a i d o f t h e o t h e r . Some

i n i t i a t i v e s t h u s remained i n K i k u y u hands w i t h i n t h e c o l o n i a l o r d e r .

C o l l a b o r a t i n g athamaki became j u n i o r p a r t n e r s i n the c o l o n i a l

enterprise—and prospered accordingly.

European p e n e t r a t i o n r a d i c a l l y - a f f e c t e d K i k u y u s o c i e t y .

S t r e s s e d by t h e i n t r u s i o n s o f A r a b s , S w a h i l i and M a s a i and t h e

e f f e c t s o f m i g r a t i o n , K i k u y u s o c i e t y was f u r t h e r i n f l u e n c e d by t h e

European p r e s e n c e . The European impact opened up s e r i o u s r i f t s i n

Kikuyu s o c i e t y , disturbed t r a d i t i o n a l rankings o f dominance and

h i e r a r c h y , and sharpened a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g c r a c k s i n t h e t r i b a l

s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l firmament. K i k u y u r e s i s t a n c e was weakened by t h e

use o f athamaki and f i n a l l y smashed by s u p e r i o r m i l i t a r y f o r c e s .

The t h e s i s concludes w i t h t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t P r o f e s s o r T.O. Ranger's

hypothesis on connexions between p r i m a r y r e s i s t a n c e movements and

modern mass n a t i o n a l i s m , may, i n t h e K i k u y u c a s e , have some b a s i s i n

truth.
 PREFACE

Between 1880 and 1914- A f r i c a n h i s t o r y a b r u p t l y changed c o u r s e

as Europeans a r r i v e d on t h e A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t i n t e n t upon a permanent

presence. Described i n m a n i f o l d ways, " r e s i l i e n t " , "flexible", "incoherent",

" o p p o r t u n i s t i c " and even, "a s u c c e s s i o n o f u n c o - o r d i n a t e d responses

t o d i f f e r e n t types o f s t i m u l u s " , t h e B r i t i s h brand o f Empire grew from

the f a c t t h a t h e r t e r r i t o r i a l i n t e r e s t s were a c q u i r e d as much by

a c c i d e n t as d e s i g n , l a y s c a t t e r e d over t h e map, c o n t a i n e d a broad

spectrum o f human e t h n i c i t y and had been b r o u g h t i n t o t h e i m p e r i a l f o l d

by methods r a n g i n g from l e a s i n g t o conquest. H i s t o r i a n s have p a i d much

heed t o these p r o c e s s e s , w r i t i n g o f t h e i n v a s i o n and " p a c i f i c a t i o n " o f

A f r i c a as p a r t o f European p o l i t i c a l o r d i p l o m a t i c h i s t o r y .

Only r e c e n t l y has A f r i c a n h i s t o r i o g r a p h y changed i t s t r a d i t i o n a l

approach by d e v e l o p i n g uniquely A f r i c a n perspectives. Case s t u d i e s ,

confined o f t e n t o backwaters o f i m p e r i a l i s m , are beginning to reveal

new i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e European i n t r u s i o n . " P a c i f i c a t i o n " of the

natives, long the parlance of t r a d i t i o n a l historiography, i s beginning

t o be seen r a t h e r as "conquest." E a r l y wars o f r e s i s t a n c e were c a l l e d

n o t h i n g more t h a n " r e b e l l i o n s " and were seen by Europeans t o be o n l y

o f minor consequence. To A f r i c a n s " r e b e l l i o n s " were o f major consequence:

t h e y were t r a u m a t i c events w h i c h c o n d i t i o n e d A f r o - E u r o p e a n r e l a t i o n s h i p s

b o t h a t t h e time and l a t e r .

- vii -
 - viii -

C o n f i r m e d i n modern case s t u d i e s , also, is the fact that

European i n f l u e n c e on the ground lagged behind i t s presence on the map

by twenty y e a r s . What was s a i d t o b e "possessed" t e r r i t o r y by the

c o l o n i a l p o w e r was h e l d o n l y b y a h a n d f u l o f men c o n f i n e d b y , and subject

to, the p r e s s u r e s o f o f t e n h o s t i l e A f r i c a n s . S e e k i n g no v i r t u e in

consistency for i t s own s a k e , early colonial administrators, merely

occupying the ground on w h i c h t h e y stood, were g u i d e d o n l y b y an "idea"

of c o l o n i a l r u l e not yet committed to paper: Lugard's principles of

I n d i r e c t R u l e were n o t to come u n t i l 1923. Charged w i t h the monumental

task of imposing t h e i r w i l l over t r i b a l A f r i c a , colonial administrators,

therefore, conditioned by western notions of hierarchy, scoured the

bush l o o k i n g f o r A f r i c a n s u p o n whom t h e y c o u l d d r a p e a m a n t l e of

"chieftainship." Where " c h i e f t a i n s h i p " e x i s t e d , the colonial regime

often succeeded i n grafting itself on t o t h e established order. Where

"chieftainship" d i d n o t e x i s t Europeans were f o r c e d t o create chiefs;

an a r t i f i c i a l process which tended to exacerbate native hostility.

Traditional historiography, also, tends to show o n l y E u r o p e a n

initiatives i n the colonising process. The c a s e s t u d y a p p r o a c h is

beginning to v e r i f y more c l e a r l y t h a t A f r i c a n s frequently took the

initiative i n dealing w i t h the invaders. This thesis, a study of

Kikuyu-European contact, shows c l e a r l y t h a t some A f r i c a n s , doubtless

for their own a d v a n t a g e , a i d e d and a b e t t e d European e n d e a v o u r s . They

offered themselves to the invaders as intermediaries and subsequently

as " c h i e f s " o f the colonial administration. Under t h e circumstances,

a " t h i n on the ground" a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , poor communications and a

 - ix -

penurious T r e a s u r y , the i n v a d e r s g r a t e f u l l y a c c e p t e d o v e r t u r e s o f

collaborators. But K i k u y u c o l l a b o r a t o r s were n o t m e r e l y pawns i n t h e

c o l o n i a l process: t h e y were e s s e n t i a l l y r e a l i s t s who saw the f o l l y o f

r e s i s t a n c e and t h e advantages o f c o l l a b o r a t i o n . A l l i a n c e s between

K i k u y u and Europeans were thus n e c e s s a r i l y two-way i n c o n s t r u c t i o n and

purpose. W i t h i n any compact t h e r e e x i s t e d a d u a l r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t one

element c o u l d not proceed w i t h o u t t h e o t h e r . A mutually acceptable

b a l a n c e o f power, whose t i l t was determined by b a r g a i n and concession,

was t h e r e f o r e m a n i f e s t as t h e l y n c h p i n o f t h e e a r l y c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

T h i s t h e s i s , a case s t u d y o f Kikuyu-European c o n t a c t d u r i n g

the e a r l y y e a r s o f c o l o n i a l e n t e r p r i s e , seeks t o examine and analyse

the i s s u e s o u t l i n e d above.

Chapter 1 o f t h e t h e s i s , The K i k u y u : An E t h n o . h i s t o r i c a l

Background, i s devoted t o a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e K i k u y u t r i b e s o f E a s t

A f r i c a , the geography o f t h e i r h a b i t a t , t h e i r e a r l y h i s t o r y and the

i n f l u e n c e upon them o f the N i l o - H a m i t i c Masai p e o p l e s . One i n f l u e n c e

a t t r i b u t e d t o K i k u y u and M a s a i p r o x i m i t y i s t h a t o f a c e p h a l y : there

were no c h i e f s . A r e a l i n s t a b i l i t y p r e c l u d e d the p o s s i b i l i t y o f a

p o l i t y s i m i l a r t o the s t a t i c B a n t u o f Uganda. T h i s d i d not mean

t h a t K i k u y u p o l i t y was not adequate t o meet the needs o f K i k u y u s o c i e t y

o r was n o t m a l l e a b l e enough t o a d j u s t t o c o n d i t i o n s imposed by the

environment. The s o c i a l o r d e r , f o r example, was permeable enough

t o a l l o w c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h o t h e r t r i b a l groups. Masai took Kikuyu

w i v e s and l a n d t r a n s a c t i o n s took p l a c e between K i k u y u and Wanderobo.

T r a d i t i o n s o f t h e Masai were thus t r a n s f e r r e d t o the K i k u y u , including

c i r c u m c i s i o n methods and a c e p h a l y . But w h i l e acephaly p r e v a i l e d

and t h u s no c h i e f s e x i s t e d , t h e r e were, as P r o f e s s o r D.A. Low has

a s s e r t e d , " i f n o t c h i e f s t h e n o t h e r p r o m i n e n t i n d i v i d u a l s o f some

c o n s i d e r a b l e consequence" about whom t h e s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l a f f a i r s o f

the t r i b e s r e v o l v e d . These o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e t o some e x t e n t corroborated

i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f e a r l y European t r a v e l l e r s who met and d e a l t w i t h

i n d i v i d u a l s they i n c o r r e c t l y deemed t o be c h i e f s .

Two s u b - c h a p t e r s , e n t i t l e d , Age O r g a n i z a t i o n and R i t e s De

Passage and T e r r i t o r i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n , S e t s and L e a d e r s h i p , r e s p e c t i v e l y ,

analyse i n d e t a i l the Kikuyu s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l order. They r e v e a l t h a t

d e s p i t e a c e p h a l y K i k u y u p o l i t y was s o p h i s t i c a t e d and e g a l i t a r i a n .

The evidence s t r o n g l y supports a contention t h a t while acephaly p r e v a i l e d ,

" i n d i v i d u a l i s m " was p r o v i d e d f o r w i t h i n t h e s o c i a l o r d e r . Kikuyu of

a b i l i t y (muthumaki ( s i n g . ) and (athamaki ) (pl.) were s a i d by t h e t r i b e t o

" a p p o i n t themselves f o r l e a d e r s h i p . " Kikuyu possessed o f e x c e p t i o n a l

q u a l i t i e s o f p e r s o n a l i t y , a b i l i t y — " c h a r i s m a " — w e r e r e c o g n i z e d and

moved more r a p i d l y t h r o u g h t h e r i t e s de passage t o s e n i o r i t y ahead o f

t h e i r l e s s e r endowed c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . Some athamaki showed a b i l i t y i n

t r i b a l l a w w h i l e o t h e r s were r e g a r d e d as l e a d e r s i n r e l i g i o n and

politics. L o c a l a f f a i r s o f t h e K i k u y u t r i b e s thus o f t e n r e v o l v e d around

athamaki a l t h o u g h r e a l power was i n v e s t e d i n grades o f e l d e r s . The

t h r e a t imposed by o u t s i d e r s , M a s a i , Arab and S w a h i l i t r a d e r s , armed

European t r a d e r s and e x p l o r e r s , t h e I m p e r i a l B r i t i s h E a s t A f r i c a Company

and P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , enhanced c o n s i d e r a b l y t h e r i s e t o

prominence o f athamaki s k i l l e d i n t h e m i l i t a r y a r t s . These men, seen

 xi -

as ' c h i e f s ' b y Europeans i g n o r a n t o f K i k u y u p o l i t y , were t o p l a y a

l a r g e p a r t i n subsequent a t t e m p t s t o e s t a b l i s h o r superimpose o v e r t h e

K i k u y u an a l i e n c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . Robert 0. C o l l i n s , Problems

i n A f r i c a n H i s t o r y , i n a p r e l u d e t o a c h a p t e r e n t i t l e d "The H i s t o r i a n

and S t a t e l e s s S o c i e t i e s , " p o i n t s o u t t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n h e r e n t i n

establishing c o l o n i a l administrations over s o - c a l l e d . s t a t e l e s s s o c i e t i e s .

Not u n n a t u r a l l y , European o f f i c i a l s endeavoured t o b r i n g

these s t a t e l e s s s o c i e t i e s i n t o the o r b i t o f the c o l o n i a l
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , b u t time and a g a i n t h e y were f r u s t r a t e d
because t h e y c o u l d f i n d no i n s t i t u t i o n s o f a u t h o r i t y
and no t r a d i t i o n a l l e a d e r s who would a c t as r e s p o n s i b l e
o f f i c e h o l d e r s i n a s t a t e b u r e a u c r a c y . When t h e y f a i l e d
t o f i n d a " n a t i v e a u t h o r i t y " , t h e Europeans f r e q u e n t l y
t r i e d t o impose one on t h e s o c i e t y . 1

Imposing a s i n g l e " n a t i v e a u t h o r i t y " , a c h i e f , o v e r t r i b e s whose d e c i s i o n -

making was t r a d i t i o n a l l y c o l l e c t i v e , was f o r t h e c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i t i e s

o f t e n d i s a s t r o u s and t y r a n n i c a l . "Not u n n a t u r a l l y " , C o l l i n s remarks,

"the a s s o c i a t i o n between p e o p l e s o f s t a t e l e s s s o c i e t i e s and t h e European

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was, i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s , c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y r a i d s and

u p r i s i n g s suppressed i n t u r n by p u n i t i v e e x p e d i t i o n s . By any s t a n d a r d
p

such a r e l a t i o n s h i p c o u l d h a r d l y be c a l l e d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . "

Chapter 2, E a r l y C o n t a c t s , d e a l s w i t h K i k u y u r e s p o n s e s t o t h e

i n t r u s i o n o f s o - c a l l e d wageni, o r f o r e i g n e r s . Evidence suggests that

K i k u y u were f a m i l i a r w i t h t r a d i n g p r o c e s s e s t h r o u g h t h e i r n e i g h b o u r s ,

the Wakamba. Between 1830 and t h e 1860's, Wakamba middlemen h e l d a

i R o b e r t 0. C o l l i n s , e d . , Problems i n A f r i c a n H i s t o r y (New
J e r s e y , P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1968), p. 169.
2
C o l l i n s , Problems, p. 170.
 - iii -

t r a d i n g monopoly between the coast and Mount Kenya. A f t e r i860, however,

Wakamba t r a d i n g suffered a decline at the hands of Arabs and S w a h i l i

traders who s u c c e s s f u l l y by-passed the Wakamba entrepot around Mach'akos.

By 1870 large Arab and S w a h i l i l e d caravans were penetrating or s k i r t i n g

the Kikuyu h a b i t a t . Ngongo Bagas, located a t the southern t i p of

Kikuyuland, was used e x t e n s i v e l y as a staging area f o r caravans proceeding

up the R i f t V a l l e y to Lake V i c t o r i a . From Ngongo Bagas p a r t i e s of

caravan p o r t e r s and armed l e v i e s r a i d e d Kikuyu smallholdings and

foraged f o r food. Their behaviour and the f a c t they made l i t t l e or no

r e t r i b u t i o n f o r p r o v i s i o n s taken caused l o c a l Kikuyu t o become extremely

h o s t i l e to a l l i n t r u d e r s .

Joseph Thomson, an e a r l y European explorer, recorded i n c i d e n t s

of Kikuyu h o s t i l i t y when attempting a traverse of the Kikuyu h a b i t a t i n

1883. Others, notably von Hohnel and Count T e l e k i , were a l s o attacked

by Kikuyu. There i s evidence t h a t Europeans were deterred from penetrating

the area by f a l s e rumours about Kikuyu fierceness spread by Arabs,

Swahilis and Wakamba who d i d not want to lose to Europeans a trading

monopoly i n Kikuyu i v o r y . In consequence e a r l y Europeans were prepared

to " f i g h t every inch of the way" through and around the Kikuyu h a b i t a t .

Kikuyu were seen by e a r l y European intruders as being "less f r i e n d l y "

than others t r i b e s , "turbulent and treacherous", " s e c r e t i v e , more

conservative and d i f f i c u l t to understand." There i s l i t t l e doubt that

such expressed a t t i t u d e s by e a r l y Europeans h e a v i l y conditioned a t t i t u d e s

of Europeans who a r r i v e d l a t e r . European apprehension coupled w i t h

Kikuyu suspicion of t h e i r motives featured prominently during the e a r l y

 - ziii -

contact period. These a t t i t u d e s and o c c a s i o n a l v i o l e n t c l a s h e s became

i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s i n subsequent, more e x t e n s i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between

K i k u y u and Europeans.

The f i r s t s u s t a i n e d i n t e r a c t i o n between Europeans and K i k u y u

took p l a c e a f t e r 1889 and was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e e f f o r t s o f t h e I m p e r i a l

B r i t i s h E a s t A f r i c a Company t o e f f e c t a permanent p r e s e n c e i n K i k u y u l a n d .

The e f f e c t s o f t h i s presence a r e d e a l t w i t h i n Chapter 3, The I m p e r i a l

B r i t i s h E a s t A f r i c a Company. The e f f o r t t o e s t a b l i s h t h e IBEA Co. i n

E a s t A f r i c a was d e r i v e d from t h e d i p l o m a t i c i m p e r a t i v e t o occupy the

N i l e headwaters and t h u s deny o t h e r European powers, n o t a b l y t h e Germans

and F r e n c h , from e s t a b l i s h i n g themselves s t r a t e g i c a l l y i n the a r e a .

A t the van o f the scramble f o r B r i t i s h hegemony i n Uganda was

a company column l e d by F r e d e r i c k Lugard. L e a v i n g Mombasa i n 1889,

Lugard t a r r i e d a t Ngongo Bagas f o r time enough t o b u i l d a s t a t i o n a t

D a g o r e t t i , an a r e a l o c a t e d on t h e s o u t h e r n t i p o f K i k u y u l a n d . I t was

here t h a t Lugard attempted t o e x t e n d Company i n f l u e n c e by involving

h i m s e l f w i t h K i k u y u a t h a m a k i — m e n he termed ' c h i e f s ' — i n blood-brotherhood

ceremonies. He was u n d e n i a b l y i m p r e s s e d by the K i k u y u he met. His

account i s r e p l e t e w i t h complimentary d e s c r i p t i o n s o f K i k u y u . It is

c o n s i d e r e d p r o b a b l e t h a t h i s s u c c e s s i n e s t a b l i s h i n g good r a p p o r t was

due t o t h e power o f h i s p e r s o n a l i t y and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t K i k u y u

athamaki c o n s i d e r e d h i s presence as b e i n g temporary. Three y e a r s l a t e r ,

on h i s r e t u r n from Uganda, Lugard changed h i s o p i n i o n s on t h e K i k u y u .

He saw them now (1893) as " t r e a c h e r o u s " , and " e m b i t t e r e d . "

K i k u y u response t o the p r e s e n c e o f the IBEA Co. had changed

d r a s t i c a l l y i n j u s t three years. Reasons f o r K i k u y u h o s t i l i t y a r e s u g g e s t e d

 - xiv

t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Company i n t e n t i o n s to remain i n Kikuyuland

permanently. Moreover, the p r e v i o u s p a t t e r n s o f wageni b e h a v i o u r were

b e i n g r e p e a t e d a s s m a l l h o l d i n g s w e r e r a i d e d w i t h Company condonation.

Furthermore, Company o f f i c e r s w e r e p r a c t i s i n g a p o l i c y o f d i v i d e a n d r u l e —

no doubt f o r c e d upon them b y c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f a u s t e r i t y and p o o r communica-

tions. Europeans were " u s i n g " athamaki, as indeed, athamaki were " u s i n g "

Europeans. K i k u y u were f i g h t i n g K i k u y u , a s i t u a t i o n w h i c h , even i f

traditional, was e x a c e r b a t e d t o a l a r g e d e g r e e b y t h e i n v o l v e m e n t of the

Company. W i l l i n g l y drawn i n t o t h e c o n f l i c t and seen as ' c h i e f s ' b y

Company o f f i c e r s , athamaki gained p e r s o n a l advantages a t t h e expense

of t h e i r fellow Kikuyu. Other Kikuyu athamaki who r e s e n t e d t h e Company

intrusion paid the penalty of non-collaboration. Waiyaki, a prominent

muthumaki o f Lugard's a c q u a i n t a n c e , o n e who h a d u n d e r g o n e w i t h Lugard

the blood-brotherhood c e r e m o n y , was d e p o r t e d o n l y t o d i e i n t h e p r o c e s s .

His death r a l l i e d the r e s i s t o r s t o a p o i n t w h e r e t h e Company presence

i n K i k u y u l a n d became u n t e n a b l e . I n 1895, a f t e r a f o r m a l investigation

by S i r G e r a l d P o r t a l , t h e Company was r e l i e v e d o f i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s

i n East A f r i c a . F r o m t h e n o n E a s t A f r i c a became t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f

t h e B r i t i s h Government. The t r o u b l e s o f t h e K i k u y u h a b i t a t , remained,

h o w e v e r , f o r b y now a t h a m a k i had l e a r n e d t o f i g h t t h e i r l o c a l wars w i t h

help from the white i n t r u d e r s . Furthermore, o t h e r f o r c e s , n o t a b l y armed

European t r a d e r s , i n v e s t e d K i k u y u l a n d a n d made w o r s e a n a l r e a d y e x c e e d i n g l y

turbulent situation.

Chapter 5 o f t h e t h e s i s , Armed T r a d e r s , d e a l s w i t h t h e e f f e c t s

on t h e K i k u y u o f E u r o p e a n s who a c t e d n o t a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f e s t a b l i s h e d
commercial v e n t u r e s b u t as p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s m o t i v a t e d by an urge f o r

adventure and an eye f o r t h e main chance. The t r a d e r s moved a c r o s s

K i k u y u l a n d s e e k i n g out f r i e n d l y and p o w e r f u l athamaki w i t h whom t h e y

c o u l d do b u s i n e s s . K a r u r i , one o f Low's "prominent i n d i v i d u a l s " , engaged

h i m s e l f i n the game f o r h i s own s e t o f unique m o t i v e s . He became

"something o f a personage" i n the P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . Wagombi

and K a r k e r r i e , o t h e r eminent athamaki, a i d e d and a b e t t e d Boyes i n

p a r t i c u l a r , w h i l e Gutu e n g i n e e r e d a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h Gibbons, as a

r e s u l t o f w h i c h t h e t r a d e r was deported and h i s K i k u y u c o h o r t became Paramount

C h i e f o f t h e Embu.

I m p o r t a n t l y , armed t r a d e r s and t h e i r K i k u y u c o l l a b o r a t o r s ,

a c t i n g i n c o n c e r t and f o r t h e i r own purposes, were r e s p o n s i b l e t o g e t h e r

f o r fomenting f u r t h e r K i k u y u h o s t i l i t y . Athamaki r e c o g n i z e d t h e v a l u e

o f t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h armed t r a d e r s and s h o u l d n o t be c o n s i d e r e d

as merely r e a c t o r s t o the European p r e s e n c e . T h e i r p a r t s i n the process

o f i n t e r a c t i o n were a c t i v e : t h e y , l i k e the armed t r a d e r s , initiated

and shaped events f o r t h e i r own p u r p o s e s . They c r e a t e d t h e i r own d e s t i n y

as much as t h e y i n f l u e n c e d t h a t o f t h e t r i b e .

S i g n i f i c a n t l y , the embryo P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , p o o r l y

f i n a n c e d , t h i n on the ground and w i t h o u t v i s i b l e s t r e n g t h a t i t s back,

d i d l i t t l e t o p r e v e n t the j o i n t a c t i v i t i e s o f armed t r a d e r s and athamaki.

Boyes was f r e e l y a b l e t o peddle h i s i n f l u e n c e from one muthumaki t o

another. By 1900 he was a b l e t o r e f e r t o h i m s e l f , n o t w i t h o u t some

t r u t h , as K i n g o f t h e Wakikuyu.

Chapter 5, The Conquest, f a l l s i n t o two p a r t s ; namely, F i r s t

 - xvi

Phase (1895-1902): A " H o l d i n g " E x e r c i s e and Second Phase (1902-1910):

A M i l i t a r y Exercise. The f i r s t s u b - c h a p t e r d e a l s w i t h the coming o f

government ( 1 8 9 5 ) t o E a s t A f r i c a . The embryo P r o t e c t o r a t e Administration

i n h e r i t e d a t e r r i t o r y w h i c h had been p r o f o u n d l y d i s t u r b e d by a succession

of wageni. Moreover, governance of the t e r r i t o r y had been couched

by London i n the b r o a d e s t terms. P r a c t i c a l administration, therefore,

was d e v o l v e d onto D i s t r i c t O f f i c e r s who were o f t e n unaware o r unconcerned

with so-called policy. Some o f f i c e r s were e x p e r i e n c e d ; o t h e r s not.

Those h i r e d from the Company g e n e r a l l y adapted themselves w e l l w h i l e

o t h e r s , l a c k i n g b o t h e x p e r i e n c e and m o t i v a t i o n , degenerated t o ineffective-

ness. Thus the q u a l i t y of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n depended much upon the q u a l i t y

o f i t s members. Good o r bad, a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the K i k u y u was i n the

e a r l y y e a r s c a r r i e d out "on the spot."

An example o f "on the s p o t " a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i s F r a n c i s H a l l , a

former Company employee h i r e d by the P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n in

1895. H a l l was n a t u r a l l y s u i t e d t o meet the r i g o r o u s demands o f life

on the A f r i c a n f r o n t i e r . He was notably very s u c c e s s f u l i n gaining

i n f l u e n c e o v e r K i k u y u a t h a m a k i. In p a r t i c u l a r h i s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h

K i n a n j u i , a muthumaki of some l o c a l eminence, a i d e d the establishment

o f the P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n the F o r t H a l l a r e a . Known t o

H a l l as h i s F i d u s A c h a t e s , K i n a n j u i c o l l a b o r a t e d w i t h t h e B r i t i s h and

l a t e r , l i k e K a r u r i , became an i m p o r t a n t s e r v a n t o f the c o l o n i a l regime.

H a l l ' s use o f . a t h a m a k i , w h i l e s u c c e s s f u l to a degree i n the a r e a under

h i s j u r i s d i c t i o n , s e r v e d f u r t h e r t o d i v i d e the K i k u y u and t h u s make more

h o s t i l e t h o s e t r i b a l elements who chose r e s i s t a n c e t o c o l l a b o r a t i o n . This

 - xvii -

made f i n a l p a c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e K i k u y u i m p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t t h e a i d o f s t r o n g

m i l i t a r y forces.

The p e r i o d 1895-1902 saw t h e B r i t i s h d e v e l o p s t r o n g m i l i t a r y

f o r c e s i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r conquest o f t h e n a t i v e t r i b e s . Moreover, t h e

p e r i o d saw a d m i n i s t r a t i v e , p o l i t i c a l and economic changes w h i c h made i t

e a s i e r f o r the a u t h o r i t i e s t o deal w i t h d i s s i d e n t t r i b e s — e s p e c i a l l y the

Kikuyu. Kikuyuland, f o r m e r l y p a r t o f Ukamba P r o v i n c e , became K e n i a

Province. The r a i l w a y , now completed p a s t t h e K i k u y u h a b i t a t , c o u l d be

used a s a means o f b r i n g i n g t r o o p s from t h e c o a s t . Roads were c o n s t r u c t e d

and r a d i a t e d from N a i r o b i i n t o K i k u y u l a n d . The M a s a i , always considered

a t h r e a t t o t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and t h e K i k u y u , were removed from t h e

proximity of Kikuyuland. By 1902 t h e armed European t r a d e r s had been

a r r e s t e d and deported. Now the P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n was i n a

p o s i t i o n to penetrate the K i k u y u i n t e r i o r w i t h t h e express intention of

subduing t h e r e m a i n i n g p o c k e t s o f t r i b a l hostility.

The p e r i o d 1902-1910 saw the K i n g ' s A f r i c a n R i f l e s , supported

by p o l i c e and numerous A f r i c a n l e v i e s , invade t h e K i k u y u i n t e r i o r i n what

modern p a r l a n c e might r e f e r t o as " s e a r c h and d e s t r o y " m i s s i o n s . Military

t a c t i c s changed from t r a d i t i o n a l s k i r m i s h i n g t o " o v e r k i l l " . With the

o b j e c t o f overcoming a l l r e s i s t a n c e , s t r o n g p a t r o l s r a i d e d K i k u y u itura,

d e s t r o y e d h u t s and k i l l e d w i t h o u t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . A c t s o f b a r b a r i s m

were much i n e v i d e n c e and b o t h s i d e s gave no q u a r t e r . C a t t l e were

c o n f i s c a t e d and s o l d on t h e open market t o h e l p f i n a n c e t h e e x p e d i t i o n s .

C o n t r a r y t o e d i c t s i s s u e d by h i g h e r a u t h o r i t i e s , military

o f f i c e r s took t h e i n i t i a t i v e i n f i e l d o p e r a t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e i n t e r i o r
 - xviii -

Kikuyu. D i s p u t e s broke o u t between j u n i o r m i l i t a r y and c i v i l officers

on t h e conduct o f o p e r a t i o n s . R e p o r t s t o s u p e r i o r s were o f t e n "toned

down" w h i l e on one o c c a s i o n even t h e Commissioner falsified casualty

figures. The Commissioner o f t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e t u r n e d a b l i n d eye toward

the a c t i v i t i e s o f p u n i t i v e e x p e d i t i o n s . Thus l a c k i n g d i r e c t i o n from

h i g h e r a u t h o r i t y , m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s took t h e conduct o f o p e r a t i o n s i n t o

t h e i r own hands b y making "on t h e s p o t " d e c i s i o n s . By 1910 t h e K i k u y u

t r i b e s had c a p i t u l a t e d v o l u n t a r i l y o r had been "put down" i n b l o o d .

The pax B r i t a n n i c a was a f a c t i n K i k u y u l a n d .

The f i n a l c h a p t e r , t h e C o n c l u s i o n , sums up t h e e v i d e n c e as

presented. By t h e m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y K i k u y u s o c i e t y had completed

i t s m i g r a t i o n from i t s c o a s t a l d i s p e r s a l p o i n t , Shungwaya, t o i t s new

habitat. K i k u y u t r i b e s were f r a c t i o u s , u n s t a b l e and a c e p h a l o u s . The

s o c i a l system was, however, f a i r l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d and e g a l i t a r i a n .

P r o x i m i t y t o t h e Masai f o r c e d t h e K i k u y u i n t o a d e f e n s i v e p o s t u r e and

thus c o n d i t i o n e d t r i b a l a t t i t u d e s , e s p e c i a l l y those l i v i n g on t h e s o u t h e r n

periphery o f the h a b i t a t , against the i n t r u s i o n o f others.

A c e p h a l y was t r a d i t i o n a l l y a Masai custom adopted b y t h e

Kikuyu: i t d i d n o t p r e c l u d e t h e development o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m i n a

s o c i e t y dominated b y e l d e r s who made c o l l e c t i v e d e c i s i o n s . Young

K i k u y u p o s s e s s e d o f u n u s u a l t a l e n t s were encouraged and rewarded by

b e i n g h u r r i e d t h r o u g h t h e r i t e s de passage to early seniority. Known

as athamaki, t h e y were i n no sense c h i e f s . Since m i l i t a r y affairs

played a large p a r t i n Kikuyu l i f e — t h e t h r e a t of the Masai, the provoca-

t i v e b e h a v i o u r o f wageni, t h e i n t r u s i o n s o f European t r a v e l l e r s , Company

 - xix -

men, armed t r a d e r s and t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n — i t was n a t u r a l

t h a t athamaki predominant i n m i l i t a r y a f f a i r s r o s e t o prominence.

I n a t t e m p t i n g t o e s t a b l i s h themselves t h e European i n t r u d e r s ,

whether Company men, armed t r a d e r s o r P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n officers,

were f a c e d w i t h t h e i m p e r a t i v e o f " f i n d i n g " the c h i e f . But no c h i e f s

existed—only athamaki. Whether Europeans were aware o f t h e n o n - e x i s t e n c e

of c h i e f s i s unknown: c e r t a i n l y they r e f e r r e d o f t e n t o c h i e f s i n the

early literature.

The conquest o f t h e K i k u y u was made e a s i e r by European

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and t e c h n i c a l s u p e r i o r i t y : b u t athamaki c o l l a b o r a t o r s

a i d e d and a b e t t e d t h e p r o c e s s . They o f f e r e d t h e m s e l v e s t o Europeans as

intermediaries. They were r e a l i s t s f a c e d w i t h t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f

conquest: they could e i t h e r r e s i s t , c o l l a b o r a t e or simply acquiesce.

Those who chose t o r e s i s t were swept a s i d e . Others, probably the majority,

chose t o a c q u i e s c e . Many d e c i d e d t o c o l l a b o r a t e . The d e c i s i o n t o

c o l l a b o r a t e was d o u b t l e s s m o t i v a t e d b y t h e p r o s p e c t o f p e r s o n a l gain.

There i s e v i d e n c e t h a t l e a d i n g c o l l a b o r a t o r s became a p p o i n t e d c h i e f s

under t h e a u s p i c e s o f a b e n e v o l e n t and g r a t e f u l c o l o n i a l regime.

Importantly, athamaki were n o t m e r e l y pawns i n t h e c o l o n i a l p r o c e s s :

t h e y might b e t t e r be seen as r e a l i s t s who p o s s e s s e d acumen t o f o r e s e e

the f o l l y o f r e s i s t a n c e and t h e advantage o f c o l l a b o r a t i o n . Certainly

t h e y were n o t s i m p l y o b j e c t s o r v i c t i m s o f change s e t i n m o t i o n by

aliens. Their actions i n a i d i n g the establishment of the B r i t i s h

ensured t h a t once t h e pax B r i t a n n i c a was a f a c t , they, as intermediaries

i n the p r o c e s s , c o u l d c o n t i n u e t o p l a y t h a t r o l e . I n t h i s way some

initiatives always remained i n K i k u y u hands w i t h i n the c o l o n i a l o r d e r :

athamaki became, i n e f f e c t , p a r t n e r s i n the c o l o n i a l e n t e r p r i s e . Certainly

the a c t i v i t i e s of c o l l a b o r a t o r s , b o t h d u r i n g and a f t e r the establishment

o f c o l o n i a l government, h e a v i l y c o n d i t i o n e d the course of p o l i t i c a l , social

and economic change i n K i k u y u s o c i e t y . Moreover, t h e i r a t t i t u d e s and

r e a c t i o n s speeded t h e pace and p r o c e s s e s o f change and t h u s h e r a l d e d a

p o w e r f u l and sustained d i s r u p t i o n of Kikuyu s o c i e t y .

The e a r l y European a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was of the "on the spot"

variety. L i t t l e or no c o n t r o l o v e r f i e l d o f f i c e r s was e x e r c i s e d by the

centre. There i s much e v i d e n c e t o suggest t h a t f i e l d o f f i c e r s were

l e f t much t o t h e i r own d e v i c e s and t h a t i n consequence d e c i s i o n s t a k e n

were e s s e n t i a l l y of a p r a g m a t i c n a t u r e . S o - c a l l e d " p o l i c y " amounted t o

n o t h i n g more t h a n a s e t o f g u i d e l i n e s couched i n b r o a d d i p l o m a t i c ,

r a t h e r t h a n d e t a i l e d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e , terms. Moreover, the e a r l y

a d m i n i s t r a t o r s l a c k e d the " t e e t h " to enforce themselves: the ease w i t h

which undesirables l i k e Boyes and Gibbons roamed the a r e a i s e v i d e n c e of

the i n a b i l i t y o f the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o p r e v e n t them. .Thus the q u a l i t y

of the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n was a f u n c t i o n o f the q u a l i t y of i t s men on the

ground. Some o f f i c e r s r o s e t o the o c c a s i o n a d m i r a b l y by a c q u i t t i n g

themselves t o the d a i l y r i g o u r s o f l i f e i n the h o s t i l e environment o f

Kikuyuland: others degenerated i n t o i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s .

By 1902 the P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n was beginning to put

i t s house i n o r d e r and was s u b s e q u e n t l y thus a b l e t o v e n t u r e i n t o the

i n t e r i o r i n force. P o c k e t s o f K i k u y u r e s i s t a n c e were e l i m i n a t e d and

new administrative stations constructed i n a r e a s f o r m e r l y a v o i d e d by the

 - xxi -

Administration. The p r e v i o u s p o l i c y or t r a d i t i o n of p a c i f i c a t i o n

became, d u r i n g the p e r i o d , a programme o f conquest.

R a d i c a l changes took p l a c e i n K i k u y u s o c i e t y as a r e s u l t o f

the c o l o n i a l i m p o s i t i o n . The European impact opened up s e r i o u s rifts,

steepened e x i s t i n g c l e a v a g e s and d i s t u r b e d t h e s o c i a l o r d e r by d i s r u p t i n g

the t r a d i t i o n a l power s t r u c t u r e . P r o f e s s o r Ranger's-^ s u g g e s t i o n that

t h e r e may be a connexion, p s y c h o l o g i c a l or o t h e r w i s e , between p r i m a r y

K i k u y u r e s i s t a n c e and t h a t w h i c h c o n t i n u e d . t o p l a g u e the B r i t i s h until

1963, may w e l l have some b a s i s i n f a c t . C e r t a i n l y t h e r e i s work t o be

done i n the a r e a o f e a r l y A f r i c a n r e s i s t a n c e t o the European i n v a s i o n

and i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p , i f any, to l a t e r r e a c t i o n s .

The w r i t e r i s i n d e b t e d t o the U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia

L i b r a r y w h i c h was e x t r e m e l y h e l p f u l i n o b t a i n i n g s o u r c e s and a l l o w i n g him

t o h o l d books f o r p r o t r a c t e d p e r i o d s o f time. I t i s not easy t o w r i t e

a t h e s i s some f i v e hundred m i l e s away f r o m the U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ! The

w r i t e r would a l s o l i k e t o e x p r e s s g r a t i t u d e t o h i s w i f e , R o s i n a , for

her t o l e r a t i o n i n " l i v i n g " w i t h t h i s t h e s i s — s o m e t i m e s morning, noon

and n i g h t . A l s o g r a t e f u l thanks must be extended t o P r o f e s s o r s Robert

V. K u b i c e k and F r i t z Lehmann o f U.B.C. H i s t o r y Department. Each i n h i s

way, by t o l e r a t i o n , humour, and suggestion, a i d e d the w r i t e r i n o v e r -

coming a marked p r o p e n s i t y for laziness. F i n a l l y , I dedicate this thesis

t o my K i k u y u f r i e n d s : t o D a n i e l Maina w i t h whom I s a t many hours d i s c u s s i n g

^See T.O. Ranger, "Connexions Between 'Primary R e s i s t a n c e '

Movements and Modern Mass N a t i o n a l i s m i n E a s t and C e n t r a l A f r i c a " , J o u r n a l
o f A f r i c a n ' H i s t o r y 9, 3, 1968 and J.M. L o n s d a l e , "Some O r i g i n s o f N a t i o n a l -
ism i n E a s t A f r i c a " i n J o u r n a l o f A f r i c a n H i s t o r y , 9, 1, 1968.
 - xxii -

the K i k u y u socio-economic system and t h e ravages o f John Boyes. To

Miano Wambugu who, o v e r my y e a r s i n K i k u y u l a n d , showed me e v e r y b i t o f

that b e a u t i f u l yet troubled country. And, o f c o u r s e , t o my good f r i e n d

Mahommed Maalum, a most u n u s u a l man i n a most u n u s u a l p e r i o d o f my l i f e .

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 THE KIKUYU: AN ETHNOHISTORICAL BACKGROUND 1

Age Organization and Rites De Passage 13
Junior Warrior Grade (mumo) 21
Senior Warrior Grade (anake) 24
Learning Elder Grade (karabai) 25
Junior Elder (Athamaki mbule omwe) 26
Senior Elder (Athamaki mbule egeri) 27
P r i e s t (Ukuru)' 28

T e r r i t o r i a l Organization, Sets and Leadership 29

CHAPTER 2 EARLY CONTACTS 47

CHAPTER 3 THE IMPERIAL BRITISH EAST AFRICA COMPANY 62

CHAPTER 4 ARMED TRADERS 88

CHAPTER 5 THE CONQUEST 115

F i r s t Phase (1895-1902): A "Holding" Exercise 115
Second Phase (1902-1910): A M i l i t a r y Exercise 136

CONCLUSION 162

APPENDICES 173

BIBLIOGRAPHY 184

- xxiii -
 CHAPTER 1

THE KIKUYU: AN ETHNOHISTORICAL BACKGROUND

1 2
The K i k u y u p e o p l e l i v e i n the p r e s e n t C e n t r a l P r o v i n c e o f Kenya.

They a r e c l o s e l y a f f i l i a t e d w i t h two s m a l l e r t r i b a l groups r e l a t e d i n l a n g -

uage, c u l t u r e , and p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r , known as Embu and Meru. The three

t r i b e s i n h a b i t o r surround f i v e major a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c e n t r e s ; Kiambu i n

the south, F o r t H a l l i n the c e n t r e and N y e r i i n the n o r t h . Embu and Meru

r e s p e c t i v e l y r e s i d e w i t h i n p r o x i m i t y o f the towns o f Embu and Meru.

Each a r e a has i t s own t r i b a l name. The Kiambu p e o p l e , f o r ex-

ample, a r e known as K a r u r a ; the F o r t H a l l p e o p l e , Metume; w h i l e those of

N y e r i a r e known as G a k i . S u b - t r i b a l names f o r the Embu p e o p l e s a r e Embu,

Mbere, N d i a and K i c h u g u . Meru s u b - t r i b a l names a r e Igembe, T i g a n i a ,

3
I m e n t i , M i u t i n i , I g o j i , Mwimbi, Muthamba, Chuka and Tharaka.

The g e o g r a p h i c h a b i t a t o f the K i k u y u , the C e n t r a l P r o v i n c e ,

s t r e t c h e s from the s i t e o f the p r e s e n t c i t y o f N a i r o b i a t 5,500 f e e t ,

west a l o n g t h e Kiambu s o u t h e r n and M a s a i n o r t h e r n p e r i m e t e r , t o the Rift

V a l l e y ^ escarpment. The Aberdare M o u n t a i n s , 12,000 f e e t a t the southern

e x t e n t , r u n n o r t h t o c u t - o f f the w e s t e r n p e r i m e t e r o f the C e n t r a l P r o v i n c e

from the R i f t P r o v i n c e , and thus c o n s t i t u t e a n a t u r a l w e s t e r n boundary.

To the n o r t h o f the boundary t h e r e e x i s t s the h i g h and u n d u l a t i n g White

Highlands and beyond, t o the e a s t , the d r y savannah and a c a c i a country

r e a c h i n g Mount Kenya. The Mount Kenya m a s s i f , w i t h i t s snow-covered

- 1 -
 2

peaks, Lenana and B a t i a n , w

forms the n a t u r a l e a s t e r n boundary o f t h e

province. S o u t h o f the mountain the boundary p r o c e e d s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n

o f N a i r o b i a c r o s s the Embu p l a i n and the c u l t i v a t e d T h i k a a r e a .

The topography o f the C e n t r a l P r o v i n c e i s g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d by

the p r o x i m i t y o f b o t h the A b e r d a r e s and the Mount Kenya m a s s i f . Notably

the K i k u y u homeland i s homogeneous and e c o l o g i c a l l y d i s t i n c t from o t h e r

areas w i t h i n i t s p r o x i m i t y . Moreover, n a t u r a l o b s t a c l e s make a c c e s s and

e x i t i n t o the p r o v i n c e d i f f i c u l t f o r the c r o s s - c o u n t r y t r a v e l l e r . Fast

r i v e r s , f l o w i n g from e a s t t o west and west t o e a s t o f f Mount Kenya and

the A b e r d a r e s r e s p e c t i v e l y , s p a t e h i g h i n the r a i n y seasons and have c a r v -

ed deep v a l l e y s i n t o the rugged t e r r a i n . The h i g h and o f t e n spine-backed

r i d g e s , t h i c k l y f o r e s t e d w i t h mature deciduous t r e e s and bamboo, r i s e i n

rows a c r o s s t h e t e r r a i n and p r o v i d e f o r m i d a b l e o b s t a c l e s a l o n g the n o r t h -

7
south t r a v e r s e . The major r i v e r , the Tana, d r a i n s t h e a r e a , c r o s s e s the

d r y savannah i m m e d i a t e l y e a s t o f Mount Kenya and f l o w s i n t o the I n d i a n

8

Ocean n o r t h o f the c o a s t a l c i t y o f Mombasa. I t c a r r i e s w i t h i t much o f

t h e r i c h t o p s o ^ l o f the K i k u y u core-areas.
9

The K i k u y u t r i b e s a r e Bantu s p e a k i n g . The Bantu o f Kenya f a l l

b r o a d l y i n t o three geographic d i v i s i o n s , the l a c u s t r i n e , c o a s t a l and cen-

tral. The K i k u y u t r i b e s a r e o f t h e c e n t r a l group o f p e o p l e s . They emanate

from a much l a r g e r body r e f e r r e d t o by Seligman as the " E a s t e r n Bantu."

I n t h i s group a r e a l s o i n c l u d e d t h e WaChagga and s i m i l a r t r i b e s o f n o r t h -

e r n Tanzania t o g e t h e r w i t h the WaTeita o f s o u t h - e a s t Kenya and the Wa-

Pokomo o f the Tana R i v e r a r e a o f Kenya.

C u r r e n t r e s e a r c h suggests t h a t the B a n t u i n v a d e d Kenya i n two

 3

waves. The f i r s t group l e f t t h e i n t e r l a c u s t r i n e a r e a n o r t h and west o f

Lake V i c t o r i a and s e t t l e d immediately east o f the l a k e . Soja suggests

t h a t t h i s wave p r o b a b l y e n t e r e d Kenya about "the l a s t h a l f o f t h e f i r s t

m i l l e n i u m A.D.""'" and c o n t i n u e d t o spread eastwards s e t t l i n g i n a r e a s

1

where t h e r e was abundant w a t e r s u p p l y . They d i s p l a c e d o r absorbed t h e

12

e x i s t i n g pre-Caucasoid and Bushmanoid p o p u l a t i o n s .

The second wave, i n c l u d i n g t h o s e o f t h e K i k u y u t r i b e s , spread

out from t h e t e m p o r a r i l y s e t t l e d a r e a o f Mount K i l i m a n j a r o , V o i and

-13

T e i t a , and proceeded n o r t h a l o n g t h e c o a s t . T h i s i s e s t a b l i s h e d by

o r a l t r a d i t i o n among t h e K i k u y u t r i b e s , t h e WaKamba and t h e WaTeita.

Moreover, t h e same o r a l t r a d i t i o n , a l s o , has i t t h a t t h i s B a n t u group

f i n a l l y assembled and d i s p e r s e d t o t h e i r p r e s e n t c o r e - a r e a s from a p l a c e

somewhere between t h e Juba and Tana r i v e r s .

The e x a c t p l a c e o f f i n a l d i s p e r s a l , known i n o r a l t r a d i t i o n as

Shungwaya, i s l o c a t e d b y V.L. G r o t t a n e l l i " ' " ^ and o t h e r s as b e i n g some 260

15
m i l e s n o r t h o f t h e p r e s e n t s i t e o f Mombasa.

The K i k u y u t r i b e s a r e s a i d t o have moved west toward t h e i r final

s e t t l e m e n t a r e a about A.D. 1200-1300 b u t t h e r e i s s u b s t a n t i a l d i s p u t e

over t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h i s d a t e . G e n e r a l l y t h e date i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

t h e s o u t h e r n t h r u s t o f t h e nomadic G a l l a i n t h e a r e a . E x p e r t s on t h e
17
G a l l a i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s t h r u s t t o o k p l a c e as l a t e as 1600. The l i n k s
w h i c h h e l p i d e n t i f y groups d i s p e r s e d from Shungwaya a r e t h o s e o f language,
18

age-set and c l a s s systems. I n t h i s regard there are d i s t i n c t similar-

i t i e s between t h e c o a s t a l and s o u t h e r n Bantu and t h e B a n t u groups who

19
p e n e t r a t e d i n l a n d a l o n g t h e Tana R i v e r toward t h e Mount Kenya a r e a .
N o r t h - E a s t e r n A f r i c a , . 1 2 t h U t 6 - L 7 t h c e n t u r i e s showing s o u t h e r n
l i m i t s o f G a l l a T h r u s t ( 1 6 t h c e n t u r y ) , the K i k u y u and N i l o t i c
s e t t l e d a r e a s and the K i k u y u e m i g r a t i o n r o u t e from Shungwaya.
From J.D. Fage, An A t l a s o f A f r i c a n H i s t o r y , Edward A r n o l d ,
1958, p. 21.

- 4 -
 5

Lambert has i t t h a t the e a r l y K i k u y u m i g r a n t s l e f t Shungwaya

and j o u r n e y e d i n l a n d a l o n g the n a t u r a l w a t e r - c o u r s e o f the Tana R i v e r

u n t i l t h e y reached t h e i r f i r s t s e t t l e m e n t p o i n t somewhere i n the v i c i n -

i t y o f south-feast Mount Kenya. From t h i s p o i n t t h e y g r a d u a l l y s p r e a d

southwards towards t h e p r e s e n t s i t e o f Kiambu and N a i r o b i . A s t u d y and

a n a l y s i s o f the age-set genealogy has a l l o w e d him t o t r a c e the d a t e s o f

20
a r r i v a l at v a r i o u s p l a c e s along the r o u t e . These a r e :

Chuka ( s o u t h - e a s t Mount Kenya) 1300

Embu ( s o u t h - e a s t Mount Kenya) 1425
Fort H a l l 1545
Kiambu 1800

Lambert's f i n d i n g s a r e s u p p o r t e d by L.S.B. Leakey, a n o t e d a u t h o r i t y on

e a r l y K i k u y u h i s t o r y , b u t i n somewhat vague terms. He r e f e r s , f o r example,

t o t h e K i k u y u as b e g i n n i n g t o occupy t h e F o r t H a l l d i s t r i c t " s e v e r a l hun-

d r e d y e a r s ago." S a y i n g n o t h i n g o f Shungwaya he suggests t h a t i n c r e a s e d

numbers i n the s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y f o r c e d t h e K i k u y u t o seek f r e s h l i v i n g

room t o the west.

The movement southwards a c r o s s the Chania

R i v e r i n t o what i s now known as the Kiambu
d i s t r i c t o f Kilcjiyuland s t a r t e d about t h a t
t i m e , as d i d a movement northwards i n t o an
area c a l l e d N y e r i , l y i n g a t the f o o t of
Mount Kenya.21

There i s l i t t l e doubt t h a t as t h e y moved t h e K i k u y u t r i b e s were i n f l u e n c e d

by c u l t u r e - c o n t a c t w i t h o t h e r t r i b e s . O l i v e r remarks, f o r example, t h a t

t h e Meru p r e s e r v e the memory o f c a t t l e k e e p i n g p e o p l e o f H a m i t i c o r i g i n

c a l l e d Mwoko. U s i n g Lambert as h i s s o u r c e (Systems, pp. 12-13.) he says

t h a t " c l a s h e s between t h e Meru and Mwoko c o n t i n u e d u n t i l t h e time o f a

 6

Meru a g e - c l a s s . w h i c h had been i n the w a r r i o r stage i n about 1760."

Moreover, O l i v e r o b s e r v e s , "The K i k u y u show i n t h e i r i n i t i a t i o n customs

and a g e - c l a s s e s as w e l l as i n t h e i r appearance and adornment the c l e a r e s t

s i g n s o f i n f l u e n c e from.the N i l o - H a m i t i c and H a m i t i c s o u r c e s , but none

23

a t a l l o f the c h i e f l y i n s t i t u t i o n s o f the i n t e r l a c u s t r i n e s . " ( B a n t u ) .

T h i s p o i n t i s i n t e r e s t i n g i n v i e w o f the acephalous t r a d i t i o n s of

the Nilo-Hamites. H u n t i n g f o r d s u g g e s t s , on the b a s i s t h a t acephalous

Bantu a r e and have been t r a d i t i o n a l l y l o c a t e d w i t h i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y o f

the acephalous N i l o - H a m i t e s , t h a t t h e former may w e l l have t a k e n the

t r a d i t i o n from the N i l o - H a m i t e s . The t r i b e s h a v i n g no c h i e f s , he observes,

a r e g e n e r a l l y l o c a t e d n o r t h o f the p r e s e n t Tanzanian-Kenya b o r d e r and near-

er t o N i l o - H a m i t e s t h a n t h o s e w i t h c h i e f s . To s u b s t a n t i a t e the h y p o t h e s i s

he c i t e s t h e f a c t t h a t out o f 101 t r i b e s i n the t h r e e E a s t A f r i c a n t e r r i -

t o r i e s ; Uganda, Kenya and T a n z a n i a , 45 had no c h i e f s , 47 had d i s t r i c t chiefs

and 9 had c e n t r a l c h i e f s . "Acephaly", he t h e r e f o r e c o n c l u d e s , " I s an earl-

i e r form t h a n r u l e by c h i e f s . . . and t h a t . . . " one can c o n c e i v e o f t h e

a d o p t i o n o f r u l e by a c h i e f t h r o u g h c u l t u r e c o n t a c t o r conquest, b u t the
25

reverse process i s not l i k e l y . "

I t i s a t t h i s p o i n t we must pause t o c o n s i d e r t h e g e n e r a l e f f e c t o f

o t h e r e t h n i c m i g r a t i o n s upon the K i k u y u . What i s e s p e c i a l l y significant

i s t h e e f f e c t upon the K i k u y u t r i b e s o f the p a s t o r a l N i l o - H a m i t e s (Masai)

and t h e H a m i t i c G a l l a and S o m a l i p e o p l e s . B o t h groups formed e t h n i c b a r r -

i e r s t o the west and e a s t o f the K i k u y u c o r e - a r e a . Because t h e M a s a i

were w a r - o r i e n t e d , t h e K i k u y u p e o p l e s were f o r c e d t o c o n s o l i d a t e themselves

b e h i n d the n a t u r a l p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e p e r i p h e r a l f o r e s t b e l t . Thus the

 7

T r i b a l s e t t l e m e n t i n E a s t A f r i c a about 1800. Note G a l l a and M a s a i

h a b i t a t s and "moat" a r e a s o u t h o f Kiambu. From B.A. Ogot and
J.A.. K i e r a n ( e d s . ) , Zamani: A Survey o f E a s t A f r i c a n H i s t o r y ,
N a i r o b i : EAPH, 1968, p. 210.
 8

f o r e s t b e l t became a n a t u r a l f r o n t i e r t o the e a s t , west and south of the

K i k u y u homeland. Where the f o r e s t was t h i n the K i k u y u b u i l t fortified

v i l l a g e s t o form a k i n d o f 'Maginot L i n e ' w h i c h made M a s a i r a i d i n g ex-

p e d i t i o n s more d i f f i c u l t t o a c c o m p l i s h s u c c e s s f u l l y . I n t h i s way.the
26

s e c u r i t y o f those l i v i n g b e h i n d the s t r i p was enhanced. Hence we may

i n f e r t h a t the K i k u y u t r i b e s , once s e t t l e d i n the a r e a between the f o r e s t -

covered h i g h A b e r d a r e s and Mount Kenya, were s a f e from t h e i r enemies.as

27

l o n g as t h e y remained w i t h i n the c o n f i n e s of t h e i r i s l a n d . Soja r e f e r s

t o the l a n d o u t s i d e the f o r e s t b e l t as a " f o r e s t moat" and says t h a t i t

d i d n o t become i n t e g r a t e d w i t h i n the e s t a b l i s h e d l i f e p a t t e r n s , e i t h e r
28

g r a z i n g or a g r i c u l t u r e , of any t r i b a l group. I t was i n e f f e c t a no-man's

land behind which t h e . f o r e s t b e l t provided a n a t u r a l sanctum f o r the agri-

c u l t u r a l l y disposed Kikuyu. Thus wherever t h e r e was f o r e s t , " h i g h ground

29

and f e r t i l e ground o t h e r p e o p l e s h e l d them ( t h e M a s a i ) a t bay." Provid-

i n g the K i k u y u d i d not v e n t u r e f o r t h from t h e i r i s l a n d f a s t n e s s , t h e y were

s a f e from the marauding p a s t o r a l i s t s who roamed t o the n o r t h , t o the west

and t o the south. The b l e a k l y f o r e s t e d s l o p e s o f Mount Kenya p r o t e c t e d

t h e i r i s l a n d from any e a s t e r l y i n t r u s i o n .

We have seen ( O l i v e r , , p . 9) t h a t the f a b r i c o f t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y

was not so w e l l c o n s t r u c t e d as t h a t of the i n t e r l a c u s t r i n e Bantu o f Uganda.

Few, i f any, A f r i c a n s o c i e t i e s i n e a r l y Kenya a c h i e v e d a l e v e l o f s o c i o -

p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s i m i l a r t o t h a t w h i c h p r e v a i l e d t o the west n e a r

the head o f the Lake. The acephalous p e o p l e s c o n s i s t e d t y p i c a l l y o f

a s s o c i a t i o n s , k i n s h i p groups and p o p u l a r segments u n i t e d i n r e s p o n s e , i t

may be presumed, t o the environment and the t h r e a t of the M a s a i and other

 9

m i l i t a r i l y oriented peoples. Dependence upon a g r i c u l t u r e and.animals r e -

q u i r e d an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e more complex, s o p h i s t i c a t e d and larger

t h a n t h a t o f the p r i m i t i v e h u n t i n g - g a t h e r i n g groups. But due t o the lack.

of e x t e r n a l c u l t u r e - c o n t a c t and stimulus from more "advanced" s o c i e t i e s ,

the t r a d i t i o n a l systems o f s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n l a c k e d the

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the Uganda B a n t u i n whose t e r r i t o r i e s kingdoms, minor

s t a t e s , c h i e f s and headmen f l o u r i s h e d . I t was here t h a t "kingdoms' tended

... t o form i n c l u s t e r s , w i t h one o r more l a r g e kingdoms a t the centre

of the c l u s t e r , and.a h o s t o f s m a l l e r ones s c a t t e r e d around the peripheries."

I t was h e r e t h a t had developed a b u r e a u c r a c y " w i t h o u t p a p e r , i n k , desks,

o r t e l e p h o n e s , i n w h i c h power was w i e l d e d by o f f i c i a l s who held t h e i r

o f f i c e s d u r i n g the k i n g ' s p l e a s u r e , and who c o u l d be t r a n s f e r r e d from p o s t

t o p o s t , promoted, demoted, and even d e s t i t u t e d , by a nod of the divine

30

head o r a s y l l a b l e from the d i v i n e mouth." From the t o p o f the hierarch-

i c a l s t r u c t u r e t h e r e descended a h o s t o f c i v i l s e r v a n t s of decreasing import-

a n c e — r a n g i n g from the k i n g h i m s e l f , h i s immediate r e l a t i v e s and higher

o f f i c e r - b e a r . e r s , t o p r o v i n c i a l , d i s t r i c t and local chiefs. I n c o n t r a s t , ''

the o n l y s i g n i f i c a n t change i n the K i k u y u l i f e - s t y l e seems t o have b e e n a

t r a n s i t i o n from h u n t i n g t o an a g r a r i a n e c o n o m y — f o r c e d upon the t r i b e be-

cause of the n a t u r e of i t s new environment and the p r o x i m i t y o f the M a s a i

beyond the "moat".

Perhaps i t was a l a c k o f a r e a l s t a b i l i t y w h i c h p r e c l u d e d the dev-

elopment of a more s o p h i s t i c a t e d p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . Kikuyu society

was in flux. Groups formed, b r o k e - o f f and r e - f o r m e d , r o s e t o l o c a l prom-

i n e n c e and d e c l i n e d i n a s o r t of s o c i a l undulation i n f l u e n c e d by p r e v a i l i n g
 10

s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l and e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s . Perhaps t h i s syndrome was

a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f the c o n s t a n t s e a r c h f o r new a r e a s c o n t a i n i n g the p r e -

requisites f o r existence. Water, g r a s s f o r g r a z i n g a n i m a l s , f o r e s t and

r i d g e s f o r p r o t e c t i o n , c o n s t i t u t e d the c a r d i n a l t r i b a l d e s i r e s . The im-

p e r a t i v e t o meet t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s c r e a t e d a f l u i d p o p u l a t i o n o n l y l o o s e l y

or l o c a l l y o r g a n i z e d . Indeed, i t i s suggested t h a t the c o n s t a n t s e a r c h

f o r new l a n d d i d n o t m a n i f e s t the emergence o f new p o l i t i c a l forms and

s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , b u t r a t h e r caused a r e v i s i o n t o e a r l i e r forms o f

s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l organization. Moreover, even K i k u y u " l o c a l a s s o c i a t i o n s

were m a i n l y the r e s u l t of a f a m i l y ' s need f o r some a p p a r a t u s t o r e g u l a t e

c l a i m s upon l a n d o r the problems a r i s i n g from t h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f d i f f e r -

31

ent f a m i l i e s i n an a g r i c u l t u r a l s o c i e t y . " Perhaps i t was t h e s o c i o -

p o l i t i c a l and g e o g r a p h i c a l environment w h i c h determined the n a t u r e o f

Kikuyu p o l i t i c a l organization. Each r i d g e , i s o l a t e d from o t h e r s by

f o r e s t and o f t e n i m p a s s a b l e r i v e r s , became a n a t u r a l p o i n t o f defense

for those l i v i n g on the back o f i t s s p i n e ; each had i t s e l d e r s and i t s

32
c o u n c i l s o f defense.
33

S p o r a d i c r a i d i n g by the M a s a i o f t e n a g g r a v a t e d the s i t u a t i o n and

e f f o r t s t o r e s i s t by the r i d g e - b a s e d defence c o u n c i l s gave way.to f u r t h e r

t r i b a l f r i c t i o n and c o n f l i c t . F i g h t i n g u s u a l l y t o o k p l a c e between K i k u y u

and M a s a i b u t t h i s i s n o t t o i m p l y t h a t f i g h t i n g was always c o n f i n e d t o

t h e s e t r i b a l groups. Sometimes, f o r example, M a s a i f o u g h t M a s a i and such

p e r i o d s , no doubt, gave r e s p i t e t o the beleagued K i k u y u . On o c c a s i o n

Kikuyu fought Kikuyu. There i s e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t , a l s o , t h a t p e r i o d i c a l l y

34-
K i k u y u segments a l l i e d themselves w i t h M a s a i a g a i n s t o t h e r K i k u y u .
 11

The suggestion that a r e a l i n s t a b i l i t y precluded the p o s s i b i l i t y o f

a more s o p h i s t i c a t e d p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n i s w e l l b a s e d ; e s p e c i a l l y i f

comparison i s made between t h a t of the K i k u y u and the B a n t u of the north-

west. But t h i s does n o t mean t h a t t h e K i k u y u t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l

system ( t o be d e s c r i b e d i n more d e t a i l i n t h i s t h e s i s ) was not adequate t o

meet the needs of K i k u y u s o c i e t y o r was notSia'l^eable enough t o a d j u s t to

the new c o n d i t i o n s imposed upon i t by a change i n e n v i r o n m e n t — p o l i t i c a l

or g e o g r a p h i c a l . To be s u r e t h e r e was a l a c k of s t a b i l i t y caused by the

constant movement and counter-movement of p e o p l e a c r o s s the landscape;

but a l s o , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h i s human f l u x , t h e r e d e v e l o p e d a semblance

o f s o c i a l s t a b i l i t y founded on the d i c t a t e s of n e c e s s i t y . T h i s embryo

s t a b i l i t y must have been p o r t a b l e and w e l l - r o o t e d i n K i k u y u t r a d i t i o n not

t o have been s e r i o u s l y shaken o r even dismembered p e r m a n e n t l y by the con-

stant pressures o f war and movement. As t i m e passed t h i s growing stability

became permeable enough t o a l l o w a b s o r p t i o n of o u t s i d e groups and clusters

o f p e o p l e r e l a t e d or sometimes not e t h n i c a l l y r e l a t e d . There i s e v i d e n c e ,

f o r example, t h a t numbers of M a s a i t o o k K i k u y u w i v e s w i t h o u t i n c u r r i n g
35
cultural friction. There i s e v i d e n c e t h a t Wanderobo, p r e v i o u s l y occupy-

i n g the a r e a s e t t l e d by the Kiambu K i k u y u , were b o t h a b s o r b e d . i n t o the

36
tribe and allowed t o p a r l e y w i t h K i k u y u on l e g i t i m a t e b u s i n e s s o v e r the
37
possession of land.

Thus i t i s p o s s i b l e t o say t h a t s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s were developed

or evolved f o r purposes o f c o n s t r u c t i v e p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n . Where p o s s i b l e ,

c l a s s - l i n e s , d i f f e r e n t e t h n i c l i n k a g e s and s m a l l - s c a l e communities d i d not

prevent co-operation where and when such was deemed t o be of advantage. The

e v i d e n c e suggests t h a t the s t r e s s f u l s i t u a t i o n was not always met by -

 12

military conflict. O f t e n i t was met by a system o f adjustment i n the s p i r i t

o f s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l and economic c o - o p e r a t i o n . The passage o f t i m e saw

t h i s system e v o l v e t o a p o i n t where p h y s i c a l and e t h n i c b o u n d a r i e s , a l t h o u g h

:

38

f u s e d , became more c o n s t a n t a n d . i d e n t i f i a b l e .

The s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l and c u l t u r a l environment now began, f o r example,

t o p r o v i d e t h e t r a d i t i o n a l l y acephalous K i k u y u w i t h ' c h i e f s ' . Low o b s e r v e s :

I t i s customary t o a f f i r m t h a t t h e K i k u y u had no
c h i e f s , and t h i s , by and l a r g e , i s t r u e . The
i n h a b i t a n t s o f each r i d g e i n t o which t h e c o u n t r y
was d i v i d e d r a r e l y owed a l l e g i a n c e t o anyone
beyond, and were f r e q u e n t l y a t war w i t h t h e i r
n e i g h b o u r s . But on o c c a s i o n s s o c i o l o g i c a l
norms can be m i s l e a d i n g . F o r t h e K i k u y u were
t h r o w i n g up, i f n o t c h i e f s , trren "prominent „ Q

i n d i v i d u a l s " o f some c o n s i d e r a b l e consequence.

E a r l y European accounts g i v e evidence o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f l o c a l K i k u y u

l e a d e r s and by t h e 1880's these personages became d i s t i n c t i n t h e l i t e r -

ature. S i r R i c h a r d B u r t o n , f o r example, speaks o f two K i k u y u l e a d e r s

named Mundu W a z e l i and K i p p i n g o . ^ F a t h e r Cagnolo r e f e r s t o K a r u r i o f

Metume ( F o r t H a l l ) and Wangombi o f G a k i ( N y e r i ) . ^ 1

John Boyes, t h e s e l f -

s t y l e d " K i n g o f t h e K i k u y u " , a European a d v e n t u r e r who l i v e d among t h e

K i k u y u d u r i n g t h e e a r l y European p e n e t r a t i o n , mentions t h e e x p l o i t s o f
4-2

K a r k e r r i and K a r o l i . Governor Hardinge's r e p o r t , A f r i c a No. 6 (1903),

p. 7, quotes " s e v e r a l C h i e f s o f c o n s i d e r a b l e importance, such as K i n a n j u i

( s i c ) and K a r u r i , each o f ...whom can p u t s e v e r a l hundred w a r r i o r s i n t o t h e

f i e l d " " t o g e t h e r w i t h , "a m u l t i t u d e o f s m a l l e r C h i e f s . " A l l o f t h e s e prom-

i n e n t K i k u y u possessed c h a r i s m a t i c q u a l i t i e s and a b i l i t y r e c o g n i z e d and

allowed f o r by the t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e of the t r i b e .

T h e i r r i s e t o power, a l b e i t l o c a l , was n o t o u t s i d e o f t h e acephalous order,

 13

but w i t h i n i t . Many were l e a d e r s o f men i n war and p r o b a b l y d i s p l a y e d

marked p h y s i c a l and m e n t a l c a p a c i t i e s . i n t h i s area. Because the e n v i r o n -

ment c a l l e d f o r m i l i t a r y s k i l l s , a s s o c i a t e d w i t h M a s a i and l a t t e r l y Euro-

pean i n t e r f e r e n c e i n K i k u y u a f f a i r s , t h e y tended t o r i s e t o p o s i t i o n s o f

prominence w i t h i n the t r i b a l s t r u c t u r e . N o t a b l y , t h i s was because the

t r i b a l s t r u c t u r e p r o v i d e d f o r such e x i g e n c i e s ; p r o v i d e d f o r men of a b i l i t y

t o assume p o s i t i o n s o f s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s h i p . These men were t o

form the n u c l e u s o f a p p o i n t e d K i k u y u C h i e f s under the a e g i s o f the forth-

coming embryonic B r i t i s h C o l o n i a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

Age O r g a n i z a t i o n and R i t e s De Passage

The K i k u y u t r i b e i s d i v i d e d i n t o two h a l v e s . E v e r y K i k u y u male

c h i l d ^ i s i n d u c t e d i n t o one o r the o t h e r h a l v e s a t b i r t h . One h a l f of

the t r i b e i s known as Maina and the o t h e r h a l f , Mwangi. A male c h i l d

assumes the t r i b a l h a l f o f h i s g r a n d f a t h e r . For example:

Grandfather Mwangi
Father Maina
Son Mwangi

or

Grandfather Maina
Father Mwangi
Son Maina

One t r i b a l h a l f , e i t h e r Mwangi o r Maina, " r u l e s " the t r i b e f o r a p e r i o d

o f time b e f o r e f o r m a l l y handing over a u t h o r i t y t o the o t h e r h a l f . The

p e r i o d t h a t one h a l f i s i n power seems t o v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y and t h e r e are

s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s o f o p i n i o n on i t s l e n g t h . One source says 30 y e a r s ;

 14

another 20-30 years, while Hobley says 15 years. Kenyatta says " . .

one generation (held) o f f i c e of government f o r a period of t h i r t y to f o r t y

47
years . . . " P r i n s states that 30-40 years i s the best time lapse as
i t i s in:"best harmony w i t h the idea of the duration of a p h y s i c a l genera-
48

t i o n fundamental to the p r i n c i p l e of a l t e r n a t i o n of both halves." Here

i t i s important to note that Kikuyu "time" was not measured i n s o l a r or

lunar years but by "generations" or "age-sets" (see Cagnolo below). Thus,

d i f f e r e n c e s i n years suggested by the foregoing sources are of l i t t l e use

i n determining the period between Kikuyu "governmental" changeovers. The

f a c t of the matter i s that the change-over ceremony, i t w i k a , took place

p e r i o d i c a l l y and no consensus opinion e x i s t s on the time span of the r u l i n g

half.

A point consistent with the system of r u l i n g halves, i s that a male

c h i l d could only be i n f o r m a l l y known as Mwangi or Maina. ; Formal r e c o g n i t i o n

of h i s t r i b a l h a l f was only accorded when he assumed the status of j u n i o r

elder of the r u l i n g h a l f or conversely j u n i o r elder of the non-ruling h a l f .

Nevertheless, according to the p r i n c i p l e of the a l t e r n a t i o n of p a t r i l i n e a l

generations, i t was known at b i r t h i n t o which t r i b a l h a l f the c h i l d would

move. A f t e r c i r c u m c i s i o n the young male passed through two grades of non-

elder, mumo and anake, before being accepted i n t o the elder category. If

born a Mwangi, and.this was not the r u l i n g h a l f , he was accorded the name

Mwangi Irungu. Irungu i d e n t i f i e d him as not being destined f o r the r u l i n g

half. Presumably, i f during the period of h i s s o c i a l ascendancy the i t w i k a

took place and power changed hands, he r e l i n q u i s h e d the,Irungu i d e n t i f i e r and

became merely Mwangi. At t h i s time the young w a r r i o r c l a s s of Maina, pre-

v i o u s l y destined f o r power, became.Maina Irungu.

 15

Kenyatta states that the l a s t i t w i k a was celebrated about 1890-98.

Lucy Mair gives the dates as being 1890-1903 and says - the ceremony "took

about a dozen years to complete." The handing-over of power "was organized

separately, and at d i f f e r e n t times, i n d i f f e r e n t parts of the country (and)

the areas which co-operated f o r t h i s purpose were much wider than those
50

which d i d so f o r any other." There are two points of s i g n i f i c a n c e here.

F i r s t l y , since the l a s t ceremony took place between 1890 and roughly the

turn of the century, then i t i s apparent that the handing-over of power to

the Mwangi f r a t e r n i t y was coincident with e a r l y attempts by the B r i t i s h to

e s t a b l i s h an a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . This may or may not have a f f e c t e d B r i t i s h

e f f o r t s , but i t i s of some s i g n i f i c a n c e to r e l a t e the f a c t that the next

i t w i k a (1925-28) t o herald ascendancy of the Maina group was declared

i l l e g a l and proscribed by the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . There i s a good p o s s i b i l i t y

that since Independence the Kenya a u t h o r i t i e s have, f o r symbolic or p o l i t i c a l

51

purposes, r e - i n s t i t u t e d the i t w i k a . The second point concerns Professor

Mair's a s s e r t i o n that the i t w i k a tended'to involve more d i s t a n t segments

of the t r i b e than any other kind of ceremony. This i s i n t e r e s t i n g i n view

of the f a c t that the s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l and geographic environment was a t the

root of Kikuyu s o c i a l system and t h a t , i n consequence, t r i b a l a f f a i r s

tended to .emanate and be dealt with on a l o c a l l e v e l . The e f f e c t of the

i t w i k a , we see, was one of c o n s o l i d a t i n g the t r i b e by g i v i n g i t s members,

f a r and wide, some c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y . B r i t i s h p r o s c r i p t i o n of the event

(1925-28) may, therefore, have been predicated on the assumption that t h i s

same c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y could l i k e l y be converted i n t o a p o l i t i c a l i d e n t i t y ;

e s p e c i a l l y i n view of the f a c t that the time i n question was one of Kikuyu

 16

political instability.

P r i n s s t a t e s t h a t t h e r e a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e i t w i k a was t h a t

i t brought t o g e t h e r a l l segments o f t h e K i k u y u i n t o a c o r p o r a t e u n i t and

s e r v e d g e n e r a l l y a s an i n t e g r a t i v e i n f l u e n c e . Importantly i t served t o

t r a n s f e r power from one group t o another by s o c i a l agreement r a t h e r t h a n

power s t r u g g l e and showed a l s o t h e i n v i o l a b i l i t y o f a t r i b a l constitu-

52
t i o n w h i c h c o u l d be and was r e g u l a r l y c a r r i e d o u t w i t h o u t t e n s i o n . This
53

view, b r o a d l y s p e a k i n g , i s i n c o n c e r t w i t h t h a t e x p r e s s e d b y M a i r . Al-

though c a u t i o u s about s e e i n g t h e i t w i k a as a t o t a l i n t e g r a t i v e i n f l u e n c e ,

P r o f e s s o r M a i r sees t h e i t w i k a as b e i n g , among o t h e r t h i n g s , a means t o

i s s u e p r o c l a m a t i o n s on m a t t e r s o f r u l e s o r o r d e r s o r t o r e a s s e r t g e n e r a l l y

recognized rules of t r i b a l conduct.

Sometimes pr^clama|ionseh^
? have 1_
"
a t handing-over ceremonies . . . t h e K i k u y u sometimes
summoned meetings f o r t h e purpose . . . we have no c l e a r
p i c t u r e a o f t h e way i n w h i c h a d e c i s i o n was t a k e n t o make
such announcements; n o r do we know whose b u s i n e s s i t was
t o p r o c l a i m them . . . examples g i v e n b y some K i k u y u
e l d e r s were t h e p r o h i b i t i o n o f w i t c h c r a f t ; t h e announce-
ment t h a t h a b i t u a l t h i e v e s s h o u l d be e x e c u t e d ; o r d e r s
t o p r o t e c t s u p p l i e s o f f o o d i n t i m e s o f famine . . .
o r d e r s r e g u l a t i n g t h e use o f l a n d , f o r example t h a t
c e r t a i n t r a c t s o f f o r e s t s h o u l d be l e f t s t a n d i n g ^ a s
a defence a g a i n s t enemies, o r t h a t a s a l t - l i c k s h o u l d
be open f o r g e n e r a l u s e . I t i s d o u b t f u l whether t h i s
a c t i v i t y would e n t i t l e one t o say t h a t t h e government
o f t h e K i k u y u i n c l u d e d organs o f l e g i s l a t i o n . I f
l e g i s l a t i o n means making r u l e s o f g e n e r a l a p p l i c a t i o n
w h i c h change o r extend t h e e x i s t i n g body o f r u l e s ,
none o f these examples r e a l l y f i t s t h e d e f i n i t i o n .
Some a r e r e a s s e r t i o n s o f r e c o g n i z e d r u l e s , o t h e r s a r e
 17

o r d e r s d e a l i n g w i t h s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n s . They do
demonstrate, however, t h a t c o l l e c t i v e d e c i s i o n s
c o u l d be t a k e n i n such emergencies as famine.
We do n o t know how wide an a r e a was c o v e r e d by
any o f t h e s e o r d e r s , though i t i s f a i r l y s a f e t o
say t h a t i t i s n o t l i k e l y t o have been t h e whole
K i k u y u c o u n t r y . . . we do n o t r e a l l y know how
such a s s e m b l i e s were composed, o r whether t h e y
c o n s i s t e d o f p e o p l e who combined f o r o t h e r p u r -
poses o f government.54

The s o c i o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e i t w i k a become e v i d e n t on

closer analysis. A l t h o u g h t h e deposed h a l f , f o r example, was t e c h n i c a l l y

p o w e r l e s s , i t c o n t i n u e d t o a i d and a d v i s e on j u d i c i a l and o t h e r m a t t e r s .

The new r u l i n g segmentowas judged competent t o implement i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i -

t i e s as d u r i n g i t s p e r i o d o f power i t s members a c t e d as c o n s u l t a n t s t o

each e l d e r grade i n t h e s o c i a l p a t t e r n . When power changed hands, over

t h e p e r i o d o f t h e i t w i k a , each e l d e r moved from h i s p o s i t i o n o f non-power

to a c o r r e s p o n d i n g p o s i t i o n o f power. Many K i k u y u , however, never r o s e t o

higher elder status. T h i s was because i f t h e i t w i k a t o o k p l a c e , s a y , a t 25

y e a r s o f age and a t a time when a t r i b e s m a n was t o o young t o h o l d e l d e r s t a -

tus, 30 t o 40 y e a r s l a t e r might see him dead. This i s e s p e c i a l l y signifi-

cant i n v i e w o f t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t l o n g e v i t y , p r i o r t o c o l o n i a l r u l e , was

perhaps o n l y 45-55 y e a r s . A f u r t h e r i m p l i c a t i o n i s t h a t i f a man a c t u a l l y

l i v e d l o n g enough o u t o f o f f i c e t o e x p e r i e n c e t h e i t w i k a , he would automa-

t i c a l l y be a c c e p t e d i n t o t h e h i g h e s t r u l i n g e l d e r grades w i t h o u t a c t u a l l y

h a v i n g had t h e r u l i n g e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e l o w e r e l d e r g r a d e s . Thus, u n l e s s

he had t a k e n h i s n o n - r u l i n g d u t i e s s e r i o u s l y enough t o l e a r n b y s i m u l a t i o n

or osmosis a l l c e r e m o n i a l p r o c e d u r e , c u l t u r a l law, and o t h e r d u t i e s o f

 18

e l d e r o f f i c e , h i s judgement may w e l l be deemed f a u l t y .

S e t s o r age groups p l a y a . ' s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t i n K i k u y u socio-poli-

tical life. M a l e s (and f e m a l e s ) were i n d u c t e d f o r m a l l y i n t o the t r i b e

and thus onto the l o w e s t rung o f t h e l a d d e r o f rank. Ceremonies were

g e n e r a l l y conducted on a y e a r l y b a s i s a l t h o u g h a c c o r d i n g t o p r e v a i l i n g

c o n d i t i o n s , l i k e war o r c a t a s t r o p h e , t h e y were missed from time t o t i m e .

Formal i n d o c t r i n a t i o n o f a g e - s e t s i n t o the p o l i t i c a l l i f e o f the t r i b e

was c a r r i e d out by means o f c i r c u m c i s i o n .

C i r c u m c i s i o n was more t h a n mere c e r e m o n i a l a c t i v i t y ; i t was also

a s y m b o l i c a c t w h i c h r e p r e s e n t e d v a l u e s embodied i n the a g e - c l a s s system

w i t h a l l i t s e d u c a t i o n , s o c i a l , m o r a l and r e l i g i o u s i m p l i c a t i o n s . As

Leakey p o i n t s o u t , i t was the b e g i n n i n g o f a s e r i e s o f r i t e s de passage

55
t h r o u g h w h i c h each K i k u y u would p a s s . K e n y a t t a i s more e x p l i c i t when
he r e g a r d s i t as "the c o n d i t i o s i n e qua non o f the whole t e a c h i n g o f
56

t r i b a l law, r e l i g i o n , and m o r a l i t y . "

Its r e a l s i g n i f i c a n c e seems t o be t h a t the a c t marked the new

s t a t u s a r r i v e d a t by t h e i n d o c t r i n a t e s ; i t meant t h a t those c i r c u m c i s e d

becameepledged f o r f u t u r e i n s t i t u t i o n a l a c t i v i t y . I t marked the b e g i n n i n g

of s e n i o r i t y p r o g r e s s i o n ; i t was
the f o u n d a t i o n o f an a s s u r e d e l i t i s m
57
p r o v i d e d f o r by t r a d i t i o n and s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e .
The ceremony ( i r u a ) i s complex and beyond the scope o f t h i s the-.:
:

58

sis. What i s i m p o r t a n t , however, i s the f a c t even the ceremony has

about i t a c e r t a i n d u a l i t y . Cagnolo observes t h a t t h e young male K i k u y u

may be c i r c u m c i s e d by the s o - c a l l e d K i k u y u o r M a s a i f a s h i o n r e s p e c t i v e l y .

W h i l e he n o t e s t h a t b o t h methods a r e i n f a c t v e r y s i m i l a r i n t e c h n i q u e ;
 19

i . e . i n c i s i o n r a t h e r t h a n c i r c u m c i s i o n , t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f whether one

or the. o t h e r method was used l i e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e method d e t e r m i n e s

a l l subsequent i n i t i a t i o n r i t e s . T h i s i s n o t t o suggest t h a t one method

is 'superior', o r produces .'.superior' i n d i v i d u a l s i n terms o f s o c i a l o r

p o l i t i c a l status. What can be i n f e r r e d from t h i s f i n d i n g i s t h a t t h e

K i k u y u t r i b e s were n o t h i s t o r i c a l l y i s o l a t e d t o t h e degree t h a t c u l t u r e -

contact d i d not take place w i t h other t r i b e s . The f a c t t h a t a t e c h n i q u e

known as the 'Masai' method was used i n K i k u y u c i r c u m c i s i o n r i t e s strongly

59

s u g g e s t s t h a t K i k u y u t r i b a l l o r e was n o t s i n g u l a r l y o f K i k u y u o r i g i n .

The t r i b a l s t r u c t u r e , i t c o u l d be deemed, was o b v i o u s l y v i a b l e enough t o

absorb those p a r t s o f a n o t h e r c u l t u r e w h i c h were w o r k a b l e and n o t a l i e n

to e s t a b l i s h e d Kikuyu s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l p r a c t i c e . ^

The f o r e g o i n g c o u l d n o t be s a i d o f the M a s a i o r t h e H a m i t i c

Somali. T h e i r c u l t u r e s appear n o t t o have been i n f l u e n c e d o r a l t e r e d

much b y t h e p r o x i m i t y o f t h e K i k u y u ; r a t h e r t h e r e v e r s e seems t o be t h e

.case. Obviously where t h e "moat" was t h i n n e s t , c u l t u r e - c o n t a c t and i t s

a f f e c t s upon t h e K i k u y u were- s t r o n g e s t .

As has been p o i n t e d o u t , each a g e - s e t comes f o r w a r d f o r c i r c u m -

c i s i o n on a y e a r l y b a s i s . F o r purposes o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and perhaps a

c o n v e n i e n t method o f l o c a t i n g ' h i s t o r i c a l t i m e ' , successive sets of i n i -

t i a t e s a r e g i v e n a name c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o s i g n i f i c a n t e v e n t s a s s o c i a t e d with

the y e a r o f c i r c u m c i s i o n . This i s important resource m a t e r i a l f o r anthro-

p o l o g i s t s , e t h n o g r a p h e r s , h i s t o r i a n s : and o t h e r s concerned w i t h investi-

g a t i n g K i k u y u t r a d i t i o n o r h i s t o r y . By^aapr.ocess^fir.inqulr y_.among- e l d e r s and

a knowledge o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , i t i s often possible to reconstruct

the p a s t on the b a s i s o f the names and n a m e - a s s o c i a t i o n s o f c i r c u m c i s e d

 20

groups.
Cagnolo has been successful i n t r a c i n g the names of years from

184-0 to 1932 by t h i s method. Of i n t e r e s t i n the Cagnolo l i s t i s the year

1903 and the name-association given to the age-set of that year. Venereal

disease has a European heritage and i s not thought to have been present

i n A f r i c a before the advent of the European on that continent. The use of

Venereal disease as an age-set i d e n t i f i e r suggests that 1903 was s i g n i f i -

cant t o the Kikuyu i n that they f i r s t contracted i t from European c a r r i e r s .

The year 1926 i s also of some i n t e r e s t and i n d i c a t i v e of the march

of European technology i n Kikuyuland. Other years s i g n i f y manifestations

of the European a d m i n i s t r a t i v e presence. I n 1919, f o r example, we have

the R e g i s t r a t i o n C e r t i f i c a t e ; i n 1923 the Flag; while i n 1930 the name-

a s s o c i a t i o n , Modern P r a c t i c e s i n d i c a t e s increasing Kikuyu knowledge and

awareness of the concept of "modern" and, perhaps, i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s as

introduced by the c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . Yet other years record famine,

disease, plague and the presence of animal plagues. The discovery of gold

i n Kakamega i s recorded as being i n 1913

Kenyatta a s s e r t s that "men circumcised a t the same time stand

i n the very c l o s e s t r e l a t i o n s h i p t o each other. When a man of the same

age-group i n j u r e s another i t i s a serious magico-religious offence. They

are l i k e blood brothers; they must not do any wrong to each other. . the

age-group i s thus a powerful instrument f o r securing conformity w i t h t r i b a l

usage . . i t binds men from a l l parts of the country (even) though they

be circumcised hundreds of miles apart. The age-groups do more than bind

men of equal standing together. They f u r t h e r emphasize the s o c i a l grades

 21

62
o f j u n i o r and s e n i o r , i n f e r i o r and superior. Thus we see the p a r t i a l l y -

b i n d i n g i n f l u e n c e o f the i t w i k a and we have K e n y a t t a ' s assertion that age-

groups and c i r c u m c i s i o n r i t e s were p o w e r f u l instruments for further t r i b a l

conformity.

A f t e r the c i r c u m c i s i o n r i t e s i n i t i a t e s f o r t h a t y e a r p r o c e e d t o -

g e t h e r i n t o the f i r s t o f s i x s e q u e n t i a l grades o f p r o g r e s s i v e seniority.

T h i s p r o g r e s s i o n i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the K i k u y u t r a d i t i o n s u g g e s t i n g that

v a r i o u s p u b l i c f u n c t i o n s a r e b e s t performed by p e r s o n s a t d i f f e r e n t stages

of l i f e . The advance o f the t r i b e s m a n from w a r r i o r t o e l d e r i s t h u s marked

by s i g n i f i c a n t s o c i a l events i n h i s l i f e . The f i r s t s t e p , the initiation

ceremony ( i r u a ) i s f o l l o w e d u s u a l l y by m a r r i a g e , the b i r t h and maturation

o f c h i l d r e n and the menopause o f the t r i b e s m a n ' s wife. Progression, i t

s h o u l d be n o t e d , i s not a u t o m a t i c . The a s p i r a n t t o a h i g h e r stage must be

a c c e p t e d by h i s p r o s p e c t i v e peers.^

R e s p e c t i v e grades a r e as f o l l o w s and w i l l be d i s c u s s e d , f o r p u r -

poses o f c l a r i t y , i n s e q u e n t i a l o r d e r :

Junior Warriors (Morika ya mumo)

Senior Warriors (Morika ya anake)
Learning Elders (Morika ya karabai)
Junior Elders (Morika ya kiama ya mbule omwe)
Senior Elders (Morika ya kiama ya mbule e g e r i )

J u n i o r W a r r i o r Grade (mumo)

T h i s i s the f i r s t grade i n t o w h i c h c i r c u m c i s e d males e n t e r . As

w a r r i o r r e c r u i t s t h e y had l i t t l e o r no say i n p o l i t i c a l , r e l i g i o u s , or

social affairs. Most o f the t i m e i n t h i s g r a d e , s i x t o seven y e a r s , seems

 Xtttt KlK.U i U S P C I O - P O L I T I C A L ORDER

WHERE MAINA I S THE R U L I N G HALF

No D e c i s i o n - M a k i n g POWER GROUPS
Responsibilities Decision-Making Responsibilities

MUMP ANAKE j KARABAF M B U L E OMWE MBULE E G E R I UKURU

(Junior Warrior) (Senior Warrior) (Learning Elder) (Junior Elder) (Senior Elder) (Priest
F i r s t Grade. Second Grade. M a r r i a g e Manda- Child Entering A b o u t 60 Y e a r s By
Entry on Circum- 20-28 Y e a r s o f t o r y f o r Upward MUMO a n d W i f e i n of Age. Peer Electic
c i s i o n A b o u t 14 Age. Mobility. 28-45 Menopause f o r Group Accep- '
Years o f Age. Years o f Age. Upward, M o b i l i t y . tance and
45-60 Y e a r s o f Possessing
Age. Chattels.
u o
u— >»
> i
o m
M A I N A (Ruling Half) <u csj

M (fl U U
M W A N G I (Non-Ruling Half) S rC CU Cfl
M H CJ > flj

MWANGI I R U N G U SHADOW GROUPS

No D e c i s i o n - M a k i n g O b s e r v a t i o n o f Power Groups
Responsibilities
 23

t o have been spent s i n g i n g songs, l e a r n i n g and p e r f o r m i n g dances, m i l i t a r y

s k i l l s , and t r a v e l l i n g over the c o u n t r y . Sheep t e n d i n g , c o n s i d e r e d the work

o f boys, was now g i v e n over t o the more s e r i o u s j o b o f t e n d i n g cow herds.

T h i s was i m p o r t a n t work and an a p p r o p r i a t e t a s k f o r a young w a r r i o r ; espec-

i a l l y i n v i e w o f the f a c t t h a t t h e N i l o - H a m i t i c M a s a i were o f the cattle-

complex p e o p l e s and l i a b l e t o r a i d f o r the purpose o f p r o c u r i n g cows.

Thus t h e i r p r o t e c t i o n and r e t r i e v a l was t h e work o f w a r r i o r s .

The c o r p o r a t e n a t u r e o f the j u n i o r w a r r i o r grade i s e v i d e n c e d in

their l i v i n g habits. F r e q u e n t l y t h e y were housed i n b a r r a c k s t o g e t h e r w i t h

those o f the S e n i o r W a r r i o r Grade (ana'ke'-). D u r i n g war, or t h r e a t of attack,

bothc.grades c o u l d be mustered t o form r e g i m e n t s on a t e r r i t o r i a l b a s i s .

Thus the whole t r i b e c o u l d be o r g a n i z e d t o a c t a g a i n s t t h e i n v a d e r as a

t e r r i t o r i a l whole. Each age-set ( s e v e n i n number) had i t s own spokesman

who was a l l o w e d t o l i s t e n t o t h e d e l i b e r a t i o n s o f the h i g h e r c o u n c i l s .

T h i s i n d i v i d u a l , known as athamaki wa r i i k a ( l e a d e r o f the a g e - s e t ) , was

e v i d e n t l y chosen f o r h i s l e a d e r s h i p q u a l i t i e s . K e n y a t t a says t h a t age-set

l e a d e r s were a c t u a l l y chosen d u r i n g jthe c i r c u m c i s i o n c e r e m o n i a l activi-

ties.^ Lambert observes t h a t a boy's n a t u r a l i n c l i n a t i o n toward leader-

s h i p would m a n i f e s t i n e a r l y c h i l d h o o d . O f t e n a t t h i s age he would arrange

t h e a f f a i r s and p l a y o f o t h e r s ; he would dominate h i s p e e r group u n t i l such

time as he was c h a l l e n g e d by a n o t h e r . He would a f f e c t "a s u p e r i o r k n o w l - :

.

edge o f the grown up l i f e and be' something o f a hero t o h i s s o c i a l equals

65

i n the homestead." I n t h e n o r t h e r n a r e a s o f K i k u y u l a n d and around the

p r e s e n t s i t e of N y e r i ( G a k i ) t h e r e was a c t u a l l y a formal r e c o g n i t i o n of

youthful leadership. The b e s t boys i n t h i s a r e a were r e f e r r e d t o as njama

and f e t e d c e r e m o n i a l l y .
 24

I f d i s p u t e s arose w i t h i n t h e w a r r i o r grades the young l e a d e r would

a c t as a d j u d i c a t o r . O f t e n he was a war l e a d e r . Thus i t seems r e a s o n a b l e

t o i n f e r t h a t h i s p r e s t i g e was founded on h i s a b i l i t y t o f i g h t , t o o r g a n -

i z e and c o n t r o l men i n war and peace, t o m a n i p u l a t e events f o r c o r p o r a t e

s a t i s f a c t i o n — t h u s enhancing h i s r e p u t a t i o n f u r t h e r among h i s e l d e r s — a n d

t o show " d i f f e r e n t " o r s u p e r i o r q u a l i t i e s o f "body and b r a i n .

S e n i o r W a r r i o r Grade (anake )

T h i s was the second grade i n t o w h i c h young w a r r i o r s passed after

h a v i n g s e r v e d a s i x t o seven y e a r a p p r e n t i c e s h i p i n the J u n i o r W a r r i o r

Grade. P r i n s s t a t e s t h a t t h i s grade and i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s s t a n d - out

more c l e a r l y t h a n the j u n i o r grade. R e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s amounted t o t h e

maintenance o f c i v i l o r d e r and the p o l i c i n g o f f e s t i v a l s and markets.

N o t a b l y , s e n i o r o l d e r c o u n c i l s used members o f t h i s grade t o s u p p l y i n f o r m -

a t i o n a g a i n s t o f f e n d e r s and make a r r e s t s . P o l i t i c a l l y their duties invol-

ved the g i v i n g o f a d v i c e i n war and a c t i n g as i n t e r m e d i a r i e s between Jun-

i o r W a r r i o r s and the E l d e r s ' c o u n c i l s . Thus i t can be seen t h a t as ma-

t u r e w a r r i o r s t h e i r p r i m a r y c o n c e r n was w a r f a r e but a t the same time t h e y

were b e i n g a c q u a i n t e d w i t h p o l i t i c a l and j u d i c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f a min-

or n a t u r e . ^ No doubt because o f t h e i r age (20-28) t h e i r d u t i e s were be-

g i n n i n g t o take on a more mature a s p e c t ; e s p e c i a l l y those m a r r i e d men

n e a r i n g the end o f t h e i r time i n the S e n i o r W a r r i o r Grade and s h o r t l y t o

p r o c e e d t o the E l d e r g r a d e s . ^

M i l i t a r y r e g i m e n t s were o r g a n i z e d on a d i s t r i c t ( r u g o n g o ) ^ basis.

L a r g e r m i l i t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s t h a n d d i s t r i c t s i z e a r e n o t r e c o r d e d i n the
 25

l i t e r a t u r e nor can e v i d e n c e be found i n the o r a l t r a d i t i o n .

The army was b r o k e n down i n t o r e g i m e n t s , s i x i n number f o r the

Junior Warrior Grade (one f o r each y e a r of the a n n u a l s e t ) and s i x f o r the

70

Senior Warrior Grade (one f o r each y e a r o f the a n n u a l s e t ) . Each r e g i -

ment was l e d by a c a p t a i n ; each was d i v i d e d i n t o ' f i l e s ' l e d by a l i e u t e n -

ant. S i x c a p t a i n s were a l l o w e d i n t o the c o u n c i l o f war c o n s i s t i n g of a l l

s e n i o r w a r r i o r s (njama ya i t a ) .

These l e a d e r s were chosen by t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r groups

a t g e n e r a l o r p u b l i c assembly. They were men who had
p r o v e d by t h e i r own a c t i o n s , t h e i r c a p a b i l i t y of l e a d e r -
s h i p ; had shown b r a v e r y i n wars; i m p a r t i a l i t y i n j u s t i c e ,
s e l f - s a c r i f i c e ; and above a l l , d i s c i p l i n e i n the group.
A man w i t h t h e s e q u a l i t i e s was a b l e t o a t t a i n a h i g h p o s i -
t i o n and esteem i n the community, e s p e c i a l l y when he r e -
t i r e d from the a c t i v i t i e s o f a w a r r i o r . 7 1

The t a s k o f f o r m u l a t i n g p l a n s , m o b i l i z i n g w a r r i o r s , and leading

the army i n t o combat was not the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f members of the Senior

Warrior Grade. These d u t i e s f e l l t o s e l e c t e d members of the n e x t higher

grade ( J u n i o r E l d e r Grade) who had i n the p a s t d i s t i n g u i s h e d themselves

i n m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s h i p or who p o s s e s s e d m a g i c a l powers (mundu mugu wa i t a

72
—war magician).

Learning E l d e r Grade ( k a r a b a i ).

E n t r y i n t o t h i s group was based upon f u l f i l l m e n t of s o c i a l o b l i g a -

73

tions. K e n y a t t a c i t e s m a r r i a g e as b e i n g a p r e - c o n d i t i o n . Prospective

Learning E l d e r s were a l s o r e q u i r e d t o pay t o e s t a b l i s h e d e l d e r s i n the

grade, a f e e o f one g o a t . Membership would a l s o depend on the date- o f

 26

b i r t h of a f i r s t or further c h i l d . I n t h e l a t t e r r e s p e c t t h e t i m e o f entry-

was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e n t r y o f a man's s o n o r sons i n t o the J u n i o r W a r r i o r

Grade.

O r g a n i z e d on a d i s t r i c t (rugongo) b a s i s , t h e r e was w i t h i n the grade

a c o u n c i l o f e l d e r s known as Kiama g i a Kamatimji.. H o b l e y g i v e s t h e l i t e r a l ,

t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h i s term a s , "those who s i t away." This i n f e r s that they

were n o t y e t c o n s i d e r e d q u a l i f i e d t o a c t as members o f the h i g h e r c o u n c i l s .

P r i n s d e s c r i b e s t h e i r f u n c t i o n as b e i n g p r i m a r i l y concerned w i t h l e a r n i n g

j u d i c i a l p r o c e d u r e b y o b s e r v i n g c o u r t methods, a c t i n g as i n t e r m e d i a r i e s

or s e r v a n t s o f the h i g h e r c o u r t s and g e n e r a l l y c a r r y i n g o u t minor f u n c -

75
tions. A s m a l l number o f them, v a r i o u s l y c i t e d as e i g h t o r n i n e , were
a l l o w e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n the t r i b a l h a l f ceremony ( i t w i k a ) . Ceremonially,

t h e y a c t e d as s k i n n e r s . o r p r o c u r e r s o f s a c r i f i c i a l a n i m a l s on o f f i c i a l
76
occasions.

J u n i o r E l d e r (Athamaki mbule omwe)

Athamaki mbu'le omwe o r l i t e r a l l y , " l e g i s l a t i v e e l d e r s o f the f i r s t

goat" s a t as j u n i o r o f f i c i a l s on the C o u n c i l o f Peace (kiama g i a m a t a a t h i ) .

Though t h e y shared t h i s p r i v i l e g e w i t h e l d e r s o f t h e n e x t s e n i o r grade

(mbule e g e r i ) o r ('.'second g o a t " ) t h e y were not. y e t a d m i t t e d i n t o the

h i g h e s t t r i b a l c o u n c i l s as a d v i s o r s . A l s o , i t s h o u l d be n o t e d , o n l y those

o f t h e r u l i n g h a l f o f the t r i b e , Maina o r Mwangi, were a l l o w e d t o t a k e

77

t h e i r p l a c e s on the C o u n c i l o f Peace.

E n t r y i n t o J u n i o r E l d e r s t a t u s depended upon the t i m e the c h i l d

o f a p r o s p e c t i v e e l d e r was c i r c u m c i s e d o r e n t e r e d the grade o f J u n i o r

 27

W a r r i o r (mumo). Those e n t e r i n g the grade were a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4-5 years

o f age p r o v i d i n g t h e i r e a r l i e r p r o g r e s s i o n had been normal and unhindered

(non-payment o f dues). Kenyatta c i t e s the grade as b e i n g d i v i d e d i n t o

79
two h a l v e s , each w i t h e s t a b l i s h e d f u n c t i o n s . H o b l e y says t h a t i n f a c t
80
two s e p a r a t e grades e x i s t e d each w i t h i t s owndduties and responsibilities.

S e n i o r E l d e r (Athamaki mbule e g e r i )

Athamaki mbule e g e r i o r l i t e r a l l y , " l e g i s l a t i v e e l d e r s o f the

second goat" must be r e g a r d e d as a r u l i n g d i v i s i o n h a v i n g senior adminis-

t r a t i v e and l e g i s l a t i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . E n t r y i n t o the grade depended)

as i n p r e v i o u s c a s e s , on age and s o c i a l accomplishments. The r u l i n g half,

Maina o r Mwangi, s a t on the C o u n c i l o f Peace as a d v i s o r s .

It i s interesting t o n o t e , w i t h r e g a r d t o age and s o c i a l accomplish-

ments as q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r p r o g r e s s i o n , t h a t such were no l o n g e r entirely

necessary f o r p r o m o t i o n from mbule e g e r i t o the most s e n i o r g r a d e , Ukuru

(Priest). I f the case w a r r a n t e d ; f o r example the d e a t h o f Ukuru members,

mbule e g e r i c o u l d be e l e c t e d t o the h i g h e s t o f f i c e by p o p u l a r acclamation.

Thus we see t h a t the system a l l o w e d s o c i a l p r o g r e s s i o n t o the h i g h e s t grade

on the b a s i s o f m e r i t and p e r s o n a l s u i t a b i l i t y . I n t h i s way f a i r l y young

men ($0-55 y e a r s o f age) who had showed g r e a t c a p a b i l i t y , knowledge and

j u d i c i a l e x p e r t i s e d u r i n g t h e i r p r o g r e s s i o n t h r o u g h the l o w e r g r a d e s , c o u l d

r i s e t o the t o p l e a d e r s h i p p o s i t i o n s .
 28

Priest (Ukuru)

T h i s grade r e p r e s e n t e d t h e peak o f K i k u y u s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l p r o g r e s -

sion. E n t r y i n t o t h e grade was based upon t h e i n d i v i d u a l h a v i n g a c h i e v e d

81
certain social qualifications. A l l h i s c h i l d r e n , f o r example, had t o

have been c i r c u m c i s e d and h i s w i f e was t o be p a s t c h i l d - b e a r i n g age.

M i d d l e t o n says e l d e r s o f t h i s grade i d e n t i f i e d themselves by c a r r y i n g a

bunch o f l e a v e s (maturanguru) and by means o f a s p e c i a l e a r - r i n g . They

were a l l o w e d t o make s a c r i f i c i a l o f f e r i n g s t o t h e K i k u y u God ( N g a i ) on

b e h a l f o f t h e i r community, d e c i d e t h e d a t e s o f c i r c u m c i s i o n s , t h e t i m e o f

t h e i t w i k a ceremony (change o f power) and t o conduct thahu ( r i t u a l u n c l e a n -

l i n e s s ) removal p r o c e e d i n g s . A r b i t r a t i o n o f l e g a l d i s p u t e s was a l s o w i t h i n
82
their jurisdiction. One o f t h e i r most i m p o r t a n t d u t i e s was t o summon t h e
83

kiama ( c o u n c i l ) " f o r t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f q u e s t i o n s o f n a t i o n a l i m p o r t a n c e . "

The l a s t statement i s most i n t e r e s t i n g i n v i e w o f t h e f a c t t h a t s o c i o - p o l i -

t i c a l m a t t e r s a r e o f t e n thought t o have been conducted o n l y on a l o c a l o r

t e r r i t o r i a l basis.

C o n t r a r y t o t h e f o r e g o i n g statement t h a t Ukuru f u l f i l l e d certain

s o c i a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s b e f o r e e n t r y i n t o the grade, some e v i d e n c e s t r o n g l y

s u g g e s t s t h i s n o t t o be e n t i r e l y t h e c a s e . The l i t e r a t u r e c o n t a i n s , f o r

example, s t a t e m e n t s t h a t r e l a t i v e l y young men became Ukuru. The e x p l a n a -

t i o n , according to Mair,
. . i s t h a t here t h e h e r e d i t y p r i n c i p l e p l a y s a p a r t — n o t
i n t h e sense t h a t t h e s t a t u s o f r i t u a l e l d e r i s r e s e r v e d
f o r a p a r t i c u l a r l i n e a g e , b u t i n t h e sense t h a t e v e r y
l i n e a g e has t o have a r i t u a l e l d e r . T h i s would be easy
t o u n d e r s t a n d i n a s o c i e t y where t h e s p i r i t s o f t h e a n c e s -
t o r s b u l k so l a r g e i n r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f , s i n c e such s p i r i t s
a r e always b e l i e v e d _ t o be concerned o n l y w i t h t h e i r own
descendants and a p p r o a c h a b l e o n l y b y them.
 29

Moreover, she asserts that i n some lineages probably more than one o l d

man a t t a i n e d t h i s status although i t i s e n t i r e l y p o s s i b l e that the senior

tribesman of any lineage who i s a l s o i t s secular head, has to be an Ukuru

"even i f through some a c c i d e n t a l circumstance he i s a r e l a t i v e l y young

T e r r i t o r i a l Organization, Sets and Leadership

The Kikuyu grades were organized on two l e v e l s ; v i l l a g e and dis-

trict. Here the word " v i l l a g e " i s used f o r want of a b e t t e r expression.

The v i l l a g e as Europeans.understand i t was not t r a d i t i o n a l to the Kikuyu

tribes. The European concept was introduced l a t e r and was a forced mea-
85

sure adopted by the B r i t i s h to counteract Mau Mau. In f a c t , u n t i l the

advent of Mau Mau i n 1952, the Kikuyu had l i v e d i n small f a m i l i a l c l u s t e r s

atop the numerous ridges. Perhaps the Kikuyu word i t u r a more a p t l y express-

es the concept rather than " v i l l a g e . " Notably i t should be seen as a word

bearing p o l i t i c a l rather than t e r r i t o r i a l connotations.

Each i t u r a possessed a c o u n c i l of elders comprising representa-

t i v e s from the r u l i n g h a l f of the elder grades. P r i n s s p o t l i g h t s t h i s as

86

being the key t e r r i t o r i a l governing u n i t . Certainly i t s deliberations

embraced the key a r e a l u n i t of the t r i b e ; the i t u r a or r i d g e . In terms of

importance i t was placed above the homestead or family governing body and

below the d i s t r i c t (rugongo) c o u n c i l . I t had j u r i s d i c t i o n over a l l i t u r a -

area s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l a f f a i r s and l e g a l cases. A u t h o r i t y w i t h i n the coun-

c i l rested w i t h those members drawn from mbule e g e r i and Ukuru. The itura

c o u n c i l was known as the ' c o u n c i l of nine. '•

 30

The d i s t r i c t (rugongo) was the largest t e r r i t o r i a l u n i t . There

i s only s l i g h t evidence to suggest that matters of great importance were

decided at a higher l e v e l than the d i s t r i c t . The council comprising nine

elders from each ridge (kiama kinene) was sometimes known as the 'big

council'. Meeting only occasionally and f o r s p e c i f i c purposes, they

are probably best described as guardians of t r i b a l l o r e , custom and c u l -

ture. The exalted and venerable Ukuru of the council were empowered to

decide the date of the itwika f o r handing over power to the relevant tri-

b a l half (Mwangi or Maina) . . . They also decided the name designation

87

and circumcision dates of the forthcoming annual age-sets. When nec-

essary they formulated case law, changed customary law and adjudicated

cases of crime or breaches of t r i b a l custom. Theirs was the f i n a l court

of appeal to the l i t i g a n t who had progressively taken h i s case through the

88

lower elders' councils. Importantly, they were more often than not d i s -

regarded, as p o t e n t i a l chiefs or sources of l i a s i o n , by the B r i t i s h Colonial

Administration.

Names of Kikuyu grades were both status and function oriented.

Youth, learning elder, elder and p r i e s t , as terms used to describe func-

tion, a l l give i n d i c a t i o n of s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y within the t r i b a l socio-

p o l i t i c a l organization. Youths within the junior warrior grade were nec-

e s s a r i l y associated with f i g h t i n g , the physical defence of the t r i b e , i t s

c a t t l e and i t s chattels. Middle groups, senior warriors and learning

elders aged between, say 25 and 50, assumed t y p i c a l l y "middle" roles of

a q u a s i - p o l i t i c a l nature. P r i e s t s , who were "great", exalted and "old",

were close to the centre of j u d i c i a l , magical and r e l i g i o u s power. Their

status was based upon peer acceptance, age, and membership of the r u l i n g
 31

h a l f o f the t r i b e (Mwangi o r M a i n a ) .

The a n n u a l s e t e x i s t e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f grades, tended t o c u t a c r o s s

t r i b a l d i v i s i o n s and was c o r p o r a t e l y independent. Demonstrating t r i b a l sol-

i d a r i t y by group a c t i o n , i t s members r e f e r r e d t o each o t h e r as " b r o t h e r "

or "my t r i b a l equal." The b a s i s o f t h e i r k i n s h i p was found i n the f a c t

t h a t t h e y had e n t e r e d K i k u y u s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l l i f e t o g e t h e r as p e e r s . The

use o f such terms as " b r o t h e r " o r "my t r i b a l e q u a l " would suggest the con-

cept o f e q u a l i t y among those o f the a n n u a l s e t . And y e t a c l o s e r examina-

t i o n o f t h e K i k u y u s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e r e v e a l s more t h a n a sugges-

t i o n t h a t p o l i t i c a l e q u a l i t y d i d not p r e v a i l . ' Despite the presumption

t h a t K i k u y u s o c i e t y was c o r p o r a t e , t h e r e i s s t r o n g e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t a

c o n t e n t i o n t h a t i n d i v i d u a l i s m e x i s t e d and, moreover, was a c t u a l l y p r o v i d e d

for. We have, f o r example, Low's a s s e r t i o n t h a t the K i k u y u "were t h r o w i n g

up, i f n o t c h i e f s , t h e n some 'prominent i n d i v i d u a l s ' o f some c o n s i d e r a b l e

consequence." C e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l s (muthamaki) were s a i d by the K i k u y u

to " a p p o i n t " themselves f o r l e a d e r s h i p " i n c h i l d h o o d " and t o p r o c e e d more

r a p i d l y t h a n t h e i r p e e r s t o a s e n i o r grade. L e a d e r s h i p , i n d e e d as i n

European s o c i e t i e s , was seen i n the c o n t e x t o f p e r s o n a l i t y , a b i l i t y and

generally charismatic qualities. He so p o s s e s s e d and r e c o g n i z e d c o u l d

e x p e c t t o p r o c e e d more r a p i d l y t h r o u g h the v a r i o u s grades t o l e a d e r s h i p

and s e n i o r i t y . Thus scope was a f f o r d e d t h e e s p e c i a l l y endowed and i n t h i s

90

way the system a v o i d e d " d i e - h a r d r u l e by t h e - d e c r e p i t o r s e n i l e . "

That l e a d e r s h i p and i t s • q u a l i t i e s were i m p o r t a n t i s seen i n the

K i k u y u p r o v e r b , I r e gothua ndongorya i t i k i n y a g e r a n y e k i , "The goats h a v i n g

a lame l e a d e r do n o t a r r i v e i n the g r a s s . " T r a n s l a t e d , t h i s proverb would

 32

suggest t h a t " l e a d e r s h i p i s e v e r y t h i n g . " Lambert quotes a K i k u y u p r o -

92
verb t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t a l e a d e r i s " r u l e d b y h i s head and n o t b y h i s
93

h e a r t " and t h a t "he l o o k s b e f o r e he l e a p s and never l o s e s h i s temper."

On t h e m a t t e r o f l e a d e r s h i p a government r e p o r t s t a t e s :
. . . t h e - t o - u s somewhat i n d e f i n i t e q u a l i t y o f
"Ugambi" ( l e a d e r s h i p ) i s a complex o f i n t e l l i -
gence, p e r s o n a l i t y , good r e p u t a t i o n , s o c i a l and
economic s u c c e s s , and a sound h e r e d i t y . Real
w e a l t h counts b u t i s n o t e s s e n t i a l . "Ugambi"
i s more t h a n a mere appointment. I t i m p l i e s
something o f t h e "common decency" o f t h e E n g l i s h
"gentleman", something o f t h e "ungwana" o f t h e
S w a h i l i . . . a mugambi i s primus i n t e r p a r e s
because o f h i s e x c e p t i o n a l courage and u p r i g h t
c h a r a c t e r , m a n i f e s t e d i n y o u t h and m a i n t a i n e d
i n manhood. . . 9 4

R e c o g n i t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h l e a d e r s h i p q u a l i t i e s was g i v e n on

a local basis. The term muthumaki wa r i k a ( v a r i o u s l y r i i k a ) was used t o

r e f e r t o a young man who b y a c c l a m a t i o n v.was; c o n s i d e r e d f i t to lead h i s

r e s p e c t i v e age-set. Young l e a d e r s o f h i g h c a l i b r e were a l l o w e d t o l i s t e n

t o I e a d e K S d e l i b e r a t e c o u r t c a s e s and on o c c a s i o n were even c o n s u l t e d . If

w a r r a n t e d b y p r o v e n competence, s e l e c t e d men were g i v e n t h e t i t l e athamaki

wa c h i r a ( l e a d e r s i n l a w ) and " h u r r i e d a l o n g t h e road t o s e n i o r i t y ahead o f

their fellows." As t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e r e p u t a t i o n s grew so d i d t h e i r tribal

responsibilities. They would become, f o r example, spokesmen o f f a m i l y

group, v i l l a g e ( i t u r a ) and d i s t r i c t .

Uthamaki ( t h e s t a t e o f l e a d e r s h i p ) f e l l i n t o grades each o f q u a l i t y

r a t h e r t h a n a c t u a l rank. F o r example, t h e athamaki d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y p o s s -

ess o u t s t a n d i n g knowledge o f t r i b a l l a w o r s o c i a l r i t u a l . Grades o f l e a d e r -

s h i p were a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n d i v i d u a l p r o f i c i e n c i e s . Some muthumaki ( s i n g -

u l a r ) were c o n s i d e r e d e x p e r t s i n t r i b a l l a w w h i l e o t h e r s were r e g a r d e d as
 33

war l e a d e r s o r e x c e p t i o n a l w a r r i o r s . Hence t h e s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e

made p r o v i s i o n f o r " l e a d e r s " i n war, i n law, i n r e l i g i o n , i n p o l i t i c s , e t c .

The l a t t e r p r o f i c i e n c y , p o l i t i c s , was i m p o r t a n t i n t h a t i t s exponents be-

came known over w i d e r g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a s t h a n o t h e r s whose r e s p o n s i b i l i -

t i e s and r e p u t a t i o n s were l o c a l . Lambert c i t e s t h e p h r a s e muthumaki wa

b u r u r i ( l e a d e r o f t h e c o u n t r y ) as b e i n g used t o d e s c r i b e such men. More-

over, i f the p e r s o n a l i t y and l e a d e r s h i p q u a l i t i e s o f such men were excep-

t i o n a l , t h e y c o u l d and o f t e n d i d become l o c a l a u t o c r a t s about whom t h e

a f f a i r s o f the t r i b e revolved. Low's a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h e " K i k u y u were

throwing up, i f n o t c h i e f s , 'prominent i n d i v i d u a l s ' o f some c o n s i d e r a b l e

-•consequence" o b v i o u s l y r e f e r s , t h e r e f o r e , t o ath'amaki Moreover, a l s o ,

W a z e l i and K i p p i n g o of Burton's experience, K a r u r e o f F o r t H a l l and

Wangombi o f Gaki ( N y e r i ) known t o Cagnolo, K a r k e r r i and K a r o l i o f John

Boyes' a c q u a i n t a n c e and t h e p o w e r f u l and i n f l u e n t i a l K i n a n j u i known t o

. b o t h Governor H a r d i n g e and D i s t r i c t Commissioner A i n s w o r t h , were a l l

athamaki and men who had d i s p l a y e d a t a l e n t f o r l e a d e r s h i p . I t would n o t

take l o n g f o r t h e B r i t i s h t o r e a l i z e t h e importance o f i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e s e

men i n t o an A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n t e n t upon e s t a b l i s h i n g dominion o v e r t h e

K i k u y u b u t p l a g u e d by p e r s o n n e l s h o r t a g e s and s h o e - s t r i n g b u d g e t s .
 34

FOOTNOTES

The Kikuyu people are variously referred to as Kikuyu, Akikuyu,

Agikuyu, Gikuyu, Gekuyu or Gekoyo. The correct designations, according
to John Middleton, "The Kikuyu and Kamba of Kenya" i n Ethnographic Sur-
vey of A f r i c a , ed. D. Forde, (London: International A f r i c a n Institute,
1953), p. H f , are Mukikuyu ( p l . Akikuyu) f o r the people, Ukikuyu f o r
the country and Kikikuyu f o r the language. He notes Gekuyu and Gekoyo
as being phonetic renditions and probably more accurate i n verbal des-
c r i p t i o n of the people than the commonly used Kikuyu. Throughout t h i s
thesis the term "Kikuyu" w i l l be used to r e f e r to the inhabitants of
the core areas, Kiambu, Fort H a l l and Nyeri, while the term "Kikuyu
t r i b e s " w i l l be used to encompass those of the three core-areas to-
gether with the c l o s e l y a f f i l i a t e d Embu and Meru t r i b e s .

2
An area previously designated Ukamba, Kenia Province (1901)
(variously Kenya Province), Kikuyu Province (Proclamation 54, 1924)
and subsequently to the present, Central Province (Proclamation 109,
1933). See S.H. Ominde, Land and Population Movements i n Kenya,
(London: Heinemann, 1968), pp. 9-10-12, and f i g s . 1.5?,1.6, 1.7.

3
See John Goldthorpe and F.B. Wilson, T r i b a l Maps of East
A f r i c a and Zanzibar, (Kampala: East A f r i c a n Institute of S o c i a l Re-
search, I960), map 5, "Tribes of Kenya, Sub-tribes of Kikuyu, Embu and
Meru." See also Middleton, pp. 11-2 and H.E. Lambert, Kikuyu S o c i a l and
P o l i t i c a l Institutions, (London: International A f r i c a n Institute and
OUP, 1956), pp. 1-2.

^See Walter Fitzgerald, A f r i c a : A S o c i a l , Economic and P o l i t -

i c a l Geography of i t s Major Regions, (London: Methuen, 1934), pp. 253-4-

5
The major area of.European settlement. Early European t r a v e l -
l e r s were greatly impressed by the large stretches of apparently unused
and p o t e n t i a l l y f e r t i l e land. S i r Charles E l i o t , Commissioner, East
A f r i c a n Protectorate, 1901-1904, and Lord Delemere, gave this area i t s
clearest description as a region suitable f o r European settlement. Both
triggered, the impetus f o r settlement. See Elspeth Huxley, White Man's
Country, vols. I and 2, (London: Macmillan, 1935), f o r perhaps the best
description of white settlement i n Kenya.
 35

So-called a f t e r two eminent Masai encountered and c u l t i v a t e d as

collaborators by early B r i t i s h administrators.

Known l o c a l l y as the Sagana River, becoming the Tana east of

Mount Kenya. The Kiswahili phrase, "Damu w a A f r i k a " (Blood of A f r i c a )
i s descriptive of the-Tana o u t f a l l into the Indian Ocean north of
Malindi and refers to the t y p i c a l l y red s o i l of Kikuyuland discolouring
the sea at that point.

Mombasa i s the second major c i t y of Kenya and i s the "greatest

port of the A f r i c a n l i t t o r a l . " I t i s linked by r a i l and road to Nairobi
and Lake V i c t o r i a . See Fitzgerald, pp. 229-230.

Bantu, a l i n g u i s t i c term, has been given an ethnic connotation

and i n t h i s context i s used to describe many peoples of southern and
eastern A f r i c a who may have had a common o r i g i n i n what i s now central
Nigeria. See Roland Oliver, Journal of A f r i c a n History, v o l . 7, (1966),
pp. 361-76.

See C.G. Seligman, Races of A f r i c a , (London: OUP, 1937). For

a discussion of the WaChagga, WaTeita and WaPokomo Bantu t r i b e s , see
A.H.J. Prdns, "The Coastal Tribes of North-Eastern Bantu" i n Ethnographic
Survey of A f r i c a , Part 11, ed. D. Forde, (London: International A f r i c a n
Institute, 1952).

Edward W. Soja, The Geography of Modernization i n Kenya: A

S p a t i a l Analysis of Social, Economic and P o l i t i c a l Change, (Syracuse:
University Press, 1968), p. 8. G.W.B. Huntingford suggests that the
e a r l i e s t Bantu movements to the east took place i n the early centuries
of the C h r i s t i a n era.

^See Sonia Cole, The Pre-History of East Africa,(London: Harmons-

worth, 1964-), passim f o r a description of the e a r l i e r ethnography, of East
A f r i c a . See also "Notes on the Origin and History of the Dorobo and
Kikuyu- Tribes" i n Man, (1908), p. 76 and L.S.B. Leakey, The Stone-Age
Cultures of Kenya Colony, (London: Methuen, 1931); The Stone-Age Races
of Kenya, (London: Methuen, 1934-).
 36

13
Huntingford, passim pp. 58-93-

'V.L. G r o t a n e l l i , "A Lost A f r i c a n Metropolis" i n A f r i k a n i s t i s c h e

Studien, ( B e r l i n : n.p., 1955), p. 236. See also G.S.P. Freeman-Granville,
"The Coast 14-98-1840" i n Oliver and Mathew eds., History of East A f r i c a ,
pp. 129-168. See also A.H.J. Prins, where Shungwaya i s "probably r i g h t l y
i d e n t i f i e d with the vast deserted s i t e of B i r Gao or Port Durnford."
Prins observes, also, that the Kitab-al Zanuj "andtitheir o r a l t r a d i t i o n s
claim Shungwaya as being the dispersal point f o r the Kikuyu, Meru etc..."

15
Which would locate Shungwaya roughly between the Juba and
Tana r i v e r s .

16
Huntingford, pp. 58-93-

17
Gervase Mathew suggests that Galla pressure from the north
forced the Shungwaya Bantu to move westward about 1600.

18
Some current research i s at variance with the established view
that Shungwaya was t h e . f i n a l dispersal point of the Kikuyu t r i b e s . See,
for example, J. Forbes Munro, "Migrations of the Bantu-speaking Peoples
of the Eastern Kenya Highlands: a Reappraisal""'in Journal of A f r i c a n
History, v o l . 8, (1967), pp. 25-8. See also, Satish C. Saterwal, "His-
t o r i c a l Notes on the Embu of Central Kenya" i n Journal of African History,
v o l . 8, (1967), pp. 29-38. Here Saterwal states that the main source of
the Shungwaya hypothesis, H.E. Lambert, Systems of Land Tenure i n the
Kikuyu Land Unit, (Capetown: School of A f r i c a n Studies, No. 22, 1950)
i s i n fact more cautious on the matter of Shungwaya than those who have
copied from i t . Saberwal states further that Kikuyu o r i g i n at Shungwaya
has no basis i n f a c t and unless authentic archaeological evidence i s
forthcoming, i t cannot be said d e c i s i v e l y that Kikuyu t r i b e s migrated
west to t h e i r present core-areas from Shungwaya. Moreover, t h i s view
i s supported by the finding that some coastal peoples who remember
Shungwaya, do not mention Kikuyu t r i b e s as being there. Nor, i t i s f u r -
ther emphasized, do the t r a d i t i o n s of the Kikuyu t r i b e s themselves point
to Shungwaya as being a place of congregation and ultimate d i s p e r s a l —
except, perhaps, with the exception of the Meru. See also, B.G. Mcintosh,
"The Eastern Bantu Peoples" i n Zamani: A Survey of East A f r i c a n History,
eds. B.A. Ogot and J.A. Kieran, (Nairobi: EAPH, 1968), pp. 200-205.
 37

19
C u l t u r a l and l i n g u i s t i c s i m i l a r i t i e s , i t should be noted,
e x i s t between the Bantu WaGiriama, who remained i n the c o a s t a l area, and
the Kikuyu migrants who proceeded west along the Tana watercourse.

20
Lambert, i - i i i ,

21
L.S.B. Leakey, Mau Mau and the Kikuyu, (London: Methuen,
1952), p. 2. For a more contemporary viewpoint see B.G. Mcintosh,
pp. 209-10. " I t would be too simple . . . to assume that the migrations
from Shungwaya took place i n close succession, or that the migrants moved
s w i f t l y through empty lands. The departures from Shungwaya of the proto
Pokomo, Kamba and Kikuyu may be s a i d to belong to the t h i r t e e n t h and
fourteenth and those of the Nyika, Meru and T a i t a to the f i f t e e n t h and
s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . In the course of the migrations several temporary
resettlements were made at Kirao and at other places, and many peoples
took c i r c u i t o u s routes and retraced t h e i r steps before s e t t l i n g perma-
nently. And f i n a l l y , although the Eastern Bantu were m u l t i p l y i n g i n
numbers more r a p i d l y than any other peoples, the process of absorption
of p r e - e x i s t i n g peoples and of expansion i n t o t h e i r modern habitants
was f a r from complete at the s t a r t of the nineteenth century." For an
account of Meru migrations see J e f f r e y A. Fadiman, " E a r l y H i s t o r y of
the Meru of Mt. Kenya," i n Journal of A f r i c a n H i s t o r y , v o l . 14-, (1973),
i:

pp. 9-27.

22
Roland O l i v e r , " D i s c e r n i b l e Developments i n the I n t e r i o r " i n
H i s t o r y of East A f r i c a , p. 202.

Q-3

Photographs i n F r . Cagnolo, The Akikuyu, (Consolata M i s s i o n ,

1933) i n d i c a t e remarkable s i m i l a r i t i e s i n dress, posture and h a i r s t y l e
between Masai ( N i l o - H a m i t i c s ) and Kikuyu (Bantu).

24
See note above regarding use of term Bantu and other s i m i l a r
l i n g u i s t i c d e s c r i p t i o n s of East A f r i c a n t r i b e s . For e l u c i d a t i o n of the
" C u s h i t i c " theory see J.E.G. Sutton, "The Settlement of East A f r i c a " i n
eds. B.A. Ogot and J.A. Kieran, Zamani, pp. 96-99.

25
Huntingford, p. 91.

26
Leakey, Mau Mau, pp. 7-
 38

27
For a comprehensive d i s c u s s i o n on Masai-Kikuyu r e l a t i o n s see
W i l l i a m L. Lawren, "Masai and Kikuyu: An H i s t o r i c a l A n a l y s i s of Culture
Transmission" i n Journal of A f r i c a n H i s t o r y , v o l . 9, (1969), pp. 571-583.
"The h i s t o r y of Masai-Kikuyu r e l a t i o n s f e l l i n t o two d i s t i n c t periods;
one r e l a t i v e l y short, the other much longer. The f i r s t period commenced
w i t h the i n i t i a l contact of the Masai and Kikuyu, which has been placed
at about 1750. During t h i s time, a t l e a s t some segments of both t r i b e s
were l i v i n g on the p l a i n s i n the v i c i n i t y of Mount Kenya, and i n t h i s
environment ibhe Masai undoubtedly raided the Kikuyu quite frequently.
Although some contact of a l e s s b e l l i c o s e nature apparently took place,
the period was e s s e n t i a l l y one i n which c o n f l i c t between the two t r i b e s
was the order of the day... . .The second period began i n the l a t e
eighteenth century w i t h the movement of the Kikuyu i n t o the f o r e s t s
south of the Chania River. Having l e f t a broad b e l t of f o r e s t around
t h e i r new t e r r i t o r y which the Masai found very d i f f i c u l t to penetrate,
the Kikuyu throughout the nineteenth century were l e f t r e l a t i v e l y free
from Masai attack. Occasional r a i d s took place, but r e l a t i o n s were
g e n e r a l l y peaceful."

2 8
S o j a , p. 11.

D.A. Low, "The Northern I n t e r i o r 18-40-188-4, i n H i s t o r y of

East A f r i c a , pp. 301-2.

30
Roland O l i v e r and John D. Page, A Short H i s t o r y of A f r i c a ,
(London: Penguin A f r i c a n L i b r a r y , 1962), pp. 4-4-52.

31
Kenneth Ingham, A H i s t o r y of East A f r i c a , (London: Longmans,
n.d., ), pp. 54-5.

32
See Great B r i t a i n , Foreign O f f i c e , Report by S i r A. Hardinge
on the Condition and Progress of the East A f r i c a Protectorate from I t s
Establishment to the 20th July, 1897, ( A f r i c a No. 7, 1897), Cmd. 8683,
p. 24. "In places v i l l a g e s are found of 200 or 300 houses, and e l s e -
where there are c l u s t e r s of hamlets extending p r e t t y continuously f o r
from h a l f a mile to a mile, and containing perhaps a 1000 inhabitants. ;

The general r u l e throughout the province i s , however, except among the

Masai. . . that f a m i l i e s of from 30 to 100 s e t t l e i n separate v i l l a g e s ,
each having i t s own granaries and stockade f o r c a t t l e . . . huts are
thatched bee-hive structures u n i v e r s a l throughout Central A f r i c a . "
 39

I b i d , pp. 22-3. The Masai of Kenia or Kikuyu D i s t r i c t , con-

s i s t e d of one t r i b e , the Naivasha (or Kinanggp Masai), whose " c h i e f "
was Lenana, and the broken remnants of seven other t r i b e s , the. Dogelani,
Buruko, L i g o r a d i , Matapatu, Kurukoni, Gikinuka and Kapte Masai. "Once
t h e i r own f l o c k s and herds were decimated by the great c a t t l e plague,
the Masai, a p u r e l y p a s t o r a l people, were compelled by famine to depend
not p a r t i a l l y as before, but e x c l u s i v e l y on r a i d s , and about h a l f , or
perhaps more, of the w a r r i o r s of a given t r i b e would be absent f o r a
long period on a foray, leaving the k r a a l , which w i t h them, owing to the
d i s l i k e of the whole race f o r any manual labour, i s never stockaded or
provided w i t h defensive works of any kind, protected by only a few hun-
dred men. . . . The Wakikuyu would be on the watch f o r these r a i d i n g
expeditions, and as soon as one was w e l l on the way would swoop down on
the undefended k r a a l i n overwhelming numbers, and the r a i d e r s would r e -
turn w i t h t h e i r s p o i l s only to f i n d t h e i r houses i n ashes, and the women
and c h i l d r e n whom they had l e f t behind there c a r r i e d o f f to be sold as
slaves." According to Hardinge, "The t o t a l number of Masai i n the Kenia
D i s t r i c t , i n c l u d i n g the Wanderobbo ( s i c ) (a h e l o t Bantu race s e r v i l e to
both the Masai and Kikuyu) . . . (was) . . . estimated by Mr. Ainsworth
. . . to be . . . 23,000. This t o t a l excluded some 4-0000 o l d men, women
and c h i l d r e n andn832 Elmoran, or w a r r i o r s , under the close s u p e r v i s i o n
of a B r i t i s h o f f i c e r based at Ngongo Bagas." By contrast Ainsworth es-
timated the. number of Kikuyu i n the d i s t r i c t as being i n the region of
300Q000 . . . "although other experts estimate t h i s f i g u r e as being too
high."

See G.H. Mungeam, "Masai and Kikuyu Responses to the E s t a b l i s h -

ment of B r i t i s h A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n the East A f r i c a n Protectorate," Journal
of A f r i c a n H i s t o r y, v o l . 2, (1970), pp. 127-43 and D.A. Low,."The Northern,"
p. 312. See a l s o Great B r i t a i n , Foreign O f f i c e , Report by His Majesty's
Commissioner on the East A f r i c a n Protectorate, ( A f r i c a No. 6, 1903), Cmd.
1626, p. 7. '.'... the Kikuyu are by no means averse to f i g h t i n g or
r a i d i n g other t r i b e s when occasion o f f e r s , t h e i r h a b i t u a l occupation i s
q u a r r e l l i n g w i t h one another." W i l l i a m L. Lawren, "Masai and Kikuyu,"
p. 575 points out that on occasion " . . . the Kikuyu, Masai, and Dorobo
did u n i t e a f t e r a fashion" i n attempts to ward o f f Somali and G a l l a i n -
cursions i n t o Kikuyuland.

>
Great B r i t a i n , Cmd. 1626, p. 7. "They seem (the Kikuyu) i n
many ways intermediate between that t r i b e (the Wakamba) and the Masai,
and may, perhaps, be hybrids. I t i s c e r t a i n that the famine of 1882 gave
r i s e to some curious r e l a t i o n s h i p s between the two t r i b e s . In some cases
the Masai s e t t l e d i n the r i c h e r Kikuyu d i s t r i c t s near Mount Kenya, and
took Kikuyu wives, and i n others they entered the service of Kikuyu
Chiefs ( s i c ) and formed a sort of mercenary force. I t i s conceivable
that s i m i l a r events i n the remoter past may have a f f e c t e d the p h y s i c a l
 40

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the whole race." See also, Sutton, i n Zamani,

pp. 9 3 - 4 . "The Bantu who l i v e i n the Highlands east of the R i f t Valley
(Kikuyu, Kamba, Chagga, etc.) . . . have absorbed many non-Bantu elements.
These include, besides, hunter-gatherers and Southern Cushites, pastor-
a l i s t s of diverse origins . . . ." Lawren, p. 577 points out, also,
that "there was a continual tendency of the two t r i b e s (Masai and
Kikuyu) to intermarry . . . there are t r a d i t i o n s which indicate that
remnants of the Laikipiak and other Masai-speaking peoples s e t t l e d and
intermarried with the Kikuyu. The endogamous r e s t r i c t i o n s of the
Kikuyu t r a d i t i o n a l l y regarded both intermarriage and blood-brotherhood
as useful implements toward the cementing of f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s . "

Although "absorbed" into the Kikuyu t r i b e , the Wanderobo were

not accorded the same p r i v i l e g e s by the Masai. See Great B r i t a i n ,
Cmd. 8683, p. 23 i n which Hardinge points out that the Wanderobo was
". . . A helot tribe or rather caste, formed out of various conquered
and enslaved neighbouring tribes of Bantu race, constitutes the s e r v i l e
class among the Masai, and performs the necessary domestic and manual
labour . . . This race . . . i s known as the Eldorobo ( s i c ) . . . they
are forbidden to marry Masai women, and t h e i r kraals are separate from
those of t h e i r Masai masters. This i s the only approach i n the province
to any regular system of domestic slavery."

Leakey, Mau Mau, pp. 3-4-5. See also Leakey, The Stone Age,
p. 98 and C. Dundas, "Notes on the Origin and History of the Dorobo and
Kikuyu Tribes" i n Man (1908), p. 76.

''"Care must be taken i n attempting delineation of ethnographic

boundaries: e s p e c i a l l y those of the geographer who tends to draw hard
and fast l i n e s . Any map purporting to show early t r i b a l areas i s "suspect"
and should be interpreted i n terms of approximation rather than actual
f a c t . Accurate maps require information more than i s presently available.
What can be said p o s i t i v e l y , with respect to the location of Kikuyu
t r i b e s , i s that they occupied roughly the area under discussion.
A d i f f i c u l t problem also i s the i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of d e f i n i t e s o c i a l
boundaries. The c u l t u r a l landscape can be characterized by i t s complexity
and s o c i o - t e r r i t o r i a l f l u i d i t y . Clusters of people existed i n e t h n i c a l l y
circumscribed c e l l s . They were often homogeneous i n the core areas but
mixed on the peripheries due to Masai and Kikuyu intermarriage.

Low, "The Northern," p. 311. See also Leakey, Mau Mau, pp. 2-8
and Lambert, Kikuyu, pp. 105-6. My underline.
 41

Quoted by Low i n "The Northern" and extracted from M. G u i l l a i n ,

Documents sur L ' h i s t o i r e , La Geographie et Le Commerce de L'Afrique
Orientale, 3 vols., n.p. 1856, i i i , p. 295.

^"Cagnolo, The Akikuyu, passim.

/ 2
John Boyes, King of the WaKikuyu, (London: Methuen, 1911),
p. 97.

43
The word " t r i b e " i s often used as a r e l a t i v e term by people
who consider themselves c i v i l i z e d , as a way. of describing societies they
do not regard as c i v i l i z e d . Thus the word has derogatory connotations.
Its use i n t h i s thesis should not be construed as being concerned with
l e v e l s of c i v i l i z a t i o n but rather with p o l i t i c a l d i v i s i o n s of large popu-
l a t i o n s c a l l i n g themselves by similar names and speaking similar languages.

W r i t e r s of papers on A f r i c a n subjects frequently f i n d i t d i f f i -

cult to decide whether they should write i n the present or past tense.
Some of the sources i n t h i s thesis are almost one hundred years o l d and
what they say may no longer be true; e s p e c i a l l y i n view of the fact that
t r a d i t i o n s , customs, indeed the whole c u l t u r a l l i f e of Africans, has
changed d r a s t i c a l l y , or at least been: modified by the influence of a l i e n
culture-contact and conquest. In t h i s thesis both tenses have been used.
The past tense s i g n i f i e s that the i n s t i t u t i o n referred to i s now extinct
or has changed to such a degree that i t i s now v i r t u a l l y unrecognizable.
The present tense refers to a custom or i n s t i t u t i o n which i s known to have
existed and which, although possibly altered by the passage of time, never-
theless s t i l l exists as part of t r i b a l l i f e .

45
See Lambert, The Systems, p. 38 and The Use of Indigenous Au-
t h o r i t i e s i n T r i b a l Administration: Studies of. the, Meru of Kenya, (Cape-
town: School of A f r i c a n Studies, No. 16, 1947), passim and Kikuyu So-
c i a l , passim. See also Cagnolo, The Akikuyu, p. 202.

^ C.W. Hobley, Bantu B e l i e f s and Magic, (London:

6
Witherby, 1922),
p. 93.

47
Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya: The T r i b a l L i f e of the
Gikuyu, (London, Seeker and Warburg, 1944), p. 189. See also "Kikuyu
Religion, Ancestor Worship and S a c r i f i c i a l Practices" i n A f r i c a , v o l . 10,
(1937), pp. 302-328.
 42

A.H.J. Prins, East A f r i c a n Age-Class Systems: An Inquiry into

the S o c i a l Order of Galla", K i p s i g i s and Kikuyu, (Gronigen and Djakarta,
J.B. Wolters, 1953), p. 43.

^Kenyatta, Facing, p. 196.

50
L u c y Mair, Primitive Government, (London, Penguin, 1962), p. 100.

No doubt i n the s p i r i t of 'harambee'

5
52
Prins, East African, pp. 117-8.

^^Mair, Primitive, pp. 103-4.

5 4
Ibid.

55
Leakey, Mau Mau, pp. 22-27.

56
Kenyatta, Facing, pp. 133-5.

57
Ibid., "The irua (ceremony) marks the commencement of p a r t i c i -
pation i n various governing groups i n the t r i b a l administration, because
the r e a l age groups begin from the day of the physical operation."

58
For a detailed discussion of the ceremony see R. Mugo Gatheru,
"The Day the Knife B i t Me" i n Jane Dubaghian ed., Mirror of Man, (Toronto:
L i t t l e , Brown and Co., 1975), pp. 110-3.

59
Hobley, Bantu, p. 77.

k°See Kenyatta, Facing, p. 210 ". . .my grandmother (Kenyatta s) 1

on my father's side, was a Masai woman c a l l e d Mosana . . . my aunt . . .

was married to a Masai chief c a l l e d Senden, and was treated as the head
wife. Exchange v i s i t s were made on both sides, and I had the opportunity
of v i s i t i n g her and stayed there f o r some months as a member of the family."
 43

Cagnolo,. The Akikuyu, pp. 199-202. See also age-set names

i n Hobley, Bantu, pp. 88 and 92. Middleton, "The Kikuyu," p. 34, states
that "the names f o r any one year may vary over d i f f e r e n t parts of the
country . . . how f a r d i f f e r e n t l y named r i k a (age-sets) are regarded as
being related cannot be seen from the material. These names are c l e a r l y
linked, however, through the D i s t r i c t s of Kiambu, F o r t . H a l l (and) Nyeri."

62
Kenyatta, Facing, p. 115.

See Mair, Primitive, pp. 98-9. "Payment was t r a d i t i o n a l l y made

i n goats to provide feasts f o r theseesuperiors. The f i r s t payment i s
made as part of a man's wedding ceremonies: t h i s i s regarded from one
point of view as payment f o r the r i g h t to marry, while from another i t
i s the fee f o r entry into the lowest grade of elders... . . Men go on
paying further goats u n t i l the r e q u i s i t e number have been paid f o r f u l l
membership of the body of elders. To enter t h i s body a man should have
a c h i l d old enough to be i n i t i a t e d ; but he cannot enter u n t i l he has
made the r e q u i s i t e payments, and i f he has not made the payments he can-
not have his c h i l d i n i t i a t e d either. This i s the kind of circumstance
which may lead to the postponement of i n i t i a t i o n , and so place a man i n
an age-set most of whom are younger than he i s . "

Kenyatta, Facing, p. 140. "Generation sets about to be c i r -

cumcised were given tasks which were l i a b l e to demonstrate to elders and
the people generally the worth of the i n i t i a t e s . Feats of manhood involv-
ing hunting, skirmishing i n mock war and dancing f o r long periods of time,
afforded the p o t e n t i a l leader to show h i s worth and s k i l l . " See also
Lambert, Kikuyu, pp. 103-4.=

65
Lambert, Kikuyu, pp. 100-1.

^ P r i n s , East African, p. 105.

^For comments on Senior Warrior organization and duties, see

Kenyatta, Facing, pp. 141-2, 198-200, 205-7, 299-305; Hobley, Bantu,
p. 47; Prins, East African, p. 51 and Middleton, The Kikuyu, pp. 34-5.

^Marriage was a mandatory requirement f o r entry into the elder

grades.
 44

69I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t t h e concept o f d i s t r i c t
(rugongo) was a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e K i k u y u t r a d i t i o n b e f o r e t h e
advent o f c o l o n i a l i s m . Thus B r i t i s h use o f t h e concept f o r a d m i n i s t r a -
t i v e purposes was n o t f o r e i g n t o t h e K i k u y u and f i t t e d i n w e l l w i t h t h e
existing infra-structure.

70
The age o f S e n i o r W a r r i o r s ranged from 20-28. That o n l y s i x
s e t s e x i s t e d i s c o n j e c t u r a l . The e v i d e n c e on t h i s p o i n t i s o f t e n vague
and thus n o t w o r t h c o n s i d e r i n g . S u f f i c e i t t o s a y t h a t t h e r e may have $
been more t h a n s i x a g e - s e t s i n t h i s grade.

71
K e n y a t t a , F a c i n g , p. 200.

72
T h i s i s i n t e r e s t i n g i n v i e w o f t h e f a c t t h a t Mau Mau (1952)
r e g i m e n t s employed a g a i n s t t h e B r i t i s h , w a r m a g i c i a n s , s e e r s o r s o o t h -
sayers.

73
K e n y a t t a , F a c i n g , p. 200.

74
Hobley, Bantu, p. 211 and M a i r , P r i m i t i v e , p. 99.

75
P r i n s , E a s t A f r i c a n , p. 108.

76
K e n y a t t a , F a c i n g , pp. 108, 201, 221 and Hobley, Bantu, p. 94-

77
I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o note t h a t a l l s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l a f f a i r s a t
the e l d e r l e v e l were conducted o n l y b y t h e r u l i n g h a l f o f t h e t r i b e ;
i . e . e i t h e r Maina o r Mwangi. Leakey, Mau Mau, p. 37, however, says
t h e r e was p r o v i s i o n made t o c a l l on n o n - r u l i n g e l d e r s s h o u l d t h e r u l i n g
h a l f need a d v i c e on m a t t e r s f o r e i g n t o them.

78
The K i k u y u word "mumo," o r j u n i o r w a r r i o r , i s pronounced simi-
l a r l y t o t h e words Mau Mau. C o r f i e l d , Report on t h e O r i g i n o f Mau Mau,
(London, I 9 6 0 ) , Cmd. 1030, H.M.S.O., s u g g e s t s t h e c o n n e c t i o n . K i k u y u
approached b y t h e w r i t e r i n 1953-4 d e n i e d t h e s u g g e s t i o n .
 45

79
K e n y a t t a , F a c i n g , p. 107.

Or)
Hobley, Bantu, p. 209.

81
I b i d . , p. 213, c i t e s o t h e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r acceptance i n t o
the grade. "Some . . . n e v e r become members o f t h e Ukuru grade; t h e con-
sent o f t h e o t h e r members o f the grade i s n e c e s s a r y and t h e y do n o t approve
o f a c a n d i d a t e who i s n o t well-endowed w i t h wor.latby goods, o r a g a i n , p r o s -
p e c t i v e c a n d i d a t e s may be c o n s i d e r e d u n l u c k y . " Pp. 212-9 g i v e an e x c e l l e n t
d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e i n i t i a t i o n ceremonies f o r p r o s p e c t i v e Ukuru.

^ ^ M i d d l e t o n , K i k u y u , p. 36. See a l s o , K e n y a t t a , F a c i n g , pp. 204-5.

go
Hobley, Bantu, p. 212.

8 4
M a i r , P r i m i t i v e , p. 100.

85
See u n p u b l i s h e d Mss. T. T o u l s o n , The E f f e c t s o f C o u n t e r - I n s u r -
gency Measures on C o l o n i a l P e o p l e s , U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, 1970.

^ P r i n s , E a s t A f r i c a n , p. 110.

' 87
I f t h e ' b i g c o u n c i l ' was i n d e e d f o r m u l a t e d on a d i s t r i c t l e v e l
and those who c o n s t i t u t e d i t s membership d i d i n f a c t d e c i d e age-set names
and i t w i k a d a t e s , t h e n i t f o l l o w s t h a t i t w i k a dates and age-set names
must have v a r i e d from d i s t r i c t t o d i s t r i c t . However, i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g
t o note t h a t o n l y minor v a r i a t i o n s o c c u r i n i t w i k a dates and age-set
names throughout t h e K i k u y u c o r e a r e a s , i . e . Kiambu, F o r t H a l l and
N y e r i . T h i s f a c t would t h e r e f o r e suggest t h a t some form o f c o o r d i n a t i o n
e x i s t e d between t r i b a l c o u n c i l s l o c a t e d i n t h e K i k u y u c o r e - a r e a s .

88
H.R. Tate, " F u r t h e r Notes on t h e S o u t h e r n Gikuyu o f B r i t i s h
E a s t A f r i c a " intj.o.urnar o.f_ the_Afr.i.can_S.o.c.ie.ty, v o l . 10, ( 1 9 1 0 ) ,
=

pp. 285-97.
89
L o w , "The N o r t h e r n , " p. 311.

90
Lambert, K i k u y u , pp. 100-1.

91
Cagnolo, The A k i k u y u , p. 214,,ll?2£hproverb

9 2
M u c h o f t h e K i k u y u language i s p r o v e r b i a l

93
Lambert, K i k u y u , pp. 100-1.

9 4
Ibid.
 Chapter 2

EARLY.CONTACTS

I n i t i a l K i k u y u response t o the wageni, 1

A r a b , S w a h i l i o r Wakamba,

was c o n d i t i o n e d , b y t h e i r b e h a v i o u r i n K i k u y u l a n d . There i s some evidence

to suggest t h a t K i k u y u were a t f i r s t h o s p i t a b l e t o c o a s t a l t r a d e r s because

t h e y were f a m i l i a r w i t h t r a d i n g p r o c e s s e s t h r o u g h c o n t a c t f o r sometime w i t h
2

Wakamba middlemen. By t h e 1870's, however, t h e K i k u y u were a p p a r e n t l y r e -

l u c t a n t t o a l l o w wageni passage t h r o u g h K i k u y u l a n d t o t h e Lake. T h i s ap-

p e a r s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t r a d e r s r e g u l a r l y f o r a g e d K i k u y u s m a l l h o l d i n g s

i n s e a r c h o f f o o d and d e p a r t e d t h e a r e a w i t h o u t making r e s t i t u t i o n . In-

c r e a s e d f r i c t i o n between K i k u y u and wageni i s borne out by t h e e v i d e n t f e a r

e x h i b i t e d by caravan p o r t e r s as they neared o r s k i r t e d K i k u y u l a n d .

The f i r s t European t o see K i k u y u l a n d was John Ludwig K r a p f , a CMS

m i s s i o n a r y l o c a t e d a t R a b a i , n e a r Mombasa. I n 1848 he t r a v e l l e d n o r t h t o
the Wakamba c o u n t r y ( K i t u i ) and saw t h e t w i n peaks o f Mount Kenya. I n i860
3
a book o f h i s t r a v e l s d e s c r i b e d t h e mountain.
The snow-capped mountain b e a r s v a r i o u s names among
the n a t i v e t r i b e s . The Wacamba ( s i c ) c a l l i t Kima
j a K e g n i a , M o u n t a i n o f Whiteness. Snow-white L i b a n o n ;
o t h e r t r i b e s K i r a n i a , o r Ndur Kengnia; t h e W a k u a f i ,
O r l d i n i o e i b o r , White M o u n t a i n ; i t was o n l y seen by
myself A

S i n c e none o f t h e terms w i t h w h i c h K r a p f d e s c r i b e s t h e mountain a r e o f

K i k u y u o r i g i n , i t i s d o u b t f u l t h a t he a c t u a l l y p e n e t r a t e d Kikuyuland.

H i s statement, however, t h a t t h e mountain "had o n l y been seen by m y s e l f "

- 47 -
 48

and h i s wanderings i n the area, inspired others to mount exploratory ex-

peditions. I t was not u n t i l 1883-4, f u l l y 50 years l a t e r , however, that

Joseph Thomson successfully traversed the area i n an attempt to discover

5

a route to V i c t o r i a Nyanza.

Thomson's journey took him through Masai country and by August

1883 he found himself on the southern periphery of Kikuyuland at Ngongo

Bagas ( l a t e r Ngong). Having without trouble negotiated h i s way through

Masailand, he now faced with trepidation the task of penetrating the

Kikuyu "moat". "We had not gone f a r before we found that the Wakikuyu

were l i t e r a l l y swarming the forest, on the look-out f o r an opportunity to

dye t h e i r spears i n blood or to capture g o o d s . T h o m s o n proceeded north,

undeterred, but f e a r f u l of an armed clash with the Kikuyu. "Our sensa-

tions were rather queer traversing these forest depths, kept as we were

continually on the a l e r t , and i n momentary expectation of encountering

7

poisoned arrows launched from among the trees."

In search of water Thomson was forced to penetrate the Kikuyu f o r -

est "where a pond was known to exist i n disagreeable proximity to the Wa-

Kikuyu." It was here that . . . "a v o l l e y of guns upset any f e e l i n g of

security (then) a commotion was heard among the c a t t l e , and warning voices

that the Wa-Kikuyu were stampeding them . . . We f i r e d aimlessly into the

forest, i n the hope of frightening the disturbers of our peace . . . sev-

e r a l arrows were shot from the bush." Subsequently i t was found that

the "cause of the o r i g i n a l v o l l e y had been an attempt to massacre one

small party (of wageni) by creeping up on them." The raiders, Thomson

relates, were discovered a f t e r they had attempted to k i l l a porter. The

 49

clash continued: "A prompt v o l l e y . . . scattered the murderers, several

having thus .been wounded, and one l e f t dead . . . two of the coast porters

were either speared or captured." Further i n d i c a t i o n of the terror experi-

enced by Thomson and h i s men i s h i s observation that "not a soul slept the

l i v e l o n g night" and that a "continuous fusilade was kept up as our sole

8

protection. Numerous arrows were launched into the camp ..."

In February 1887, Count Teleki von Szek and Lieut; von Hohnel,

proceeded inland intent upon exploring the area north of Mount Kenya.

Spending A p r i l and July i n Taveta, at the foot of Mount Kilimanjaro, the

expedition marched north on roughly the same heading taken by Thomson

four years e a r l i e r . By August they had reached Ngongo Bagas and from

there they proceeded through Kikuyuland. Possibly influenced by Thomson's

account, published i n 1885, both explorers did not r e l i s h the idea of pass-
9

ing through, the area i n "which dwelt the dreaded people of Kikuyu."

Ngongo Bagas, however, was safe and was to Hohnel an "oasis i n the wilder-

ness to caravans." Notably i t was i n the v i c i n i t y of Ngongo Bagas that

"foraging", the source of f r i c t i o n between Kikuyu and the wageni had t r a -

d i t i o n a l l y taken place. Moreover, the location of Ngongo Bagas was "safe"

since i t was situated atop h i l l s i n open country. Kikuyu warriors dared

not venture beyond the forest edge and into open country occupied by

Masai. There i s some evidence to suggest, however, that trading a c t u a l l y

took place at Ngongo Bagas between Kikuyu and the caravans. This was pos-

s i b l e because the Kikuyu used intermediaries to make contact with the

wageni across the "moat". At Miansini, a place situated close to Ngongo

Bagas, the Kikuyu sent the helot Wanderobo to act as "go-betweens" i n the
 50

trading process.

To f u r t h e r s u b s t a n t i a t e rumours o f K i k u y u h o s t i l i t y , von Hohnel ob-

s e r v e d t h a t b e f o r e the a r r i v a l of T e l e k i ' s e x p e d i t i o n l i t t l e was known of

the l a n d or p e o p l e of the K i k u y u . . . " w i t h the r e s u l t t h a t countless

t a l e s were a f l o a t o f the f i e r c e n e s s and h o s t i l i t y o f the natives.""'""'"

T h i s comment seems t o have been based upon the case o f a p r e v i o u s caravan

w h i c h had attempted " t o e n t e r K i k u y u from the e a s t , and had been d e s t r o y - .

12

ed.','. whether the case c i t e d was based on rumour i s not known. What i s

known, however, i s t h a t Ngongo Bagas had been used as a c a r a v a n s t a g i n g

p l a c e f o r many y e a r s . Thomson r e c o r d e d the f a c t t h a t caravans o f 1200 to

1500 men had o f t e n been seen a t Ngongo Bagas and a l l of them had expected
13 .

t o o b t a i n f u r t h e r p r o v i s i o n i n g from the K i k u y u . Jumbe Kimemeta, T e l e k i ' s

g u i d e and h i m s e l f a f r e q u e n t v i s i t o r t o the a r e a i n s e a r c h o f i v o r y , had

been seen by Thomson a t M i a n z i n i i n p o s s e s s i o n o f i v o r y t a k e n "from r e g i o n s

14
n e v e r b e f o r e r e a c h e d by c o a s t a l c a r a v a n . " S i g n i f i c a n t l y i t was Kimemeta
who t r i e d t o dissua'de Thomson from t a k i n g the Wakamba r o u t e back t o the
15

coast. Kimemeta was a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i n i t i a t i n g rumours o f impending

K i k u y u a t t a c k s on T e l e k i ' s e x p e d i t i o n . I t was he, a l s o , who advised T e l e k i

and von Hohnel t h a t i t would not be p o s s i b l e f o r them t o p a s s t h r o u g h K i k u -

yuland.

Perhaps i t i s s p e c u l a t i v e t o suggest t h a t Kimemeta (and o t h e r coast-

a l t r a d e r s ) d i d n o t w i s h t o compete w i t h whitemen i n the l u c r a t i v e i v o r y -

b e a r i n g a r e a s o f the A b e r d a r e s and Mount Kenya. I t i s possible that ru-

mours of K i k u y u h o s t i l i t y c o u l d have been s p r e a d by h u n t e r s i n t e n t upon

p r e c l u d i n g Europeans a c t i v i t y i n the i v o r y b u s i n e s s .
 51

Arab trading routes from the East A f r i c a n coast into the

i n t e r i o r . From John S. Galbraith, Mackinnon. and East A f r i c a
1878-1895, Cambridge: UP, 1972, p . ^ T
 52

Rumours of Kikuyu h o s t i l i t y were spread also by Wakamba traders

who wished to maintain a p o s i t i o n as middlemen i n the trading process

17

between inland areas and the coast. The case of Wakamba rumours about

Kikuyu h o s t i l i t y i s of p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e , e s p e c i a l l y with respect

to the e f f e c t such tales had on Europeans who, i t seems, prepared them-

18
selves to " f i g h t every inch of the way" through Kikuyuland.
Wakamba trade with the coast had been taking place since 1836 and
well before Europeans made t h e i r presence a fact i n the i n t e r i o r . Krapf
19

and others have stated that trade r e l a t i o n s between Wakamba and the

coast commenced during and a f t e r a great famine. I t i s known, also, p r i o r

to 1836 a great deal of l o c a l trading went on and consisted mainly of the

exchange of foodstuffs, poison f o r arrows, and possibly i r o n implements.

According to Wakamba o r a l t r a d i t i o n , t h i s trade took place with the Kikuyu

and Embu. The post-1836 coastal trade developed, however, i n a much more

sophisticated fashion and placed the Wakamba s o l i d l y i n the p o s i t i o n of

being trading middlemen between the coast and the Kikuyu. By 184-8-9 Krapf

reported that the Wakamba coastal trading t r a f f i c was substantial: "The

Swahili purvey to the Wakamba cotton f a b r i c s (Americano), blue c a l i c o ,

glass beads, copper, s a l t luaha, blue v i t r i o l ( z i n c ) etc. and receive i n

20

exchange c h i e f l y c a t t l e and ivory." By the 1840's large caravans were

reported to be seen between Wakamba country and the coast. Krapf estimated

that Wakamba coastal s a f a r i s consisted often of as many as 300-400 persons

21

carrying large amounts of ivory. By the l a t t e r h a l f of the century, how-,

ever;,'/ the Wakamba l o s t t h e i r trading monopoly to Arab and Swahili traders

and reverted to t h e i r r o l e of "middlemen" i n the trading process. Moreover,

 53

A r a b s and S w a h i l i began t o p e n e t r a t e beyond Wakamba c o u n t r y i n an e f f o r t

22 •

to reach the i v o r y - b e a r i n g areas o f Kikuyuland. I n f a c t Wakamba c o u n t r y

had now ceased t o be t h e E a s t A f r i c a n e n t r e p o t . T r a d e r s b e n t on commerical

a c t i v i t y i n K i k u y u l a n d and beyond, f o r c e d by t h e i r new a c t i v i t y a d e c l i n e

i n Wakamba economic ascendency. Hence t h e s t r o n g s u g g e s t i o n t h a t rumours

o f K i k u y u h o s t i l i t y were d e s i g n e d d e l i b e r a t e l y t o d e t e r t r a v e l l e r s from
23

proceeding north i n t o Kikuyuland.

I n i t i a l European e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h t h e K i k u y u , however, seemed t o

v a r y from extreme h o s t i l i t y t o f r i e n d l i n e s s . K i k u y u a t t i t u d e s and r e -

sponses t o t h e European i n v a s i o n seemed t o v a r y from r i d g e t o r i d g e ; from

one p a r t o f the c o u n t r y t o t h e o t h e r . I n the southern periphery o f Kikuyu-

l a n d von Hohnel and T e l e k i met w i t h i m p l a c a b l e r e s i s t a n c e w h i l e f u r t h e r t o

the n o r t h t h e y were amazed a t a s s i s t a n c e o f f e r e d them by f r i e n d l y and c o -

operative Kikuyu. B o t h men were a b l e " t o s e c u r e f a i t h f u l g u i d e s " who

would warn them o f impending o p p o s i t i o n on t h e p a r t o f K i k u y u p l a n n i n g t o

r e s i s t f u r t h e r p e n e t r a t i o n o f t h e i r homeland. Indeed, Hohnel observed

t h a t one o f t h e most remarkable a s p e c t s o f the j o u r n e y t h r o u g h K i k u y u l a n d

was t h e "honesty and f a i t h f u l n e s s " d i s p l a y e d t o b o t h h i m s e l f and h i s com-

p a n i o n by t h e i r K i k u y u g u i d e s . H.J. M a c k i n d e r , i n 1900, s u b s t a n t i a t e d

Hohnel's remarks by p r a i s i n g t h e l o y a l t y o f h i s K i k u y u g u i d e s d u r i n g an
25

a s c e n t o f Mount Kenya. Von Hohnel speaks o f T e l e k i , a l s o , as b e i n g r e -

garded by some K i k u y u as b e i n g a "white samaki ( s i c ) , o r c h i e f . " On t h i s

o c c a s i o n some o f T e l e k i ' s men were i n v o l v e d i n a b l o o d - b r o t h e r h o o d cere-

mony w i t h t h e K i k u y u , were r e c e i v e d i n a f r i e n d l y f a s h i o n and " r e t u r n e d t o

26
camp w i t h heavy sacks o f sweet p o t a t o e s . "
 54

Conversely, however, d e s p i t e the f r i e n d l y b e h a v i o u r o f some K i k u y u

o t h e r s adopted an o p e n l y h o s t i l e a t t i t u d e toward the s t r a n g e r s . We have,

f o r example, Thomson's account o f harassment and von Hohnel and T e l e k i r e -

f e r t o the need t o f i g h t t h e i r way through s e v e r a l areas of Kikuyuland.

There e x i s t s , t h e r e f o r e , something o f a c o n t r a d i c t i o n about K i k u y u atti-

tudes t o w a r d s wageni: the e v i d e n c e r e v e a l s b o t h h o s t i l e and f r i e n d l y r e -

lationships .

M a n i f o l d r e a s o n s account f o r K i k u y u a t t i t u d e s toward wageni. Un-

doubtedly the major r e a s o n f o r h o s t i l i t y i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the propensity

f o r caravans to r a i d Kikuyu s m a l l h o l d i n g s f o r f o o d ; e s p e c i a l l y ; i n . t h e s t a g i n g

a r e a o f Ngongo Bagas. There had been a w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d i t i o n o f

r a i d i n g a c r o s s the "moat" and as caravans became l a r g e r t o the n e c e s s i t y

o f f e e d i n g more p o r t e r s i n c r e a s e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t was not the. h a b i t o f

c a r a v a n owners t o o f f e r r e s t i t u t i o n f o r p r o v i s i o n s t a k e n . A l s o , Ngongo

Bagas was an " o a s i s i n the w i l d e r n e s s " . I t was here t h a t caravans were

f o r c e d t o p r o v i s i o n a f t e r t h e i r l o n g march a c r o s s the d r y scrub t o the

south-east; here the t r a v e l l e r s saw the v e r d a n t slopes of Kikuyuland abound-

i n g w i t h f r e s h produce. Indeed, perhaps the " g r e a t e s t problem f a c i n g the

27

K i k u y u was t h e i r very prosperity." I t was a t Ngongo Bagas, a l s o , t h a t

K i k u y u , used t o t r a d i n g as the e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s , sent t h e i r i n t e r m e d i a r i e s ,

the h e l o t Wanderobo, t o t r a d e produce f o r beads, b l a n k e t s , " a m e r i k a n i " and

perhaps, l a t e r , f i r e a r m s . The l o g i c of sending intermediaries l i e s , of

c o u r s e , i n the f a c t t h a t i n t h i s event t h e r e was t h e n no need f o r K i k u y u to

l e a v e t h e i r i s l a n d f a s t n e s s and c o n v e r s e l y t h e r e was t h u s no r e a s o n f o r

wageni t o c r o s s the "moat" and t r e s p a s s K i k u y u s m a l l h o l d i n g s f o r f o o d .

 55

T y p i c a l Layout o f K i k u y u Mashamba, e a r l y 1900's, n e a r F o r t H a l l .

From R i c h a r d M e i n h e r t z h a g e n , Kenya D i a r y , 1902-1906, London:
W i t h e r b y , 1957, p. 104-. Perhaps the " g r e a t e s t problem f a c i n g the
K i k u y u was t h e i r v e r y p r o s p e r i t y . "
 56

T r a d e r s , t h e i r A f r i c a n l e v i e s and u n s u s p e c t i n g e x p l o r e r s , who did cross

t h e "moat" were t h e r e f o r e a t once " s u s p e c t " and thus " f a i r game" f o r the

waiting warriors.

K i k u y u a t t i t u d e s were c o n d i t i o n e d t o a l a r g e e x t e n t , a l s o , by t h e

b e h a v i o u r o f Europeans. White t r a v e l l e r s tended t o b e l i e v e t h a t f i r i n g

"a few s h o t s " f o r the purpose o f "overawing the p e o p l e " o r , as Thomson

p u t i t , " f i r i n g a i m l e s s l y i n t o t h e f o r e s t " were the o n l y means o f d e a l i n g

with t h e i r unwilling hosts. Von Hohnel, i n d e e d , a f t e r h i s t a l k o f K i k u y u

"honesty and f a i r n e s s " went on t o a s s e r t t h a t " t o employ f o r c e Gwas) the

28
o n l y means o f c r e a t i n g the n e c e s s a r y i m p r e s s i o n . " The " n e c e s s a r y im-

p r e s s i o n " meant, o f c o u r s e , t o i m p l a n t i n t o the K i k u y u a f e a r o f the

29

whiteman.

There i s l i t t l e doubt t h a t Europeans were c o n d i t i o n e d t o f i g h t t h e

K i k u y u even b e f o r e t h e y a r r i v e d i n K i k u y u l a n d ; Kimemeta and the Wakamba

rumour-mongers had seen t o t h a t . Where, s i g n i f i c a n t l y , K i k u y u had been

'touched' by the wageni t h e y were h o s t i l e : i n a r e a s beyond the f r i n g e o f

K i k u y u l a n d , w i t h i n the i n t e r i o r and removed from the scene o f a b r a s i v e

c o n t a c t , r e l a t i o n s h i p s between wageni and the t r i b e s m e n were tenuous b u t

o f t e n f r i e n d l y as the e x p e r i e n c e s - o f . T e l e k i , von Hohnel, Thomson and

Mackinder clearly indicate. Lugard was l a t e r t o a f f i r m t h e s e f i n d i n g s on

his v i s i t t o K i k u y u l a n d i n 1890. But European a p p r e h e n s i o n c o u p l e d w i t h

K i k u y u s u s p i c i o n ( p a r t i c u l a r l y among t h o s e who knew o f o r had first-hand

e x p e r i e n c e o f scavenging c a r a v a n s ) f e a t u r e d p r o m i n e n t l y i n the i n i t i a l con-

tact period. These a t t i t u d e s and the o c c a s i o n a l v i o l e n t c l a s h e s o f t h i s

p e r i o d were i m p o r t a n t c o n d i t i o n i n g f a c t o r s i n subsequent, more e x t e n s i v e

 57

r e l a t i o n s h i p s , between the K i k u y u and European armed t r a d e r s , European

and A f r i c a n employees o f t h e B r i t i s h E a s t A f r i c a Company and the P r o t e c t o r -

ate Administration.
 58

FOOTNOTES

~4(iswahili (foreigners)

2
For perhaps the most comprehensive account of Wakamba trading
a c t i v i t i e s see John Lamphear, "The Kamba and the Northern Mrima Coast"
i n Richard Gray and David Birmingham, eds., Pre-Colonial Trade: Essays
on Trade i n Central and Eastern A f r i c a before 1900, (London: OUP, 1970),
pp. 75-101. A useful review of Wakamba trading patterns i s i n I s a r i a
N. Kimambo, "The Economic History of the Wakamba,"1850-1950," Hadith 2,
Bethwell A. Ogot, ed. (Nairobi: EAPH, 1970, pp. 70-103. Some reference
to Wakamba trade i s also to be found i n Satish C. Saterwal, " H i s t o r i c a l
Notes," pp. 34-5, " . . . the Kamba established the ivory trade l i n k s
between the coast and the f o o t h i l l s of Mt. Kenya during the 1830's. They
exploited t h i s trade through the 1840' s and 185.0'.s, but during the 1860's
the traders from Zanzibar successfully established routes to the Mt. Kenya
region, by-passing Kamba country, and captured the trade i n that area
from the Kamba."

3
John L. Krapf, Travels, Researches and Missionary Labours,
(London: Trubner, i860). See also excerpts i n Charles Richards, ed.
Some H i s t o r i c Journeys i n East A f r i c a , (London: OUP, 1961), passim.

^Ibid., pp. 10-11.

5
See H.R. Tate, "Two A f r i c a n Explorers, 11-Joseph Thomson "
i n Journal of the Royal A f r i c a n Society, v o l . 37, (Oct. 1938), pp. 449-70,
also, Joseph Thomson, "East A f r i c a as i t Was and Is" i n The Contemporary
Review, (1889), pp. 41-51 and S i r Harry Johnston, "The East A f r i c a n Prob-
lem" i n Nineteenth Century, (1908), p. 56B.

^Joseph Thomson, Through Masailand, (London: Sampson Low,

1885) and i n Charles Richards, ed., Some H i s t o r i c , p. 91.

7
Ibid.,
 59

8
T_bid., pp. 91-2-3.

Lieut,von Hohnel, The Discovery of Lakes Rudolph and Stefanie,

(London: Longmans Green, 1894) and extracted from i b i d p. 101.

Ibid.

I UIbid.
. .

1 2
I b i d . , p. 102.

•^Thomson, Through, pp. 307, 572.

U
I b i d . , p. 571.

1 5
I b i d . , pp. 572-3.

"^Von Hohnel, The Discovery, p. 296.

17
Kimambo, "The Economic," p. 81.

18
Von Hohnel, The Discovery, p. 287. This i s a s p e c i f i c reference
to Fischer, a European explorer who, notably, never a c t u a l l y crossed Kikuyu-
land but who appears to have been influenced by his.own porters into making
t h i s statement.

19
Krapf, Travels, pp. 230-1. See also Kimambo, "The Economic"
for a reference to a recent work by K. Jackson, (1967-8) on t h i s sub-
ject, p. 99.

?0
Ibid., pp. 256-7 and K.G. Lindblom, The Akamba i n East A f r i c a ,
(Upsala, n.p., 1920).
 60

21
Krapf, Travels, pp. 248, 287.

22
This i s substantiated by Thomson's observation that he witnessed
caravans of 1200 to 1500 persons as far north of Wakamba country as
Ngongo Bagas. Obviously the Wakamba habitat had by the 1870's ceased to
be the i n t e r i o r entrepot and that now the trade fulcrum had s h i f t e d to
Ngongo Bagas.. For an informative account of the ivory trade see R.W.
Beachey, "The East A f r i c a n Ivory Trade i n the Nineteenth Century" i n
Journal of A f r i c a n History, v o l . 8, (1967), pp. 269-90. The ivory
trade had already been well exploited by Arabs and Swahilis; routes
into the i n t e r i o r were well established by the 1870's-(see Gerald W.
Hartig, "The V i c t o r i a Nyanza as a Trade Route i n the Nineteenth Cen-
tury" i n Journal of A f r i c a n History, v o l . 11, (1970), pp. 535-552) but
by the 1880's Europeans were greatly involved to the detriment Arabs,
Swahilis and the i n t e r i o r t r i b e s . " F i l i b u s t e r i n g expeditions into
northern Kenya and Lake Rudolf region, commencing with that of Teleki
inel888loeQntinugd8througho.U(tdthera>8§06st tTelekiGspeakseqfA; L X

the "ever-increasing store of ivory," He acquired a great quantity

.After Teleki came.Chanler, Newman, Donaldson-Smith and Frazer
Delemere and Atkinson -. . y, p. 84.
;

23
In the mind of the European, doubtless conditioned by rumours
and his own experience, Kikuyu s t e a d i l y acquired a reputation f o r trucu-
lence and untrustworthiness. E l i o t referredc to them as being "less
f r i e n d l y " than other t r i b e s . C.W. Hobley described the Kikuyu as "tur-
bulent and treacherous . . . secretive, more conservative and more d i f f i -
c u l t to understand than other t r i b e s . " Major J.R.L. Macdonald said that
the Kikuyu "were about as treacherous as could be" while Colonel Richard
Meinhertzhagen, Kenya Diary, 1902-1906, (London: Witherby, 1957),
pp. 79-80, made the p r e d i c t i o n that " i n the end they w i l l cause a l o t of
trouble."

S/bn
2<
Hohnel, The Discovery, p. 338.

25
H.J. Mackinder, "A Journey to the Summit of Mount Kenya" i n
The. Geographical Journal, v o l . 15, (1900), p. 457.

26

Richards, ed., Some H i s t o r i c , p. 103.

27
E.A. Alpers, "The Nineteenth Century: Prelude to Colonialism"
i n Zamani, pp. 247-8. See also Captain C E . Stigand, The Land of Z i n j ,
(London: Cass, 1966, ed. ), p. 238. "The Kikuyu are r e a l l y immensely r i c h ,
as they have everything the heart could desire i n abundance. I have never
seen raw natives anywhere who have such copious and various supplies of food.
 61

28
Von Hohnel, The Discovery, pp. 336-7.

29
See Richard Crawshay, "Kikuyu: Notes on the Country, People,
Fauna and.Flora" i n the Geographical Journal, v o l . 20, tl9©2)., p. 39.
Travellers i n Kikuyuland said Crawshay, "owe any rough treatment they
have to complain of either to t h e i r ignorance of 'savoir f a i r e ' . . . or
more frequently to the secret misconduct of t h e i r followers."
 Chapter 3

THE IMPERIAL BRITISH EAST AFRICA COMPANY

At this point we must consider•the effects on the Kikuyu of Euro-

pean penetration of the "moat" by o f f i c i a l s and A f r i c a n employees of the

Imperial B r i t i s h East A f r i c a Company (IBEA Co.).

In 1886 a boundary was drawn to separate German East A f r i c a from

the B r i t i s h East A f r i c a n spheres One consequence of the d e f i n i t i o n of the

new boundary was the channelling of B r i t i s h penetration toward Lake V i c -

t o r i a from Mombasa. The B r i t i s h recognized that e f f e c t i v e communications

with the hinterland were imperative for prospective government, economic

progress and p o l i t i c a l expediency. 1

For these reasons r a i l r o a d construc-
2

t i o n from Mombasa to the Lake began i n 1895.

Although Germans and B r i t i s h had agreed on the location of the

border between t h e i r respective claims, the hinterland around and beyond

Lake V i c t o r i a remained i n dispute. In 1887, with the endorsement of the

3

B r i t i s h Foreign Office <the B r i t i s h East A f r i c a Company was founded. A

year l a t e r the organization possessed a Royal Charter, subscribed c a p i t a l

of 24-0,000 pounds and had changed i t s name to the Imperial B r i t i s h East

A f r i c a Company (IBEA Co.). Like i t s forerunners i n India and Canada, the

Company's mandate included the administration and development of the t e r r i

tory under i t s j u r i s d i c t i o n . 4
The area included the B r i t i s h sphere of

influence, negotiated with the Germans i n 1886 and extending north of

- 62 -
 ^.-'•L.v
'.v.V
i ' A^So'-C^. At. Jul/ IG90.
:

GEftMAN

S P H E R E . %&!W / A''-'
r t

OF

C'o-c.:
INFLUENCE

— JLIII W J . v * ^ 8

PO RT UCUESE

E A S 7' A F R I C A
J 6. L!

Agreement: of iG2s/:8B6. —— • Agreement) of 1890/1091.

Approximate .irc.icliimcd by Germany .u Willi Protectorate Oc:o!>cr i3Ca. German

V-LfJ,Lt/±//.\ claim renounced, Jidy iciQO.

Approximate area claimed by Germany under protectorate of February iSS^.r

^B p•' J'v.' f't ii ill Sultan of Zan-ibar'j coa;ia! dominions a; acknowledged by Ar.r-lo-Gcrrnan-Frenci
Delimitation Commission, 1C8G. • •
Zanzibar northern Ports leased to I.B.E.A. Co. 1383.
Northern co.v.t!inc r.f Zaosi'bar Icaieo io / . 5 - - - Co. 1887.
r A
. 1

Southern c o a s t l i n e ofXantibac leaded to German E . A . Co. April i860. Sold to Ger-

many JDcccir.ber ; 090.

The.partition of East A f r i c a , 1884-91 from John S. Galbraith,

Mackinnon and East A f r i c a , 1878-1895, Cambridge: UP, 1972,
p. 104.
 64

the Anglo-German boundary, t o g e t h e r w i t h the S u l t a n o f Z a n z i b a r ' s domain

--•a s t r i p o f t e r r i t o r y e x t e n d i n g a l o n g the c o a s t some 200 m i l e s by 10

m i l e s wide. An a n n u a l t i t h e o f 10,000 pounds, e x t e n d i n g f o r a p e r i o d o f

50 y e a r s , was p a i d t o S u l t a n Barghash i n r e n t , w h i l e a l l customs l e v i e d

were c o l l e c t e d by the Company. F l y i n g i t s own f l a g , m i n t i n g i t s own

money, p r i n t i n g i t s own postage stamps, the Company became a c o r p o r a t e

dominion: i t r e c r u i t e d an army and b u i l t up the town o f Mombasa t o

5

s e r v e as i t s E a s t A f r i c a n H e a d q u a r t e r s . From Mombasa the e d i c t s of the

" A d m i n i s t r a t o r " ^ were passed down t o j u n i o r o f f i c e r s r e s i d e n t " u p - c o u n t r y "

on the r o u t e t o the Lake. Caravans were r e g u l a r l y despatched i n t o the

i n t e r i o r as the f u t u r e o f t r a d e was thought t o be around the head o f the

Lake and i n p a r t i c u l a r , Buganda.

Buganda was a m a t t e r o f the utmostt importance t o b o t h Germans and

British. The Agreement o f 1886 had n o t been c l e a r l y d e f i n e d . According

t o the document the b o r d e r between A n g l o - G e r m a n . r e s p e c t i v e spheres o f

i n f l u e n c e stoppedc.at the e a s t e r n shore o f the Lake; f u r t h e r m o r e the n o r t h -

e r n boundary o f the B r i t i s h sphere stopped t o the e a s t o f the N i l e and thus

d i d not encompass the Kingdom o f Buganda. How, the Germans, asked, c o u l d

the B r i t i s h c l a i m paramountcy o v e r an a r e a n o t i n c l u d e d i n the 1886 Agree-

ment? What was i m p o r t a n t , t h e r e f o r e , i n t h e eyes o f b o t h p a r t i e s — m o r e so

the B r i t i s h because o f p o l i t i c a l a m b i t i o n s i n E g y p t — w a s the a c t u a l occupa-

t i o n o f Buganda and the N i l e s o u r c e . F o r t h e s e r e a s o n s t h e r e commenced

a 'scramble' whose a n t a g o n i s t s , K a r l P e t e r s o f the C o l o n i z a t i o n S o c i e t y ,

7

a c t i n g f o r the German Government, and F r e d e r i c k D e a l t y Lugard o f the B r i t -

i s h E a s t A f r i c a C o r p o r a t i o n , a c t i n g f o r the B r i t i s h Government, became the

w i l l i n g instruments of i m p e r i a l p o l i c y . Hence the u r g e n t d i s p a t c h o f

 65

Lugard, o s t e n s i b l y a Company employee, to reach Buganda, annex i t i n the

name of the B r i t i s h Government and make peace w i t h i t s r u l e r (Kabaka)

Mwanga.^

Lugard's expedition to Buganda l e f t Mombasa i n August 1889. It

included a m i l i t a r y force of Sudanese a s k a r i armed w i t h Snider r i f l e s and

a Maxim gun.^ By October 1889 the s a f a r i had s u c c e s s f u l l y flanked the dry

scrub of the Taru, followed the course of the Sabaki.River and had reached

Kikuyuland. For a month or more Lugard l i n g e r e d i n the area; f i r s t at

Ngongo Bagas and l a t t e r l y at a s i t e to be known as Dagoretti. At both l o -

cations he proceeded to b u i l d and occupy Company s t a t i o n s , or " f o r t s " , as

he preferred to c a l l them.

I t was i n the area of Dagoretti that Lugard attempted to extend

Company influence over the Kikuyu by i n v o l v i n g himself w i t h Kikuyu not-

ables i n "blood-brotherhood" ceremonies. Confirmation of the r i t e s took

the form of lengthy speeches pledging e t e r n a l and f r i e n d l y a l l i a n c e s be-

tween p a r t i e s . Thus i t i s evident that Lugard saw the v a l i d i t y of the

ceremonial approach to f r i e n d s h i p , over that of the formal t r e a t y . He

saw, f o r example, the i m p r a c t i c a l i t y of the " t r e a t y " when used i n the same

form customary i n Europe " I f e l t that I could not honourably pledge the

Company's p r o t e c t i o n to d i s t a n t t r i b e s , whom they had no means whatever

of p r o t e c t i n g . . . while the cession of a l l r i g h t s of r u l e . . was, i n

my opinion, asking f o r more than was f a i r . " " ^ Clearly more e q u i t a b l e — a n d

perhaps as v a l i d — w a s the r i t u a l of bloodfebcoibherhood. At l e a s t the cere-

mony provided an "understanding" of more s i g n i f i c a n c e t© the Kikuyu than

a piece of paper w r i t t e n i n a f o r e i g n language and incorporating the

 LUGA^D'S JOURNEY T
U G A N D A iLLUSTRATt,
!!S O U T W A R D ROU":
AUGUST-SEPTEMBER i
AND RETURN ROUT
AUGUST 1392. •

-x />;
CENTRAL SECTION O;-
LUGAilD'S JOU&N5Y TO
UGANDA ILLUSTRATING
HIS OUTWARD ROUTT:,
OCTOBER - DF.CGMBEK 1890
AND R.ETUr\M ROUTE,
JUNE -AUGUST 1092.

Lugard's routes to and from Uganda,. 1890 and 1892

from Margery Perham, Lugard, The Years of. Adventure,
1858-1898, London: C o l l i n s , 1956, p. 40 and p. 310

Lugard':. r o u t e o h his preliminary

•journe.-/ from Mombns:; t o t-'lachakos,
January-April IC90 fo! lowed the
Sabaki PJver and the norch - ens t o r n
route- alon'.' the A t h i River ro K i b w c z i , ,.
on bath the outv/ard and return j o u r n e y s . j '/:.
 67

semantics o f European diplomacy.

S h o r t l y a f t e r taking p a r t i n a blood-brotherhood a l l i a n c e w i t h the

K i k u y u ( O c t o b e r 1890), Lugard d e s c r i b e d h i s f e e l i n g s on t h e m a t t e r .

Apropos o f t h e t r e a t y b u s i n e s s . . . M i r o o and o t h e r s
came t o say t h a t some h o s t i l e K i k u y u had b o l t e d w i t h
some o f t h e i r c a t t l e , and t h e y came t o a s k me f o r a
few men t o go and f i g h t . T h i s t o them seemed most
natural as I am t o them a b l o o d b r o t h e r . H

T y p i c a l l y o f Lugard he f e l t he evaded t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e r e q u e s t f o r

a i d by K i k u y u . t o f i g h t o t h e r K i k u y u , " r a t h e r c l e v e r l y " . "I said that . . .

we would f i g h t i f t h e M a s a i came r a i d i n g c l o s e t o o u r f o r t b u t I c o u l d n o t

f i g h t a g a i n s t t h e K i k u y u because I had come here t o make peace and f r i e n d -

s h i p w i t h a l l K i k u y u , and i f I f o u g h t a g a i n s t some t h a t would p r e v e n t my

purpose, and perhaps on my r e t u r n I pass t h r o ' t h e i r c o u n t r y and t h e n t h e y

1
12

would c o n s i d e r me an enemy." Lugard pursued h i s l o g i c b y e x p l a i n i n g

t h a t K i k u y u s e e k i n g h i s a i d i n an a l l i a n c e might c o n t r a v e n e a p r e v i o u s

t r e a t y o r b l o o d - b r o t h e r h o o d ceremony he o r any o f h i s a s s o c i a t e s m i g h t

have w i t h o t h e r c l a n s .
. . . J a c k s o n (who o f course was my ' b r o t h e r ' )x M d made
b l o o d b r o t h e r s w i t h c h i e f s i n t h e i n t e r i o r , hence t h e y
were my b r o t h e r s , and perhaps t h e s e were t h e v e r y ones
. . . a g a i n s t whom t h e y wished me t o f i g h t . I d i d not
know, and i t was m a n i f e s t l y i m p o s s i b l e t o f i g h t a g a i n s t
possible blood b r o t h e r s . ^

Lugard's major p o i n t , however, was h i s e x p l a n a t i o n t o t h e K i k u y u

t h a t t h e i r i n t e r n a l d i s p u t e s r e s u l t e d o n l y i n minor consequences. Far

more s e r i o u s consequences would m a n i f e s t , he suggested, s h o u l d t h e B r i t -

i s h become i n v o l v e d i n i n t e r - t r i b a l d i s p u t e s . "When t h e K i k u y u f i g h t , "

he t o l d h i s ! " b l o o d - b r o t h e r s " , "a man g e t s h i s s k u l l c r a c k e d a t w o r s t . If

 68

the B r i t i s h f i g h t and b r i n g guns, many, many men d i e . I don't w i s h t o

k i l l Kikuyu.'' ^ 1
Thus he " r a t h e r c l e v e r l y " , t o u s e h i s own e x p r e s s i o n ,

conveyed t o t h e K i k u y u t h a t n o t i o n t h a t t h e B r i t i s h were n o t t o be t r i f l e d

with.

C o n t r a r y , however, t o h i s e x p r e s s e d a v e r s i o n t o t h e f o r m a l t r e a t y ,

Lugard d i d i n f a c t use t h i s means t o ensure K i k u y u a l l e g i a n c e t o t h e Com-

pany. He d i d n o t adhere t o t h e s t a n d a r d procedure of using "printed treaty

25

forms", b u t r a t h e r made o u t h i s own formsof dbcumentmenMorebver he

was c a r e f u l t o conclude t r e a t i e s w i t h K i k u y u he deemed t o be " c h i e f s " .

Thus i t must have been e v i d e n t t o him t h a t t h e r e were i n e x i s t e n c e K i k u y u

who c o u l d be r e f e r r e d t o as " c h i e f s " s i m p l y because t h e y appeared t o poss-

ess some s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e o v e r l o c a l t r i b a l affairs.

Lugard l e f t D a g o r e t t i on November 2, 1890, bound f o r t h e head o f

t h e Lake and t h e kingdom o f Buganda. He had g a i n e d a f a v o u r a b l e impress-

i o n of the Kikuyu. Tribesmen he encountered were " r e a l l y charming savages"

w i t h "most i n t e l l i g e n t f a c e s , h i g h f o r e h e a d s , w e l l - s h a p e d heads, and i n -

t e l l i g e n t eyes and e x p r e s s i o n . The c h i e f and h i s b r o t h e r s and r e l a t i v e s

were e s p e c i a l l y so." E i y e k i ( s i c ) i n t r o d u c e d Lugard t o h i s b r o t h e r s ,

M i r o o , Kahusu and M u r i a k a r a r a who were seen t o be " t h r e e c a p i t a l fellows." 1

The K i k u y u ' c h i e f s ' seemed a l s o t o have g r e a t i n f l u e n c e .

. . . I n t h e evening on a word o f command, h a l f a dozen
w a r r i o r s r u s h e d f o r w a r d w i t h l o n g s t i c k s t o c l e a r the
camp o f K i k u y u . . . t h e y went a t i t w i t h a w i l l , and
some g o t m e r c i l e s s l y l a s h e d o u t o f camp. A few b i g
w a r r i o r s were t r e a t e d l e s s r o u g h l y , b u t t h e s t i c k s
f l e w around them, and t h e ground was b e a t e n , and amid
much clamour ( t h e y were) f o r c e d t o c l e a r o u t . - ^ '
 69

An i n d i c a t i o n o f the genuine r e s p e c t and h o s p i t a l i t y shown Lugard

by the K i k u y u was the custom o f s p i t t i n g on the hands b e f o r e s h a k i n g hands.

" I t . w a s r o b v i o u s l y 'quite bone f i d e " , Lugard a s s e r t e d . "Some seemed o v e r j o y -

ed t o see D u a l l a (Lugard's g u i d e a g a i n and s p a t p r o f u s e l y b e f o r e shak-

ing hands, b u t i t seemed a mark o f r e s p e c t and f r i e n d s h i p t o do so, and

20

the more c o r d i a l ( K i k u y u ) d i d i t more t h a n once ..."

Lugard was e s p e c i a l l y s t r u c k by the e x t e n t o f K i k u y u c u l t i v a t i o n

and remarked t h a t t h i s f a c t seemed " t o mark the K i k u y u as an i n d u s t r i o u s

race. T h e i r p a t h s , " he observed, "were biroad and good" and were o b v i o u s l y

designed to serve defensive purposes." K i k u y u s m a l l h o l d i n g s were i r r i g a -

21

ted " v e r y s u c c e s s f u l l y , " w i t h l i t t l e water c o u r s e s around t h e i r p l o t s .

K i k u y u w i t h whom Lugard impressed the i d e a o f f r i e n d s h i p w i t h Wakamba

"agreed r e a d i l y and l i k e d the i d e a o f g o i n g t o Machakos and b r i n g i n g l o a d s

up from t h e r e . " "The p e o p l e , " Lugard s t a t e d , "seem o f an e x c e l l e n t d i s p o -

s i t i o n , and s t a n d c h a f f w i t h o u t q u a r r e l l i n g . I have seen a man robbed of

a h a n d f u l o f p o t a t o e s , and t a k e i t a l l as a j o k e . I have h a r d l y had a

22

c o m p l a i n t o f any s o r t . " . They were " r e a l l y v e r y n i c e f e l l o w s , so intelli-

gent,aand such good-mannered, c i v i l f e l l o w s f o r savages . . . Their faces

betoken g r e a t i n t e l l i g e n c e , and so do t h e i r h i g h f o r e h e a d s and good shaped
23

heads." He was, he s a i d , "more f a v o u r a b l y i m p r e s s e d by them t h a n by any

o t h e r t r i b e ( h e ) had y e t met i n Africa." Moreover, he remarked, ". . .1

had no h e s i t a t i o n i n t r u s t i n g m y s e l f a l o n e among them, even a t c o n s i d e r a b l e

25

d i s t a n c e s from camp . . . I found them honest and straightforward."

By 1893, however, d e s p i t e h i s e x p e r i e n c e s and the s e n t i m e n t s he

had e x p r e s s e d about the K i k u y u t h r e e y e a r s e a r l i e r , Lugard's a t t i t u d e had

 70

changed c o n s i d e r a b l y . " I v e r y g r e a t l y d e p l o r e the mismanagement ( o f the

K i k u y u ) w h i c h had p r a c t i c a l l y c l o s e d a c o u n t r y w h i c h bade f a i r t o be the

most p r o m i s i n g f o r commercial development between the c o a s t and the Lake,

and has c o n v e r t e d the f a i r promise o f f r i e n d s h i p and peace i n t o hostility

and b l o o d s h e d , so t h a t the p e o p l e have become a t r e a c h e r o u s and embittered

enemy, who now massacre any detached men t h e y can c a t c h ..."

There i s l i t t l e doubt t h a t subsequent t o Lugarddls f i r s t v i s i t t o

the a r e a r e l a t i o n s h i p s between wageni and K i k u y u had d e t e r i o r a t e d . By the

mid-1890's K i k u y u l o o k e d upon most newcomers w i t h the g r e a t e s t f e a r and

suspicion. Open h o s t i l i t y was rampant and k i l l i n g n o t i n f r e q u e n t . These

a t t i t u d e s were t o s e t the tone o f e n s u i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s between K i k u y u and

the Company, the t r a d e r s , tbiee embryo C o l o n i a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and, n o t the

l e a s t , among K i k u y u themselves. What f a c t o r s caused a d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n

relationships? Why had the K i k u y u become, i n a c o m p a r a t i v e l y s h o r t p e r i o d

o f t i m e , "a t r e a c h e r o u s and e m b i t t e r e d enemy"?

Three r e a s o n s t e n d t o h i g h l i g h t the o b v i o u s demise o f Kikuyu-Company

relations. The f i r s t concerns the f o r c e d e v a c u a t i o n o f D a g o r e t t i by

L u g a r d s s u b o r d i n a t e , George W i l s o n .
1
Here i t s h o u l d be r e c a l l e d t h a t Dag-,

o r e t t i had been c o n s t r u c t e d as a means t o p r o v i s i o n Company caravans bound

f o r the Lake. True Lugard had seen K i k u y u l a n d as b e i n g a p l a c e n o t u n l i k e

the E n g l i s h c o u n t r y s i d e and thus s u i t a b l e , " i n the f a r f u t u r e " f o r w h i t e

s e t t l e m e n t : b u t a t t h a t t i m e - h i s i n t e n t i o n was n o t t o " s e t t l e " a t D a g o r e t t i .

H i s c o n c e r n was m e r e l y t o e s t a b l i s h f o r the Company j u s t one o f a s t r i n g

o f p r o v i s i o n i n g bases between the c o a s t and the Lake.

 71

The K i k u y u , however, saw D a g o r e t t i as a permanent s e t t l e m e n t . F o r

them t o be h a r r a s s e d by p a s s i n g caravans was one t h i n g ; f o r them t o have

t h e wageni permanently i n t h e i r m i d s t was a n o t h e r . They had endured t h e

a t t e n t i o n s o f t h e c o a s t a l marauders and from t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h Thom-

son, T e l e k i , von Hohnel and some armed t r a d e r s , t h e y were w e l l aware o f t h e

" f i r e - p o w e r " o f Europeans. True t h e y had been k i n d t o L u g a r d — a European

— b u t as an " i n d i v i d u a l " . Now t h e K i k u y u were c o n f r o n t e d n o t w i t h Europeans

as " i n d i v i d u a l s " b u t r a t h e r w i t h t h e p o t e n t i a l o f Europeans en masse.

Lugard, t h r o u g h p r o b a b l y . t h e power o f h i s p e r s o n a l i t y , had i n d e e d e s t a b l i s h -

ed a r a p p o r t w i t h t h e athamaki, e s p e c i a l l y W a i y a k i , b u t h i s d e p a r t u r e left

a vacuum h a r d t o f i l l . George W i l s o n , r e s p o n s i b l e f o r D a g o r e t t i , was f r e -

q u e n t l y s i c k and thus i n d i s p o s e d t o engage h i m s e l f i n t h e time-consuming

27
a c t i v i t i e s o f A f r i c a n diplomacy. P u r k i s s , a n o t h e r Company man, was young
and i n e x p e r i e n c e d . N e l s o n ' s b r i e f t e n u r e a t D a g o r e t t i was i l l - f a t e d b y a
28

m u t i n y o f Company a s k a r i . Thus i n a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t p e r i o d o f t i m e ,

Lugard's good example and f o u n d a t i o n s f o r t h e f u t u r e were wrecked. The

Company was f o r c e d t o d e s e r t D a g o r e t t i and r e t i r e t o t h e comparative safety

o f Machakos.

The second r e a s o n e x p l a i n i n g a change i n K i k u y u a t t i t u d e c a n be

a s c r i b e d t o the b e h a v i o u r o f i l l - d i s c i p l i n e d Company l e v i e s . Kikuyu sus-

p i c i o n s and h o s t i l i t y g e n e r a l l y seemed t o have been e x a c e r b a t e d b y Company

attempts t o a r r e s t tribesmen f o r a l l e g e d s t e a l i n g . As a r e s u l t fighting

o f t e n brokecouit,, houses were burned and l i v e s t o c k c o n f i s c a t e d . Typical of

t h e s e i n c i d e n t s was t h e p r e v e n t i o n o f Company employees from drawing water

and the a c t i v i t i e s o f a s k a r i , who, on a j o u r n e y t o Machakos l o o t e d and

 72

k i l l e d goats.^ y
The e a r l y l i t e r a t u r e abounds w i t h such i n c i d e n t s and t h e

r e t a l i a t o r y t a c t i c s of both sides. Even Jackson's c a r a v a n was accused o f

30

s t e a l i n g crops and v i o l a t i n g women. Of major s i g n i f i c a n c e , however, i s

the way the K i k u y u became v i o l e n t l y i n v o l v e d n o t o n l y w i t h t h e Company

b u t w i t h each o t h e r . Company o f f i c i a l s and r e t a i n e r s g o t themselves em-

b r o i l e d i n t r i b a l squabbles b y s i d i n g w i t h one a g a i n s t the o t h e r . There i s

on r e c o r d , f o r example, an i n s t a n c e o f a K i k u y u p e r s u a d i n g a l a r g e number

o f Company men t o accompany him on an e x p e d i t i o n t o r e c o v e r a l l e g e d s t o l e n

cattle. Proceeding on the p r e t e x t o f s e e k i n g f o o d , t h e e x p e d i t i o n was

31

" s u c c e s s f u l " and r e t u r n e d t o i t s Company base w i t h t h e l o o t e d s t o c k .

B o t h Company a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , P u r k i s s and N e l s o n , were f a c e d w i t h a s e r i o u s

breakdown o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e machinery i n s o u t h e r n K i k u y u l a n d : and most o f

t h e i r , t r o u b l e s can be t r a c e d t o l a c k o f c o n t r o l o v e r t h e i r A f r i c a n l e v i e s .

I n 1892, moreover, t h e s i t u a t i o n was worsened c o n s i d e r a b l y by t h e decree

t h a t a l l Company s t a t i o n s s h o u l d be s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g . Now i t appears t h a t

o f f i c i a l c a r t e - b l a n c h e had been g i v e n t o r a i d f o r f o o d o r s t o c k — a situation

t h a t was n a t u r a l l y t o e x a c e r b a t e . t h e problem and one w h i c h i n e v i t a b l y l e a d

to an e s c a l a t i o n o f t h e t u r m o i l . Hence Lugard was a b l e t o s a y w i t h justif-

i c a t i o n that the Kikuyu "became e s t r a n g e d (and) h o p e l e s s l y d i s a f f e c t e d . "

The e v a c u a t i o n o f D a g o r e t t i was o n l y a temporary r e s p i t e . Soon t h e

Company was back t o t h e s t a t i o n i n s t r e n g t h ; i n t e n t t h i s t i m e i n e s t a b l i s h -

ing a more.permanent p r e s e n c e . I n t h e t e r r i t o r y o f Lugard's o l d f r i e n d ,

W a i y a k i , work commenced on a new s t a t i o n t o be named Fort;:-Smith a f t e r the

leader of the e x p e d i t i o n . But around t h e a r e a o f t h e new f a c i l i t y r e l a t i o n s

between t h e Company, i t s s u p p o r t e r s and t h e K i k u y u , d i d n o t improve. The

 73

death of Maktubu and the arrest and subsequent death of Waiyaki served f u r -

ther to engender increased hatred and h o s t i l i t y .

The t h i r d reason explaining a change i n Kikuyu attitude i s asso-

ciated with the deaths of Maktubu and Waiyaki. Maktubu, a Nyasa, was a

Company levy who had served under Thomson and von Hohnel. Described by

Thomson as a man endowed with "an utter absence of tact i n dealing with
32
men under him" he had almost shot Martin and had quarrelled perpetually
33

with Dualla. The Company often despatched him to forage f o r food and to

act generally as an intermediary i n dealing with Kikuyu around Fort Smith.

In mid-1892 Maktubu was induced to accompany a Kikuyu collaborator, Kamau

Wamagata, on a journey to a v i l l a g e to c o l l e c t a marriage dowry. Both men

took with them several Kikuyu and f i f t e e n Company askari. On a r r i v a l at

the v i l l a g e i n question they demanded the repayment of the dowry and a

f i g h t broke out. The invaders, outnumbered and without a i d from Fort Smith,

were almost a l l k i l l e d . A survivor subsequently reported that Maktubu and

his followers had been k i l l e d while innocently searching f o r food. In

August 1892 the Company sent a.strong expedition to punish the Kikuyu re-
34
sponsible f o r Maktubu's death.

Meanwhile, the muthumaki Waiyaki, blood-brother of Lugard, fearing

he might be punished f o r events surrounding the Maktubu incident, went to

see Purkiss of the Company. Soon an argument ensued during which the Kikuyu

drew h i s sword (simi) and attempted to k i l l the European. A s c u f f l e took

place and Waiyaki.appears to have been struck on the head with h i s own

weapon. Overpowered and beaten Waiyaki was handcuffed and l e f t outside

overnight. On August 19, 1892 he was escorted by Company askari on a jour-

ney to e x i l e on the coast. But Waiyaki never reached Mombasa: he died and
 74

was b u r i e d a t K i b w e z i .

The a f f a i r o f W a i y a k i i s o f importance i n v i e w o f h i s p e r s o n a l

change o f a t t i t u d e toward the whiteman. Whereas i t i s o n l y p o s s i b l e t o

i n t e r p o l a t e from the evidence c o l l e c t i v e Kikuyu a t t i t u d e s , i t i s p o s s i b l e , .

i n the case o f W a i y a k i , t o t r a c e w i t h c e r t a i n t y h i s p e r s o n a l change o f

attitude. J u s t a few y e a r s b e f o r e h i s death, f o r example, he had been

instrumental i n a i d i n g T e l e k i ' s safe.traverse of Kikuyuland. Lugard

found common cause w i t h him i n the ceremony o f b l o o d - b r o t h e r h o o d — a fact

w h i c h i s w e l l r e c o r d e d i n Lugard's w r i t i n g s . Even o t h e r European employ-

ees o f the Company, n o t a b l y P u r k i s s and Smith, had e a r l i e r developed a

r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h Waiyaki of mutual t r u s t . W a i y a k i had, f o r example,

d i s p l a y e d remarkable t a c t i n r e t u r n i n g t o the Company i t s s t o l e n p r o p e r t y

on more t h a n one o c c a s i o n . But i n the s h o r t time between Lugard's first

v i s i t to Waiyaki's a r e a , and the e s t a b l i s h m e n t and o p e r a t i o n o f the Company

s t a t i o n ( F o r t h S m i t h ) W a i y a k i i s p e r s o n a l a t t i t u d e toward the s t r a n g e r s un-

deniably;^ changed: the p r e s e n c e a n d . a c t i v i t i e s o f the w h i t e m e n — a n d t h e i r

collaborators—haddundoubtedly c o n t r i b u t e d p r o f o u n d l y t o t h a t change.

The demise o f W a i y a k i i n c i t e d Kikuyu to f u r t h e r h o s t i l e a c t s . In

consequence r e l a t i o n s h i p s between the Company and p e o p l e l i v i n g i n i t s

proximity continued to d e t e r i o r a t e . P u r k i s s appears d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d as

b e i n g v i r t u a l l y a c a p t i v e w i t h i n the c o n f i n e s o f Fort.u Smith; w h i l e o u t -

s i d e waged an e s c a l a t i o n o f f r i c t i o n and h o s t i l i t y f o r the n e x t f o u r y e a r s .

By 1893 P o r t a l commented t h a t the K i k u y u were "a t h B i P o u g h l y bad l o t " w i t h

"a bad name, w h i c h s t i c k s t o them l i k e a b u r r , and the s t r a n g e r . . . t r e a t s

them a c c o r d i n g l y . " A n o t h e r statement, t y p i c a l i n i t s extreme, was t h a t the

 75

K i k u y u s h o u l d be "shot on s i g h t " " ^ — a s e n t i m e n t n o t c a l c u l a t e d t o c r e a t e

a f a v o u r a b l e atmosphere and c e r t a i n l y a r a d i c a l d e p a r t u r e from Lugard's

i m p r e s s i o n o f K i k u y u as b e i n g " r e a l l y n i c e f e l l o w s " .

There i s no doubt t h a t had t h e K i k u y u been c a p a b l e o f a c t i n g c o l l e c -

t i v e l y a g a i n s t t h e Company, o f mounting c o n c e r t e d a t t a c k s upon Company s t a -

t i o n s o r employees, t h e Europeans would have f o r c e d t o w i t h d r a w Kikuyuland.

But a c t i n g t o g e t h e r , f o r common cause, was o b v i o u s l y n o t p o s s i b l e f o r t h e

Kikuyu. Cracks - i n t h e firmament o f t r i b a l s o c i e t y were w e l l r e c o g n i z e d ;

the Company's s a l v a t i o n l a y i n i t s a b i l i t y t o ' p e r c e i v e w h i c h ones i t would

e x p l o i t t o i t s a d v a n t a g e — w h e r e and how f a r t o d r i v e home a w e d g e — a n d thus

s u s t a i n i t s e l f i n Kikuyuland. I n consequence the" Company i n c r e a s i n g l y

sought o u t K i k u y u c o l l a b o r a t o r s , i n v o l v e d i t s e l f i n p e t t y and p e r s o n a l

t r i b a l a f f a i r s , and g e n e r a l l y s i d e d w i t h one group ( o r i n d i v i d u a l ) a g a i n s t

another. The M a k t u b u t a f f a i r , f o r example, i s e v i d e n c e enough o f Company

w i l l i n g n e s s t o become i n v o l v e d i n t r i b a l d i s p u t e s — a l b e i t , i n t h i s case,

u n o f f i c i a l involvement. Official s a n c t i o n , however, was n o t l o n g i n com-

ing. Kikuyu " f r i e n d l i e s " began t o a c t i v e l y seek t h e a i d o f t h e Company

against other Kikuyu. Moreover, t h e Company responded r e c i p r o c a l l y when

i t needed a l l i e s . P u n i t i v e e x p e d i t i o n s were now o f t e n comprised o f Com-

pany employees and K i k u y u w a r r i o r s . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , athamaki were now a b l e

to s e t t l e o l d s c o r e s , reap t h e rewards o f v i c t o r y i n l i v e s t o c k and g e n e r a l -

l y extend t h e i r i n f l u e n c e over l a r g e r areas o f the c o u n t r y — a l l a t the

expense o f t h e i r enemies, r e a l o r imagined, and w i t h t h e a i d o f t h e Com-

37
pany.
 76

A factor which tended to complicate an already complex s i t u a t i o n

was the settlement of Masai around the Company stations i n southern Kikuyu-

land. No doubt Company o f f i c i a l s saw the advantage of placing several hun-

dred Masai warriors between themselves and the Kikuyu. Providing the Com-

pany could successfully maintain good r e l a t i o n s with the Masai—and t r a -

d i t i o n a l l y they had been good—the yoiaaggnoran could be conveniently

used as a Company defense force. By 1894 several hundred Masai were quar-

tered around Fort Smith, an area into which they had never previously ven-

tured i n force and which f o r many years had been s o l i d l y Kikuyu. Soon

the i n i t i a l group of Masai were joined by others and by 3i.uly, 1894 there

were substantial numbers of Masai warriors l i v i n g i n Kikuyuland enjoying

39

the protection of the Company. Because of t h e i r warlike t r a d i t i o n the

Masai made excellent Sighting material to supplement Company expeditions

against dissident Kikuyu. Furthermore, the Company did not need to incur

the expense of feeding and housing them as i t d i d i n the case of i t s own

askari. Kikuyuland was r i c h i n foodstuffs and provided an adequate source

of sustenance to support the Masai. Thus f o r these reasons, foraging of

Kikuyu smallholdings became a common occurrence.

In January 1893 ForthSmith was attacked andfPurkissdwas->-

forced to seek the a i d of Ainsworth at Machakos. For s i x days i n January

1893 the f o r t was beseiged completely. On his a r r i v a l i n Kikuyuland, Portal

found Purkiss " p r a c t i c a l l y a prisoner with a l l h i s people." ^

4
Portal observ-

ed to Rodd that "the European i n charge does not dare venture two hundred

yards from his stockade without an armed escort." "'" 4

 77

Meanwhile punitive expeditions continued. Francis H a l l under-

took major raids, from his base at Fort Smith, on Kikuyu i t u r a i n the

area. Large numbers of c a t t l e , sheep and goats were confiscated as H a l l

t e s t i f i e s i n his d i a r i e s . "The next day I counted the s p o i l s , 922 sheep

4-2

and goats and s i x c a t t l e . " On another occasion, aided t h i s time by

15 Nubians, 87 Masai and 50 " l o y a l " Kikuyu l e d by the muthumaki, Kinanjui,

H a l l attacked a Kikuyu i t u r a and captured 550 goats and seven head of

cattle. Not s a t i s f i e d at the r e s u l t s H a l l decided to

loose o f f my pack of war-dogs again and, as I had got
information as to the whereabouts of t h e i r stock, I hoped
to get a good haul and s e t t l e the matter. The same 'bob-
bery pack' went again, though there were over 100 Masai
this time The expedition was a grand success, f o r
they captured 800 goats and 16 head of c a t t l e and burnt
a l o t of villages.4-3

To make matters worse, i n terms of Kikuyu/Company relationships,

a l l t h i s was going on when famine was beginning to make i t s e l f f e l t i n

the country. Between 1894 and 1899 the Kikuyu were h i t by a series of

natural disasters which sapped their resistance to the invaders. In 1894

and again i n 1895 swarms of locusts descended on Kikuyuland, to be followed

i n rapid succession by drought, plague and severe food shortage. Mass

movements of Kikuyu took place i n a search f o r f o o d . ^ These factors added

further to the general turmoil. Now chaos reigned i n Kikuyuland and i t s

most eminent white witness, S i r Gerald Portal, emissary extraordinary of

Her Majesty's Government, spared not the Company.and i t s o f f i c e r s i n his

description of i t .
 78

P o r t a l ' s j o u r n e y from the c o a s t t o Uganda and r e t u r n was a signif-

i c a n t landmark i n the demise o f the Company. U n t i l r e c e n t l y Consul-General,

Z a n z i b a r , P o r t a l was esteemed by S a l i s b u r y and recommended f o r h i g h o f f i c e

by L o r d Cromer. S e l e c t e d t o r e p o r t on the o p e r a t i o n s o f the Company, he

a d v i s e d the F o r e i g n O f f i c e t h a t Mackinnon's b r a i n c h i l d , The Imperial B r i t -

i s h E a s t A f r i c a Company, was "on i t s deathbed from a c o m b i n a t i o n o f penur-

i o u s n e s s , f a l s e economy and r e c k l e s s e x t r a v a g e n c e . " The B r i t i s h Government,

he a s s e r t e d , s h o u l d a l l o w the Company t o e x p i r e r a t h e r t h e n p r o l o n g i t s
• 45
a c t i v i t i e s by m i s p l a c e d e f f o r t s a t a s s i s t a n c e . Both the o f f i c i a l account

o f P o r t a l ' s j o u r n e y and h i s p r i v a t e correspondence condemned the Company.

The s o - c a l l e d Mackinnon Road, he s a i d , was no more t h a n overgrown p a t h and

Company a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a l o n g i t s whole l e n g t h was v i r t u a l l y non-existent.

Company maps, p u r p o r t i n g t o show a s e r i e s o f s t a t i o n s o f p o s t s from the

c o a s t t o Uganda, d i d not convey the t r u e s t a t e o f a f f a i r s . Some s t a t i o n s

had been abandoned w h i l e o t h e r s were i n a d e q u a t e l y s t a f f e d and defended.

Worse s t i l l , the s u r r o u n d i n g t r i b e s had been a l i e n a t e d by Company employees

o c c u p y i n g the s t a t i o n s . Company f a c i l i t i e s i n K i k u y u l a n d , he n o t e d , were

a c t u a l l y b e s i e g e d f o r l o n g p e r i o d s o f t i m e . . No doubt t h i s was due t o the

1892 Company d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t i t s i n t e r i o r s t a t i o n s s h o u l d be s e l f - s u p p o r t -

i n g — a s i t u a t i o n w h i c h meant t h a t Company employees were f o r c e d t o r a i d

K i k u y u shambas f o r f o o d . ^

P o r t a l ' s r e p o r t was s u b s e q u e n t l y p r e s e n t e d t o the B r i t i s h Government

and i t s major recommendations suggested t h a t Great B r i t a i n s h o u l d d e c l a r e

a P r o t e c t o r a t e over E a s t A f r i c a . Furthermore the r o u t e t o Uganda s h o u l d

n o t be the "overgrown" Mackinnon Road, a u s e l e s s means.of moving t r o o p s

 79

t o Uganda i n defence o f t h e s t r a t e g i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t N i l e s o u r c e , b u t

rather the r a i l w a y . Thus t h e d e a t h - k n e l l o f t h e Company was sounded:

h a v i n g u t t e r e d i t w i t h such damning eloquence, P o r t a l d i e d w i t h i n a month.

B r o a d l y s p e a k i n g t h e I m p e r i a l B r i t i s h E a s t A f r i c a Company was

s u c c e s s f u l i n extending B r i t i s h i n f l u e n c e i n East A f r i c a . Despite a

s h o e - s t r i n g approach t h e Company's o u t s t a n d i n g achievement, whether-

by d e s i g n o r f o r t u i t o u s a c c i d e n t , l a y i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a B r i t i s h
4-7

presence and a d e n i a l o f German a m b i t i o n s . The Company's f a i l u r e ,

however, l a y i n an i n a b i l i t y t o r e s o l v e problems o f i t s presence among

the K i k u y u . Lugard had shrewdly n e g o t i a t e d h i s passage t h r o u g h Kikuyu-

l a n d , was u n u s u a l l y impressed b y K i k u y u and had developed a f r i e n d l y r e -

l a t i o n s h i p w i t h eminent mathamaki, n o t a b l y W a i y a k i . Using t a c t , diplo-

macy and a s u g g e s t i o n o f f o r c e , Lugard had d e p a r t e d t h e a r e a o p t i m i s t i c

about t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f Company s e t t l e m e n t . But subsequent e v e n t s

proved otherwise.

George W i l s o n , l e f t i n charge o f Company a f f a i r s , was o f t e n s i c k

and thus i n d i s p o s e d t o g i v e time and t r o u b l e t o t h e i n t r i c a c i e s o f A f r i -

can diplomacy. Others l i k e P u r k i s s and N e l s o n p r o v e d i n e x p e r i e n c e d and

t h u s i l l - e q u i p p e d t o b u i l d c o n s t r u c t i v e l y on Lugard's f o u n d a t i o n . Both

o f f i c e r s were unable t o c o n t a i n t h e Company's A f r i c a n l e v i e s , some o f whom

were K i k u y u , from r a i d i n g , t h i e v i n g , and g e n e r a l l y h a r a s s i n g t h e n a t i v e

population. Indeed, b y 1892, H a l l actuaihlyaehcouragedr'theaplund'er

o f n a t i v e s m a l l h o l d i n g s b y Company employees.

I n t h e f u r o r e and h o s t i l i t y engendered b y t h e Company p r e s e n c e ,

W a i y a k i , t h e muthumaki o f whom Lugard had thought so h i g h l y , was a r r e s t e d

 80

and d e p o r t e d , t o d i e s u b s e q u e n t l y i n the hands o f the B r i t i s h . Kikuyu

h o s t i l i t y e s c a l a t e d t o a f e v e r p i t c h , perhaps engendered by W a i y a k i be-

i n g seen as a p a t r i o t : a muthumaki who had made a genuine r e m o n s t r a t i o n

a g a i n s t the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f the Company, w h i l e o t h e r eminent K i k u y u were

collaborating f o r t h e i r own s e l f i s h r e a s o n s .

By 1895 P o r t a l found K i k u y u l a n d i n a t u r m o i l and p r a c t i c a l l y un-

tenable. H i s recommendations t h a t the B r i t i s h Government t a k e o v e r the

c o u n t r y were a c c e p t e d and soon the Company a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n K i k u y u l a n d

was brought t o an end. The t r o u b l e s , however, remained, f o r by now Kikuyu

athamaki had l e a r n t t o use t h e B r i t i s h t o f i g h t t h e i r l o c a l wars and o t h e r

f o r c e s were a t work, n o t a b l y armed t r a d e r s , whose presence e x a c e r b a t e d an

already exceedingly turbulent s i t u a t i o n .

 81

FOOTNOTES

See R. Robinson?and John G a l l a g h e r , A f r i c a and the V i c t o r i a n s :

The O f f i c i a l M i n d o f I m p e r i a l i s m , (London: M a c m i l l a n , 1961), p a s s i m
pp. 198-202. " I n the autumn o f 1892 E g y p t i a n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s were upper-
most i n the minds o f the B r i t i s h o f f i c i a l s as t h e y g r a p p l e d w i t h the
q u e s t i o n o f Uganda." See a l s o p. 314- and pp. 4-62-472 f o r a d d i t i o n a l
d e t a i l s . A l s o , J.P. F a r l e r , "England and Germany i n E a s t Africa',' i n
F o r t n i g h t l y Review, ( F e b r u a r y 1889), pp. 157-65. The 2nd L o r d Grim-
t h o r p e , "England and Germany i n A f r i c a " i n F o r t n i g h t l y Review ( J u l y
1890), pp. 1 4 4 - 6 4 . Great B r i t a i n , F o r e i g n O f f i c e , "Arrangement Be-
tween Great B r i t a i n and Germany r e g a r d i n g Boundaries i n E a s t A f r i c a ,
J u l y 25, 1893,'"'in T r e a t y S e r i e s , No. 1 4 , 1893 and S i r F.W. Dewinton,
"England and Germany i n E a s t A f r i c a " i n 1 9 t h Century, (May 1890),
pp. 721-6.

Perhaps t h e b e s t work on the r a i l w a y , c e r t a i n l y the most com-

p r e h e n s i v e , i s M.F. H i l l , Permanent Way, ( N a i r o b i , EAPH, 2 v o l s . 1950).
The b e s t t o p i c a l account i s u n d o u b t e d l y C h a r l e s M i l l e r , The L u n a t i c
E x p r e s s : An E n t e r t a i n m e n t i n I m p e r i a l i s m , (New York: M a c m i l l a n , 1971).

I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t the c h a r t e r e d company was a time-honoured

implement w h i c h had l a i d the f o u n d a t i o n s o f much o f the- B r i t i s h Empire.
More s i g n i f i c a n t , perhaps, i s the f a c t t h a t l a y i n g t h e s e f o u n d a t i o n s had
been c a r r i e d out w i t h o u t s t r a i n i n g the T r e a s u r y p u r s e o r a p p e a l i n g t o
the t a x - p a y e r . For y e a r s businessmen had been p o o l i n g t h e i r a s s e t s ,
sometimes w i t h R o y a l s a n c t i o n , and i n s t i t u t i n g companies l i k e the Hudson's
Bay Company, t h e B r i t i s h E a s t I n d i a Company, and o t h e r s . O f t e n laws
were made by companies, t a x e s . c o l l e c t e d , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and m i l i t a r y -•'
f o r c e s i n s t i t u t e d n o t t o m e n t i o n the development o f a g r e a t d e a l o f l u -
c r a t i v e commerce.
D u r i n g the l a t t e r p a r t o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y Great B r i t a i n
gave her a s s e n t t o the c r e a t i o n o f f o u r c h a r t e r e d companies and endowed
them w i t h e x t e n s i v e p o l i t i c a l and commercial p r i v i l e g e s . Three o f t h e s e
companies were a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the A f r i c a n sphere o f e n t e r p r i s e and p r o -
v i d e d much o f the impetus f o r i m p e r i a l e x p a n s i o n i n West, S o u t h and E a s t
Africa. S i n c e a l l t h r e e companies were i n a u g u r a t e d i n the space o f n i n e
y e a r s i t may be presumed t h a t B r i t i s h o f f i c i a l d o m , w h i c h had a c q u i r e d the
h a b i t o f l o o k i n g askance a t p r i v a t e o v e r s e a companies, began t o v i e w such
u n d e r t a k i n g s w i t h a new a i r o f r e s p e c t a b i l i t y . The changing p o l i t i c a l
^ c l i m a t e o f the second p e r i o d o f i m p e r i a l e x p a n s i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y the
 .82

' A f r i c a n Scramble' o f t h e 1880's, saw once more government c o n d o n a t i o n

o f p r i v a t e a m b i t i o n s i n t h e h i t h e r t o undeveloped p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d .
See i n r e s p e c t o f t h e development o f t h e I m p e r i a l B r i t i s h E a s t A f r i c a
Company, John S. G a l b r a i t h , Mackinnon and E a s t A f r i c a 1878-189$: A
S t u d y i n t h e New I m p e r i a l i s m , (Cambridge: UP, 1972). Other works
on t h e Company i n c l u d e : M a r i e de K i e w i e t , " H i s t o r y o f t h e I m p e r i a l
B r i t i s h E a s t A f r i c a Company, 1876-1895," PHD T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f
London, 1955; P.L. McDermott, B r i t i s h E a s t A f r i c a o r IBEA: A H i s t o r y
o f t h e F o r m a t i o n and Work o f t h e I m p e r i a l B r i t i s h E a s t A f r i c a Company,
(London, Chapman H a l l , 1893); E.R. Vere-Hodge, I m p e r i a l B r i t i s h E a s t "
A f r i c a Company, (London: M a c m i l l a n , I960); Roland O l i v e r , "Some F a c t o r s
m t h e B r i t i s h O c c u p a t i o n o f E a s t A f r i c a , 1884-1894" i n The Uganda
J o u r n a l , v o l . 15, (1951), pp. 49-64-; see a l s o S i r H a r r y Johnston's
comments on t h e cause f o r e x i s t e n c e o f t h e Company i n "The E a s t A f r i c a n
Problem" i n N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y , ( J u l y 1908), pp. 567-87. " . . . The
parsimony o f t h e T r e a s u r y . . . was t h e d i r e c t cause o f t h e c a l l i n g
i n t o e x i s t e n c e o f t h e s e c h a r t e r e d companies."

H
S e e R o b i n s o n and G a l l a g h e r , A f r i c a , pp. 199-200. ". . . b y
1887 S a l i s b u r y no l o n g e r o b j e c t e d t o t h e n o t i o n o f p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e
o c c u p y i n g t h e c o a s t s and e v e n t u a l l y t h e whole sphere a l l o t t e d under t h e
Anglo-German Agreement. The sooner t h i s t e r r i t o r y was o c c u p i e d , t h e
b e t t e r . . . B u t i f t h i s was t o be done, i t would have t o be w i t h o u t
p u b l i c expense. Mackinnon had founded h i s B r i t i s h E a s t A f r i c a n
A s s o c i a t i o n and t h e F o r e i g n O f f i c e began t o encourage h i m t o e s t a b l i s h
i t on t h e m a i n l a n d .

F o r t h e development o f Mombasa as E a s t A f r i c a n e n t r e p o t and

Company h e a d q u a r t e r s see H. de B l i j , Mombasa, ( M i c h i g a n : . N o r t h w e s t e r n
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1968).

"George Mackenzie a r r i v e d i n Z a n z i b a r as managing d i r e c t o r i n

October 1888. I t was M a c k e n z i e ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o o r g a n i z e t h e head-
q u a r t e r s a t Mombasa, t o c o n c i l i a t e t h e l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n , and t o
f o r m u l a t e a p l a n o f a c t i o n f o r commercial development." See G a l b r a i t h ,
Mackinnon, p. 150.

The Times, London, 27 March 1890. "We a r e w i t n e s s i n g t h e

p r o c e s s known i n p r i v a t e l i f e as ' t r y i n g i t on' . . . . The K a r l P e t e r s
e x p e d i t i o n i s c l e a r l y and avowedly i n t e n d e d t o c u t us o f f from t h e '
i n t e r i o r , b y e s t a b l i s h i n g German i n f l u e n c e a t t h e back o f o u r t e r r i t o r y . "
 83

°See Margery Perham ed., The Diaries of Lord Lugard, (London:

Faber and Faber, 1959); Lugard, The Years of Adventure, 1858-1898,
(London: C o l l i n s , 1956) and Lugard, The Years of Authority, (London:
C o l l i n s , I960). See also Lugard's own works, Capt. F.D. Lugard, The
Rise of Our East A f r i c a n Empire, (London: Blackwood, 1893), 2 vols.;
The Dual Mandate i n A f r i c a , (London: Blackwood, 1923) and "The Rise
of Our East A f r i c a n Empire" i n Blackwood's, (Dec. 1893), pp. 865-91.

9
Perham, Lugard, v o l . 1, pp. 206, 460 " . . . the only person
who has up to the present time benefited by our enterprise i n the heart
of A f r i c a has been Mr. Hiriam Maxim." (A remark attributed to S i r Charles
Dilke. )

"^Perham, The Diaries, p. 318.

^Ibid.

12
Ibid., p. 344.

13
Ibid. Reference to ( S i r ) Frederick Jackson, Company o f f i c e r sub-
sequently absorbed by the Protectorate Administration (1895) and placed i n
charge of the Mau D i s t r i c t . From 1911-18 Jackson was Governor of Uganda
Protectorate.

"^Perham, The Diaries, p. 345.

15
Ibid., p. 318. "I also made a treaty, but as I do not believe
i n the printed treaty forms of the Company by which a man gives h i s
land and a l l his rights of rule to the Company i n exchange for t h e i r
'Govt, and protection,' I made out my own treaty form. This Company's
treaty i s an utter fraud. No man i f he understood would sign i t , and
to say that a savage chief has been t o l d that he cedes a l l rights to
the Company i n exchange f o r nothing i s an obvious untruth."

"^Variously referred to i n the early l i t e r a t u r e as Waiyaki,

Wayaki or Wyaki.
 84

17
Perham, The Diaries, p. 315.

18
Ibid., p. 314-

19
Dualla was a most unusual Somali guide and caravan headman.
He had been with Stanley i n the Congo and had accompanied, also, the
Von Hohnel/Teleki expedition. He spoke English, Arabic, Swahili and-
Somali. He had t r a v e l l e d i n Europe and America and had l i v e d f o r some
time i n England. His home was i n Aden. He was, says, Lugard, "the
most energetic, valuable native I have ever met, thoroughly trustworthy
and very conscientious and w i l l i n g . His f a u l t l a y i n h i s rough and
a r b i t r a r y methods with the men . . . He was feared and d i s l i k e d by the
men. . . Porters were treated as mere beasts of burden. Flogging—some-
times with great c r u e l t y — c h a i n i n g of men together i n gangs . . . beat-
ing men who lagged behind i n the rear of the caravan . . . abandoning
others on the march who were unable to come on . . . " Lugard would
not allow him to f l o g porters and had "quite a personal a f f e c t i o n f o r
him . . . " See Lugard, The Rise, pp. 302-3-

20
Perham, The Diaries, p. 315.

2 1
I b i d . , p. 316.

Ibid., p. 338.

2 3
Ibid.

24
Perham, Lugard, v o l . 1, p. 202.

25
^Ibid.

26
Lugard, The Rise, pp. 336-7. Not only Lugard was disturbed by
the turn of events. Thomson, "East A f r i c a " commented that "The country
had been thrown back into a worse condition of anarchy and savagery than
i t was twenty years ago. European t r a v e l l e r s , however well-armed and
protected, cannot now go where formerly a s o l i t a r y i n d i v i d u a l armed only
with an umbrella could formerly pass with safety."
 85

27
Perham, Lugard, v o l . 1, p. 203. See also Lugard,. The Rise,
pp. 335-6. Wilson was dismissed by the Company for h i s action i n with-
drawing Dagoretti. According to Lugard "the f a u l t did not l i e with
Wilson." E.R. Vere-Hodge, Imperial B r i t i s h , pp. 24-6 says that Wilson's
career was not ruined by the unfortunate circumstances of Dagoretti f o r
" l a t e r he rose to high rank i n the service of the government of Uganda."

28
Vere-Hodge, Imperial B r i t i s h , pp. 76-7. "Captain Nelson, late
of the Emin Pasha R e l i e f Expedition, was sent to Kikuyu during 1892, but
his b r i e f influence does not seem to have been benign. He engaged i n
punitive expeditions of a questionable nature not only against the
Kikuyu but against more p a c i f i c t r i b e s l i k e the Taita. Soon a f t e r his
a r r i v a l at Kikuyu there was a mutiny against the garrison, while Nelson
himself died a short while a f t e r t h i s episode.

29
H.B. Thomas, "George Wilson and Dagoretti Fort" i n Uganda
Journal, v o l . 23, (1959), pp. 173-7.

30
^Perham, ed., The Diaries, pp. 299-300.

-^Thomas, "George Wilson," pp. 173-77.

32

J
Thomson, Through, p. 20.

33
Ibid., pp. 284-6 and von Hohnel, The Discovery, v o l . 1,
34
pp. 201-2. See also p. 103 for description of Martin's a c t i v i t i e s .
There are various accounts of the expedition and Maktubu's
death. See Perham, ed., The Diaries, pp. 377-80; Perham, Lugard, v o l . 2,
p. 537 and Major J.R.L. Macdonald, Soldiering and Surveying i n B r i t i s h
East A f r i c a 1891-1894, (London: Arnold,) 1897).

35
Macdonald, Soldiering, pp. 115-9. Also, Vere-Hodge, Imperial
B r i t i s h , p. 78.

- ^ S i r Gerald Portal, The Mission to Uganda i n 1893, (London:

Arnold, 1894), pp. 89-93-
 86

37
B . E . F . H a l l , "How Peace Came t o K i k u y u : Extracts of Letters
from F r a n c i s George H a l l " i n J o u r n a l o f t h e R o y a l A f r i c a n S o c i e t y , v o l . 3 7 ,
(Oct. 1938), pp. 432-48.

"^Masai w a r r i o r c l a s s e s .

3 9
Hall, "How Peace Came," p. 439.

\Wller, The L u n a t i c , pp. 3 1 0 - 5 . See a l s o Vere-Hodge, I m p e r i a l

B r i t i s h , pp. 76-7. "As f o r K i k u y u , P o r t a l d e s c r i b e d i t t o t h e F o r e i g n
O f f i c e as b e i n g ' p r a c t i c a l l y i n a s t a t e o f s i e g e and i n c o n s t a n t danger
from t h e h o s t i l i t y o f t h e n a t i v e s . ' The Company's i n f l u e n c e , he d e c l a r e d ,
was o n l y b e i n g m a i n t a i n e d b y 'sending a l m o s t d a i l y l o o t i n g and r a i d i n g
p a r t i e s t o b u r n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g v i l l a g e s and s i e z e t h e c r o p s and c a t t l e . "
Moreover., P u r k i s s , Vere-Hodge o b s e r v e s , was n e v e r i n t e n d e d t o be more
t h a n an a s s i s t a n t a t t h e f o r t b u t t h r o u g h a s t r o k e o f f a t e became t h e
Company's A c t i n g S u p e r i n t e n d e n t a t t h e " c h i e f t r o u b l e s p o t . "

^ P o r t a l t o Rodd, from N z o i , 22 i . 93, F.O. 2.60 quoted i n O l i v e r ,

" B r i t i s h O c c u p a t i o n , " p. 56.

^ H a l l , "How Peace Came," p. 43V.

2

^ I b i d . , p. 441.
3

^D.R.F. T a y l o r , "Changing Food H a b i t s i n K i k u y u l a n d " i n Canadian

J o u r n a l o f A f r i c a n S t u d i e s , v o l . 4, (1970), p. 340.

45
G a l b r a i t h , Mackinnon, p. 214.

^ I b i d . , pp. 2 2 8 - 9 , from sundry correspondence quoted and P o r t a l ,

The M i s s i o n , p a s s i m . See a l s o M i l l e r , The L u n a t i c , pp. 310-15 and V e r e -
Hodge, I m p e r i a l B r i t i s h , pp. 76-82.
 87

O l i v e r , "Some F a c t o r s , " pp. 4-9-64. See a l s o J o h n s t o n , "The

E a s t A f r i c a n , " p. 5 6 9 . " . • . (The Company) . . . secured f o r u s , h i t
by b i t , t h e whole v a s t a r e a between t h e I n d i a n Ocean, t h e Congo S t a t e ,
the E g y p t i a n Sudan, and t h e c o n f i n e s o f S o m a l i l a n d . They o u t b i d and
o u t w i t t e d e q u a l l y p a t r i o t i c Germans, as s e n s i b l e ( s i c ) as we were o f
the supreme a d v a n t a g e s — s t r a t e g i c and e c o n o m i c — o f E q u a t o r i a l A f r i c a . "
 CHAPTER A

ARMED TRADERS

D u r i n g t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f t h e B r i t i s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and b e f o r e s e r -

i o u s e f f o r t s were made t o p a c i f y t h e K i k u y u , w e l l - a r m e d European t r a d e r s who

were n o t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f e s t a b l i s h e d commercial u n d e r t a k i n g s p r o f o u n d l y

d i s t u r b e d K i k u y u l i f e and s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n f l u e n c e d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t i o n .

The most i m p o r t a n t armed t r a d e r was John Boyes. Acting f o r himself, motivat-

ed by p r o f i t and an urge f o r a d v e n t u r e , Boyes p e n e t r a t e d t h e h e a r t l a n d o f

Kikuyuland i n search of trade.

Boyes was i n h i s m i d - t w e n t i e s when he l a n d e d i n E a s t A f r i c a . He

had s e r v e d as a t r o o p e r i n t h e Matabele War u n t i l he heard o f p r o f i t s t o

be made t r a d i n g i v o r y i n E a s t A f r i c a . I n 1898 he a r r i v e d i n Mombasa t o

be g r e e t e d o n l y by t h e s c a n t e s t c o u r t e s y . "Whitemen, whether t r a v e l l e r s

or hungers," he remarked, "were by no means welcome." I n consequence he

determined t o pursue h i s a c t i v i t i e s o u t s i d e t h e knowledge o r t h e j u r i s d i c -

t i o n o f the authorities."'"

B o y e s ' f i r s t commercial venture i n East A f r i c a f a i l e d : b u t he was

not deterred. On h i s way back t o t h e c o a s t a f t e r an a b o r t i v e m i s s i o n t o

f e e d B r i t i s h t r o o p s i n Uganda, he saw i n t h e g r e e n and f e r t i l e Kikuyu

2

mashamba .an o p p o r t u n i t y t o p r o v i s i o n b o t h Government s t a t i o n s and r a i l -

way o f f i c i a l s w i t h garden produce. Even a t t h i s p o i n t d e s t i t u t e and b a r e l y

a b l e t o s u s t a i n h i m s e l f he had l o s t no d e s i r e f o r f u r t h e r a d v e n t u r e . Here

- 88 -
 89

was t h e p e r f e c t o p p o r t u n i t y f o r him t o p e n e t r a t e h i t h e r t o unexplored

c o u n t r y , r e p a i r p r e v i o u s m i s f o r t u n e s and i n d u l g e h i s p r o p e n s i t y f o r i n -

t r i g u e and power among t h e t r i b e s m e n .

Boyes' a m b i t i o n s , however, were almost t h w a r t e d once more by

officialdom. The D i s t r i c t Commissioner, N a i v a s h a , concerned about Boyes'

w e l f a r e ( o r perhaps h i s s a n i t y ) , decreed t h a t t h e t r a d e r •should n o t en-

t e r t h e K i k u y u i n t e r i o r from h i s d i s t r i c t . O f f i c i a l r e m o n s t r a t i o n s , how-

e v e r , were t o no a v a i l as Boyes c o n t r i v e d t o e n t e r K i k u y u l a n d b y a d e v i -

ous r o u t e . Accompanied by n a t i v e r e t a i n e r s he t r a v e r s e d t h e h i g h bamboo

s l o p e s o f the w e s t e r n A b e r d a r e s , c r o s s e d t h e twelve-thousand f o o t moorlands

and dropped down the e a s t e r n s i d e i n t o K i k u y u l a n d . K i k u y u w a r r i o r s g a t h -

e r e d t o meet him.

"They were c e r t a i n l y a w i l d - l o o k i n g l o t , " he observed, "with t h e i r

b o d i e s smeared a l l over w i t h grease and r e d c l a y , o r i n some c a s e s , a k i n d

o f whitewash, i n w h i c h p a t t e r n s were drawn a c c o r d i n g t o u t h e f a n c y o f each

i n d i v i d u a l , w h i l e f a s t e n e d t o t h e l e g was a r a t t l e , w i t h an i r o n b a l l i n

s i d e , w h i c h as t h e y moved about, made a n o i s e v e r y much l i k e a r a i l w a y

t r a i n . " "Many o f them," he went on, "wore w o n d e r f u l h e a d r e s s e s , made o f t h e

s k i n o f t h e c o l u b u s monkey, and a l l were armed w i t h spears and s h i e l d s . "

As many as f i v e hundred w a r r i o r s were drawn up r e a d y t o defend t h e i r itura.

Boyes asked t o see the " c h i e f " and t h e K i k u y u muthumaki, K a r u r i , stepped

forward.
 90

I t was a s t r a n g e m e e t i n g , and one w h i c h

was t o have g r e a t consequences f o r b o t h
o f us. As time went on K a r u r i was t o
become my f r i e n d and r i g h t - h a n d s u p p o r t e r ,
w h i l e , I , i n t u r n , was t o have an i n f l u e n c e
over him and h i s p e o p l e w h i c h was t o r a i s e
him t o a p o s i t i o n o f a g r e a t c h i e f y and
m y s e l f t o supreme power i n the c o u n t r y — a
v i r t u a l K i n g o f the Kikuyu.3

Thus the t r a d e r , Boyes, and h i s K i k u y u f r i e n d K a r u r i , a i d e d each

other i n t h e i r respective ambitions. Boyes was t o become, as he so a p t l y

put i t , " K i n g o f the K i k u y u " w h i l e K a r u r i g a i n e d even g r e a t e r power as a

muthumaki. Moreover, i n d i r e c t l y Boyes was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the e l e v a t i o n

o f h i s f r i e n d t o the s t a t u s o f "an i m p o r t a n t personage" i n the P r o t e c t o r -

5

ate A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of 1912.

S i g n i f i c a n t l y , Boyes' acceptance by t h i s segment o f the Kikuyu

t r i b e was based upon h i s w i l l i n g n e s s t o t a k e p a r t i n i n t e r n e c i n e w a r f a r e .

"They came," he s a i d , " t o i m p l o r e my h e l p f o r themselves." Boyes respond-

ed w i t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c bravado. "My duty was c l e a r . . . these p e o p l e had

b r o u g h t the t r o u b l e on themselves by b e f r i e n d i n g me, and the l e a s t I c o u l d

do was t o g i v e them such h e l p as I c o u l d . " The i n t r e p i d Boyes t h e n j o i n e d

i n the c o n f l i c t and a i d e d K a r u r i t o d e f e a t h i s enemies. The i n c i d e n t was

o f the g r e a t e s t v a l u e t o Boyes as now h i s r e p u t a t i o n was e s t a b l i s h e d as what

he termed "a u s e f u l member o f the community.!" K a r u r i showed h i s g r a t i t u d e

by u r g i n g Boyes t o remain i n K i k u y u country.

. . . K a r u r i came t o ask.me i f I would stop i n h i s
c o u n t r y , ... . 1 s a i d i f he would s e l l me f l o u r and f o o d -
s t u f f s I would come back t o him. . . . I t o l d him the
f l o u r was f o r f r i e n d s o f mine who were coming a l o n g the
c a r a v a n road.6
 91

Boyes departed Karuri's country and made for the nearest point

to the caravan route where railway surveyors were at work. Here he b u i l t

a storage hut from which he sold his f l o u r and produce; Within a short

period of time he r e a l i s e d a great p r o f i t . Excited with the p o s s i b i l i t i e s

of making higher gains, he purchased quantities of beads, "amerikani" and

other goods from passing Arab traders and sent word to Karuri to provide

porters to carry his purchases back to Kikuyuland. He had begun to trade

on a r e c i p r o c a l basis with Karuri, a fact which doubtless contributed

greatly to the muthumaki becoming a man of wealth, power and enhanced pres-

tige both within and outside Kikuyu society.

Meanwhile Boyes, now named Karianjahi, (eater of dolichos lablab

or beans), continued to operate between the storage hut and Kikuyuland.

Not content to s e l l his produce to railway workers he a c t u a l l y began to

supply Protectorate o f f i c i a l s i n Naivasha, "where the need f o r food was

so desperate that they (government o f f i c e r s ) turned a b l i n d eye to the

v i o l a t i o n s of the law and drew up a contract f o r a regular provisioning

service."

By the end of May 1899 the railway had reached mile 327 from

Mdmba;sato the L a k e — a place appropriately named by the Masai as Nakuson-

telon or "the beginning of a l l beauty." The p l a i n at t h i s point was b i -

sected by a stream, the Uaso Nairobi (cold water) and i t was t h i s name

which was given to the railhead and administrative centre. Situated immed-

i a t e l y south of "the beginning of a l l beauty"—the Kikuyu t e r r i t o r y — N a i r o b i

appeared almost overnight as a c o l l e c t i o n of wooden and corrugated iron

g
shacks i n which worked railway and Protectorate o f f i c i a l s . Ainsworth,
 92

Sub-Commissioner a t Machakos, moved h i s h e a d q u a r t e r s t o N a i r o b i and e s -

t a b l i s h e d h i m s e l f as the s e n i o r government o f f i c e r i n t h e a r e a . Perhaps

t h i s move was t h e f i r s t o f f i c i a l s t e p i n t h e development and subsequent

emergence o f t h e c i t y as b e i n g t h e p r i n c i p a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and commercial

centre o f East A f r i c a . C e r t a i n l y i t b r o u g h t b o t h Europeans and K i k u y u i n -

to closer contact. The r e d o u b t a b l e Boyes echoed h i s s e n t i m e n t s on t h e

c h o i c e o f l o c a t i o n as b e i n g "beyond h i s i m a g i n a t i o n ! "

A f u r t h e r f a c t o r w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e socio-economic develop-

ment o f the a r e a was t h e i n a u g u r a t i o n i n 1900 o f a d a i l y r a i l w a y s e r v i c e

between Mombasa and N a i r o b i . The K i k u y u a r e a s were no l o n g e r i s o l a t e d

and were now i n c r e a s i n g l y exposed t o i n f l u e n c e s b r o u g h t b y Europeans from

the c o a s t . Moreover, t h e l o n g arm o f government, s t i l l c e n t r e d i n Mombasa,

c o u l d r e a c h o u t w i t h comparative ease.and come t o r e s t i n some h i t h e r t o

impregnable redoubt o f t r i b a l i s m . A l s o , i n support o f government, t r o o p s

c o u l d be d i s p a t c h e d w i t h speed a n d . e f f i c i e n c y p r e v i o u s l y n o t p o s s i b l e .

D u r i n g t h e e n s u i n g few y e a r s t h e i m p e r i a l p r e s e n c e , i n i t i a l l y exerted only

a l o n g t h e t r a v e r s e o f the Mackinnon Road and now a l o n g t h e l i n e o f t h e

r a i l w a y , would c o n s o l i d a t e i t s e l f i n N a i r o b i and.then i r r e p r e s s i b l y b u r s t

out over t h e "moat" and pour f o r t h i t s a g e n t s i n t o K i k u y u l a n d .

Meanwhile, however, t h e c r u c i a l f o o d s h o r t a g e observed by Boyes

c o n t i n u e d t o c o n c e r n t h e embryo A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . I n consequence, w i t h an

eye f o r t h e main chance, Boyes c o n t i n u e d t o p l a y t h e r o l e o f middleman be-

tween t h e K i k u y u and European. He was thus a b l e t o e n l a r g e t h e a r e a o f

his a c t i v i t i e s b y making l o n g e r t r e k s n o r t h i n t o t h e Chinga and G a k i coun-

try. Here he e s t a b l i s h e d networks o f K i k u y u s u p p l i e r s and c e n t r a l i s e d

 93

trading stations. S i g n i f i c a n t l y he was a b l e t o c a r r y on t r a d i n g a c t i v i -

t i e s s u c c e s s f u l l y i n K i k u y u a r e a s where the Company, a t r a d i n g o r g a n i z a -

t i o n o p e r a t e d by businessmen o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e p u t a t i o n , had been unable

t o make more t h a n a modicum o f p r o g r e s s .

Having developed, a f t e r o n l y a s h o r t p e r i o d o f t i m e , an e x t e n s i v e

t r a d i n g p r a c t i c e , Boyes became i n c r e a s i n g l y a m b i t i o u s . True he was able to

t r a v e r s e much o f the c o u n t r y f r e e l y b u t h i s wanderings were c o n f i n e d t o

a r e a s where K a r u r i p o s s e s s e d influence. Now, i n an e f f o r t t o enhance b u s -

i n e s s and h i s own i n f l u e n c e , he began t o seek f r e e a c c e s s t o a l l p a r t s o f

Kikuyuland. Shrewdly he deduced t h a t "the c o n s t a n t s t a t e o f c i v i l war,"

he had observed was probably a d i r e c t r e s u l t of h i s presence. "They ( t h e

u n f r i e n d l y K i k u y u ) s t r o n g l y r e s e n t e d my i n t r u s i o n i n t o the c o u n t r y , " he

remarked, "and any o f the n a t i v e s known t o be f r i e n d l y towards me, o r wear-

i n g any o f the c l o t h I had g i v e n them, were i m m e d i a t e l y marked down f o r

attack." Thus he r e s o l v e d t o s e t t l e m m a t t e r s by a t t a c k i n g the d i s s i d e n t

c l a n s u s i n g an army o f t r a i n e d K i k u y u w a r r i o r s . T h i s p r i v a t e army o f

K a r u r i • s b e s t young w a r r i o r s were t a u g h t parade-ground d r i l l , scouting,

s e n t r y duty, e l e m e n t a r y t a c t i c s , t a r g e t p r a c t i c e and the use o f the l a t e s t

B r i t i s h Army r i f l e s . Dressed r e s p l e n d e n t l y i n p r e s s e d K h a k i , Boyes' a s k a r i s

were soon put t o work subduing those who chose t o oppose him.

. . . we were soon among them and engaged i n a warm .

hand-to-hand f i g h t , w h i c h l a s t e d u n t i l wehhad b e a t e n
o f f the i n v a d e r s and f o l l o w e d them r i g h t b a c k . i n t o
t h e i r own c o u n t r y . . . h a v i n g a d m i n i s t e r e d s e v e r e
punishment, we camped f o r the n i g h t i n t h e enemy's
district.9
 9A

Boyes g i v e s the i m p r e s s i o n , however, t h a t h i s m i l i t a r y e x p e d i t i o n s were

n o t always d e s t r u c t i v e . Indeed, i t seems t h a t he was not averse t o making,

where such a course o f a c t i o n s u i t e d h i s p u r p o s e , an o c c a s i o n a l dramatic

peace-making h i d . The p r o s p e c t o f h a v i n g t o d e a l w i t h the Mount Kenya

( G a k i ) athamaki, e s p e c i a l l y Wagombi ( s i c ) and K a r k e r r i e (sic}) gave the

t r a d e r cause f o r t r e p i d a t i o n . Wagombi had "a most murderous r e p u t a t i o n "

and was s a i d . t o be v e r y t r e a c h e r o u s . P r e v i o u s Arab and S w a h i l i e x p e d i -

t i o n s were r e p o r t e d t o have been c o m p l e t e l y wiped out when a t t e m p t i n g to

t r a v e r s e the r e g i o n . Moreover, the Gaki K i k u y u p o s s e s s e d f i r e a r m s and

the K i n g o f Tato ( s i c ) . K a r k e r r i e , t h e i r muthumaki, was r e p u t e d t o have

been r e s p o n s i b l e f o r s i m i l a r murders. But Boyes was not d e t e r r e d : he "

approached the Sub-Commissioner, Mombasa, w i t h a r e q u e s t f o r more i - i f l e s .

Once more the o f f i c i a l was uncooperative and r e p e a t e d h i s e a r l i e r s t a t e -

ment t h a t "whitemen were not wanted i n the c o u n t r y . " "Such," remarked

Boyes w i t h o b v i o u s contempt, "was the c l a s s o f a d m i n i s t r a t o r approved by

Downing S t r e e t f o r the opening o f a new country.'' A "good" a d m i n i s t r a t o r ,

as f a r as Boyes was concerned, was one who would a l l o w him t o c o n t i n u e to

wreak havoc around the c o u n t r y s i d e . Boyes f a i l e d t o a p p r e c i a t e t h a t a

"good" a d m i n i s t r a t o r , from the Government v i e w p o i n t , would have been one

who p r o s c r i b e d h i s a c t i v i t i e s and who t o o k a c t i o n t o ensure t h e y were not

repeated. Thus Boyes was r i g h t about the "poor c l a s s o f a d m i n i s t r a t o r "

f o r the wrong reasons.

U n d e t e r r e d by the i n c r e a s i n g l y i n f l e x i b l e a t t i t u d e o f the a u t h o r i -

t i e s , Boyes d e p a r t e d on h i s s a f a r i t o the Mount Kenya a r e a . He t o o k w i t h

him 100 o f h i s t r a i n e d men, 30 o f whom were armed w i t h r i f l e s . In consider-

a t i o n o f the p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t the p r e s e n c e o f the U n i o n Jack might i n f l u e n c e

 95

the athamaki t o be f r i e n d l y , B o y e s p u r c h a s e d a f l a g t o be c a r r i e d a t t h e

head o f t h i s and subsequent expeditions. T h i s h a b i t was t o draw t h e i r e

o f Government o f f i c i a l s and thus h e l p t o h a s t e n t h e end o f t h e t r a d e r ' s

a c t i v i t i e s i n Kikuyuland.

P r o c e e d i n g n o r t h t o meet t h e p o w e r f u l athamaki o f G a k i , t h e s a f a r i

encountered h o s t i l i t y i n t h e Chinga c o u n t r y . Huts were abandoned and

t r i b e s m e n c l u s t e r e d on s u r r o u n d i n g ^ h i l l t o p s i s s u i n g t h r e a t s . I t was a g a i n

c l e a r t o Boyes t h a t t h e K i k u y u " d i d n o t want a whiteman i n t h e i r c o u n t r y . "

Boyes, i t w i l l be r e c a l l e d , had now h e a r d t h i s sentiment e x p r e s s e d b o t h by

European a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and t h e K i k u y u . Moreover, even h i s a l l y K a r u r i ,

w h i l e a c c e p t i n g Boyes, had s a i d t h a t "he d i d n o t want any more w h i t e p e o p l e

i n t h e c o u n t r y (and) t h e y ( t h e K i k u y u ) d i d n o t mean t o have any s t r a n g e r s . "

C o n t a c t was made w i t h two e l d e r s who r e l a y e d a message.to t h e l o c a l

athamaki t h a t Boyes wished an a u d i e n c e . Soon B a r t i e r ( s i c ) and Henga ( s i c )

arrived. They were .observed t o be "both young men and v e r y i n t e l l i g e n t f o r

12

savages." P r e s e n t s were exchanged and i n f o r m a t i o n g i v e n as t o t h e d i s -

p o s i t i o n o f the p e o p l e i n t h e n e x t d i s t r i c t ( T a t o ) . The muthumaki o f Tato>

K a r k e r r i e , was s a i d t o be t r e a c h e r o u s — a statement w h i c h s u p p o r t e d what

Boyes had been t o l d e a r l i e r b y K a r u r i . Ominously, the c h i e f rainmaker o f

13

the d i s t r i c t , "a t a l l f i n e l o o k i n g man" made c o m p l i c a t e d t h e e v i d e n t

e n t e n t e b y d e c l a r i n g t h a t no good would come o f a f r i e n d s h i p w i t h t h e w h i t e

man. Once more Boyes had been reminded o f h i s unwanted p r e s e n c e . Once

more,Bcharaciberistical"ly.v'lB6yes remained u n d e t e r r e d .

S t r i k i n g n o r t h towards G a k i , t h e s a f a r i p a s s e d t h r o u g h t h i c k l y pop-

u l a t e d a r e a s where sheep and c a t t l e g r a z e d and K i k u y u tended t h e i r shambas.

 96

Boyes l i k e n e d the scene t o a p e a c e f u l E n g l i s h l a n d s c a p e . Soon t h e ex-

p e d i t i o n was g r e e t e d by a p a r t y o f K i k u y u s e n t by a " b i g c h i e f " and

" p o w e r f u l w i t c h d o c t o r , " named Muga wa d i g a (Muga son o f D i g a ) . Muga was

d e s c r i b e d a s n "an o l d man, v e r y a c t i v e f o r h i s y e a r s , and f a r more i n t e l l i -

gent t h a n the m a j o r i t y 6*f n a t i v e s . " H i s manner, Boyes n o t e d , was friendly,

h e l p f u l and i n f o r m a t i v e . Boyes f a i l e d t o n o t e , however, t h a t Muga's d i s -

p o s i t i o n wassprobably b a s e d upon a f e a r t h a t t h e w h i t e s t r a n g e r would

t a r r y a w h i l e i n the area! Muga was keen t o see Boyes l e a v e as soon as

p o s s i b l e and even o f f e r e d t o g u i d e him t o Wagombi's camp I A n o t h e r muthumaki,

K a t u n i ( t h e L i o n ) , t h e " t a l l e s t " K i k u y u Boyes had ever seen, d e c i d e d a l s o

t o accompany t h e s a f a r i out o f t h e a r e a .

A r r i v i n g a t K a r k e r r i e ' s i t u r a t h e e x p e d i t i o n was met by t h e muthumaki

himself. Boyes was s u r p r i s e d a t t h e apparent friendly greeting, especially

i n v i e w o f what he had been t o l d about K a r k e r r i e . The mood changed, how-

e v e r , d u r i n g the t r a d i n g p r o c e s s — a p p a r e n t l y o v e r Boyes' p o s s e s s i o n o f a

c l o c k — a n d soon he was f o r c e d t o e x t r i c a t e h i m s e l f by h o l d i n g K a r k e r r i e a t

the p o i n t o f a p i s t o l . Subsequently, however, the i s s u e was r e s o l v e d and

Boyes was a b l e t o c o n v i n c e t h e " c h i e f " t o t a k e p a r t i n a P i g a s a n g i ceremony.

S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e P i g a s a n g i ceremony, as f a r as Boyes was concerned, rep-

r e s e n t e d a s t e p i n the r i j b e t d i r e c t i o n ! The ceremony d i f f e r e d , f o r example,

from t h a t o f " b l o o d - b r o t h e r h o o d " t a k e n by Lugard. The blood-brotherhood

ceremony e s t a b l i s h e d a f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t t h e i n d i v i d u a l whereas

P i g a s a n g i cemented f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h the whole c l a n and o t h e r

c l a n s r e p r e s e n t e d a t t h e ceremony. Boyes' a m b i t i o n s , were t o p a c i f y t h e

c o u n t r y b y whatever means, f o r c e o r d i p l o m a c y , j i n o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h a
:
 97

t r a d e monopoly i n a p e a c e f u l s e t t i n g . Now he was i n a p o s i t i o n t o use a

K i k u y u custom w h i c h would p r e c l u d e the use o f f o r c e . H i s p l a n was to par-

t i c i p a t e i n P i g a s a n g i w i t h the t h r e e most p o w e r f u l athamaki i n the n o r t h e r n

p a r t o f K i k u y u l a n d , namely; h i s f r i e n d K a r u r i , h i s new found acquaintance

K a r k e r r i e and muthumaki o f t h e G a k i p e o p l e , Wagombi. T h i s was an a m b i t i o u s

v e n t u r e w h i c h demanded the s k i l l s o f a seasoned d i p l o m a t and g r e a t courage;

q u a l i t i e s w h i c h Boyes, even though i n e x p e r i e n c e d and i l l - e d u c a t e d , seemed

to p o s s e s s . But f i r s t he had t o persuade Wagombi.

I had heard a l o t o f t a l k . a b o u t Wagombi, and was v e r y

a n x i o u s t o v i s i t him and, i f p o s s i b l e , m a k e . f r i e n d s
w i t h him, as my aim was t o g e t a l l the c o u n t r y under
c o n t r o l and put a s t o p t o the f i g h t i n g and b l o o d s h e d
so t h a t i t would be s a f e f o r caravans t o p a s s t h r o u g h
i t and t r a d e . The n a t i v e s were b e g i n n i n g t o see t h a t
I had t h e i r i n t e r e s t s a t h e a r t . . 14

H e a r i n g o f Boyes'approach, Wagombi came out t o meet him. Boyes was impress-

ed. " I found him a f i n e , t a l l f e l l o w , i n h i s b e a r i n g and appearance e v e r y

i n c h a c h i e f , and i n h i s speech a good d e a l more b r i s k t h a n any K i k u y u I

15

had met." O b v i o u s l y , Boyes was d e s c r i b i n g not a " c h i e f " — n o n e existed

—but a p o w e r f u l w a r r i o r muthumaki, a c h a r i s m a t i c i n d i v i d u a l who, by vir-

t u e o f . h i s m i l i t a r y prowess, had been h u r r i e d a l o n g the r o a d t o l e a d e r s h i p

ahead o f h i s f e l l o w K i k u y u . Perhaps he f i t t e d more a p p r o p r i a t e l y i n t o the

c a t e g o r y o f l e a d e r c i t e d by Lambert, namely; muthumaki wa b u r u r i o r l e a d e r

of the c o u n t r y . C e r t a i n l y he was one o f Low's "prominent individuals,'" a

a man whose p e r s o n a l i t y and l e a d e r s h i p q u a l i t i e s were so e x c e p t i o n a l t h a t

he had e v o l v e d i n t o a l o c a l a u t o c r a t about whom the a f f a i r s o f the G a k i

clans revolved. K e n y a t t a ' s d e s c r i p t i o n o f Wangombe ( s i c ) ^ suggests t h a t

the K i k u y u " c h i e f " ( K e n y a t t a ' s term) a c q u i r e d h i s fame

 98

out of many i n c i d e n t s from h i s boyhood to the days of

h i s e l d e r s h i p , and because h i s p e r s o n a l i t y stood out
i n the various age-groups i n which he. held leadership,
he f i n a l l y a t t a i n e d h i s supreme p o s i t i o n as a great
and wise r u l e r . For h i s u n s e l f i s h devotion to h i s
people, and f o r maintaining good r e l a t i o n s w i t h the
neighbouring countries, h i s good name has been passed
from generation to generation to l i v e i n the memory
of h i s people.IV

Boyes camped at Wagombi's and traded i v o r y . Kenyatta describes

Boyes as being a "pale-faced stranger (Mothongo) (who) v i s i t e d Wangombe"

and who was given a f r i e n d l y welcome and was entertained.

This Mothongo was i n touch w i t h others of h i s k i n d who

had already s e t t l e d i n Chief Waiyaki s t e r r i t o r y , and
1

he sent news to h i s f r i e n d s of the beauty of the coun-

t r y and i t s p r o s p e r i t y , and the goodwill of i t s c h i e f .
A few moons passed, and the Mothongo w i t h h i s caravans
used to go to and f r o buying food and i v o r y .

During h i s stay he took part i n the Pigasangi ceremony he so u r g e n t l y de-

s i r e d between himself, Wagombi, K a r k e r r i e and Muga wa Diga. Against the

objections of h i s hosts Boyes "managed the matter eventually by the a i d

of presents." Moreover, he s u c c e s s f u l l y overcame the problem of the l o -

c a t i o n of the ceremony by t a c t f u l l y arranging to conduct i t at a point

roughly e q u i d i s t a n t from the three respective spheres of i n f l u e n c e . The

p a r t i c i p a n t s then converged on the s i t e and took part i n the ceremony un-

der a Union Jack. On completion of the r i t e s Boyes, the r e a l i s t , suggest-

ed that a l l r e t u r n to t h e i r homes w i t h haste as the temper of the people

19

might change and "there would be t r o u b l e . "

Perhaps what e s t a b l i s h e d Boyes' a u t h o r i t y i n Kikuyuland without

question was h i s m i l i t a r y defeat of the Chinga clans. I t w i l l be r e c a l l e d

that he had experienced trouble w i t h the Chinga people on h i s way north to

 99

meet Wagombi. On h i s r e t u r n t o K a r u r i ' s r e g i o n news reached him that

t h r e e Goanese t r a d e r s had been murdered i n Chinga c o u n t r y . On reaching

B a r t i e r ' s camp the'-rumours about the omurder-were i confirmed .^ 1

The"-Chinga

p e o p l e had j o i n e d f o r c e s w i t h those from Mahigga ( s i c ) t o wipe out the

Goanese s a f a r i . - The c o u n t r y was i n a s t a t e o f ferment and Boyes w i t n e s s -

ed some f i v e - t h o u s a n d armed t r i b e s m e n p r e p a r i n g themselves f o r an a t t a c k

on h i s e x p e d i t i o n . B u r y i n g h i s i v o r y , Boyes took f l i g h t s o u t h toward

the s a f e t y o f K a r u r i ' s sphere o f i n f l u e n c e . Attack after attack was

made upon h i s d e p l e t i n g column o f ' f r i e n d l i e s , ' each b e i n g r e p u l s e d w i t h

heavy c a s u a l t i e s on b o t h s i d e s . I n d e s p e r a t i o n Boyes sought the sanctu-

a r y o f B a r t i e r ' s t e r r i t o r y and soon i t became e v i d e n t t o him t h a t h i s

P i g a s a n g i agreement w i t h Wagombi and K a r k e r r i e was t o pay dividends.

B o t h athamaki s e n t l a r g e numbers o f w a r r i o r s t o h i s a i d . "The whole coun-

t r y was thrown i n t o a s t a t e o f e x c i t e m e n t : the war f e v e r was at i t s height:

b u t my b l o o d b r o t h e r s had r a l l i e d n o b l y t o my h e l p , and b i g f o r c e s o f armed

w a r r i o r s were coming i n e v e r y hour from the d i f f e r e n t f r i e n d l y c h i e f s t o

s u p p o r t me, u n t i l I had a f o r c e o f s e v e r a l thousands o f f i n e s t , fighting

20

men i n the c o u n t r y camped a t B a r t i e r ' s . " A t t h i s p o i n t Boyes d e s c r i b e d

a w i l d scene where h i s new f o l l o w e r s "danced themselves i n t o the w i l d e s t

p a s s i o n , numbers o f them g o i n g i n t o h y s t e r i c a l f i t s , and j a b b i n g t h e i r

spears i n t o the t r e e t r u n k s i n i m i t a t i o n o f k i l l i n g t h e i r enemies, w h i l e

t h e i r b r e a t h sobbed i n g r e a t gulps.". Soon the b l o o d t h i r s t y t h r o n g swept

t h r o u g h 'the Chinga c o u n t r y , b u r n i n g i t u r a ; K i k u y u k i l l i n g K i k u y u a t the

b e h e s t o f the w h i t e i n t r u d e r . A t the c o n c l u s i o n o f t h i s f r e n z y the Chinga

c l a n s s c e a s e d t o e x i s t as a d i s s i d e n t f o r c e . "From t h i s time on," Boyes

 100

paused t o remark, " I had complete c o n t r o l o f t h e c o u n t r y . " A t r u l y remark-

a b l e a c h i e v e m e n t — i f we a r e t o b e l i e v e B o y e s — e s p e c i a l l y i n view o f the f a c t

t h a t t h e Company had f a i l e d i n s i m i l a r e n t e r p r i s e s and t h a t t h e f e a t had

been a c h i e v e d w h i l e t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n p u r p o r t e d to "rule"

the country.

John Boyes, o f c o u r s e , was n o t t h e o n l y t r a d e r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e

Kikuyu. According t o Boyes t h e r e were o t h e r t r a d e r s o p e r a t i n g i n t h e v i c -

i n i t y o f the r a i l w a y . Indeed, as t h e r a i l w a y c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o g r e s s e d and

i n consequence o f t h e d a i l y r a i l w a y s e r v i c e from Mombasa t o N a i r o b i , more

t r a d i n g a c t i v i t y was engendered. I n t h e wake o f c o n s t r u c t i o n , therefore,

came o t h e r p r i v a t e e n t r e p r e n e u r s . An I n d i a n duka ( s t o r e ) was opened i n

Naivasha. Mr. and Mrs. Walsh, l a t e l y s e t t l e d i n t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e , also

opened a s t o r e and t r a d i n g b u s i n e s s i n N a i v a s h a . Mrs. Walsh was r e p u t e d

t o be t h e f i r s t w h i t e woman s e t t l e r i n E a s t A f r i c a . B o t h she and h e r hus-

band o p e r a t e d a l e g i t i m a t e t r a n s p o r t b u s i n e s s t a k i n g goods from t h e N a i r o b i

r a i l r o a d t o Government s t a t i o n s and r a i l w a y c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e s up t h e R i f t

Valley. Other t r a d e r s , however, were o p e r a t i n g i n n o t so l e g i t i m a t e . a

fashion.
21

Boyes' f i r s t p a r t n e r , Gibbons, was i n b u s i n e s s w i t h a Mr. F i n d l a y ;

b o t h b e i n g engaged i n t h e p r o v i s i o n o o f i v o r y and produce f o r government and

p r i v a t e buyers. D u r i n g a s e v e r e a l t e r c a t i o n w i t h t h e K i k u y u , from w h i c h
22

Gibbons was l u c k y t o s u r v i v e , F i n d l a y was speared and s u b s e q u e n t l y d i e d .

U n t i l September 1903 Gibbons c o n t i n u e d t o t r a d e a l o n e w i t h t h e Embu t o t h e

s o u t h and south-west o f Mount Kenya.

 101

A c c o r d i n g t o o r a l t r a d i t i o n as a n a l y s e d b y S a t e r w a l , up t h e

e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e B r i t i s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n t h e Embu a r e a (1906) o n l y

a few Europeans had v e n t u r e d i n t o t h e r e g i o n and those n a t i v e s who had

come i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h them "found t h e e x p e r i e n c e s r e g r e t t a b l e . " One o f

t h e s e Europeans was p r o b a b l y Gibbons who had, "about 1900, established

h i m s e l f i n Kabare (Gafcjugui d i v i s i o n , some f i f t e e n m i l e s west o f t h e Embu

b o r d e r ) i n a l l i a n c e w i t h a man c a l l e d Gutu who was l a t e r (under t h e B r i t -

i s h A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ) made t h e Paramount C h i e f o f Gicugu D i v i s i o n . " I n 191V

the P r o v i n c i a l Commissioner was t o r e f e r t o Gutu as a man who had had p r e -

vious unhealthy exposure t o a "European f r e e b o o t e r named Gibbons."

Gibbons' e x p l o i t s i n and around Embu a r e s t i l l r e c a l l e d l o c a l l y and S a t e r w a l

g i v e s e v i d e n c e o f one i n c i d e n t w h i c h l e a v e s l i t t l e doubt as t o t h e e f f e c t s

o f t h e armed t r a d e r ' s p r e s e n c e . An e x p e d i t i o n , l e a d b y Gibbons

was b r o u g h t t o t h e Embu-Gicugu b o r d e r b y t h e Gicugu war

c o u n c i l l o r s , who a s s u r e d t h e Embu war c o u n c i l l o r s t h a t
the European's i n t e n t i o n s were p e a c e f u l and t h a t he
w i s h e d o n l y t o buy i v o r y . The Embu t h e n e s c o r t e d him
t h r e e o r f o u r m i l e s deep i n t o t h e i r own t e r r i t o r y , and
he camped i n a neighbourhood c a l l e d K a r i a r i . They t o l d
him about t h e h u n t e r s who had i v o r y . D u r i n g t h e next
two o r t h r e e days he and h i s r e t a i n e r s made t h r e e t r i p s
f o r i v o r y . On t h e f i r s t two t r i p s he t o o k t h e h u n t e r ' s
i v o r y b u t made no payment. The Embu w a r r i o r s and war
c o u n c i l l o r s d i s c u s s e d h i s odd b e h a v i o u r w i d e l y , and
decided t o f o r c e the issue during h i s t h i r d t r i p . When
he came t o t h e t h i r d h u n t e r ' s neighbourhood, he met t h e
war c o u n c i l l o r s i n t e n t on demanding payment from him.
He took t h e i v o r y , p r o m i s e d t o make payments i n h i s
camp, and marched towards h i s camp. On t h e way, t h e
Embu w a r r i o r s ambushed h i s p a r t y , k i l l e d some o f h i s
r e t a i n e r s , c a p t u r e d t h e i r guns, and r e c o v e r e d t h e
i v o r y . The t r a d e r r a n t o h i s camp and p r o m i s e d t o
pay t h e next morning f o r t h e i v o r y he had p u r c h a s e d
e a r l i e r . D u r i n g t h e n i g h t he e s c a p e d d w i t h h i s r e -
t a i n e r s . 24-
 102

The c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f Gibbon's a r r e s t a r e i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h a t t h e y

serve f u r t h e r t o r e v e a l h i s p e r s o n a l c a l i b r e and the n a t u r e of h i s a c t i v i t y

among the Embu c l a n s . A t F o r t H a l l , M e i n h e r t z h a g e n , an army o f f i c e r second-

ed t o t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n f o r p a c i f i c a t i o n p u r p o s e s , was ad-

v i s e d b y h i s s u p e r i o r o f f i c e r , Hinde, t h a t

a low c l a s s man c a l l e d Gibbons w i t h some 30 armed

S w a h i l i s had i n s t a l l e d h i m s e l f i n t h e Embu c o u n t r y
s o u t h - e a s t o f Mount Kenya and.was c o l l e c t i n g h u t t a x .-'
and e x t o r t i n g i v o r y from t h e n a t i v e s . He had h o i s t -
ed the U n i o n J a c k t o g i v e Government p r o t e c t i o n t o
his nefarious actions.

Boyes, i t w i l l be r e c a l l e d , was i n t h e h a b i t o f doing t h e same t h i n g — f o r

presumably the same purpose.

A f t e r a day's march from F o r t H a l l , M e i n h e r t z h a g e n and h i s a s k a r i s

r e a c h e d Gibbons' armed camp. Using s u r p r i s e and t a k i n g advantage o f a doz-

ing s e n t r y , t h e p a r t y were a b l e t o i n f i l t r a t e t h e s u r r o u n d i n g zariba (pro-

t e c t i v e t h o r n e n c l o s u r e ) and subdue Gibbons' ' f r i e n d l i e s , ' Gibbons h i m s e l f

was a r r e s t e d a t t h e p o i n t o f a r e v o l v e r .

He woke w i t h a s t a r t , made an e f f o r t t o produce a

r e v o l v e r from under h i s p i l l o w , and swore an o a t h . ,
. . . I t h e n t o l d him t h a t I a r r e s t e d him on a
charge o f i l l e g a l l y c o l l e c t i n g h u t t a x and d e s p o i l -
i n g t h e n a t i v e s . . . 26

The c a p t i v e d i d n o t a c q u i e s c e e a s i l y and used "the most p r o v o k i n g language."

Worse s t i l l , l o c a l n a t i v e s a r r i v e d on t h e scene and adopted a menacing a t t i -

tude toward the Government f o r c e . "They were a l l armed," o b s e r v e d M e i n -

h e r t z h a g e n , "and t h e y wanted t o know why we were removing t h e i r 'Govern-

ment o f f i c i a l , ' how t h e y were g o i n g t o be p a i d f o r t h e i v o r y t h e y had g i v e n

27
him, and a h o s t o f o t h e r awkward q u e s t i o n s . " M e i n h e r t z h a g e n a d v i s e d them
 103

t h a t t h e i r c o m p l a i n t s s h o u l d be r e g i s t e r e d w i t h the s e n i o r Protectorate

o f f i c e r i n F o r t H a l l , "to which t h e y . s a i d they d i d not recognize Fort

H a l l o r the B r i t i s h Government." T h e i r menacing a t t i t u d e continued

and the a r r e s t i n g o f f i c e r was f o r c e d t o d e t a i n as h o s t a g e s Gibbons' 14

c o n c u b i n e s , s u p p l i e d t o him by the l o c a l muthumaki. F i n a l l y Gibbons was

charged w i t h " r a i d i n g the n a t i v e s , w i t h t a k i n g by f o r c e n a t i v e women,

with i l l e g a l l y c o l l e c t i n g Government t a x e s f o r h i s own benefit, and

28

w i t h murder i n h a v i n g s h o t aanative d u r i n g one of h i s r a i d s . " He was

despatched t o N a i r o b i f o r t r i a l — t h e r e s u l t s o f w h i c h are n o t known.

A M a l t e s e s a i l o r , M a r t i n , was a n o t h e r European i n v o l v e d i n E a s t
29

-•African t r a d e . He had f i r s t t r a v e r s e d the c o u n t r y w i t h Joseph Thomson

and was s a i d t o be the f i r s t w h i t e man t o v e n t u r e among the M a s a i . Mar-

t i n ( o r M a r t i n i — h i s r e a l name) had f i r s t a r r i v e d i n E a s t A f r i c a o f f an

American s h i p w h i c h had grounded c l o s e t o Z a n z i b a r . After crossing

M a s a i l a n d and L a i k i p i a w i t h Thomsonn he a l t e r n a t e d between s u p e r v i s i n g

c a r a v a n s . f r o m Mombasa t o Uganda and a c t i n g as an o f f i c e r of the Sultan's

army ( Z a n z i b a r ) — i n w h i c h c a p a c i t y he became an employee o f the Company.

When the B r i t i s h Government took o v e r the Company's t e r r i t o r y and de-

30

Glared i t a P r o t e c t o r a t e , M a r t i n became an employee o f the Government.

S t r a n g e l y enough, w i t h a l l h i s t r a d i n g e n t e r p r i s e , M a r t i n c o u l d not

read or w r i t e . He was s u b s e q u e n t l y t a u g h t t o w r i t e h i s name, on reaching

the r a n k o f D i s t r i c t O f f i c e r , by S i r F r e d e r i c k J a c k s o n . M a r t i n may have

been the t a r g e t o f S i r Clement H i l l ' s remark t h a t the P r o t e c t o r a t e Admin-

i s t r a t i o n would c o n t i n u e t o be o f low q u a l i t y "so l o n g as C i v i l Servants

31

were e n l i s t e d from the g u t t e r . " By 1912 M a r t i n had s u r v i v e d the rigours

o f E a s t A f r i c a n t r a d i n g and the even more t r y i n g , perhaps, a d m i n i s t r a t i v e

'. i _ ; Ha •. a e ? o r a ' fig -' B :y3n, I,- -. insg;;? '

 104

life. He was, according to Boyes, by then the manager of a rubber

forest estate at Mabira.

Yet another freebooter was the i l l - f a t e d Trader Dick, k i l l e d by-

Masai i n November 1895. According to Ainsworth, administrator of the

area i n which the incident took place, a s a f a r i l e f t Kikuyu f o r Eldama

Ravine carrying 800 loads of food and stores. The caravan comprised some
32

870 Africans of whom 756 were Kikuyu. On the return journey the sa-

f a r i was attacked by Masai. Andrew Dick, i n the v i c i n i t y with two

French v i s i t o r s , decided to intervene and was speared. Losses i n t h i s

incident included 546 Kikuyu porters k i l l e d . A subsequent enquiry r e -

vealed that members of the s a f a r i were almost wholly to blame as acts

of violence and larceny had been committed against the Masai by members
33

of the caravan.

Analysis of the evidence shows l i t t l e doubt that the Kikuyu were

profoundly disturbed by the abrasive presence of armed traders. Acting

not as representatives of established commercial ventures, but as p r i -

vate individuals motivated by urge f o r adventure and personal gain, John

Boyes, Gibbons and others severely aggravated an already developed Kikuyu

aversion to wageni. Kikuyu attitudes were probably, i t should be noted,

based more on a defensive rather than an aggressive posture: t h e i r neigh-

bours, the war-like Masai, f o r example, had long been i n the habit of

crossing the "moat" to r a i d the southern periphery of Kikuyuland. Kikuyu

h o s t i l i t y toward intruders, therefore, was already a t r a d i t i o n before the

advent of Arab and Swahili traders and early European expeditions. Not-

ably, the cardinal difference between early intruders, the Company, armed
 105

t r a d e r s and the P r o t e c t o r a t e Administration, i s t h a t t h e former were

transients while the l a t t e r were i n t e n t upon permanent p r e s e n c e . Of

the e a r l i e r group, t h e M a s a i , f o r example, were i t i n e r a n t r a i d e r s who

r e t u r n e d always t o t h e i r h a b i t a t o u t s i d e t h e "moat." Arab and S w a h i l i

t r a d e r s were i n v a r i a b l y " p a s s i n g t h r o u g h " o r s k i r t i n g the edges o f

Kikuyuland. European e x p l o r e r s l i k e Thomson, von Hohnel, T e l e k i and

o t h e r s , were n e v e r i n t e n t upon e s t a b l i s h i n g themselves i n K i k u y u l a n d

34 '

on more t h a n a temporary b a s i s . The t u r n i n g p o i n t , t h a t w h i c h t e n d -

ed t o harden K i k u y u a t t i t u d e s i n t o a g g r e s s i v e h o s t i l i t y , therefore,

came w i t h t h e approach and s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e second group o f i n t r u d e r s ;

the Company and i t s u n c o n t r o l l e d A f r i c a n s o l d i e r y , European armed

t r a d e r s and f i n a l l y t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e Administration; all, significantly,

i n t e n t upon a permanent p r e s e n c e , a v e r i t a b l e " o c c u p a t i o n " o f K i k u y u -

land. Moreover, a c o m p l i c a t i n g f a c t o r f a c e d b y each wave o f o c c u p a t i o n

lay i n a sort of progression of Kikuyu h o s t i l i t y . Each new a l i e n force

i n h e r i t e d K i k u y u h o s t i l i t y engendered by i t s p r e d e c e s s o r s . The Company

a r r i v e d i n K i k u y u l a n d t o be met b y i n i t i a l f r i e n d l i n e s s — a n a t t i t u d e

w h i c h q u i c k l y s o u r e d when Company employees r a i d e d s m a l l h o l d i n g s i n much

the same way as had Arab and S w a h i l i t r a d e r s . The Company p r a c t i s e d tac-

t i c s o f d i v i d e and r u l e and i n t h i s way tended t o c r e a t e an even more

f r a c t i o u s K i k u y u community t h a n had h i t h e r t o e x i s t e d . On t h e demise o f

the Company the armed t r a d e r s i n h e r i t e d , t h e r e f o r e , a chaotic-estate of

a f f a i r s where t h e r e e x i s t e d among t h i s f r a c t i o u s community K i k u y u c o l l a -

b o r a t o r s w i l l i n g t o c a s t i n t h e i r l o t w i t h Europeans,and o t h e r s t o whom

the European " o c c u p a t i o n " was anathema. K i k u y u 'touched' by t h e Company

 106

were, broadly speaking, either f r i e n d l y or h o s t i l e , either w i l l i n g to

collaborate or anxious to k i l l .

Like the Company—and l a t e r the Protectorate Administration—the

armed traders seized upon the idea of using Kikuyu collaborators to

best advantage. Desire f o r p r o f i t , personal power and trading monopoly

drove the traders to seek out the most i n f l u e n t i a l Kikuyu i n areas form-

e r l y influenced by the Company and outside. Often traders offered

athamaki the services of t h e i r personal a r m i e s — s o - c a l l e d "friendlies"

or " l e v i e s " — a s trained forces to be disposed against unfriendly Kikuyu.

Traders gained favour, also, by dispensing presents, perhaps r i f l e s ,

beads or the coveted "amerikani" cloth. Boyes, l i k e his predecessor

Lugard, contrived to extend his personal influence over larger areas of

the Kikuyu i n t e r i o r by use of the Kikuyu custom of blood-brotherhood

(Pigasangi) taken i n concert with groups of the most powerful athamaki

collaborators. S i g n i f i c a n t l y , acting as an i n d i v i d u a l motivated by per-

sonal reasons and not l i k e Lugard who was concerned with matters on a

'grand scale,'. Boyes successfully peddled his influence over larger

areas of the Kikuyu i n t e r i o r i n a way that had not been possible during

the short period of Company "occupation" or indeed during the f i r s t few

years of the Protectorate Administration.

John Boyes, therefore, ill-educated, i n a r t i c u l a t e , a trooper i n the

Matabele wars, acting f o r his own s e l f i s h reasons and outside of the sanc-

t i o n of legitimate authority, became the most i n f l u e n t i a l whiteman i n

Kikuyuland. By 1903, f u l l y eight years a f t e r the B r i t i s h Government had

taken over the administration of the Protectorate, he could boast that he

 107

had become a v e r i t a b l e "King o f the Wa-kikuyu" and t h a t he had "complete

control o f the country."

But i n Boyes' b o a s t i n g we see exposed an example o f h i s w e l l - d e v -

eloped personal v a n i t y . Sudden peace a f t e r y e a r s o f t r a d i t i o n a l K i k u y u

h o s t i l i t y to intruders i s hardly conceivable. What i n f a c t Boyes and

o t h e r s had succeeded i n d o i n g was t o e x a c e r b a t e an a l r e a d y e x c e e d i n g l y

t u r b u l e n t s i t u a t i o n l e f t by the Company. Indeed, i n a moment o f l o g i c

Boyes pronounced t h a t he c r e a t e d i n K i k u y u l a n d a major problem by the

f a c t o f h i s own p r e s e n c e ! The e v i d e n c e , a l s o , o f Gibbons' a c t i v i t i e s

i n Embu tends t o s u b s t a n t i a t e t h i s f i n d i n g . Wherever b o t h t r o d i n

Kikuyuland,.wherever t h e y stopped even f o r s h o r t p e r i o d s o f t i m e , their

a c t i v i t i e s were shrouded i n an atmosphere o f i n t r i g u e and hostility.

The "peace" o f w h i c h Boyes spoke was p r o b a b l y based upon, as one

35

o f f i c e r put i t , "a s u l k y a q u i e s c e n c e " and not a genuine s p i r i t o f co-

operation. Furthermore, Boyes' n o t i o n o f "peace" may have been more due

t o the p o t e n c y o f the M a r t i n i - H e n r y r i f l e then the powers o f h i s p e r -
36

s o n a l diplomacy. Certainly both played a part i n h i s a c t i v i t i e s ; one

o b v i o u s l y supported the o t h e r . In these aspects of h i s a c t i v i t i e s (and

those o f G i b b o n s ) we must a c c o r d Boyes the a b i l i t y and the i n i t i a t i v e to

have s u r v i v e d the e x h a u s t i v e r i g o u r s o f l i f e as an a l i e n i n K i k u y u l a n d .

But here, i m p o r t a n t l y , we must c o n s i d e r t h a t the armed t r a d e r s were n o t

e n t i r e l y i s o l a t e d , were not a l o n e i n t h e i r e f f o r t s t o s u s t a i n themselves

and t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s . They were a i d e d and a b e t t e d by athamaki, Low's

"prominent i n d i v i d u a l s , " K i k u y u who were w i l l i n g t o i n d u l g e themselves

i n the game f o r t h e i r own s e t o f unique m o t i v e s . Karuri, f o r example,

i m p l o r e d Boyes t o h e l p him subdue o t h e r K i k u y u . Wagombi and K a r k e r r i e

 108

d i d n o t h e s i t a t e t o send a i d and thus save t h e t r a d e r from d e a t h when

he was b e i n g a t t a c k e d by t h e Chinga c l a n s . Gibbons and Gutu h e l p e d each

o t h e r i n Embu, much t o Gutu's u l t i m a t e advantage. By 1917, as we have

seen, Gutu was Paramount C h i e f o f t h e Embu w h i l e a c c o r d i n g t o Boyes h i s

good f r i e n d K a r u r i was as e a r l y as 1912 a man o f some eminence i n t h e

colonial hierarchyl Thus t h e l e g a c y o f t r i b a l h o s t i l i t y and s o c i a l tur-

b u l e n c e i n h e r i t e d b y t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e . A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , cannot w h o l l y be

a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e armed t r a d e r s — a l t h o u g h t h e y were undoubtedly catalysts

i n t h e p r o c e s s e s o f European and K i k u y u i n t e r a c t i o n . I t would be more

a c c u r a t e t o s a y t h a t t h e armed t r a d e r s and t h e i r K i k u y u collaborators,

the athamaki, a c t i n g i n c o n c e r t and f o r t h e i r own unique r e a s o n s , were

r e s p o n s i b l e t o g e t h e r f o r fomenting f u r t h e r t r a d i t i o n a l Kikuyu hostility

toward ' o u t s i d e r s . ' Undoubtedly aibhamaki r e c o g n i z e d t h e v a l u e o f t h e i r

a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e armed t r a d e r s and.indeed were n o t m e r e l y ' r e a c t o r s '

t o t h e European p r e s e n c e . Their p a r t s i n the process of i n t e r a c t i o n

were a c t i v e ; t h e y , l i k e t h e armed traders', i n i t i a t e d and shaped events

f o r t h e i r own d i s c r e e t purposes. They i n d e e d c r e a t e d t h e i r own d e s t i n y

as much as t h e y i n f l u e n c e d t h a t o f t h e t r i b e .

The armed t r a d e r s , Boyes and t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t , Gibbons and o t h e r s ,

g a i n e d by a c t i n g a s middlemen i n t h e t r a d i n g p r o c e s s between K i k u y u l a n d

and European a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , between K i k u y u l a n d and t h e a p p r o a c h i n g rail-

way. N o t a b l y t h e armed t r a d e r s were a c t u a l l y a l l o w e d t o o p e r a t e b y an

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n whose r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , on more t h a n one o c c a s i o n and a c c o r d -

i n g t o Boyes h i m s e l f , e x p r e s s e d t h e i r d i s p l e a s u r e a t h i s p r e s e n c e . Doubt-

l e s s t r a d e r s were a l l o w e d t o c o n t i n u e t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s because, r e g a r d l e s s
 109

o f t h e i r tendency t o arouse' the K i k u y u t o h o s t i l i t y and v i o l e n c e , t h e

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , between 1895 and 1900, was t o o t h i n on t h e ground and

l a c k e d t h e n e c e s s a r y f o r c e a t i t s back t o p r e v e n t them. The v e r y p r o d -

ucts obtained and b r o u g h t t o a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c e n t r e s b y t h e armed t r a d e r s

were, f o r example, n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e d a i l y sustenance o f t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e

Administration. Therefore, r e m a r k a b l e as i t seems, t h e Government was

f o r c e d t o a l l o w Boyes, i n p a r t i c u l a r , a f r e e " r e i g n " as s e l f - s t y l e d

37

"King o f the Wa-kikuyu." By 1902, however, t h e Government was a b l e . t o

strengthen i t s p o s i t i o n t o a p o i n t where i t c o u l d e f f e c t i v e l y t u r n i t s

a t t e n t i o n more s e r i o u s l y toward t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e t r a d e r s , muster

i t s m i l i t a r y and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e f o r c e s and p e n e t r a t e more d e e p l y i n t o

Kikuyuland f o r t h e purpose o f " p a c i f y i n g " t h e K i k u y u and i n s t i t u t i n g an

all-encompassing pax-Britannica.
 110

FOOTNOTES

According to Boyes, John Boyes, p. 70, there were only "about

ten white men who were independent traders and hunters i n the whole of
. . . the East A f r i c a n and Uganda Protectorates . . . we were t o l d plain-
l y that we were not wanted . . . we were not even allowed guns and ammu-
n i t i o n with which to protect ourselves." Least of Boyes' worries, how-
ever, was the arms p r o s c r i p t i o n : within a short time both he and his
l e v i e s were carrying the l a t e s t B r i t i s h Army r i f l e s !

"jMashamba ( p l ) i s Swahili f o r cultivated plots of land and can

be loosely interpreted as near to the English concept of garden. For
notes on the shamba system see B.F. Oland, "The 'Shamba' System of
Plantation Development" i n East A f r i c a Agriculture and Forestry Journal,
v o l . 27, (1962), pp. 82-3.

3
Boyes, John Boyes, p. 73.

^See Stigand, The Land, pp. 244-5 for a l a t e r (1913) description

of Karuri who had become a Kikuyu of great influence and prestige.

5
Karuri was l a t e r made a Chief by the Administration. Boyes,
p. 73, noted that "This important personage, who today (1912) c o l l e c t s
the Hut Tax f o r the B r i t i s h Administration, would hardly be recognized
as the savage warrior chief who stepped forward to meet the f i r s t white
man he had ever seen i n his own country."

Boyes, John Boyes, p. 77.' Noteworthy i s the fact that Karuri

remarked that he "did not want any.more white people i n the country" and
that the Kikuyu " . . . did not mean to have any (more) strangers" i n
t h e i r midst. Perhaps Karuri considered that i n view of the troubles
encountered as a r e s u l t of Boyes' presence, one white man i n that part
of Kikuyuland was enough!

7
M i l l e r , The Lunatic, p. 409. See also Boyes' remarks, John
Boyes, p. 67, regarding trading with government o f f i c i a l s " . . . Food
was wanted, I found, for the Government stations on the caravan road,
as well as for the surveying parties on the l i n e of the Uganda Railway,
and as i t was worth a rupee a pound, I thought I saw a good chance of
 Ill

making some money by trying my luck i n the Kikuyu country."

See Ominde, Land and Population, passim, f o r description of

the development of Nairobi. See also H.E. Robertson, "Nairobi, Past
and Present," i n Reveille, v o l . 2, (1916), pp. 859-63; Otto Trevelyan,
"Memories of Nairobi i n the Old Days. Early S e t t l e r s Recall t h e i r
Experiences" i n East A f r i c a and Rhodesia, v o l . 26, (6" A p r i l 1950),
pp. 962-3; W. Robert Foran, "Rise of Nairobi: From Camp Site to C i t y , "
i n Crown Colonist (1950), pp. 160-5.

Q
Boyes, John Boyes, pp. 82-3.

The writer was D i s t r i c t O f f i c e r , Chinga, 1953-56. Boyes was

s t i l l . r e f e r r e d to and h i s exploits related often by the old men of the
district.

""""'"Boyes, John Boyes, p. 77. Presumably Karuri tolerated Boyes,

even though the l a t t e r was a' whiteman, because i n a sense they were
'birds of a feather'. Both were ambitious and were "aware" of the
need f o r a mutually s a t i s f a c t o r y arrangement; Boyes to trade f r e e l y
and Karuri to extend h i s influence with the a i d of Boyes' private
army. But Karuri was shrewd enough to r e a l i s e the o v e r a l l effect of
Boyes' adventures: wars which hitherto had been l o c a l were now escalated
and the country generally was i n a turmoil.

underline. I t i s notable that so many so-called "chiefs"

met by Boyes were observed by him to be "young men". This would suggest
that such individuals were muthumaki and not t r i b a l elders.

"""^An i n t e r e s t i n g facet of the early European l i t e r a t u r e i s that

natives observed as "young", " t a l l " , "good-looking", "fair-skinned",
"strong", "thin-lipped", seemed also to be associated with " c h i e f t a i n -
ship". Descriptions such as "old", "short", "ugly", "black", "weak",
"thick-lipped", were terms associated with "savage", "backwardness",
"follower" and "ignorance". Obviously Europeans possessed a "physical"
image of leadership derivative,,.perhaps, of t h e i r own romantic heritage;
misleading i n the extreme, i t might be added.
 112

14
Boyes, John Boyes, p. 143- Was Boyes aware that his
very presence was probably more than anything else the major cause
of "fighting and bloodshed?" I t i s apparent from h i s narrative that
he j u s t i f i e d his presence and his a c t i v i t i e s by r a t i o n a l i z i n g that
he had native interests at heart!

15
Ibid., p. 144- Note again Boyes' favourable description
of someone he considered to be a leader as being " . . . a f i n e , t a l l
fellow . . . every inch a chief."

"^Jomo Kenyatta, My People of Kikuyu and the L i f e of Chief

Wangombe, (Nairobi: OUP, 1966), p. 28.

17
The memory of Wangombe was preserved through h i s son who
became a powerful Government-appointed chief of the Nyeri d i s t r i c t .

18
Kenyatta, My People, p. 57.

19
Boyes, John Boyes, p. 151.

2D
Ibid., pp. 180-1.

21
See i b i d p. 42 f o r a description of t h e i r meeting at the
coast and t h e i r arrangement to form a trading partnership.

2 2
I b i d . , p. 99.

23
Saberwal, ""The Embu," pp. 36-7.

2
^Ibid.

25
Meinhertzhagen, Kenya Diary, pp. 119-20.
 113

Ibid.

27
Ibid., p. 121.

Ibid., p. 122.

29
Tate, "Two A f r i c a n Explorers," p. 454.

30
^ Huxley, White Man's, p. 51.

^^Meinhertzhagen, Kenya Diary, p. 132.

32
The high number of Kikuyu porters i s evidence of the influence
of both traders and Government o f f i c e r s - i n getting Kikuyu to carry loads
up and down the R i f t Valley. Perhaps cooperative athamaki were responsi-
ble f o r r e c r u i t i n g the Kikuyu.

33
An account of the attack .'is i n Stigand, The Land, pp. 266-7
and F.H. Goldsmith, John Ainsworth, Pioneer Kenya Administrator, 1864-1946,
(London: Macmillan, 1959), pp. 26-31.

34
See James Barber, Imperial F r o n t i e r : A Study of Relations
between the B r i t i s h and the Pastoral Tribes of North East Uganda,
(Nairobi: EAPH, 1968), p. 10.

35
This remark i s generally attributed to G.A.S. Northcote, a
P o l i t i c a l O f f i c e r i n the service of the Protectorate Administration.

Barber, Imperial, p. 94- "Because there was no government

control, no government protection, the traders and hunters l i v e d a law-
less, often v i o l e n t l i f e . This was the price to pay for unlimited
hunting and trading. Traders who l i v e d i n unadministered t e r r i t o r y ,
who joined i n t r i b a l wars and who had at t h e i r disposal comparatively
great wealth could expect nothing else. Sheer self-preservation dicta-
ted that most traders went about heavily armed and established t h e i r
own means of defence against t r i b e s . In 1903 P.H.G. Powell Cotton
 114

wrote t h a t t r a d e r s "would b e i n g p r e s s u r e t o b e a r on any t r i b e w h i c h

caused them t r o u b l e , even g o i n g as f a r as t o c a r r y out p u n i t i v e
e x p e d i t i o n s t o revenge t h e i r p e r s o n a l g r i e v a n c e s . . . u s u a l l y the
t r a d e r s were a b l e t o p r o t e c t themselves because o f t h e i r guns."

Y e t a n o t h e r v e r i t a b l e " K i n g " who g a i n e d g r e a t i n f l u e n c e over

t r i b e s t o the west o f K i k u y u l a n d was the famed e l e p h a n t h u n t e r W.D.M.
Bell. B e l l , a Scotsman whose h u n t i n g a b i l i t y became l e g e n d a r y i n h i s
own t i m e , was known as the "King o f Karamoja." See B a r b e r , i b i d . ,
pp. 97-8 f o r a d e s c r i p t i o n o f h i s a c t i v i t i e s .
 CHAPTER 5

THE CONQUEST

F i r s t Phase (1895-1902): A "Holding" Exercise

Sir Gerald P o r t a l ' s indictment of the I m p e r i a l B r i t i s h East

A f r i c a Company c o n t a i n e d b u t one apparent compliment: " I t s h o u l d be

remembered, i n j u s t i c e t o them, t h a t i n f a c e o f many i n i t i a l diffi-

c u l t i e s t h e y succeeded i n marked c o n t r a s t t o t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g colo-

n i e s i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e i r i n f l u e n c e w i t h o u t b l o o d s h e d and by t h e i r

own u n a i d e d efforts."^"

P o r t a l , o f c o u r s e , was n o t c o r r e c t i n h i s r e f e r e n c e t o t h e Com-

pany e s t a b l i s h i n g i t s i n f l u e n c e " w i t h o u t b l o o d s h e d ; " t h e r e had been

some k i l l i n g . The m a t t e r o f "bloodshed"" however, was t o loom v e r y

l a r g e i n t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e new masters o f t h e E a s t A f r i c a n P r o t e c -

torate. Some t r i b e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e t r u c u l e n t and o f t e n h o s t i l e K i k u y u ,

were t o be p a c i f i e d i n n o t h i n g l e s s t h a n b l o o d .

In March 1895, S i r A r t h u r H a r d i n g e , C o n s u l - G e n e r a l , Z a n z i b a r , ad-

v i s e d the B r i t i s h F o r e i g n O f f i c e t h a t he was p r e p a r e d on t h e i r b e h a l f t o

t a k e o v e r t h e E a s t A f r i c a n p o s s e s s i o n s o f t h e now d e f u n c t Company. He

would, he s a i d , absorb i n t o t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n as many f o r -

mer Company employees as p o s s i b l e . On 1 J u l y 1895, o f f i c i a l t r a n s f e r o f

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y took p l a c e . H a r d i n g e now assumed a l e g a c y founded p r i n c i -

p a l l y upon t h e Company's i n a b i l i t y t o r e s o l v e problems posed b y i t s

- 115 -
 116

p r e s e n c e among the t r i b e s — p a r t i c u l a r l y the Kikuyu.

H a r d i n g e ' s i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r the government o f the t e r r i t o r y were

vague and couched i n the b r o a d e s t terms. He was o b l i g a t e d , f o r example,

t o c o n c e r n h i m s e l f w i t h the terms o f r e s p e c t i v e t r e a t i e s s i g n e d between

Great B r i t a i n and o t h e r powers i n t e r e s t e d i n A f r i c a a l t h o u g h , notably,

j u s t how he was t o be g u i d e d on the m a t t e r o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was far

from c l e a r . Perhaps the most s p e c i f i c s u g g e s t i o n r e g a r d i n g a d m i n i s t r a -

t i o n o f the P r o t e c t o r a t e was couched i n the F o r e i g n O f f i c e d i r e c t i v e

a l l u d i n g t o the development o f l e g i t i m a t e t r a d e , s a f e c i r c u l a t i o n o f

t r a d e r s and t r a v e l l e r s , the need not t o u n d u l y i n t e r f e r e w i t h t r i b a l

government, n a t i v e h a b i t s and customs and t o attempt t o c o n f e r on the

2

n a t i v e s the b e n e f i t s o f c i v i l i z a t i o n . H e r e i n . l a y the b a s i s f o r an

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w h i c h t y p i c a l l y s o l v e d i t s problems l o c a l l y , "on the

spot',' and w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o a n y t h i n g more t h a n a b r o a d s e t o f p r i n c i -

ples: a p o s i t i o n made even more n e c e s s a r y by the l a c k o f good communi-

c a t i o n s between the c o a s t and the i n t e r i o r . D i r e c t i v e s from Mombasa t o

K i k u y u l a n d took e l e v e n d a y s — w h i c h meant an e l a p s e d p e r i o d o f some t h r e e

weeks between d e s p a t c h o f a d i r e c t i v e and r e c e i p t o f a r e p l y .

H a r d i n g e p a t t e r n e d the P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n on the Indian

precedent.
P o l i c e o f f i c e r s and m a g i s t r a t e s were l e n t by the I n d i a n
Government, and the m e d i c a l s t a f f came from I n d i a . Some
I n d i a n l e g i s l a t i o n . . . was a p p l i e d i n the P r o t e c t o r a t e
w i t h o u t m o d i f i c a t i o n . . . the j u d i c i a l powers o f o f f i c i a l s
were a l s o m o d e l l e d on I n d i a n p r e c e d e n t s .
 117

Moreover, i t was decided* t h a t j u r i s d i c t i o n , d u t i e s , powers o f t h e

Commissioner and C o n s u l - G e n e r a l would be equated w i t h the I n d i a n mod-

el. Sub-Commissioners, C o l l e c t o r s and A s s i s t a n t C o l l e c t o r s were t o

3

correspond t o equivalent orders o f rank i n I n d i a . S i r Clement H i l l ,

r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e A f r i c a Department a t t h e F o r e i g n O f f i c e , spent much

o f h i s t i m e a t " t h e I n d i a O f f i c e i n s e a r c h offa-Indian p r e c e d e n t s and

experience."

The P r o t e c t o r a t e was t h e n d i v i d e d , f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p u r p o s e s ,

into four provinces. Each p r o v i n c e was a g a i n d i v i d e d i n t o d i s t r i c t s .

P r o v i n c e s were a d m i n i s t e r e d b y Sub-Commissioners and d i s t r i c t s b y C o l -

l e c t o r s ( l a t e r D i s t r i c t O f f i c e r s ) and A s s i s t a n t C o l l e c t o r s ( l a t e r A s s i s -

ts

tant D i s t r i c t O f f i c e r s ) . The P r o t e c t o r a t e h e a d q u a r t e r s , l o c a t e d a t

Mombasa, was s t a f f e d by a supreme c o u n c i l o f L t . L l o y d Mathews, R.N.,

now F i r s t M i n i s t e r t o t h e S u l t a n , C r a c k n e l l and S t r i c k l a n d as j u d i c i a l

and f i n a n c i a l o f f i c e r s r e s p e c t i v e l y , and Hardinge h i m s e l f . Essential

s e r v i c e s such as f i n a n c e , customs and s h i p p i n g , j u s t i c e , r o a d and i n -

l a n d t r a n s p o r t , h e a l t h , p o s t s and t e l e g r a p h s , p u b l i c works and.the m i l i -

t a r y , were a l l based i n M o m b a s a — n o t a b l y some 350 m i l e s from t h e s o u t h e r n

periphery of Kikuyuland.

Of the r e s o l u t i o n t o absorb i n t o t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e Administration

former Company employees, i t i s apparent t h a t Hardinge was p r e p a r e d t o

t a k e anyone who would o f f e r h i s s e r v i c e s . W i t h few e x c e p t i o n s a l l per-

sons s u b s e q u e n t l y h i r e d had s e r v e d e i t h e r i n Z a n z i b a r o r w i t h t h e Com-

pany's m a i n l a n d c o n t i n g e n t . A few had e x p e r i e n c e i n o t h e r p a r t s o f

Africa. F r a n c i s H a l l , f o r example, had l i v e d and worked i n South A f r i c a ,

 118

JiLTA District b-aunicri«»

Sullonctrf of Zar:>':

Boundaries based on mog oHccht?d fo

Sir A.Hardinqe's 1 0 9 7 report,

A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Boundaries o f E a s t A f r i c a P r o t e c t o r a t e as o f 1897.
From Great B r i t a i n , F o r e i g n O f f i c e , R e p o r t b y S i r A. Hardinge o f
the C o n d i t i o n and P r o g r e s s o f t h e E a s t A f r i c a P r o t e c t o r a t e from
i t s E s t a b l i s h m e n t t o t h e 2 0 t h J u l y 1897, London, 1897, CMD, 8683.
 119

Dr. S.L. Hinde, a p h y s i c i a n b y p r o f e s s i o n , had p a r t i c i p a t e d i n m i l i -

t a r y a d v e n t u r e s i n the Congo w h i l e John A i n s w o r t h , ^ l a t e r t o become

well-respected i n h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e endeavours among the K i k u y u and

Kamba, had s e r v e d a t r a d i n g company i n the Congo. The r e m a i n i n g Com-

pany men h i r e d t o form the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e core o f t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e

Government, had been r e c r u i t e d d i r e c t l y from B r i t a i n , p o s s e s s e d l i t t l e

A f r i c a n e x p e r i e n c e and had earned from Lugard the contemptuous d e s c r i p -

7

t i o n o f "Mackinnon's raw young Scots."

C u t - o f f from Mombasa and t h e d a i l y d i r e c t i o n ( s u c h as i t was) o f

the p o l i c y - m a k e r s , o f f i c e r s were f o r c e d i n t o making ad-hoc d e c i s i o n s t o

meet t h e c r i s e s w i t h w h i c h t h e y were c o n f r o n t e d . As a one-man o l i g a r -

chy the D i s t r i c t O f f i c e r was c a l l e d upon t o make the most p r o f o u n d de-

c i s i o n s a f f e c t i n g b o t h h i m s e l f and h i s A f r i c a n c h a r g e s . Obliged t o jour-

ney t o the f a r reaches o f h i s assigned t e r r i t o r y , m o s t l y on f o o t , t h e

neophyte D i s t r i c t O f f i c e r endured the h a r d s h i p s o f topography, o f t h e

elements and n o t t h e l e a s t o f t r i b a l h o s t i l i t y i n the performance o f h i s

duties.- "Of t h e v a r i e t y o f v e r y a b l e men under whom o r w i t h whom I s e r v -

ed i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s , " o b s e r v e d one o f f i c e r , "one d i e d o f d r i n k , two

d i e d o f b l a c k - w a t e r f e v e r , a f o u r t h was s u s p e c t e d o f t a k i n g drugs, w h i c h ,

i n a dangerous s i t u a t i o n , i n d u c e d unwarranted o p t i m i s m ; he was murdered.

A fifth ended i n a home f o r i n e b r i a t e s . A s i x t h committed s u i c i d e . A

s e v e n t h , s u f f e r e d the p a i n s o f d e l i r i u m tremens and was b e l i e v e d , sub-

sequently, t o have drowned h i m s e l f i n the Red Sea." Perhaps i s o l a t i o n

and ( d i s o r i e n t a t i o n from "normal" l i f e e n j o y e d i n B r i t a i n — t o g e t h e r w i t h

the t h r e a t t o l i f e and l i m b i s s u i n g d a i l y from e n c l a v e s o f A f r i c a n \" '

 120

p r e d o m i n a n c e — w e r e t h e r e a s o n s why the weaker specimens degenerated t o

ineffectiveness. Undoubtedly o n l y the s t r o n g were " u s e f u l " i n the p u r -

suit of administrative efficacy.

The "strong" prospered. Men l i k e A i n s w o r t h , Hinde, H a l l and o t h e r s

succeeded q u i c k l y t o the mantle o f h i g h r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and formed t h e

e l i t e c o r p s o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e a d e r s h i p on whom s u c c e s s i v e Governors

consistently relied. A l l were men, i t seems, imbued w i t h the s t y l e s

and e t h i c s o f l a t e r V i c t o r i a n c o l o n i a l i s m — c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which i n -

f l u e n c e d the development o f t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . One s e t

of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s evolved, f o r example, o u t o f t h e B r i t i s h p e c u l i a r i t y

and p r e f e r e n c e f o r i m p r o v i s a t i o n based upon p r e c e d e n t r a t h e r t h a n p r i n c -

iple. Common sense and e x p e r i e n c e r a n k e d above i d e a s . A l l of the great-

l y touted " q u a l i t i e s " o f the p u b l i c s c h o o l b o y would be emphasized; f o r

example, t h e t r a d i t i o n o f t h e g i f t e d amateur o v e r the p r o f e s s i o n a l and

expert. The e a r l y l i t e r a t u r e on E a s t A f r i c a w r i t t e n b y a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ,
9

C.W. Hobley, K.R. Dundas, C. E l i o t and W.S. R o u t l e d g e , t o name j u s t a

few, abounds w i t h a s o r t o f p o l i s h e d amateurism i n p r a c t i c a l l y e v e r y

f i e l d o f E a s t A f r i c a n endeavour. E a r l y D i s t r i c t O f f i c e r s , i t seems,

were men who r e c o r d e d o r r e a c t e d t o what t h e y saw i n the absence o f

background knowledge o r s c h o l a r s h i p . I n t o t h e i r d i a r i e s and B l u e Books

went d e s c r i p t i o n s o f men, a n i m a l s , mountains, p l a n t s and c o u n t l e s s other

things perceived around and about the u r g e n t and o f t e n dangerous d a i l y

b u s i n e s s o f t h e pax B r i t t a n i c a . As o b s e r v e r s and r e c o r d e r s of facts,

t h e s e men p l a y e d a unique r o l e i n the s h a p i n g o f the c h a r a c t e r o f E a s t

African administration. U n t i l t h e ascendancy o f t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t ,

 121

s o c i o l o g i s t , economist and A f r i c a n h i s t o r i a n , e x p e r t i s e on t r i b a l so-

c i e t y and i t s problems o f adjustment t o the a l i e n i n v a d e r s , expertise

on the i n v a d e r s themselves and t h e i r problems of adjustment t o tribal

s o c i e t y , was a l m o s t the e x c l u s i v e p r o v i n c e of the seasoned D i s t r i c t

Officer. The e x o t i c e x p e r i e n c e o f E a s t A f r i c a , found i n the w r i t i n g s of

the p e r i o d , r e p o r t s , pamphlets, i d l e r a m b l i n g s , l e t t e r s and books, has

thus provided a s o l i d foundation of knowledge on w h i c h l a t e r legatees

have been a b l e t o b u i l d .

I n d i v i d u a l i s m i s perhaps the most common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o b s e r v e d

among D i s t r i c t O f f i c e r s ; e i t h e r as a q u a l i t y endowed n a t u r a l l y , g a i n e d

from p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e o r f o r c e d upon them by c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f " p o l -

icy" emanating from so f a r away. N a t i v e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t h u s tended t o

be shaped by l o c a l i n i t i a t i v e s and was o f n e c e s s i t y d e s i g n e d t o meet the

d a i l y exigencies of a given s i t u a t i o n or c r i s i s . "On the s p o t " admin-

i s t r a t i o n thus became the vogue: i t was a d m i n i s t r a t i o n based upon l o c a l

and c r i t i c a l needs r a t h e r t h a n t h a t w h i c h was d e s i g n e d t o meet l o n g -

range c r i t e r i a .

, An example o f e f f e c t i v e "on t h e s p o t " a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i s the case o f

Francis H a l l . " ^ Preoccupied w i t h c o n t r o l l i n g h i s d i s t r i c t i n southern

'Kikuyuland, H a l l r e c e i v e d l i t t l e guidance from h i s s u p e r i o r A i n s w o r t h

a t Machakos o r from the c o a s t . He c o n s t a n t l y c o m p l a i n e d about the shoe-

s t r i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and l a c k o f h e l p , o f poor p o l i c y and l i t t l e or no

constructive progression. He r e s o l v e d , t h e r e f o r e , i n q u i t e o b v i o u s

f a s h i o n , t o take m a t t e r s i n t o h i s own hands by r e s o r t i n g t o any means a t

his d i s p o s a l to administer h i s area of Kikuyuland. Thus he began i n -

c r e a s i n g l y t o r e l y upon the c u l t i v a t i o n o f K i k u y u athamaki as a means

 122

to c o n t r o l the p o p u l a t i o n and i n c r e a s e the s e c u r i t y o f h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . .

K i n a n j u i , s a i d b y H a l l t o be h i s " F i d u s A c h a t e s , " s u p p o r t e d h i s European

a l l y i n many a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and p e r s o n a l endeavours. Using a j u d i c i o u s

c o m b i n a t i o n o f f o r c e and diplomacy, and w i t h the a i d o f K i n a n j u i , t h e

i n t r e p i d H a l l managed t o w i n a degree o f c o n f i d e n c e from s u r r o u n d i n g

Kikuyu tribesmen. A s t u t e enough t o r e a l i s e , a l s o , K i k u y u p r o c l i v i t i e s

for i n t e r n e c i n e w a r f a r e , now a g g r a v a t e d by h i s own p r e s e n c e , t h e p r e -

v i o u s i n f l u e n c e o f t h e Company and t h e a m b i t i o n s o f t h e a'thamaki, Hall

used e f f e c t i v e l y a " d i v i d e and r u l e " s t r a t e g y t o h i s advantage.

The a m b i t i o n s o f athamaki i s a m a t t e r o f some importance i n an

a n a l y s i s o f H a l l ' s success. H a l l u n d o u b t e d l y found h i m s e l f i n v o l v e d i n

a power s t r u g g l e between competing athamaki. Resentment o f H a l l may have .

been based on t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t some athamaki f e a r e d h i s p r e s e n c e

would tend t o s u p p l a n t t h e i r own i n f l u e n c e among l o c a l K i k u y u . Using

K i n a n j u i t o t h e g r e a t e s t advantage, H a l l was a b l e t o d r i v e a wedge b e -

tween t h e competing t r i b a l f a c t i o n s b y p l a y i n g one o f f a g a i n s t t h e o t h e r .

A i d e d by armed " f r i e n d l i e s , " K i k u y u and M a s a i , H a l l was thus a b l e t o s e -

cure h i s presence i n t h e immediate a r e a around F o r t S m i t h and l a t e r

Mbirri (Fort Hall). S i g n i f i c a n t l y , H a l l ' s s u c c e s s i n implementing t h e

pax p a r a l l e l e d K i n a n j u i ' s s u c c e s s i n g a i n i n g f o r h i m s e l f more power.

The two men thus a c t e d i n c o n c e r t f o r the same p u r p o s e — t o a c c r u e power.

E s s e n t i a l l y t h e o n l y d i f f e r e n c e e b e t w e e n H a l l and K i n a n j u i i n r e s p e c t o f

t h e i r p u r s u i t o f power, was t h a t H a l l ' s a m b i t i o n s were l e s s p e r s o n a l t h a n

those o f h i s f r i e n d . Perhaps, a l s o , K i n a n j u i ' s s u c c e s s l a y i n the f a c t

t h a t he had p r e s e n t e d h i m s e l f and h i s s e r v i c e s t o t h e B r i t i s h — a l b e i t t h e
 123

Company—at a time when the a l l - p o w e r f u l muthumaki, W a i y a k i , had been

deposed. R e l a t i o n s h i p s between the Company and the K i k u y u d u r i n g t h e

p e r i o d o f W a i y a k i s s demise were a t a p a r t i c u l a r l y low ebb. Hall was

no doubt e l a t e d a t the p r o s p e c t o f b e i n g s e r v e d by a n o t h e r muthumaki

who, w h i l e n o t as p o w e r f u l as W a i y a k i , c o u l d become a u s e f u l a l l y and

c a t a l y s t i n the a f f a i r s o f n a t i v e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . As f a r as the B r i t i s h

were concerned K i n a n j u i thus p r o v i d e d an answer t o the problem o f " f i n d - .

i n g the c h i e f " i n an a r e a where no c h i e f s e x i s t e d because K i k u y u p o l i t y

was based upon a system o f e l d e r s . The f a c t t h a t K i n a n j u i was seen as

a K i k u y u " c h i e f " by t h e B r i t i s h may have been one more r e a s o n f o r K i k u y u

resentment o f a l i e n " i n t r u s i o n . As f a r as the K i k u y u were concerned the

key q u e s t i o n was, "how c o u l d K i n a n j u i be a ' c h i e f when no K i k u y u

chiefs existed?" On the o t h e r hand, as Mungeam p o i n t s out

i t seems l i k e l y t h a t , f o r o t h e r K i k u y u , K i n y a n j u i ( s i c )
i n s p i r e d i n s p i r a t i o n as w e l l as r e s p e c t . He was, a f t e r
a l l , a 'success s t o r y ' i n t h a t he was a K i k u y u who had
succeeded i n p l a y i n g the B r i t i s h a t t h e i r own game,
and had a c h i e v e d power and a u t h o r i t y as a r e s u l t .

H a l l ' s e f f o r t s i n promoting athamaki, w h i l e i n i t i a l l y c a u s i n g Kikuyu

u n r e s t , p a i d handsome d i v i d e n d s l a t e r . Through the advantage o f con-

t i n u i t y ( H a l l s e r v e d the Company and the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n the same

g e o g r a p h i c a r e a s ) many.of H a l l ' s e a r l y K i k u y u c o n t a c t s a c c e p t e d p o s t s

w i t h the government and t h u s formed t h e n u c l e u s o f a K i k u y u 'official

establishment.'
 124

Indeed

by 1909, when a n . a n a l y s i s o f l o c a l . ' c h i e f s ' was made i n

the Kiambu Record Book, i t i s apparent t h a t many o f the
l e a d i n g ' c h i e f s ' began t h e i r y e a r s o f a u t h o r i t y i n the
1890's, s e e i n g s e r v i c e w i t h H a l l and A i n s w o r t h . Not a
few began t h e i r l i v e s i n comparative p o v e r t y , and o n l y
g r a d u a l l y became w e a l t h y and p o w e r f u l , m a i n l y t h r o u g h
the B r i t i s h connexion. Almost a l l seem t o have s e c u r e d
t h e i r o f f i c i a l s t a t u s t h r o u g h the p r a c t i c a l t e s t o f
t h e i r l o y a l t y t o the government r a t h e r t h a n t h r o u g h
any p o s i t i o n i n K i k u y u s o c i e t y . H

H a l l d i e d i n 1901 a f t e r c o n t r a c t i n g d y s e n t e r y on a p u n i t i v e exped-

i t i o n a g a i n s t the K i k u y u . Dr. R a d f o r d , who tended him d u r i n g h i s f a t a l

i l l n e s s , p a i d t r i b u t e by s a y i n g , " . . . h i s name was a t a l i s m a n and h i s

memory w i l l l i v e l o n g among the Wakikuyu as a man t o .be f e a r e d , r e s p e c t e d

12

and l o v e d . " No doubt he was " f e a r e d " and " r e s p e c t e d " by h i s K i k u y u

e n e m i e s — o f whom he had a l a r g e n u m b e r — a n d " l o v e d " by t h o s e he had pro-

moted: K i k u y u athamaki, who were few i n number. Hobley, a f e l l o w ad-

m i n i s t r a t o r , commented t h a t H a l l was "a g a l l a n t s o u l , who d i d more t h a n

any l i v i n g man t o e s t a b l i s h the pax B r i t t a n i c a among the K i k u y u , who were

13

t h e n a v e r y t u r b u l e n t and t r e a c h e r o u s tribe."

The case o f H a l l s e r v e s t o i l l u s t r a t e p r o b a b l y as w e l l as any the

n a t u r e o f "on the s p o t " a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n K i k u y u l a n d . W i t h few p o l i c y

g u i d e l i n e s , e i t h e r from the c o a s t o r h i s immediate s u p e r i o r , A i n s w o r t h ,

no o f f i c i a l Government m i l i t a r y f o r c e a t h i s back, p o o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e

r e s o u r c e s and low f u n d s . H a l l ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n , t h a t w h i c h g a i n e d him the

u n u s u a l e u l o g i e s o f h i s - f e l l o w a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , was based upon h i s q u a l i -

t i e s t a s an i n d i v i d u a l endowed w i t h a s e t o f p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s suit-

ed t o the ' f r o n t i e r ' e x i s t e n c e o f K i k u y u l a n d . Perhaps he e p i t o m i z e d the

 125

l i f e o f the e a r l y D i s t r i c t O f f i c e r i n East A f r i c a . Faced w i t h t h e p r o b l e m

of.;, m e e t i n g t h e needs o f h i s own e x i s t e n c e , o f i n t r o d u c i n g a l i e n a t t i t u d e s

and v a l u e - s y s t e m s t o a g e n e r a l l y i n t r a n s i g e n t p o p u l a t i o n , o f expanding

h i s i n f l u e n c e without i n c u r r i n g the wrath o f the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e centre

(Mombasa, N a i r o b i o r London) o r indeeid t h a t o f t h e n a t i v e s , H a l l exem-

p l i f i e d a t r a d i t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m engendered b y a s e t o f unique cir-

cumstances: circumstances which undoubtedly c o n t r i b u t e d t o h i s e a r l y -

and u n t i m e l y death. S i g n i f i c a n t l y , because o f t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f h i s t e n -

ure (1893-1900) as a Company man and t h e n as a P r o t e c t o r a t e Administra-

t i o n employee, he was a b l e s u c c e s s f u l l y t o d e v e l o p a n a t i v e firmament,

a n u c l e u s o f u s e f u l i n t e r m e d i a r i e s , on w h i c h h i s s u c c e s s o r s could g r a f t

their influence. Moreover, H a l l e p i t o m i z e d , a l s o , the e a r l y period of

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e establishment i n Kikuyuland (1895-1900); a j t i m e o o f . o n l y

s l i g h t expansion, o f " s e t t l i n g i n " — g a i n i n g a "toe-hold"—among Kikuyu

i m m e d i a t e l y a d j a c e n t t o government s t a t i o n s ; a t i m e , - s i g n i f i c a n t l y , when

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t i o n came o f t e n i n t h e form o f " r e s p o n s e s " t o K i k u y u

provocation r a t h e r t h a n t h e l a t e r p e r i o d (1900-1910) when Government s e t

i t s f a c e a g a i n s t t h e K i k u y u i n a much more determined and p l a n n e d f a s h i o n .

The establishment o f A i n s w o r t h ' s new P r o v i n c i a l H e a d q u a r t e r s i n

N a i r o b i - - — a p l a c e s t r a t e g i c a l l y l o c a t e d f o r d e a l i n g w i t h ' the K i k u y u and

now r e a c h e d b y t h e r a i l w a y — h e r a l d e d the beginning o f a p o l i c y o f t h e use

of m i l i t a r y force i n the subjugation of the Kikuyu. Moreover, an impor-

t a n t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e change t o o k p l a c e i n t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f 1901 when

"the Commissioner d e c i d e d t o d e t a c h t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t o f t h e K i k u y u coun-

t r y c o n s i s t i n g o f F o r t H a l l , N y e r i , Meru and Embu from t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n

 126

o f Ukamba and t h e r e b y i n s t i t u t e a new p r o v i n c e t o be c a l l e d t h e Kenya,

15

l a t e r the Kikuyu province." I n e f f e c t t h i s meant t h a t K i k u y u l a n d

had become an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t d i v o r c e d from t h e v a s t n e s s o f Ukamba,

was now t o be a d m i n i s t e r e d from N a i r o b i — t h e f u t u r e communications c e n t r e

o f the P r o t e c t o r a t e — a n d was thus more proximate t o t h e scene o f impending

pacification. Furthermore, Dr. S.L. Hinde, a man p o s s e s s e d of previous

m i l i t a r y e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e Congo, was a p p o i n t e d Sub-Commissioner o f the

Province w i t h headquarters i n K i a m b u — a new s t a t i o n w h i c h superseded

F o r t Smith. A l s o , a new s t a t i o n was b u i l t on t h e o l d D a g o r e t t i s i t e

t o g e t h e r w i t h a network o f roads e x t e n d i n g throughout southern Kikuyu-

l a n d as f a r as F o r t H a l l . F o r t h e s e r e a s o n s . i t i s obvious t h a t t h e
i
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e n e t was c l o s i n g on t h e K i k u y u .

But f i r s t t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n was f a c e d w i t h t h e prob-

lem o f the armed t r a d e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y John Boyes, who r e p r e s e n t e d , i n

a sense, a c h a l l e n g e t o i m p e r i a l a u t h o r i t y . Moreover, worse s t i l l , many

armedr t r a d e r s were r e g a r d e d b y t h e K i k u y u as b e i n g members o f t h e Admin-

1

istration. Thus t r i b a l t u r b u l e n c e engendered b y t h e armed t r a d e r s might

have been a t t r i b u t e d , by t h e K i k u y u , t o t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and, moreover,

the e f f e c t s o f t h i s t u r b u l e n c e might have been c o n s t r u e d b y t h e A d m i n i s t r a -

t i o n as making t h e i r t a s k o f p a c i f i c a t i o n t h a t much more d i f f i c u l t . Boyes

and o t h e r s had t o be removed from K i k u y u l a n d i f a programme o f p a c i f i c a -

t i o n was t o be s u c c e s s f u l l y implemented. Ainsworth's concern i s r e f l e c t e d

i n h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f Boyes a c t i v i t i e s and subsequent a r r e s t .

 127

A d m i n i s t r a t i v e P r o v i n c i a l and D i s t r i c t B o u n d a r i e s , 1912. Note

K i k u y u l a n d now i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o Kenya P r o v i n c e . From George
H. Mungeam, B r i t i s h R o l e i n Kenya, 1895-1912, London: OUP,
1966.
 128

D u r i n g the e a r l i e r p e r i o d o f our o c c u p a t i o n , we sometimes

h e a r d o f a r e p u t e d l y p o w e r f u l c h i e f known as K a r u r i who
l i v e d somewhere west o f Mount Kenya. L a t e r on t h e r e were
. rumours a t i n t e r v a l s o f a w h i t e man l i v i n g w i t h K a r u r i . . .
e n q u i r i e s made by Hinde r e v e a l e d t h a t a 'white man p o s s e s s i n g
f i r e a r m s was l i v i n g i n c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h K a r u r i .
N a t i v e s t o r i e s were t o the e f f e c t t h a t the w h i t e man had
a s s i s t e d the c h i e f i n r a i d s on o t h e r n a t i v e s . Hinde
t h e r e u p o n proceeded t o K a r u r i ' s where he found a w h i t e
man named Boyes whom he o r d e r e d t o accompany him t o F o r t
Hall. The outcome o f t h i s was t h a t Boyes, w i t h the c a t t l e
he c l a i m e d as h i s p r o p e r t y , was sent t o N a i r o b i on a charge
o f d a c o i t y . There were, however, no w i t n e s s e s produced t o
enable the charge t o be p r o v e d . K a r u r i , who a l s o appeared
i n N a i r o b i i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the case, s t a t e d t h a t Boyes
had bought most o f the c a t t l e w h i l e o t h e r had been g i v e n
t o Boyes by h i m s e l f . The outcome o f the m a t t e r was t h a t
Boyes was d i s c h a r g e d . ^

I m p o r t a n t l y , however, Boyes n e v e r r e t u r n e d t o K i k u y u l a n d as a trader.and

thus the P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , now b e t t e r o r g a n i z e d and a b l e t o

17

sustain i t s e l f without h i s help, was r i d of h i s p e r t u r b i n g i n f l u e n c e .

A matter, a l s o , o f some c o n c e r n t.orthe P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ,

was d e a l t w i t h between 1901 and 1904 and concerned the f u t u r e o f the

Masai. The M a s a i , d e s c r i b e d by Low as "the h i n g e o f Kenya," d e s p i t e t h e i r

f i e r c e r e p u t a t i o n as w a r r i o r s , had p r o v e d not t o be too i n t o l e r a n t o f

a l i e n advances t h r o u g h t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l t e r r i t o r y . Weakened by civil

war and the d e v a s t a t i n g e f f e c t s , o f f a m i n e , the t r i b e t o o k t o r a i d i n g the

K i k u y u and o t h e r t r i b e s i n s e a r c h o f s u b s i s t e n c e . W h i l e the tendency f o r

r a i d i n g a i d e d the B r i t i s h c o n s i d e r a b l y i n t h e i r e f f o r t s t o secure militant

a l l i e s a g a i n s t the K i k u y u , i t began i n c r e a s i n g l y t o d i s t u r b them between

1901 and 1904- Moreover, the M a s a i themselves began t o show an i n c r e a s i n g

uneasiness, as d i d the K i k u y u , a t the p r o s p e c t o f t h e i r l a n d s b e i n g taken

18
by an i n f l u x o f European s e t t l e r s . G r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e i r l a i b o n
Lenana, a c o l l a b o r a t o r c u l t i v a t e d by A i n s w o r t h and o t h e r s , the M a s a i t h u s ,
 129

i n 190-4, c o n c l u d e d an agreement w i t h t h e B r i t i s h w h i c h c a l l e d f o r t h e i r

movement en-masse i n t o two g e o g r a p h i c a l l y d e l i n e a t e d r e s e r v e s . This

agreement p r e c i p i t a t e d subsequent movements o f M a s a i (1908, 1911 and

1912) and, a l t h o u g h each o c c a s i o n caused much f r i c t i o n and, i n d e e d ,

even an a p p e a l t o the H i g h C o u r t s , t h e "problem" o f M a s a i t r a d i t i o n

( r a i d i n g ) and t h e p r o x i m i t y o f t h e t r i b e t o o t h e r t r i b e s and European

s e t t l e r s , was r e s o l v e d . Now t h e M a s a i were s a f e l y i s o l a t e d and con-

19

t r o l l e d , a l b e i t l o o s e l y , by the P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . Now

the B r i t i s h (1902-1910) c o u l d t u r n t h e i r a t t e n t i o n towards Kenya P r o -

v i n c e and s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e s t i l l l a r g e p o c k e t s o f K i k u y u r e s i s t a n c e

— e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s military

i n h e r i t a n c e from t h e Company.

I n summary, t h e p e r i o d 1895 t o 1901 had been p e r h a p s , f o r t h e

P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , o n l y something more t h a n a " h o l d i n g exer-

cise." But progress o f some s i g n i f i c a n c e had been made. The r a i l w a y ,

f o r example, had s u c c e s s f u l l y by-passed K i k u y u l a n d and was on i t s way,

p r a c t i c a l l y unencumbered, t o t h e Lake and t h e a l l - i m p o r t a n t N i l e - s o u r c e .

Boyes and the armed t r a d e r s had been removed by s w i f t and d e c i s i v e a d -

ministrative action. The d e l i c a t e m a t t e r o f M a s a i and s e t t l e r inter-

r e l a t i o n s h i p s had a l s o been p a r t i a l l y r e s o l v e d . Moreover, w i t h M a s a i

moran l o o s e l y c o n t r o l l e d and now c o n f i n e d t o a r e s e r v e h a b i t a t , t h e

prospect o f i n t e r - t r i b a l w a r f a r e was c o n s i d e r a b l y r e d u c e d . Significantly,

due t o t h e e f f o r t s o f men l i k e H a l l , t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n now

p o s s e s s e d an e l i t e cadre o f i n f l u e n t i a l f r i e n d s w i t h i n t h e s o u t h e r n

i n t e r i o r of Kikuyuland. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e K i k u y u h a b i t a t had been

 130

d e c l a r e d an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t — a P r o v i n c e — a n d was t o be a d m i n i s t e r -

ed from a c e n t r e ( N a i r o b i ) p r o x i m a t e t o t h e a r e a . Men and m a t e r i a l s

n e c e s s a r y f o r a s u s t a i n e d e f f o r t a g a i n s t t h e i n t e r i o r t r i b e s were j u s t

hours away w h i l e t h e roads on w h i c h t h e y would presumably march were

b e g i n n i n g t o p e n e t r a t e n o r t h from N a i r o b i i n t o t h e K i k u y u h e a r t l a n d .

P a c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e K i k u y u was by 1901 about t o commence. Now l a r g e r

a r e a s o f K i k u y u l a n d were t o be c l a i m e d ; i f n e c e s s a r y b y m i l i t a r y means

and thus a t t h e e x p e n d i t u r e o f much K i k u y u b l o o d .

The k e y i n g r e d i e n t t o s u c c e s s f u l s u b j u g a t i o n o f t h e K i k u y u was an

e f f i c i e n t and w e l l - t r a i n e d m i l i t a r y f o r c e . But t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e Admin-

i s t r a t i o n had n o t been f o r t u n a t e i n t h e q u a l i t y o f i t s m i l i t a r y l e g a c y

from t h e Company. Indeed, C o l o n e l H. M o y s e - B a r t l e t t has gone as f a r as

t o s a y t h a t " . . . t h e I m p e r i a l B r i t i s h E a s t A f r i c a Company made no

comprehensive e f f o r t t t o o r g a n i z e p r o p e r f o r c e s f o r t h e maintenance o f
20
i t s authority." S i r A r t h u r Hardinge commented t h a t t h e Company was
21

a "European a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . . . w i t h no v i s i b l e f o r c e a t i t s back."

I t appears t h a t t h e development o f t h e Company's m i l i t a r y . f o r c e had p r o b -

a b l y been more p r a g m a t i c than p l a n n e d . Troops had been drawn from v a r -

i o u s E a s t A f r i c a n t r i b e s , d i f f e r e d w i d e l y i n q u a l i t y and were seen as

a "curious hotch-potch . . . w i t h no common s t a t u s and.no c e n t r a l c o n -
22
trol." The e a r l i e s t Company f o r c e had been commanded by a n a v a l
o f f i c e r , L t . L l o y d Mathews, seconded from t h e c o a s t a l a n t i - s l a v e r y p a -
23

trol. On t h e p r o m o t i o n o f Mathews t o " G e n e r a l " m the f o r c e s o f the

Government o f Z a n z i b a r , the. f o r c e was.commanded by C a p t a i n G.P. Hatch,

and, a c c o r d i n g t o S i r G e r a l d P o r t a l , improved c o n s i d e r a b l y i n i t s m i l i -

t a r y performance.
 131

An e a r l y problem had been t h e s e l e c t i o n o f s u i t a b l e A f r i c a n r e -

cruits. Some o f f i c e r s p r e f e r r e d Sudanese t o Z a n z i b a r i s w h i l e o t h e r s ,

n o t a b l y Mackinnon, c o n s i d e r e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e c r u i t i n g i n Z u l u l a n d .

o r even S i e r r a Leone. But t h e c o s t o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n was p r o h i b i t i v e and

the use o f Z u l u s thought i m p r a c t i c a l . The Company had t h e n sought p e r -

m i s s i o n t o r e c r u i t P u n j a b i s , b u t the I n d i a n Government opposed t h e p r o -

p o s i t i o n i n f a v o u r o f t r o o p s drawn from the D e l h i a r e a — a n d Mackinnon

24

r a i s e d such a f o r c e .

For the p r o t e c t i o n o f caravans t r a v e r s i n g t h e r o u t e from t h e c o a s t

to Uganda, t h e Company had r e l i e d m a i n l y on armed S w a h i l i l e v i e s who,

u n t r a i n e d , were p a i d l i t t l e more t h a n the p o r t e r s they guarded. Each

a s k a r i c a r r i e d a muzzle-loader f i r e a r m ; a weapon o f t e n found u s e l e s s be-

cause cap powder would n o t i g n i t e when dampened by s e a s o n a l rains.

D e s e r t i o n s were common and the c o n s e q u e n t t l o s s o f f i r e a r m s was g r e a t .

S i n c e t r a d e r s , A r a b , S w a h i l i and European a l i k e , had been d i s t r i b u t i n g

25

firearms to the i n t e r i o r t r i b e s f o r years, d e s e r t e r s served t o extend

and i n t e n s i f y t h i s p a t t e r n . Noteworthy i s the f a c t t h a t w i d e s p r e a d .

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f arms was a c o n s i d e r a b l e f a c t o r i n subsequent difficul-

t i e s experienced by Government when i t a t t e m p t e d p a c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e

interior tribes.

Company p o s t s , designed t o s u s t a i n caravans, had been l o c a t e d a t

s t r a t e g i c p o i n t s a l o n g the r o u t e i n l a n d from Mombasa t o the Lake. Each

p o s t was manned b y European o f f i c e r s and armed A f r i c a n l e v i e s . Among

the f a c i l i t i e s was a h u t a t Tsavo, mentioned b y P o r t a l , . a n d t h e s t a t i o n s

( f o r t s ) a t N d i ( s i c ) , Machakos i n the Wakamba c o u n t r y , Dagoretti started

by Lugard, K i k u y u ( l a t e r F o r t S m i t h ) and M b i r r i ( l a t e r F o r t H a l l ) b u i l t
 132

•JK.ir.mjii

i '^I^Z • Kitul

• N i l n iJ.-nliMi;rjt-vc i n i l c n r u i l i M i S ' ' *

m tKe f o r t . f f t G f r ; p e r i o d 1 E 9 S - * 90*S
£ e

* Miin j.Jmi.iiunlive l u i i c n i t(ub!.ih»d.

in i. ,* colt»ni»l f>;".'k« frtriotf I 90S - I 9 J 1
v

0 20 -10 60 50 100 RuLi'.djry of l i i r - I s t i A f r - t

The Spread of Administrative Stations 1895-1912. From George

Munggamifl B r i t i s h Role i n Kenya, 1895-1912, London: OUP, 1966
 133

by F r a n c i s H a l l . D a g o r e t t i and F o r t S m i t h were s i t u a t e d on the s o u t h -

e r n p e r i p h e r y o f K i k u y u l a n d , j u s t n o r t h o f t h e "moat," w h i l e M b i r r i

( F o r t H a l l ) l a y some 50 m i l e s i n t o t h e i n t e r i o r . Each K i k u y u station

was o f s t u r d y c o n s t r u c t i o n and i n c l u d e d a s t o c k a d e , deep d i t c h filled

26 27

w i t h p a n j i s anand a/boma surrounded b y b a r b e d w i r e . F o r t i f i e d con-

s t r u c t i o n o f t h i s k i n d had been n e c e s s a r y owing t o t h e K i k u y u p r a c t i c e

o f l a y i n g s i e g e on Company p r o p e r t y f o r l o n g p e r i o d s o f t i m e .

The m i l i t a r y f o r c e i n h e r i t e d from t h e Company b y t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e

was e s s e n t i a l l y p o o r l y o r g a n i z e d and thus l a c k e d t h e c o h e s i v e n e s s nec-

e s s a r y t o be p l a c e d i n t h e f i e l d a g a i n s t d i s s i d e n t t r i b e s m e n . True t h e

f o r c e was armed; b u t so were t h e t r i b e s m e n . Fortunately certain Kikuyu

c l a n s , thanks t o t h e e f f o r t s o f p e o p l e l i k e F r a n c i s H a l l , had been pac-

i f i e d and were now c o o p e r a t i n g w i t h t h e new A d m i n i s t r a t i o n — e s p e c i a l l y

i n a r e a s where a m b i t i o u s athamaki were l o c a t e d . Boyes' o l d f r i e n d ,

Karure wa Gakure, i s an e x c e l l e n t example o f t h e a i d c o l l a b o r a t o r s r e n -

dered t o o f f i c e r s o f the P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . Karure's former

c o n n e c t i o n w i t h Boyes had s u f f i c i e n t l y impressed him w i t h t h e v a l u e o f

c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h whitemen i n a u t h o r i t y — e v e n though Boyes' a u t h o r i t y

was somewhat s p e c i o u s . I n 1900 Karure thus e n t e r e d i n t o "an agreement

w i t h the P r o t e c t o r a t e o f f i c i a l s , w h i c h enabled t h e B r i t i s h t o b r i n g
Murang'a under t h e i r c o n t r o l , l a r g e l y w i t h o u t t h e u s e o f p u n i t i v e exped-
28

itions." Moreover, i n o r d e r t o c o n s o l i d a t e h i s a l l i a n c e w i t h t h e P r o -

t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , Karure r e n d e r e d a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e CMS and o t h e r

m i s s i o n s a t t e m p t i n g t o e s t a b l i s h themselves i n t h e a r e a . Pacified clans,

l e d b y c o o p e r a t i v e athamaki, would c o n t i n u e t o p l a y a u s e f u l p a r t i n

the p a c i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s .
 134

But o t h e r c l a n s , o f t e n those p h y s i c a l l y removed from t h e immediate

p e r i p h e r i e s o f P r o t e c t o r a t e s t a t i o n s , were f r e q u e n t l y h o s t i l e , l e s s m a l l -

e a b l e t h a n those under f r i e n d l y athamaki and m a i n t a i n e d an o v e r t resis-

t a n c e t o Government. Thus i f f o r c e and consent were t o be t h e t w i n -

p i l l a r s on'which t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n was g o i n g t o base i t s

a u t h o r i t y , o p p o s i t i o n , the w i t h h o l d i n g o f consent, the r e f u s a l t o c o l l a -

b o r a t e , would auger p o o r l y f o r Government p r e s t i g e : d i s o b e d i e n c e would

soon g e n e r a t e p r o g r e s s i v e l y from one c l a n t o a n o t h e r i n a c o n t i n u i n g e s -

c a l a t i o n l e a d i n g t o f u l l - s c a l e war. This the P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n

could i l l afford. P a c i f i c a t i o n p o l i c y , therefore, although founded on

a m i l i t a r y s o l u t i o n , was t o be performed on a p i e c e m e a l b a s i s . Each

p o c k e t o f K i k u y u r e s i s t a n c e was t o be e l i m i n a t e d when t h e moment was

p r o p i t i o u s , when t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n was s u f f i c i e n t l y prepar-

ed t o mount a p u n i t i v e e x p e d i t i o n and when p r o v o c a t i o n , the " i n c i d e n t , "

p r o v i d e d an excuse o r j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r m i l i t a r y a c t i o n . Moreover, t h e

" s k i r m i s h , " something o f a t r a d i t i o n i n p r e v i o u s i m p e r i a l m i l i t a r y en-

gagements, was t o be p r e c l u d e d i n f a v o u r o f complete conquest, a s o r t

o f m i l i t a r y " o v e r k i l l , " where d i s s i d e n t t r i b a l elements were t o be smash-

ed t o a p o i n t o f no r e c o v e r y .

A t t h i s p o i n t and w i t h r e s p e c t t o p u n i t i v e e x p e d i t i o n s , i t i s i n -

t e r e s t i n g t o compare t h e d i c t a t e s o f c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y , b o t h t h e F o r e i g n

O f f i c e and t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e Governor, w i t h t h e f a c t s . Both the Foreign

O f f i c e , i n t h e p e r s o n o f L o r d Lansdowne, and Commissioner S i r C h a r l e s

E l i o t (1900-1904) were a g a i n s t a p o l i c y o f mounting p u n i t i v e e x p e d i t i o n s .

I n l a y i n g down a s e t o f p r i n c i p l e s Lansdowne m i n u t e d :
 135

I t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t o f f i c e r s s h o u l d r e a l i s e the b r o a d
l i n e s on w h i c h H i s M a j e s t y ' s Government w i s h t o work
i n t h e development o f t h e F o r e i g n O f f i c e P r o t e c t o r a t e s .
That p o l i c y i s t o spread t h e i r i n f l u e n c e over t h e n a t i v e s ,
and t o t e a c h them by degrees t h e advantages o f c i v i l i z a t i o n
by a t t r a c t i n g them t o European c e n t r e s , b u t o n l y t o push
on o u t p o s t s where t h e r e i s a f a i r p r o s p e c t o f commerce,
o r where t h e i r e s t a b l i s h m e n t w i l l be w e l l r e c e i v e d b y
the n a t i v e s . I t i s n o t t h e w i s h o f H i s M a j e s t y ' s
Government t o f o r c e t h e i r way amongst t r i b e s who a r e
h o s t i l e , and, though i t i s u n f o r t u n a t e l y u n a v o i d a b l e
a t t i m e s t o make a d i s p l a y o f s t r e n g t h , a c t i o n l i k e l y t o
provoke such a c o n t i n g e n c y s h o u l d be, i f p o s s i b l e ,
avoided.29

Lansdowne's statement was thus a c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n a s t o how London view-

ed t h e m a t t e r o f p u n i t i v e e x p e d i t i o n s . Commissioner S i r C h a r l e s E l i o t

was no l e s s adamant on t h e m a t t e r : "I- am p e n e t r a t e d w i t h t h e c o n v i c t i o n

t h a t i t i s u s e l e s s t o spend l i v e s and money on subduing the barbarous

i n h a b i t a n t s o f b a r r e n d e s e r t s , and t h a t p u n i t i v e e x p e d i t i o n s a r e a m i s -
30

take." Thus we see t h a t p o l i c y w h i c h emanated from t h e F o r e i g n O f f i c e

i n London o r the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c e n t r e i n N a i r o b i , was n o t the same as

t h a t w h i c h was p l a n n e d and executed "on t h e s p o t . " Punitive expeditions

were a f a c t o f l i f e and d i d take p l a c e d e s p i t e t h e d i c t a t e s o f c e n t r a l

authority. Moreover, t h e l o c a t i o n o f "on t h e s p o t " was n o t N a i r o b i , o n l y

some 50 m i l e s from t h e g e o g r a p h i c centre of Kikuyuland, but smaller a r -

eas l i k e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o s t s , K i k u y u i t u r a , s p i n e b a c k r i d g e s , r i v e r

c r o s s i n g s , f o r e s t t r a c k s , and a h o s t o f o t h e r i s o l a t e d e n v i r o n s o f

Kikuyuland. O b v i o u s l y a g r e a t d i s p a r i t y e x i s t e d between t h e p o l i c y - m a k -

e r s , even though, as i n t h e case o f Commissioner E l i o t , some were n e a r

t o t h e scene o f t h e a c t i o n , and t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s l o c a l

agents. D i d t h i s d i s p a r i t y o f purpose suggest a l a c k o f c e n t r a l c o n t r o l ?

Was i t due, perhaps, t o poor communications? S u f f i c e t o say, f o r t h e

 136

purposes o f t h i s t h e s i s , t h a t such a d i s p a r i t y e x i s t e d — o f t h i s t h e r e i s

little doubt.- 31

Second Phase (1902-1910): A Military Exercise

By 1900 t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n began t o p r e p a r e itself

for p o l i c e o r m i l i t a r y a c t i o n i n support o f i t s e f f o r t s t o e f f e c t a

measure o f c o n t r o l o v e r t h e p o p u l a t i o n . I n 1901 a f o r c e o f P r o t e c t o r a t e

P o l i c e was o r g a n i z e d . The f o r c e t o t a l l e d as h i g h as 2000 men armed w i t h

Martini-Henry rifles. W h i l e p r e d o m i n a n t l y A f r i c a n , t h e f o r c e a l s o con-

t a i n e d an I n d i a n c o n t i n g e n t and l a t e r a s m a l l number o f Europeans r e -

32

c r u i t e d m a i n l y t o d e a l w i t h an i n c r e a s i n g number o f w h i t e settlers.

Most c o n s t a b l e s were c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e towns, t r a d i n g c e n t r e s and

s e t t l e d areas. By 1902 a s e n i o r B r i t i s h o f f i c e r , w i t h p r e v i o u s exper-

i e n c e i n I n d i a , was a p p o i n t e d as I n s p e c t o r G e n e r a l . Soon he s e c u r e d

the s e r v i c e s o f f i v e B r i t i s h army d r i l l i n s t r u c t o r s and the r e s u l t ,

according t o Robert F o r a n — a n e a r l y r e c r u i t — w a s "a marked improvement

i n the d r i l l , bearing, d i s c i p l i n e and g e n e r a l appearance o f t h e A f r i c a n

33

ranks." Known as t h e B r i t i s h E a s t A f r i c a P o l i c e , b y 1905 t h e f o r c e

had expanded c o n s i d e r a b l y and had e s t a b l i s h e d s t a t i o n s i n N a i r o b i and.

Kisumu. P a r a m i l i t a r y i n f u n c t i o n t h e BEAP was l e d b y m o s t l y i n e x p e r i -

enced b u t keen B r i t i s h army l i e u t e n a n t s seconded t o d u t y i n E a s t A f r i c a .

Knowledge o f p o l i c e d u t i e s came t h r o u g h a p r o c e s s o f t r i a l and e r r o r —

("and m o s t l y t h e l a t t e r p r e v a i l e d " ) — w h i c h emanated f r o m a r i g o r o u s l y

comprehensive o n - t h e - j o b - t r a i n i n g . .
 137

A l t h o u g h the BEAP was c a p a b l e , a n d . o f t e n p a r t i c i p a t e d i n , m i l i t a r y ,

i n c u r s i o n s , by f a r t h e more p o t e n t f o r c e was t h e E a s t . A f r i c a n R i f l e s

( l a t e r King's A f r i c a n R i f l e s ) . Formed i n 1895, under C a p t a i n Hatch,

the E a s t A f r i c a n R i f l e s were a r e - o r g a n i z e d l e g a c y o f t h e Company i n -

h e r i t e d by t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . The regiment consisted of

"two B r i t i s h o f f i c e r s , 300 P u n j a b i s , 100 Sudanese ( r a i s e d l a t e r t o 2 5 0 ) ,

300 S w a h i l i s and a ' m i x e d ' f f o r c e d o f 200 men."- 34

I n 1895 t h e P r o t e c t o r -

a t e had been d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e m i l i t a r y d i s t r i c t s , namely, S e y y i d i e h

and Tanaland, t h e P r o v i n c e o f Ukamba ( l a t e r s p l i t t o form Ukamba and

Kenya P r o v i n c e s ) and J u b a l a n d . By 1900 t h e f o r c e had a c c r u e d much ex-

p e r i e n c e i n f i g h t i n g E a s t A f r i c a n wars. I t had p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e

Sudanese mutiny i n Uganda, t h e M a z r u i r e b e l l i o n and t h e s u p p r e s s i o n

o f Wakamba s l a v e - t r a d e r s . I n 1901 Hatch i n c r e a s e d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f

the regiment t o 1500 men and moved i t s h e a d q u a r t e r s to Nairobi. The

Ukamba detachment was r a i s e d t o f o u r companies w i t h p o s t s a t Machakos,

Taveta and i n s i d e K i k u y u l a n d a t M b i r r i ( F o r t H a l l ) . M a s a i were r e c r u i t -

ed t o supplement the M b i r r i c o n t i n g e n t .

U s e f u l and e x p e r i e n c e d , however, as t h e BEAP was, by 1901 and a t

the b e h e s t o f none o t h e r t h a n t h e p a c i f i c E l i o t , t h e f o r c e was r e o r g a n i z -

ed. On November 5 t h e F o r e i g n O f f i c e gave i n s t r u c t i o n s t o t h e e f f e c t

t h a t from January 1, 1902 t h e BEAP would become one regiment ( 6 b a t t a l -

i o n s ) t o be s t y l e d t h e K i n g ' s A f r i c a n R i f l e s . The t o t a l s t r e n g t h o f t h e

regiment was i n 1902 some 104- o f f i c e r s and 4,579 men. Noteworthy a t

t h i s t i m e , a l s o , was t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f c i v i l and m i l i t a r y authority—

w i t h t h e s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f t h e m i l i t a r y b e i n g emphasized.
 138

As commanders-in-chief, H.M. Commissioners were responsible

for defining the object and scope of the m i l i t a r y operations,
but not for undertaking their immediate d i r e c t i o n . M i l i t a r y
authority was never to be exercised i n opposition to, or i n
competition with, that of the c i v i l power. . . 35

This edict i s interesting i n view of what had been pointed out

with respect to differences between central p o l i c y and l o c a l p r a c t i c e .

Obviously now any m i l i t a r y action would have to have the p r i o r assent of

the c i v i l administration. Did t h i s i n e f f e c t mean that the highest

c i v i l authority, the Commissioner ( l a t e r Governor), was informed of

every m i l i t a r y action? Or was i t more l i k e l y that this i n s t r u c t i o n was

interpreted by the m i l i t a r y to mean punitive expeditions were agreed

upon, "on the spot," l o c a l l y , between subordinate" o f f i c e r s of the King's

A f r i c a n R i f l e s and subordinate o f f i c e r s of the Protectorate Administra-

tion? In view of E l i o t ' s aversion to punitive expeditions, and those of

the Foreign Secretary, i t i s l i k e l y that at least, as f a r as punitive

expeditions were concerned, decisions on how, when and where, to under-

take them were l e f t to subordinate f i e l d o f f i c e r s . Furthermore, i t i s

probable, that those i n high c i v i l authority, Foreign Secretary, Commis-

sioner, Governor, etc., possessed only a cursory knowledge of plans f o r

punitive action. Indeed, perhaps i n many instances, high o f f i c i a l s were

informed-of events a f t e r they had taken place.

With the formation of a well-equipped, trained and experienced body

of troops, the King's A f r i c a n R i f l e s , the Protectorate Administration was

now i n a p o s i t i o n to react m i l i t a r i l y to t r i b a l h o s t i l i t y or provocation.

The m i l i t a r y p o s i t i o n thus secured, at least temporarily u n t i l the next

KAR reorganization (1905), administrative and m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s i n

 139

Kikuyuland turned t h e i r faces t o the task of p a c i f i c a t i o n : where t h e

KAR was t o a c t i n s u p p o r t i n g t h e g r a d u a l e x t e n s i o n o f n a t i v e c o n t r o l

from N a i r o b i t o Mount Kenya. I n t h e vanguard o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e t h r u s t s

i n t o K i k u y u l a n d between 1901 and 1910, t h e t r o o p s d i d n o t s u p p o r t t h e

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n as much as t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s u p p o r t e d the t r o o p s .

S u b j u g a t i o n o f t h e K i k u y u , w i t h few e x c e p t i o n s , was a m i l i t a r y exer-

cise. Where p o c k e t s o f r e s i s t a n c e were found p u n i t i v e e x p e d i t i o n s were

mounted w i t h t h e e x p r e s s i n t e n t i o n o f " p u t t i n g down" t h e i n c a l c i t r a n t s :

t h e r e was no q u a r t e r . B a r b a r i c e x c e s s e s were common and d e s p i t e E l i o t ' s

comment t h a t m a r t i a l e x e r c i s e s s h o u l d n o t be " a l l o w e d t o o v e r r i d e t h e
37

g r e a t e r c l a i m s o f j u s t i c e and good p o l i c y , " the m i l i t a r y ship s a i l e d

t h r o u g h K i k u y u l a n d i n a wave o f b l o o d and " o v e r k i l l . "

Boyes r e l a t e d t h a t i n 1901 he and C a p t a i n Wake hammered t h e p e o p l e

of K a r i a r a f o r a l l e g e d l y k i l l i n g a S w a h i l i along the r a i l w a y l i n e . Near

F o r t H a l l t h e G a t u r i K i k u y u p u t up a s m a l l amount o f r e s i s t a n c e and were

put down e a s i l y . The Muruka K i k u y u , however, were n o t so e a s i l y cowed.

39
P r e v i o u s l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e murder o f Haslam, a Company o f f i c e r , t h e

c l a n had a c c r u e d f o r themselves a r e p u t a t i o n as t r o u b l e m a k e r s . I n mid-

1901, according t o Meinhertzhagen, t h e y had a t t a c k e d M c L e l l a n ' s camp

k i l l i n g t h r e e p o r t e r s and a p o l i c e m a n . A p u n i t i v e e x p e d i t i o n ^ was

carried o u t under S.L. Hinde and H a r r i s o n which, e v i d e n t l y , was i n s u f f i c -

i e n t i n i t s e x t e n t and purpose: by 1902 t h e Muruka had r e t a l i a t e d b y

k i l l i n g f i v e Indian traders. "

 140

On 4 t h September Captain F.W.O. Maycock l e d a punitive

expedition of f i v e B r i t i s h o f f i c e r s . 115 r i f l e s 3 K.A.R.,
60 p o l i c e and 300 l e v i e s into the'Maruka country, and by
25th October had covered i t with p a t r o l s . Some resistance
was met and the expedition l o s t one man k i l l e d and 13
wounded. About 300 c a t t l e and 2000 sheep and goats
were taken.40

It had been a g r i z z l y a f f a i r as i s evidenced i n Meinhertzhagen.' s

account. He had given orders, f o r example, that i n one area, "every

l i v i n g thing except children should be k i l l e d without mercy." Later he

was to say that "every soul was either shot or bayonetted . . . we burn-
41

ed a l l the huts and razed banana plantations to the ground," Meinhertz-

hagen' s part i n t h i s grim a f f a i r was conditioned by the treatment accord-

ed a s e t t l e r by angry Kikuyu:
. . . the natives caught a s e t t l e r yesterday, a white
man who was trying to buy sheep . . . they dragged
him to a v i l l a g e near the forest, where they pegged
him down on the ground and wedged h i s mouth open;
then the whole v i l l a g e , man, woman and c h i l d , urinat-
ed into his mouth t i l l he was' drowned. . . . As this
took place yesterday, before the expedition entered
the country, i t cannot even be extenuated under the
provocation of an attack by Government . . . the
horrible death they have meted out to my countryman
f i l l s me with anger . . . i t does not i n c l i n e me to
f e e l too merciful . . . I s h a l l teach the offending
v i l l a g e such a lesson at dawn tomorrow as w i l l long
be remembered among the Wakikuyu.42

Meinhertzhagen's drastic action on t h i s occasion haunted him f o r many

years and, i n 1956, he noted that even then he was not sure of the

correctness of h i s actions. "My reason," he said, "for k i l l i n g a l l

adults, including women, was that the l a t t e r had been the main i n s t i -

gators of not only the murder but the method of death, and i t was the
43
women who had befouled the corpse before death." Naturally, since a
 141

c i v i l o f f i c e r was p r e s e n t and i n v i e w o f t h e r e c e n t h i g h e r e d i c t on t h e

m a t t e r o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r o t o c o l — " t h e o b j e c t and scope o f m i l i t a r y

operations"—he was c o n s u l t e d on t h e a c t i o n . "McClean, who was w i t h me

as P o l i t i c a l O f f i c e r , was n a t u r a l l y c o n s u l t e d ; though he r e f u s e d t o

g i v e h i s consent t o my a c t i o n , he t o l d me he would n o t i n t e r f e r e i f I

thought i t was ?jiust punishment, so t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s e n t i r e l y mine."^

So much f o r the c o n t r o l o f m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s by members o f the c i v i l

administration! Here i s a prime example o f "on t h e s p o t " d e c i s i o n -

making by s u b o r d i n a t e s i n b o t h t h e arms o f government. Doubtless this

a c t i o n was made the s u b j e c t o f a r e p o r t t o h i g h e r a u t h o r i t y w e l l a f t e r

the event. C e r t a i n l y p e r m i s s i o n c o u l d n o t have been g a i n e d from h i g h e r

a u t h o r i t y before the a c t i o n took p l a c e . We s h a l l see the r e s u l t s o f a

l a t e r m i l i t a r y a c t i o n when d e t a i l s o f enormous c a s u a l t i e s were t r a n s -

m i t t e d t o Commissioner E l i o t . .

I n 1902 t h e m i l i t a r y l a u n c h e d an a t t a c k on t h e Gaki a r e a . The

r e a s o n f o r t h e f o r a y was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e murder o f Goanese t r a d e r s

o p e r a t i n g i n t h e Tetu s e c t i o n o f N y e r i . Led by M e i n h e r t z h a g e n , Barlow,

Hemstead and Hinde, t h e a s s a u l t was a two-pronged a f f a i r emanating r e -

s p e c t i v e l y from Naivasha and F o r t H a l l . Meinhertzhagen reached the

t r o u b l e spot on December 2 and was f o r c e d t o f i g h t e v e r y i n c h o f t h e way,

c o n f i s c a t i n g c a t t l e and b u r n i n g h u t s . On t h a t day a l o n e he k i l l e d 20

K i k u y u a t t h e p r i c e o f two o f h i s own t r o o p s k i l l e d and f i v e wounded.

By t h e end o f t h e second day o f t h e engagement he had c o n f i s c a t e d o v e r

700 head o f c a t t l e and 1000 sheep and g o a t s . On t h e n i g h t o f December 4

h i s camp was s a v a g e l y a t t a c k e d by K i k u y u w a r r i o r s and he was a b l e t o

 142

s u s t a i n a s i g n a l v i c t o r y by k i l l i n g n e a r l y f o r t y o f them. H i s own losses

were, as a l w a y s , v e r y l i g h t . " I must own," M e i n h e r t z h a g e n remarked, " I

n e v e r e x p e c t e d the Wakikuyu t o f i g h t l i k e t h i s . " However, d e s p i t e the

r e s i s t a n c e of the K i k u y u , h o s t i l i t i e s came t o an end w i t h the c a p t u r e o f

45

the l o c a l muthumaki, Gakere.

But Hinde, 'doctor t u r n e d s o l d i e r and a d m i n i s t r a t o r , p e r s i s t e d i n

h i s e f f o r t s t o subdue the K i k u y u o f t h i s a r e a t o a p o i n t where f u t u r e

t r o u b l e s would be e n t i r e l y e l i m i n a t e d . Moreover, he w i s h e d t o b u i l d a

new P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n p o s t on the commanding s i t e of N y e r i .

S i g n i f i c a n t l y , h i g h e r a u t h o r i t y ( E l i o t ) had h o t been c o n s u l t e d specif-

i c a l l y on the m a t t e r o f f o u n d i n g the new f a c i l i t y .

P r o v i s i o n f o r a new s t a t i o n i n n o r t h K i k u y u c o u n t r y had,
however, been made i n the c u r r e n t e s t i m a t e s , and i n the
absence of f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e i t seems t h a t Hinde s e i z e d
upon the excuse of the murdered I n d i a n s ( s i c ) t o push
n o r t h and open up the d i s t r i c t . . . l a t e r . . . E l i o t
e x p r e s s e d h i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h the c h o i c e of the new
site.46

H e r e i n we see y e t a n o t h e r e x c e l l e n t example of "on the s p o t " d e c i s i o n -

making where a c t i o n was t a k e n l o c a l l y on the i n i t i a t i v e o f subordinate

o f f i c e r s o f , i n t h i s case, the P r o t e c t o r a t e Administration.

The column now moved o f f toward Mahiga on the excuse t h a t local

K i k u y u were h a r b o u r i n g Tetu l i v e s t o c k . Returning t o the N y e r i vicinity

a f t e r the Mahiga s o r t i e , Hinde's f o r c e t h e n commenced a s e r i e s o f "mopping

up" operations d e s i g n e d t o c o n f i s c a t e l a r g e numbers o f c a t t l e , sheep and

goats. The a r e a was now i n a t u r m o i l o f k i l l i n g , p i l l a g e and generally

p u n i t i v e a c t i v i t y ; the K i k u y u were i n c e n s e d t o a p o i n t of e s c a l a t i n g the

whole a f f r a y . A d e s p e r a t e b i d was made t o d i s l o d g e the a t t a c k e r s by

 143

a s s a u l t i n g t h e i r camp,. Faced w i t h s u p e r i o r arms and t a c t i c a l strength

the K i k u y u were r e p u l s e d w i t h a l o s s o f 50 w a r r i o r s . At t h i s p o i n t fur-

t h e r K i k u y u a t t a c k s foundered and the f i g h t i n g ended. Gakere, the

muthumaki who had chosen not t o throw i n h i s l o t w i t h the B r i t i s h , was

d e p o r t e d t o Kismayu. Soon a group o f e l d e r s sued f o r peace and from

them was e x t r a c t e d a promise of s e c u r i t y f o r t r a v e l l e r s and the construc-

t i o n o f a new r o a d l i n k i n g t h e i r s i d e of the Aberdare Mountains w i t h

Naivasha. By the end of 1902, t h e r e f o r e , open h o s t i l i t i e s i n t h i s

a r e a had ceased. By 1904 Hinde was a b l e t o r e p o r t t h a t the "Nyeri

d i s t r i c t was ' f r e e from t r o u b l e , ' w w i t h A f r i c a n s coming i n t o the s t a t i o n

47

and a l l o w i n g t r a d e r s t o e n t e r t h e i r c o u n t r y w i t h o u t molestation."

Meanwhile, however, the M a t h i r a c l a n s were becoming once more hos-

tile. I n 1899 t h e y had been i n v o l v e d i n the k i l l i n g o f M a c k i n d e r ' s

porters. I n 1903, s h o r t l y a f t e r the o c c u p a t i o n o f the N y e r i a r e a , they

a t t a c k e d a number o f caravans p a s s i n g t h r o u g h the c o u n t r y . A British

o f f i c e r was a l s o a s s a u l t e d i n the performance o f h i s d u t i e s . The prox-

i m i t y o f the w h i t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n N y e r i was obviously s t i r r i n g up

the M a t h i r a K i k u y u t o a f r e s h wave of h o s t i l e a c t i v i t y . S i n c e the so-

c a l l e d " c h i e f s " were a l s o of d o u b t f u l a l l e g i a n c e , a c c o r d i n g to Meinhertz-

hagen, a p u n i t i v e e x p e d i t i o n was n e c e s s a r y " t o put them i n the right

Z.8

frame o f mine and t o 'show them the f l a g . ' " An a t t a c k was therefore

mounted i n t h r e e columns under the command of C a p t a i n D i c k s o n , Meinhertz-

hagen and Humphrey r e s p e c t i v e l y . One column marched t o M a t h i r a from F o r t

H a l l v i a Embu. Hundreds o f l i v e s t o c k were c o n f i s c a t e d , w a r r i o r s were

k i l l e d and h u t s put t o the t o r c h . A n o t h e r column advanced south from

 144

the new administrative boma at Nyeri and.joined the f i r s t group near

Ndia. Here they captured nearly 800 head of c a t t l e , 2200 sheep and

goats and k i l l e d 796 Mathira Kikuyu. In one i t u r a they c o l l e c t e d

firewood and roasted the looted l i v e s t o c k . Even heavier casualties

were i n f l i c t e d on t h i s r a i d than had been the case i n previous puni-

t i v e expeditions. The o f f i c i a l report stated that some 400 Kikuyu

had been k i l l e d . Meinhertzhagen, however, said that 1,500 k i l l e d was

a modest figure. On Commissioner E l i o t ' s i n s t r u c t i o n s , however, the

larger figure was omitted from Meinhertzhagen's report on the operation.

"... E l i o t feared that Hinde would get into trouble i f such a large

casualty l i s t reached England." .But Even the figure of 400 k i l l e d

caused some concern i n London. But the matter was played down: "Hill

deprecated the operations, and Lansdowne agreed that i t would be better

49

not to express approval." Whatever the actual figure, however, the

fact was that the Mathira Kikuyu were f i n i s h e d as a native force to be

reckoned with; soon they were c o l l e c t i n g l i v e s t o c k and ivory and send-

ing them to the Protectorate Administration as tokens of peace.

The next operation of significance was mounted against the Embu.

Sporadic attacks had been suffered i n t h i s area by collaborators and

mail runners. Itura known by the dissidents to have paid hut-tax were

singled out as targets. Units of the King's A f r i c a n R i f l e s were des-

patched to the scene i n May and June 1903. Thereafter unarmed caravans

were able to traverse the area unmolested. Later i n the year the armed

trader Gibbons' was arrested i n the area "by Meinhertzhagen. There i s

l i t t l e doubt that his presence among the Embu had been a disturbing
 145

influence. (See p. 100-2 t h i s thesis).

On 20 F e b r u a r y 1904- B r a n c k e r and M e i n h e r t z h a g e n , under the command

o f C a p t a i n F.A. Dickinson, prepared themselves f o r a p u n i t i v e e x p e d i t i o n

a g a i n s t the I r a i n i K i k u y u . Me^ihherjtzhagen, remarked on the r e a s o n s f o r

the e x p e d i t i o n as due t o the f a c t t h a t the. c l a n had been sending insult-

i n g messages t o Hinde, s t o p p i n g c a r a v a n s from p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e i r coun-

t r y and m u r d e r i n g s e v e r a l p o l i c e m e n . "They must l e a r n t h e i r l e s s o n , " he

remarked. The p l a n c a l l e d f o r a two-pronged a t t a c k from N y e r i t o the

n o r t h and F o r t H a l l t o the west. N o t a b l y , the e x p e d i t i o n was t o be accom-

50

p a n i e d by Humphrey, a c i v i l o f f i c e r . In t y p i c a l fashion, Meinhertz-

hagen' s s e n t i m e n t s r e g a r d i n g the a t t i t u d e s and a c t i v i t i e s o f c i v i l offi-

c e r s had been e x p r e s s e d i n a l e t t e r t o h i s commanding o f f i c e r a s h o r t

t i m e b e f o r e the e x p e d i t i o n he was now p r e p a r i n g :

I d i d not i n t e n d t o s t a n d i n t e r f e r e n c e i n m i l i t a r y
o p e r a t i o n s from c i v i l o f f i c i a l s . They c o u l d con-
t r o l the g e n e r a l p o l i c y b u t must not i n t e r f e r e w i t h
operations.51

Moreover, i n r e s p e c t o f " o r d e r s " from h i g h e r a u t h o r i t y , M e i n h e r t z h a g e n

p o i n t e d out t h a t t h e y were " s k e t c h y i n the extreme" and t h a t the leader

o f the a s s a u l t , C a p t a i n D i c k i n s o n , " o b v i o u s l y does not i n t e n d t o be

w o r r i e d too much about them . . . n e v e r mind my o r d e r s . . . . Just carry

52

on and don't w o r r y me too much. I ' l l back you up i n a n y t h i n g you do."

The f a c t t h a t M e i n h e r t z h a g e n had e x p r e s s e d h i s aversion to i n t e r f e r e n c e

on the p a r t o f c i v i l o f f i c e r s , c o u p l e d w i t h the remarks o f h i s s u p e r i o r ,

i s one more i n d i c a t i o n o f the l a c k o f d i r e c t i o n from h i g h e r a u t h o r i t y .

Sentiments thus expressed suggest beyond doubt t h a t p u n i t i v e o p e r a t i o n s

 146

were decided upon and carried out by o f f i c e r s , usually m i l i t a r y , ac-

t u a l l y , "on the spot."

On 24 February 1904 the expedition l e f t Nyeri and Fort H a l l re-

spectively. Meinhertzhagen's column included some 250 Masai l e v i e s

and 60 r i f l e s led by Humphrey, the P o l i t i c a l O f f i c e r , Adams and an

Australian s e t t l e r , Elder. The l a t t e r person had been given a con-

tract by Hinde to dispose of captured stock on a commission basis.

By evening of the 27th Mr. Elder was able to count his p r o f i t on the

basis of 325 c a t t l e and 550 sheep and goats captured. In the early .

morning he departed on his way to Fort H a l l and a public auction where

the c a t t l e , sheep and goats were to be sold. The column then proceeded

to Gutu's v i l l a g e . Gutu, i t w i l l be r e c a l l e d , was the collaborator

with whom the freebooter Gibbons had been associated. At t h i s point the

column was attacked by 12 armed natives and a f i g h t ensued which was

complicated by the charge of a full-grown l i o n .

Adams, l i k e an ass, shot at the l i o n and wounded him

. . . I took the f i r s t 4 natives and bowled ithem over,
k i l l i n g the l a s t as he was just going to spear Adams.
My men rushed up, and between us we disposed of the
rest, shooting them a l l . . . I swore at Adams for „
shooting l i o n when we were being attacked by niggers.

Soon the column was attacked from the branches of nearby trees and Mein-

hertzhagen "got two machine guns up and poured a h a i l of b u l l e t s " into

the f o l i a g e . "... as the niggers showed themselves we picked them o f f

54

with r i f l e c 3 f i r e . Five f e l l with sickening thuds." The day ended with

the i n f l i c t i o n of "considerable casualties on the enemy" but "only 46

c a t t l e and 79 sheep" were confiscated.

 147

The excitement of the previous few days had by now raised the blood

of the Masai l e v i e s : they were k i l l i n g indiscriminately and Meinhertz-

hagen was forced to k i l l three of them i n order to restore order among

members of his own force. The c i v i l o f f i c e r , Humphrey, was reputed to

have.been at f i r s t furious at Meinhertzhagen's behaviour "but l a t e r

55

thought (he) had acted wisely but perhaps too harshly." Of t h i s

g r i z z l y a f f a i r Meinhertzhagen remarked that Commissioner E l i o t would

doubtless take a serious view of h i s actions and thus he (Meinhertz-

hagen) would not report i t .

On the following day, 3 March 1904, Meinhertzhagen received a

l e t t e r from h i s m i l i t a r y superior, Captain Dickinson, ordering him to

retreat the area and move i n the d i r e c t i o n of the Tana River. But

Meinhertzhagen disagreed with Dickinson's orders and persuaded the

c i v i l orifice r to move deeper into Kikuyu t e r r i t o r y . Thus we see two

sides of Meinhertzhagen. At the beginning of this operation Meinhertz-

hagen had written h i s colonel saying he "did not intend to stand i n t e r -

ference i n m i l i t a r y operations" and on t h i s occasion we see him encour-

aging a c i v i l o f f i c e r to " i n t e r f e r e " i n a m i l i t a r y operation. We see,

also, that the i n i t i a t i v e i n t h i s case was c l e a r l y taken by Meinhertz-

hagen: he was now acting contrary to the orders of his immediate superior

and had presumably influenced a c i v i l o f f i c e r to support him i n carrying

out a course of action suitable f o r his own purposes.

Meinhertzhagen continued to k i l l Kikuyu.

Today we had several small brushes with the enemy, who
. . . are now showing more f i g h t . We k i l l e d some 24 of
them today . . . f o r about ten minutes we had a good stand
up f i g h t . . . we bagged three of them.56
 148

Soon, however, casualties were so/great that Meinhertzhagen decided to

return to Fort H a l l f o r rest and-replenishment. He was proud to record

that h i s column had k i l l e d 796 Kikuyu and had captured 782 c a t t l e and

2150 sheep and goats. Brancker's column had captured 300 c a t t l e and

6000 sheep and goats, while Dickinson's group confiscated 602 c a t t l e and.

4500ssheep and goats. Notably, Meinhertzhagen observed that the accompany-

ing c i v i l o f f i c e r , Humphrey, was " s t i l l not clear i n h i s mind regarding

the d i v i s i o n of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y between m i l i t a r y a n d . p o l i t i c a l o f f i c e r s

when serving together on a column." A l e t t e r from Dickinson, however,

was considered to be appropo—"for guidance"—(as) "Humphrey i s a b i t

57

i n c l i n e d to i n t e r f e r e , and t h i s should put things r i g h t . " Thus when

Meinhertzhagen wished to avoid carrying out Dickinson's orders he turned

to Humphrey f o r help: conversely, when Meinhertzhagen was concerned

about Humphrey i n t e r f e r i n g i n m i l i t a r y matters, he turned to Dickinson

for help! Importantly, the i n i t i a t i v e on both m i l i t a r y and c i v i l matters

was being taken by Meinhertzhagen—a prime example of "on the spot" de-

cision-making .

The 7 March saw the end of operations i n I r a i n i as Kikuyu "chiefs"

submitted to Government i n Fort H a l l and offered to a i d the Administration

i n an attack on the Embu. Thereafter, on the 8 March 1904-, the Embu ex-

pedition, comprising 66 King's A f r i c a n R i f l e s , 15 Police and 4-00 Masai

l e v i e s , together with 150 Kikuyu spearmen from the recently defeated

I r a i n i Kikuyu, l e f t to engage the Embu. After several skirmishes, during

which the column i n f l i c t e d losses on the Embu, the troops returned to

Fort H a l l . Notably Meinhertzhagen f e l t , i n t h i s occasion, that the

 149

e x p e d i t i o n had n o t i n d u l g e d i t s e l f s u f f i c i e n t l y i n " o v e r k i l l , " t h a t t h e

Embu "had n o t been s u f f i c i e n t l y hammered" and t h a t he would " l i k e t o go

back a t once and have a n o t h e r go a t them ."' ^ N e v e r t h e l e s s ,

1
250 Embu had
58

been k i l l e d and some 2000 c a t t l e , sheep and g o a t s c o n f i s c a t e d . Des-

p i t e , however, t h e s e v e r i t y o f t h e Embu e x p e d i t i o n , Sub-Commissioner

Hinde ( F o r t H a l l ) appeared s t i l l t o be concerned about c o n t r o l o f t h e

area. One month a f t e r M e i n h e r t z h a g e n ' s a t t a c k on t h e Embu, Hinde min-

u t e d t o E l i o t t h a t t h e "upper I r a i n i and Embu a r e d e f i a n t , and w i l l

probably s h o r t l y recommence t h e i r r a i d s on t h e f r i e n d l y n a t i v e s i n t h e
59

F o r t H a l l D i s t r i c t and Mumoni, i n t h e K i t u i District."

The e v i d e n c e seems t o suggest t h a t Embu were d i s t u r b e d b y B r i t i s h

use o f K i k u y u i n p u n i t i v e e x p e d i t i o n s a g a i n s t them. D.A. Low a s s e r t s

t h a t t h e 1904 a t t a c k was a response t o Embu a t t a c k s on " K i k u y u who had

submitted to British j u r i s d i c t i o n . " ^ Here we see an example o f t h e

i m p l i c a t i o n s o f a d i v i d e and r u l e p o l i c y . I n t h e Embu case t h e B r i t i s h

had used a g a i n s t them t h e conquered I r a i n i K i k u y u — t h e i r neighbours—

and.thus Hinde's c o n c e r n about Embu i n t r a n s i g e n c e was a d i r e c t r e s u l t

o f h i s p o l i c y t o smash them w i t h t h e a i d o f conquered l e v i e s . Hence,

because t h e 1904 e x p e d i t i o n d i d n o t "smash" t h e Embu, was n o t an "over-

kill" operation, n a t i v e defiance i n the area continued. Moreover, t h e

Embu c o n t i n u e d t o mount a t t a c k s on I r a i n i K i k u y u who had c a s t i n t h e i r

lot w i t h the B r i t i s h . Moyse-Bartlet.t; s u p p o r t s t h i s c o n c l u s i o n by s t a t i n g

t h a t "the Embu were s t i l l v e r y r e s t l e s s , and showed u n r e m i t t i n g hostility

towards any t r i b e f r i e n d l y t o t h e B r i t i s h . " ^ " Perhaps i t would be more

accurate t o s a y t h a t t h e Embu showed h o s t i l i t y t o conquered"Kikuyu c l a n s

 150

now used against them i n punitive expeditions; a response caused by a

p o l i c y of divide and r u l e .

In mid-1905 the B r i t i s h were forced to return once more to Embu.

Hinde's "concern" about the south-east corner of his domain had to be

eliminated. It was not, however, u n t i l June 1906, that matters came

J

to a head. As a r e s u l t of the k i l l i n g of I r a i n i Kikuyu "protected"

by the Protectorate Administration, the Embu were attacked by a large

62

punitive expedition intent upon a f i n a l solution to the problem.

Supported by p o l i c e and units of the King's A f r i c a n R i f l e s , Captain

Maycock combed the "broken, wooded ridges and deep marshy v a l l e y s of

the lower slopes of Mount Kenya" looking f o r opportunities to smash

h o s t i l e pockets of Embu.
"A number (of Embu) were k i l l e d and large
64
quantities of stock captured, most of which however was returned."
By the 19 July 1906 a l l resistance was at an end and the p o l i c e and
65 .

K.A.R. withdrew at a cost of 2 men k i l l e d and 14 wounded. The Embu

D i s t r i c t Record Book records that thereafter, "the t r i b e submitted and

the present Embu s t a t i o n was started, the C i v i l Administration taking

charge i n July 1906."^ At the same time a garrison of K.A.R. was moved

from Nyeri to Embu u n t i l 1908 when i t was moved to Meru. Notably, two

years a f t e r the removal of occupation forces, f i g h t i n g again broke out

on the Embu border. In 1910, therefore,

owing to the truculence of the Tharaka and Mutejwa people,
a p a t r o l under Lieutenant L.H. Soames consisting of h a l f
'A' Company, 2 K.A.R., was ordered to carry out punitive
measures. A few casualties had to be i n f l i c t e d , and the
lesson was s u f f i c i e n t to restore order and ensure the
future cooperation of the tribe.°^
 151

I t had t a k e n f u l l y s i x y e a r s t o subdue t h e Embu.

There were two almost d i s t i n c t p e r i o d s o f p a c i f i c a t i o n ; namely,

the p e r i o d s 1895 t o 1902 and 1902 t o 1910. F o r summary purposes i t may

be seen t h a t t h e e a r l y p e r i o d , 1895 t o 1902, saw t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e Admin-

i s t r a t i o n i n h e r i t from t h e Company a t e r r i t o r y w h i c h had been p r o f o u n d l y

d i s t u r b e d b y wageni and European armed t r a d e r s . Moreover, government o f

the t e r r i t o r y was i n i t i a l l y based upon a s e t of c r i t e r i a o u t l i n e d i n the

b r o a d e s t terms. P r a c t i c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , was d e v o l v e d onto

D i s t r i c t O f f i c e r s f a c e d w i t h t h e day t o day problems o f implementing

the pax. Some o f f i c e r s were e x p e r i e n c e d and o t h e r s n o t . Former Company

men g e n e r a l l y adapted themselves w e l l w h i l e o t h e r s l a c k i n g e x p e r i e n c e and

m o t i v a t i o n degenerated to a point of ineffectiveness. An example o f

e f f e c t i v e "on t h e s p o t " a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was t h e case o f F r a n c i s H a l l .

H a l l appears t o have been a p e r s o n n a t u r a l l y endowed w i t h p e r s o n a l c h a r -

a c t e r i s t i c s s u i t a b l e t o meet t h e s t r e n u o u s demands o f f r o n t i e r life.

D u r i n g h i s s h o r t t e n u r e as a P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f f i c i a l i n

s o u t h e r n K i k u y u l a n d , H a l l was a b l e t o s u c c e s s f u l l y engender i n f l u e n c e

among s e v e r a l n o t a b l e athamaki. Athamaki, p a r t i c u l a r l y K i n a n j u i , collab-

o r a t e d w i t h H a l l f o r p u r p o s e s o f p e r s o n a l p r e s t i g e and advantage. Since

t h e r e was no e s t a b l i s h e d t r a d i t i o n o f " c h i e f t a i n s h i p " among t h e K i k u y u ,

however, members o f t h e t r i b e , i t i s surmised, found i t d i f f i c u l t t o

understand t h e B r i t i s h concept o f " c h i e f . " The use o f athamaki i n s t i t u t -

ed i n e f f e c t a p o l i c y o f d i v i d e and r u l e . Some K i k u y u " c o o p e r a t e d , " f o r

p e r s o n a l advantage, w h i l e o t h e r s became i n c r e a s i n g l y h o s t i l e . Hostile

K i k u y u may have been p e r c e i v e d by o t h e r K i k u y u as b e i n g " p a t r i o t s " w h i l e

 152

K i n a n j u i and o t h e r s c o n s i d e r e d traitors. Notably, the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s

i n f l u e n c e was c o n f i n e d t o a r e a s under t h e d o m i n a t i o n o f t h e athamaki

and o f t e n w i t h i n p r o x i m i t y o f f o r m e r Company s t a t i o n s .

I n b r o a d terms t h e p e r i o d 1895 t o 1902 may be seen as a t i m e when

the P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n began t o " s e t t l e i n , " g a i n a "toe-hold"

w i t h i n t h e r e g i o n s under i t s j u r i s d i c t i o n . The p e r i o d may be e x e m p l i f i e d

by a s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n u n d e r t o o k l i t t l e more t h a n a

"holding e x e r c i s e " i n the i n t e r i o r r e g i o n s — e s p e c i a l l y Kikuyuland. The

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , however, d i d d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d b e g i n t o p r e p a r e itself

f o r t h e e f f e c t i v e p a c i f i c a t i o n phase. F o r example, t h e f o r m e r Ukamba

P r o v i n c e was r o u g h l y h a i v e d t o make way f o r K e n i a P r o v i n c e — a n adminis-

t r a t i v e c r e a t i o n w h i c h embraced K i k u y u l a n d . Moreover, t h e P r o v i n c i a l

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n was r e - l o c a t e d t o N a i r o b i — a g r o w i n g c e n t r e w i t h i n c l o s e

p r o x i m i t y t o t h e scene o f impending e f f o r t s t o p a c i f y t h e K i k u y u . With

the c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e r a i l w a y from Mombasa t o N a i r o b i and beyond, commun-

i c a t i o n s were improved and t h u s made K i k u y u l a n d a c c e s s i b l e t o t r o o p s and

military materials. Roads were a l s o c o n s t r u c t e d linking Nairobi with

the s o u t h e r n i n t e r i o r o f t h e new p r o v i n c e . Furthermore, n e g o t i a t i o n s , a l -

though p r o t r a c t e d , were commenced w i t h t h e M a s a i . The o b j e c t o f t h e s e ne-

g o t i a t i o n s was t o e f f e c t i v e l y remove t h e M a s a i from p r o s p e c t i v e trouble

s i t e s , a r e a s o f p o s s i b l e c o n f l i c t between M a s a i and K i k u y u , M a s a i and

European, settter.S:;* o r M a s a i and t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . I n prep-

a r a t i o n , a l s o , f o r t h e 1902 t o 1910 phase o f s u b j u g a t i o n , the P r o t e c t o r a t e

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n removed from t h e K i k u y u i n t e r i o r a number o f armed t r a d e r s ,

who, f o r some y e a r s had c o n s t i t u t e d a d i s t u r b i n g i n f l u e n c e on t h e K i k u y u .

 153

The p e r i o d 1902 t o 1910 may be seen as a time when t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n t i g h t e n e d i t s g r i p on K i k u y u l a n d . By 1902 t h e Company

m i l i t a r y l e g a c y , p r e v i o u s l y p o o r l y o r g a n i z e d and l e d , was r e - o r g a n i z e d

t o form p r o p e r l y c o n s t i t u t e d p a r a - m i l i t a r y and m i l i t a r y u n i t s . Led by

p r o f e s s i o n a l s o l d i e r s from t h e B r i t i s h o r B r i t i s h - I n d i a n army, equipped

w i t h t h e l a t e s t r i f l e s , p a t r o l s o f t h e K i n g ' s A f r i c a n R i f l e s , p o l i c e and

armed l e v i e s , i n v a d e d the K i k u y u i n t e r i o r on t h e s l i g h t e s t p r o v o c a t i o n .

M i l i t a r y t a c t i c s changed from t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s k i r m i s h i n g t o " o v e r k i l l . "

With the object of a t o t a l e l i m i n a t i o n of a l l r e s i s t a n c e , strong p a t r o l s

r a i d e d K i k u y u i t u r a , p u t h u t s t o the t o r c h and k i l l e d o f t e n w i t h o u t dis-

crimination. A c t s o f b a r b a r i s m on b o t h s i d e s were common. During these

f o r a y s m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s took t h e i n i t i a t i v e i n t h e f i e l d and a c t i o n s

were o f t e n q u i t e c o n t r a r y . t o t h e d i c t a t e s o f h i g h e r c i v i l o r m i l i t a r y

authority. D i s p u t e s broke o u t between s u b o r d i n a t e c i v i l and m i l i t a r y

o f f i c e r s as t o t h e conduct o f o p e r a t i o n s . Areas o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y were

n o t c l e a r l y d e f i n e d and r e p o r t s t o h i g h e r a u t h o r i t y were p u r p o s e l y "toned

down." Commissioner E l i o t was e i t h e r aware.of what was t a k i n g p l a c e i n

K i k u y u l a n d o r t u r n e d a b l i n d eye t o t h e p r o c e e d i n g s — l e a v i n g m a t t e r s t o

those on t h e s p o t . S u b j u g a t i o n o f t h e K i k u y u was i d e a l l y a j o i n t v e n t u r e ;

c i v i l and m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s were t o work s i d e b y s i d e . In effect civil

o f f i c e r s were o f t e n p r e s e n t on p u n i t i v e e x p e d i t i o n s b u t , i f we a r e t o

t a k e Meinhertzhagen's b e h a v i o u r as t y p i c a l - - a n d . t h e r e i s no r e a s o n t o

doubt i t was n o t — t h e n c l e a r l y i n i t i a t i v e s i n t h e f i e l d were t a k e n by

military officers. In effect, t h e r e f o r e , the establishment of the Pro-

t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n was almost e n t i r e l y a m i l i t a r y a f f a i r . Moreover,

 154

the c o n f i s c a t i o n of c a t t l e i n l a r g e n u m b e r s — t o be s o l d i n the markets

of Fort H a l l — g u a r a n t e e d the c o n t i n u i n g sustenance of e x p e n s i v e m i l i t a r y

a d v e n t u r e s and s e r i o u s l y d i s r u p t e d K i k u y u economy t o a p o i n t where

f u r t h e r r e s i s t a n c e was useless. By 1910 the pax B r i t a n n i c a was a fact

in Kikuyuland.
 155

FOOTNOTES

"'"Galbraith, Mackinnon, p. 235 and quoted from correspondence.

Mackenzie to F.O., 11 A p r i l 1894, F.O. 2/73, P.R.O.

p
G.H. Mungeam, B r i t i s h Rule i n Kenya, 1895-1912, (London: OUP,
1966), p. 17. Mungeam states also, i n respect of the matter of p o l i c y ,
that " l o c a l matters could be referred back to London. I f they were
urgent they could be decided on the spot, and the decision sent to Lon-
don f o r approval, which was generally forthcoming. But i n the interna-
t i o n a l ferment of the 1890's the Foreign Secretary was, on the whole,
far too occupied with weighty international matters to concern himself
with the minutiae of an obscure A f r i c a n Protectorate. Indeed, one of
his main anxieties seems to have been that i t should remain obscure
. . . He (the Foreign Secretary) entrusted the day to day supervision
of the t e r r i t o r y to S i r Clement H i l l (who) had very l i t t l e knowledge of
p r a c t i c a l administration.

I b i d . , pp. 50, 58-9. "The very t i t l e s of East A f r i c a n o f f i -

3

cers were modelled on Indian precedents. In May 1898 i t was emphasized

that the j u r i s d i c t i o n , powers and duties of the Commissioner and Consul-
General i n the East A f r i c a Protectorate should be equated with those of
the Governor-General; Governor or Lieutenant-Governor of India; Sub-
Commissioners with Commissioners; Collectors with Collectors or Deputy
Commissioners; and Assistant Collectors with Assistant Collectors or
Assistant Commissioners."

^Ibid., p. 16.

Ibid., p. 47. See also Great B r i t a i n , Cmd. 8683 (1897) passim

for d e t a i l s of the early East A f r i c a n Protectorate administrative struc-
ture. Hardinge recommended "that four provinces should be created . .
. Coast, Ukamba, Tanaland and Jubaland." Kikuyuland was incorporated
into Ukamba Province and was to be administered by Ainsworth from
Machakos—some 50 miles south of Kikuyuland.

^See Goldsmith, John Ainsworth, f o r d e t a i l s of Ainsworth's

career.
 156

7
Mungeam, B r i t i s h Rule, p. 49.

Quoted i n M i l l e r , The Lunatic, p. 504 from Henry Seaton, Lion

i n the Morning, (London: John Murray, 1963). .

9
S i r Charles E l i o t , Governor of the East A f r i c a n Protectorate
(1900-1904) was perhaps an exception. He was a distinguished scholar
"more l i k e a don or p r i e s t than high o f f i c i a l . " See Meinhertzhagen,
Kenya Diary, p. 31. E l i o t ' s f i e l d s of i n t e r e s t were many and varied
and included a b r i l l i a n t command of languages and a scholarly knowledge
of the common sea-slug.

Hall,•"How Peace Came." See also H a l l Papers, Rhodes House,

10

Oxford, and quoted passim i n Mungeam, B r i t i s h Rule.

[ungeam, "Masai and Kikuyu," p. 138.

1 2
Mtungeam, B r i t i s h Rule, p. 3 9 .

13
Hobley, Kenya, pp. 77-8.

14
GoIdsmith, John Ainsworth, pp. 52-55.

15
Ibid. Later to be known as the Central Province (1933 ).

l 6
I b i d . , pp. 56-7.

17
Interestingly, despite the Administration's former aversion to
Boyes, he i s reputed to have taken part i n a Government sponsored punitive
expedition during 1902.

18
Probably more accurately translated as "soothsayer" rather than
"chief."
 157

See excellent accounts of the "Masai problem" i n Low, " B r i t i s h

Rule," pp. 1-5 and'34-44 and Goldsmith, John Ainsworth, pp. 79-90.

Lt. Col. H. Moyse-Bartlett, The King's A f r i c a n R i f l e s : A Study

i n the M i l i t a r y History of East and Central A f r i c a , 1890-1945, (Alder-
shot: Gale and Polden, 1956), p. 95.

21
S i r Arthur Hardinge, A Diplomatist i n the East, (London: Methuen,
1928), p. 97.

M,byse-Bartlett, The King's, p. 95.

22

For a description of Mathews' a c t i v i t i e s i n Zanzibar see J.E.

F l i n t , "Zanzibar 1890-1950" i n Vincent Harlow and E.M. Chilver, eds.,
History of East A f r i c a .

It i s apparent that throughout the early h i s t o r y of the Pro-

tectorate the Indian Government was unwilling to do l i t t l e more than d i s -
pense advice and second token numbers of Indian troops.

^R.W. Beachey, "The Arms Trade i n East Africa'/ i n Journal of

A f r i c a n History, v o l . 3, (1962), pp. 451-67, gives a well-developed
account of the history of arms and the arms trade.in East A f r i c a .
Commenting on the matter of arms d i s t r i b u t i o n through deserters,
Beachey says that "There are many instances of arms f a l l i n g into the
hands of natives as a r e s u l t of carelessness or of largesse on the
part of Europeans. Caravans were often attacked or sometimes d i s c a r -
ded t h e i r supplies, before commencing the long journey to the coast.
Many cases of desertion accounted f o r the loss of firearms." In sum-
ming up the impact of the arms trade on East A f r i c a , Beachey declares
that between 1885 and 1902 "two points stand out. F i r s t , the immense
volume of trade . . . during the period there must have entered the
German and B r i t i s h sphere some 1,000,000 firearms, well over 4,000,000
l b s . of gunpowder and many m i l l i o n caps and rounds of ammunition.
The second point i s , where did a l l these weapons go?

Swahili (sharpened pieces of hardwood or bamboo placed c l o s e l y

together and designed to impede the forward progress of an attacker).
 158

27
Swahili (a cluster of administrative buildings).

28
University College, Nairobi-Research Project Archives (UON:
RPA), B/2/2(2), "Biography of Karuri," by Charles M. Mucaha i n Robert W.
Strayer, Edward I. Steinhart and Robert M. Maxon, Protest Movements i n
Colonial East A f r i c a : Aspects of Early A f r i c a n Response to European
Rule, (Syracuse University, 1973), p. ~.

Lansdowne to E l i o t , 19 July 1901, F.O., 2/443 and quoted i n

Mungeam, B r i t i s h Rule, p. 79.

E l i o t to Lansdowne, Confidential, 1 October 1901, F.O. 2/450

and quoted i n i b i d .

Al/Iungeam, Bri'i>ishrRule?,^pp3.84x5 jhas;hltt: tn~a\1?_o"EM:ojt:;.appe£.rs to have

turned a comparatively b l i n d eye to what was going on i n h i s more d i s -
tant areas. He l e f t his l o c a l o f f i c e r s to do what they thought best
and backed them up to the extent of omitting v i t a l s t a t i s t i c s to mini-
mize the harsh r e a l i t i e s of l i f e on the f r o n t i e r . " Furthermore, the
Eastern Province of Uganda was added to the East A f r i c a Protectorate
i n March 1902 and "the many challenges of the new t e r r i t o r y increasing-
l y occupied E l i o t ' s attention."

32
See James B. Wolf, "Asian and A f r i c a n Recruitment i n the Kenya
Police, 1920-1950" i n Norman R. Bennett, ed., The International Journal
of A f r i c a n H i s t o r i c a l Studies, v o l . 6, (1973), pp. 401-12.

W.R. Foran, The Kenya Police, 1887-1960, (London:

33
Robert
Hale, 1962), p. 57.

'S/Toyse-Bartlett, The King's, p. 102. Much of the information

on the formation of both the East A f r i c a n R i f l e s and the subsequent
King's A f r i c a n R i f l e s has been derived from t h i s excellent and standard
work.

Ibid., p. 130.
 159

The Meru t e r r i t o r y (north-east of Mount Kenya) was an exception

and was occupied without f i g h t i n g because the clans i n t h i s area sought
the p r o t e c t i o n of t h e - B r i t i s h against t h e i r t r i b a l enemies. I n other
areas administrators resorted to ingenious gambits designed to overcome
prospective h o s t i l i t y . Among the Tharaka Kikuyu, f o r example, Ainsworth
used organized dancing i n an e f f o r t to a i d . h i s personal program of p a c i f i -
c a t i o n . Hayes-Sadler preached the p l a y i n g of gramaphone records i n order
to convey the messages of h i s administration. See Charles Dundas, A f r i -
can Crossroads, (London: Macmillan, 1955), p. 27 and Huxley, Whiteman's,
v o l . 1, p. 226.

37
M i l l e r , Lunatic, p. 513-

og
John Boyes, The Company of Adventurers, (London: Methuen, 1928),
p. 130.

39
For an account of Haslam's death see Goldsmith, John Ainsworth,
pp. 32-3.

40
M o y s e - B a r t l e t t , The King's, p. 204.

^^Meinhertzhagen, Kenya Diary, pp. 51-2.

4 2
I b i d . , p. 50.

4 3
I b i d . , p. 52.

4 4
Ibid.

4 5
L b i d . , pp. 64-75.

4
^jMungeam, B r i t i s h Rule, pp. 83-4-
 160

4 7
Ibid.

Meinhertzhagen, Kenya Diary, p. 108.

Mungeam, B r i t i s h Rule, p. 8 4 .

^Meinhertzhagen, Kenya - Diary, p. 138.

5 1
r b i d . , p. 136.

5 2
I b i d . , p. 1 3 9 .

53
Ibid., p. 140. Adams, a drug addict, died i n 1906.

5 4
I b i d . , p. 1 4 - 1 .

55
Ibid., p. 144•

56
Ibid., pp. 145-6.

Ibid.

5 8
I b i d . , p. 152.

59
Quoted i n Mungeam, B r i t i s h Rule, p. 85. Hinde to E l i o t ,
5 A p r i l 1904, enclosure i n E l i o t to Lansdowne, 4 May 1904, F.O., 2/836.

60 T
Low, " B r i t i s h East," p. 25.

6l
Moyse-Bartlett, The King's, p. 205.
 161

62
Saberwal, " H i s t o r i c a l Notes," p. 38.

6 3
M o y s e - B a r t l e t t , The K i n g ' s , p. 206.

^ S a b e r w a l , " H i s t o r i c a l Notes," p. 38.

6 5
M o y s e - B a r t l e t t , The K i n g ' s , p. 206.

^ S a b e r w a l , " H i s t o r i c a l Notes," p. 38.

6 7
M o y s e - B a r t l e t t , The K i n g ' s , p. 206.
 CONCLUSION

By t h e m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y K i k u y u s o c i e t y had completed

i t s m i g r a t i o n from Shungwaya t o i t s p r e s e n t h a b i t a t . Tribes consti-

t u t i n g the K i k u y u were i n s t i t u t i o n a l l y u n c e n t r a l i s e d , egalitarian,

acephalous and u n s t a b l e .

I n s t a b i l i t y was a c o n d i t i o n o f s e v e r a l f a c t o r s . The c o n s t a n t

s e a r c h f o r water, g r a s s , a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d , gave f o r t h t o a f l u i d situ-

a t i o n where p o c k e t s o f K i k u y u formed, broke dSf and re-formed, r o s e t o

l o c a l prominence and d e c l i n e d i n an u n d u l a t i o n determined by p r e v a i l i n g

l o c a l conditions. P r o x i m i t y , a l s o , t o marauding M a s a i , f o r c e d t h e

Kikuyu i n t o a defensive posture which c o n d i t i o n e d t h e i r a t t i t u d e s w i t h

respect t o the i n t r u s i o n of others.

L i k e t h e M a s a i , t h e K i k u y u were composed o f c o n s t i t u e n t t r i b a l

p o l i t i e s , w i t h a u t h o r i t y r e s i d i n g i n t h e hands o f e l d e r s o f one genera-

t i o n and handed down t o s u c c e e d i n g g e n e r a t i o n s a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s o f

time. The i t w i k a , a ceremony d e v i s e d t o enable one group t o t a k e over

power from a n o t h e r , s e r v e d t o t r a n s f e r a u t h o r i t y i n an o r d e r l y way and

without f r i c t i o n . E l d e r s c l e a r l y c o n t r o l l e d Kikuyu p o l i t y but only a t

a.local level. The t r i b e as a whole d i d n o t a c t i n c o n c e r t f o r e i t h e r

s o c i a l or m i l i t a r y purposes.

Perhaps t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t ceremony a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t r i b a l i n -

t e g r a t i o n was t h e i r u a . The i r u a s e r v e d t o i d e n t i f y y e a r l y a g e - s e t s

through c o l l e c t i v e c i r c u m c i s i o n . Each age-set was g i v e n t h e name o f a

- 162 -
 163

s i g n i f i c a n t event t a k i n g p l a c e d u r i n g t h e y e a r o f c o l l e c t i v e circumcision.

I n d o c t r i n a t e s were s a i d t o he bound t o g e t h e r b y t h e " v e r y c l o s e s t a s s o c i a -

t i o n t o each o t h e r . " Kikuy^ 'thenuprogressivelybbecame". J u n i o r War-

T

r i o r s , S e n i o r W a r r i o r s , L e a r n i n g E l d e r s , J u n i o r E l d e r s and f i n a l l y S e n i o r

Elders. Those who d i s p l a y e d t h e n e c e s s a r y q u a l i t i e s and l i v e d l o n g enough,

a t t a i n e d the venerable s t a t u s of P r i e s t .

A g e - s e t s c o n t a i n e d r u l i n g and n o n - r u l i n g h a l v e s o f t h e t r i b e

(Mwangi o r M a i n a ) . The r u l i n g h a l f c a r r i e d o u t l e g i s l a t i v e and govern-

m e n t a l t a s k s w h i l e t h e n o n - r u l i n g h a l f "observed" t h e machinery o f power

a t work. When power changed hands ( i t w i k a ) former n o n - r u l i n g e l d e r s b e -

came r u l i n g e l d e r s : former r u l i n g e l d e r s became n o n - r u l i n g e l d e r s . Thus

K i k u y u p o l i t y was e g a l i t a r i a n . I m p o r t a n t l y , t h e K i k u y u p o s s e s s e d no

chiefs. C h i e f t a i n s h i p , a newer form o f p o l i t y , c o u l d be r e a s o n a b l y a s s o c -

i a t e d w i t h more " s e t t l e d , " more s t a t i c , Bantu p o p u l a t i o n s l i k e t h e Buganda,

w h i l e a c e p h a l y i s more t r a d i t i o n a l l y a form o f s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a -

t i o n p r a c t i s e d by p a s t o r a l i s t s l i k e the Masai. I t i s more t h a n p r o b a b l e ,

ibherefiore, t h a t K i k u y u a c e p h a l y , as a system o f government, was "borrowed"

from t h e M a s a i .

S i g n i f i c a n t l y , a c e p h a l y d i d n o t p r e c l u d e t h e development o f i n d i -

vidualism. Indeed, i n d i v i d u a l i s m i n K i k u y u s o c i e t y was a c t u a l l y encour-

aged. Young men p o s s e s s e d o f u n u s u a l p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , leader-

s h i p q u a l i t i e s , a t t r i b u t e s i n m i l i t a r y , l e g a l and p o l i t i c a l a f f a i r s , were

h u r r i e d along the road to s e n i o r i t y . Known as athamaki, young men so

p o s s e s s e d were i n no sense c h i e f s . . Because t r i b a l power was i n t h e hands

o f e l d e r s , athamaki were- never seen as l e a d e r s o f t h e t r i b a l community

 164

b u t r a t h e r as men p o s s e s s e d o f e x c e p t i o n a l t a l e n t . Since military-

a f f a i r s played a l a r g e p a r t i n Kikuyu l i f e — e s p e c i a l l y i n view o f the

marauding M a s a i — t h e prominence o f many athamaki, W a i y a k i , K a r u r e ,

K i n a n j u i and o t h e r s , may have been d e r i v e d from t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e m i l i -

tary a b i l i t i e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , s i n c e i m p e r i a l i s t a t t e m p t s t o impose

s o v e r e i g n t y o v e r K i k u y u were founded upon m i l i t a r y means, i t i s n a t u r a l

t h a t athamaki p o s s e s s e d o f m i l i t a r y s k i l l s r o s e t o prominence e i t h e r

as c o l l a b o r a t o r s o r r e s i s t o r s . Punitive patrols, skirmishes, cattle

c o n f i s c a t i o n , i n d e e d t h e whole atmosphere o f t h e c o l o n i a l e n t e r p r i s e ,

engendered, t h e r e f o r e , the r i s e o f Kikuyu s k i l l e d i n the m i l i t a r y a r t s .

The conquest o f t h e K i k u y u was made e a s i e r b y t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

and t e c h n i c a l s u p e r i o r i t y o f t h e a l i e n power. Conquest would have been

much more d i f f i c u l t , more p r o t r a c t e d , had t h e K i k u y u , however, been w h o l l y

opposed t o h e l p i n g t h e p r o c e s s . " F i n d i n g t h e c h i e f " was t y p i c a l l y t h e

problem o f t h e a l i e n power. B e i n g "found" was f r e q u e n t l y t h e response

o f K i k u y u athamaki. Indeed, some K i k u y u c o u l d n o t w a i t t o be "found"

— t h e y o f f e r e d themselves! Importantly, the i m p e r i a l p r o b l e m — " f i n d i n g "

the c h i e f — r a r e l y t o o k i n t o account A f r i c a n a s p i r a t i o n s o r i n i t i a t i v e s

i n the c o l o n i a l process. K i k u y u f a c e d w i t h t h e i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f conquest

could e i t h e r r e s i s t , collaborate or simply acquiesce. Only r e c e n t l y , i t

seems, have s c h o l a r s g i v e n c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o A f r i c a n r a t i o n a l i t y on t h e

matter o f choice. A f r i c a n s , t h e K i k u y u e s p e c i a l l y , have been v a r i o u s l y

d e s c r i b e d as men d e d i c a t e d t o "doom and d a r k n e s s , " t o " i g n o r a n c e " and

"savagery," o v e r whom c l e v e r and s o p h i s t i c a t e d i m p e r i a l i s t s were a b l e ,

w i t h o u t much t r o u b l e , t o impose t h e t r i c k o f I n d i r e c t R u l e . African

 165

r e s i s t o r s , l i k e W a i y a k i , have been seen, f u r t h e r m o r e , not as p a t r i o t s

b u t as i n d i v i d u a l s p u r s u i n g l o s t causes and l o s t p r e s t i g e . Kikuyu

athamaki who accommodated themselves t o the i m p e r i a l p r e s e n c e — w h o ,

i n d e e d , " o f f e r e d themselves b e f o r e t h e y were ' f o u n d ' " — m i g h t r e a s o n -

a b l y be d e s c r i b e d as r e a l i s t s , " i n d i v i d u a l i s t s " a t t u n e d t o change and.

possessed o f acumen s u f f i c i e n t t o enhance s i g n i f i c a n t l y t h e i r p e r s o n a l

authority.

The K i k u y u c o u l d not a v o i d conquest: m i l i t a r y action against

them was t o o s t r o n g — e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r 1902. But t h e y were not simply

o b j e c t s o r v i c t i m s o f p r o c e s s e s o f change s e t i n m o t i o n by t h e European

invaders. K i k u y u themselves c o n t r i b u t e d t o these changes by effecting

a b a l a n c e o f power. The " b a l a n c e , " even when t i p p e d i n the European

f a v o u r , ensured t h a t some i n i t i a t i v e s remained toi K i k u y u hands w i t h i n

the c o l o n i a l order. T r i b a l t r a d i t i o n s and K i k u y u a s p i r a t i o n s thus p r e -

s e r v e d r e n d e r e d always the p o s s i b i l i t y o f n e g o t i a t i o n w i t h the European

power. K i k u y u c o u l d and o f t e n d i d b a r g a i n agreements, c o u l d moderate the

a g g r e s s i v e t h r u s t o f the P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and d i d a s s e r t them-

seves as j u n i o r p a r t n e r s i n the c o l o n i a l p r o c e s s . A l l i a n c e s between

athamaki and Europeans were t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r i l y two-way i n b o t h c o n s t r u c -

t i o n and purpose. W i t h i n any compact t h e r e e x i s t e d a d u a l r e a l i z a t i o n

t h a t one element c o u l d not p r o c e e d w i t h o u t the c o n c u r r e n c e o r a i d o f the

other. I n t h i s way a m u t u a l l y a c c e p t a b l e b a l a n c e o f power, whose t i l t

was determined by b a r g a i n and c o n c e s s i o n , was m a n i f e s t as the l y n c h p i n o f

the c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

Some K i k u y u p r o f i t e d e x c e e d i n g l y by-making f u l l use o f the balance

o f p o w e r — e s p e c i a l l y i n d i v i d u a l athamaki who showed a marked a b i l i t y t o

 166

t u r n s i t u a t i o n s t o t h e i r own advantage. A wide v a r i e t y o f gambits

were employed t o produce advantages f o r b o t h i n d i v i d u a l s and groups.

K i n a n j u i , H a l l ' s former F i d u s A c h a t e s , became something o f a " p e r s o n -

age" i n the c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . K a r u r e , Wangombe and h i s son,

N d e r i , Gutu and o t h e r s r o s e t o prominence under the a u s p i c e o f a g r a t e -

f u l pax B r i t a n n i c a . O f t e n g i v e n the g r a n d i l o q u e n t t i t l e o f Paramount

C h i e f each was n o t h i n g o f the k i n d : t h e y were m e r e l y athamaki o r " i n -

dividualists." F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e c o l l a b o r a t o r s l a t e r developed i n t o a

c l a s s who were power and money o r i e n t e d l i k e t h e i r mentors. Certainly

the c o l l a b o r a t i v e nexus h e a v i l y c o n d i t i o n e d the c o u r s e o f p o l i t i c a l ,

s o c i a l and economic change i n K i k u y u s o c i e t y . As collaborators

aibhamaki were the prime agents o f change i n the t r a n s i t o r y p r o c e s s from

t r i b a l i s m t o a c o l o n i a l economy: t h e y a c t e d as e s s e n t i a l i n t e r m e d i a r i e s ,

as t a x c o l l e c t o r s and l a b o u r b o s s e s f o r and on b e h a l f o f the c o l o n i a l

power. I n so d o i n g t h e y speeded the p r o c e s s e s o f change and thus h e r a l d -

ed a p o w e r f u l and s u s t a i n e d d i s r u p t i o n o f t r i b a l society.

Most European a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , men l i k e A i n s w o r t h , H a l l and o t h e r s ,

appeared aware o f the l i m i t s o f t h e i r power and thus approached the p r o b -

lem o f i m p e r i a l e x p a n s i o n on a p r a g m a t i c b a s i s . P l a g u e d by s h o r t a g e s o f

money, the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n was t h i n on the g r o u n d — a n d knew i t . Little

by l i t t l e , t h e r e f o r e , i t was f o r c e d t o e x e r t i n f l u e n c e by use o f c o l l a b -

o r a t o r s , t a c t i c s o f iLdivide and r u l e " a n d . s m a l l m i l i t a r y a d v e n t u r e s .

Where K i k u y u s t r e n g t h was e v i d e n t i n i t i a l p e n e t r a t i o n was avoided.

P o c k e t s o f K i k u y u r e s i s t a n c e developed i n a r e a s remote from r e g i o n s un-

der the j u r i s d i c t i o n o f government o f f i c e r s o r f r i e n d l y athamaki.

 167

These p o c k e t s were l e f t o n t h e i r own u n t i l s u c h t i m e as t h e Protec-

t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n a c q u i r e d t h e means t o e l i m i n a t e t h e m b y force.

T h e n w e l l - a r m e d f o r c e s w e r e d e s p a t c h e d a n d K i k u y u who f u r t h e r resis-

t e d were hunted, scattered and f i n a l l y crushed. Initial British pene-

t r a t i o n o f t h e K i k u y u i n t e r i o r was d u e , therefore, to a series of com-

p l e x p e r m u t a t i o n s between a d m i n i s t r a t o r s l i k e A i n s w o r t h and H a l l , and

sets of Kikuyu a l l i e s . S u b s e q u e n t p e n e t r a t i o n was a much more pre-

determined and o r g a n i z e d a f f a i r i n v o l v i n g strong m i l i t a r y forces.

Moreover, whereas i t m i g h t be s a i d t h a t initial efforts at penetration

were a s s o c i a t e d w i t h " p a c i f i c a t i o n , " subsequent European presence in

and a r o u n d K i k u y u p o c k e t s o f r e s i s t a n c e , was c l e a r l y a s s o c i a t e d with

military conquest.

Military conquest o f t h e K i k u y u was n o t a p o l i c y c o n d o n e d b y

central authority. Both E l i o t and Landsdowne were opposed t o p u n i t i v e

actions against Africans. Yet d u r i n g the p e r i o d o f t h e i r tenure as

policy-makers, violence against the K i k u y u was more t h e r u l e t h a n the

exception. Eliot, indeed, l o c a t e d o n l y a few m i l e s from the scene of

action, appeared e i t h e r unaware o f the extent of violence or turned

towards i t a blind eye. P e r h a p s he r e a l i z e d t h a t , g i v e n the problem

of daily communications w i t h o f f i c e r s on the ground, i t was virtually

impossible to control events. A c c o r d i n g l y he e i t h e r could not or would

not contain l o c a l officers. Thus i t i s evident that administrative de-

c i s i o n s o r p l a n s f o r p u n i t i v e a c t i o n were f o r m u l a t e d o n the spot. More-

over, reports of l o c a l events were e i t h e r " t o n e d down" b y j u n i o r offi-

c e r s o r were never submitted. When made a w a r e o f h i g h K i k u y u casualty

 168

figures, indeed, even Commissioner E l i o t h i m s e l f was n o t averse to

t a m p e r i n g i n s u c h a way a s to convey to London an i n c o r r e c t impression

of events. T h e r e i s no d o u b t t h a t d u r i n g the period of E l i o t ' s tenure

little c o n t r o l was e x e r c i s e d o v e r b o t h a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and m i l i t a r y offi-

cers i n the field.

A m a t t e r a l s o o f some s i g n i f i c a n c e — o n t h e subject of admin-

istrative c o n t r o l — w a s t h a t w h i l e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e predominance over

military affairs had been e s t a b l i s h e d by e d i c t , , i n a c t u a l fact the

reverse was t a k i n g place.

"Military authority," the order had s t a t e d , "was n e v e r to

be e x e r c i s e d i n o p p o s i t i o n t o , or i n competition with, that of

the civil power." And y e t , it is patently obvious, at least from

Meinhertzhagen's account, that the so-called "superiority" of the

civil power o v e r m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s i n the field was n o t h i n g more

than a farce. Humphrey, f o r e x a m p l e , a civil o f f i c e r attached to

punitive expeditions, was s e e n t o b e s o m e t h i n g o f a " n u i s a n c e " w h o ,

it appears, gave consent, albeit " g r u d g i n g , " to wanton p i l l a g e and

barbarity.

Decisions to burn v i l l a g e s , confiscate cattle and t o kill

K i k u y u w i t h o u t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , w e r e made l o c a l l y a n d w i t h o u t
 169

regard t o the d i c t a t e s of the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e centre. "Pacification,"

a moderate approach t o t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f t h e pax i n K i k u y u l a n d , was

t h e r e f o r e t u r n e d i n t o "conquest" by "on t h e s p o t " j u n i o r o f f i c e r s ,

f The conquest o f K i k u y u l a n d f a l l s i n t o two d i s t i n c t phases;

1895-1901 and 1902-1910. The f i r s t phase, 1895-1901, may b e s t be

d e s c r i b e d as a " h o l d i n g e x e r c i s e " d u r i n g w h i c h t h e B r i t i s h "prepared"

themselves f o r f u r t h e r p e n e t r a t i o n s o f K i k u y u l a n d . The p r o t e c t o r a t e

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s m i l i t a r y i n h e r i t a n c e from t h e Company was n o t h i n g

more t h a n a " h o t c h - p o t c h , " a r a b b l e w i t h no c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y o r

local control. Indeed, t h e Company's f a i l u r e i n K i k u y u l a n d c a n be

p a r t l y a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t i t was u n a b l e t o m a i n t a i n i t s p r e s -

ence t h r o u g h c o n s t r u c t i v e and s u s t a i n e d use o f f o r c e . Moreover, Com-

pany l e v i e s , M a s a i " f r i e n d l i e s " and o t h e r s , a c t u a l l y had c o n t r i b u t e d

t o t h e Company's demise: t h e i r r a i d s on K i k u y u shambas, l a t t e r l y con-

doned and even encouraged, tended t o e x a c e r b a t e K i k u y u h o s t i l i t y t o a

p o i n t where t h e Company's p o s i t i o n became u n t e n a b l e . Thus when t h e

P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n h e r i t e d t h e Company!s " h o t c h - p o t c h " i t

was as p o w e r l e s s as t h e Company had been t o expand i t s range o f o p e r a -

tions. Furthermore, Kikuyu h o s t i l i t y continued a t much t h e same l e v e l

of i n t e n s i t y as d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f Company t e n u r e .

D u r i n g the f i r s t phase, a l s o , K i k u y u h o s t i l i t y was fanned b y t h e

i n f l u e n c e o f t h e armed t r a d e r s . Whereas t h e Company had been o n l y mod-

e r a t e l y s u c c e s s f u l i n t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f athamaki, i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t

John Boyes, a c t i n g o n l y f o r h i m s e l f , used them e f f e c t i v e l y o v e r l a r g e

areas o f Kikuyuland. He became, t o use h i s own words, "King o f t h e

 170

Wa-kikuyu." Moreover, Boyes' a c t i v i t i e s among t h e K i k u y u a c t u a l l y took

p l a c e w h i l e t h e I m p e r i a l power " r u l e d " K i k u y u l a n d . T h i s was n o t so r e -

markable a f e a t when i t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a -

t i o n was p o w e r l e s s t o s t o p him. Boyes' r i s e t o prominence c a n thus be

seen as d e r i v i n g from t h e o b v i o u s weakness o f t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s -

tration: i t simply l a c k e d the " t e e t h " t o enforce i t s w i l l over a l l o f

the K i k u y u and t h e armed t r a d e r s .

The l a t t e r p e r i o d o f t h e f i r s t phase (1900) saw t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n b e g i n t o r e o r g a n i z e i t s e l f i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r i t s more

permanent e s t a b l i s h m e n t i n t h e i n t e r i o r . A p o l i c e f o r c e was i n a u g u r -

a t e d and t h e " h o t c h - p o t c h " r e c o n s t i t u t e d i n t o t h e K i n g ' s A f r i c a n R i f l e s .

K i k u y u l a n d became K e n i a P r o v i n c e ( s i c ) and i t s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n moved t o

Nairobi. The r a i l w a y , now completed beyond t h e f r i n g e s o f K i k u y u l a n d ,

improved communications from t h e p o r t o f Mombasa. Kikuyuland, a l s o , be-

came more e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e v i a roads r a d i a t i n g from N a i r o b i . Impor-

t a n t l y , the M a s a i t h r e a t was removed from t h e s o u t h e r n p e r i p h e r y o f t h e

new P r o v i n c e . F i n a l l y , t h e armed t r a d e r s were a r r e s t e d and removed from

the a r e a . By 1902 t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n was ready t o engage

any r e m a i n i n g h o s t i l e K i k u y u .

The second phase, 1902-1910, may b e s t be d e s c r i b e d as b e i n g a

time o f m i l i t a r y conquest. W i t h l i t t l e o r no p r o v o c a t i o n , B r i t i s h l e d

A f r i c a n a s k a r i o f b o t h t h e p o l i c e and K i n g ' s A f r i c a n R i f l e s , together

w i t h hordes o f " f r i e n d l i e s , " i n v a d e d K i k u y u l a n d . Notably m i l i t a r y tac-

t i c s changed from t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s k i r m i s h t o " o v e r k i l l . " W i t h t h e ob-

j e c t o f the e l i m i n a t i o n o f a l l ' d i s s i d e n t s , p a t r o l s penetrated pockets of

 171

r e s i s t a n c e , k i l l e d men, women and c h i l d r e n w i t h o u t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n and

put n a t i v e h u t s t o t h e t o r c h . A c t s o f b a r b a r i s m were common on b o t h

sides. C a t t l e and g o a t s , e s s e n t i a l t o t h e K i k u y u economy, were c o n f i s -

c a t e d and s o l d t o h e l p f i n a n c e expeditions. Athamaki j o i n e d i n t h e ram-

page when e x p e d i e n t : others brought t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e areas o f j u r i s d i c -

t i o n i n t o the i m p e r i a l f o l d . I n t h i s way r e s i s t a n c e was smashed and

by 1910 t h e pax B r i t a n n i c a was a f a c t i n K i k u y u l a n d . The Kikuyu-had

not been p a c i f i e d : t h e y had been conquered. Moreover, t h e y had been

conquered from b o t h o u t s i d e and i n s i d e t h e i r s o c i a l o r d e r ; b y Europeans

and athamaki i n a complex and s u s t a i n e d interaction.

European p e n e t r a t i o n r a d i c a l l y a l t e r e d Kikuyu society. Already

i n f l u x , s t r e s s e d b y problems o f r e c e n t s e t t l e m e n t i n a new h a b i t a t , t h e

a t t e n t i o n s o f wageni l o o k i n g f o r i v o r y and produce,and marauding M a s a i ,

K i k u y u s o c i e t y was f u r t h e r d i v i d e d b y European i n t r u s i o n . Reacting* t o

European i n f l u e n c e , t h e Company, t h e t r a d e r s , o r t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e Admin-

i s t r a t i o n , competitive elements i n K i k u y u s o c i e t y embraced e i t h e r c o l l a -

b o r a t i o n by a c t i o n , c o l l a b o r a t i o n by acquiesence, o r r e s i s t a n c e . The

European impact t h u s opened up s e r i o u s r i f t s i n K i k u y u s o c i e t y ; i t s h a r p ^

ened e x i s t i n g c l e a v a g e s and d i s t u r b e d t r a d i t i o n a l r a n k i n g s o f dominance

and h i e r a r c h y . I t produced, a l s o , an unevenn.ess i n development between

r e g i o n s dominated e i t h e r b y c o l l a b o r a t i n g athamaki o r r e s i s t o r s : while

one region, f o r example, was g a i n i n g t h r o u g h a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h Europeans,

a n o t h e r , perhaps o n l y a few m i l e s away, was b e i n g smashed. These f a c t o r s

contributed s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o t h e c r e a t i o n o f even deeper s o c i a l and po-

l i t i c a l disunities. The h i s t o r y o f t h e K i k u y u and t h e i r subsequent r e -

l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e B r i t i s h would prove t o be a s t r o n g r e f l e c t i o n o f
 172

the t r a u m a t i c e f f e c t s o f the e a r l y i m p e r i a l p r e s e n c e .
 APPENDICES

Appendix A Kikuyu Age-set Names and Name Associations extracted from

Father Cagnolo, The Akikuyu, Consolata Mission, 1933, pp.
199-202.

Appendix B Notes on the Protectorate Administration, Ukamba Province,

1895-1897.
Notes on the Composition and A c t i v i t i e s of M i l i t a r y Forces,
Ukamba Province, 1897.
Notes on the Police Establishment, Ukamba Province, 1895-1897.
Notes on Roads and Communications, East A f r i c a Protectorate,
1895-1897.
Notes on Revenue and Expenditure, 1895-1897.
Appendix B notes are extracted from Great B r i t a i n , Foreign Office.
Report by S i r A. Hardinge on the Condition and Progress of
the East A f r i c a Protectorate from i t s Establishment to the 20th
July 1897" London 1897. Cmd. 8683. Great B r i t a i n , Foreign
Office. Report by His Majesty's Commissioner on the East A f r i c a
Protectorate, London, 1903. Cmd. 1626 and Great B r i t a i n ,
Foreign Office. Report by Hardinge on the B r i t i s h East A f r i c a
Protectorate for 1897-98, London, 1899. Cmd. 1925.

Appendix C Commissioners and Governors of the East A f r i c a Protectorate 1895-

1912... .Extracted .from G.H. Mungeam, B r i t i s h Rule i n Kenya,
1895-1912, London: OUP, 1966.

- 173 -
 17-4

Appendix A

K i k u y u Age-set Names and N a m e - A s s o c i a t i o n s

Kyangige Year o f the l o c u s t s 1932

Magoko Wattle hark 1931
Mambo l e o Modern P r a c t i c e s 1930
Mogwongo Elephant tusk 1929
Kyendano Love 1928
Kyangige Y e a r o f the l o c u s t s 1927
Kya ndege Year o f the a e r o p l a n e 1926
Karebe unknown 1925
Gachithe Cow T a i l used as ornament 1924
Bendera Flag 1923
Kya h i t i Year o f t h e Hyaenas 1922
Gathetha Beads o r n e c k l a c e 1921
Matoto o r n o t i notes 1920
Kepande Registration certificate 1919
Ndarama Drum 1918
Kya Lyoa Year o f the famine 1917
Gechogwa unknown 1916
Firimbi whistle 1915
Gathuthe s p e c i e s o f weed 1914
Romemo Gold 1913
Ohere Scabies 1912
Njaramba Courageous 1911
Kanorya Kind of disease 1910
Makanga Cotton clothes 1909
Gethei Maize m i l l 1908
Njege Porcupines 1907
Ngara Rats 1906
Nyoto Wolves 1905
Machai Iron sheets 1904
Gatego Venereal disease 1903
Kamande unknown 1902
Njangiri wanderers 1901
Ndimo kind of chalk 1900
 175

Appendix B

Notes on t h e P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ,
Ukamba P r o v i n c e , 1895-1897.

Table Showing Names, A d m i n i s t r a t i v e P o s i t i o n s and

Pay o f European O f f i c e r s i n Ukamba P r o v i n c e (1897).

Sub-Commissioner J . A i n s w o r t h (H.Q. Machakos) 500 pounds/year

T e i t a D i s t r i c t (D.O.) J.V. Weaver 400 ii it
" " A s s t . D.O. E. G o l d i e Taubman 250 II ti
Athi District (D.O.) J . Ainsworth Nil II ti
" " A s s t . D.O. C.R.W. Lane 250 II ii
K e n i a D i s t r i c t (D.O.) F.G. H a l l 400 ii it
" " A s s t . D.O. E. R u s s e l l 250 ii it
Kitui District Not y e t organized- Nil ii ti

2050 it ti
T o t a l Cost o f Ukamba P r o v i n c e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
T o t a l Cost o f K e n i a D i s t r i c t ( K i k u y u T r i b a l A r e a ) 650 II ii

I t can be seen from t h e f o r e g o i n g t a b l e t h a t Ukamba P r o v i n c e , a v a s t a r e a ,

was i n 1897 a d m i n i s t e r e d by 6 o f f i c e r s i n c l u d i n g one Sub-Commissioner,
John A i n s w o r t h , who doubled as a D i s t r i c t O f f i c e r i n t h e A t h i R i v e r D i s t r i c t .
K e n i a D i s t r i c t p o p u l a t i o n i s e s t i m a t e d a t 300,000 K i k u y u and a p p r o x i m a t e l y
23,000 Masai and was a c t u a l l y a d m i n i s t e r e d by o n l y two o f f i c e r s , F r a n c i s
H a l l and E. R u s s e l l . T h i s g i v e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y a r a t i o o f 160,000 n a t i v e s
per o f f i c e r ! I t i s thus h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g t h a t l i t t l e c o n t r o l was
e x e r c i s e d o v e r r e g i o n s beyond t h e immediate v i c i n i t y o f P r o t e c t o r a t e
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n s t a t i o n s . I n K e n i a P r o v i n c e ( o r K i k u y u l a n d ) the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
was indeed " t h i n on t h e ground".
 176

Notes on the C o m p o s i t i o n and A c t i v i t i e s o f M i l i t a r y Forces,

Ukamba P r o v i n c e , 1897.

(a) The t o t a l m i l i t a r y f o r c e f o r t h e E a s t A f r i c a n P r o t e c t o r a t e i n 1897

was 1,120 men. Of t h i s number t h e Ukamba c o n t i n g e n t numbered 144
a l t h o u g h t h e r e were some 200 l e v i e s r e c r u i t e d from l o c a l A f r i c a n
t r i b e s who were employed " f o r t h e defence o f t h e European s t a t i o n s
a g a i n s t p o s s i b l e a t t a c k s by h o s t i l e n a t i v e s . . . " Use seems t o
have been made o f c e r t a i n A f r i c a n s t o a c t as l e a d e r s o f t h e armed
l e v i e s . Of some s i g n i f i c a n c e , as can be determined f r o m the t a b l e
below, i s t h e f a c t t h a t S w a h i l i and Sudanese t r o o p e r s were used
e x t e n s i v e l y i n K i k u y u , Wakamba and M a s a i t r i b a l a r e a s . The l e n g t h
o f t h e i r s e r v i c e was n o r m a l l y t h r e e y e a r s .

Ukamba P r o v i n c e
Troop D i s p o s i t i o n (1897)

African African
Capts Lts Sgts Corp. Bug Ptes Total
Kikuyuland ( S w a h i l i troops) 1 1 1 6 2 59 70
Machakos (Sudanese t r o o p s ) 1 2 7 3 40 53
Ngongo Bagas (Sudanese t r o o p s ) .1 3 0 17 21

Totals 1 2 4 16 5 116 144

(b) N o t i c e a b l e from t h e f o r e g o i n g t a b l e i s t h e f a c t t h a t the K i k u y u a r e a

had c o n s i d e r a b l y more t r o o p s s t a t i o n e d than Wakamba o r M a s a i
t e r r i t o r y . Machakos, t h e key a d m i n i s t r a t i v e base o f Ukamba P r o v i n c e ,
was g a r r i s o n e d by o n l y 53 t r o o p s compared t o 70 f o r K i k u y u l a n d .
Perhaps i t can u s e f u l l y be i n f e r r e d from t h i s t h a t b o t h t h e M a s a i
and Wakamba t r i b e s were c o n s i d e r e d l e s s o f a t h r e a t t h a n t h e K i k u y u .
I n the case o f t h e M a s a i t h e r e were reasons t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e i r
m i l i t a r y power was on t h e wane by t h e end o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
N o t a b l y , permanent b a r r a c k s were b u i l t a t Ngongo Bagas whereas t r o o p s
q u a r t e r e d i n K i k u y u l a n d l i v e d i n temporary h u t s . T h i s would i n d i c a t e
t h a t t h e m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s had c o n s i d e r e d t h e need f o r a
permanent o c c u p a t i o n o f M a s a i t e r r i t o r y w h i l s t t r o o p s i n K i k u y u l a n d
were f r e e t o move i n any d i r e c t i o n from t h e i r temporary q u a r t e r s .
Not a w e l l d i s c i p l i n e d f o r c e , t h e i r c h i e f o f f e n c e s seem t o have been
" i r r e g u l a r i t i e s when on d u t y " — a phrase o f t h e most ominous c o n n o t a t i o n s .
 177

Notes on the Police Establishment,

Ukamba Province, 1895-1897.

Ukamba Province Cost (Rupees)

Machakos 1 Inspector 2,040

2 Sergeants
5 Corporals
15 Policemen

Outpost 3 Corporals 3,736

15 Policemen

Kikuyu 1 Inspector 10,452

2 Sergeants
4 Corporals
35 Policemen

Ngongo 1 Sergeant included i n Kikuyu above

2 Corporals
20 Policemen

Kibwezi 1 Inspector 4,500

3 Corporals
25 Policemen

Ndi 1 Inspector 4,500

3 Corporals
25 Policemen

Total Cost Wages 29,268

Arms, Ammunition, rations. 68,108

Total Cost 97,376

Note the higher cost of police services f o r Kikuyu/Masai areas i n comparison

to remainder of Ukamba Province. This may be i n d i c a t i v e of the amount
•of p o l i c e a c t i v i t y necessary to sustain the administration of the area.
Notably, Ukamba Province i n which Kikuyu, Masai and Wakamba tribes were
resident, cost more for police services than the combined t o t a l of the
remaining three provinces of the East A f r i c a Protectorate, i . e . i n police
wages 29,268 rupees against 23,088 rupees.
 178

Notes on Roads and Communications, E a s t A f r i c a

P r o t e c t o r a t e , 1895-1897.

The o n l y t r u e r o a d r a n from Mazeras, n e a r Mombasa, t o the Kedong R i v e r

on the e a s t e r n boundary o f the Uganda P r o t e c t o r a t e . The r o a d c o n s i s t e d
of two s e c t i o n s . The f i r s t s e c t i o n r a n from Mazeras t o Tsavo, a d i s t a n c e
of 185 m i l e s , and was r e f e r r e d t o as t h e Mackinnon Road. Named a f t e r
the founder o f the I m p e r i a l E a s t A f r i c a Company i t was s u b s e q u e n t l y
r e f e r r e d t o by S i r G e r a l d P o r t a l as n o t h i n g more t h a n an "overgrown t r a c k " .

The second s e c t i o n o f the r o a d r a n from K i b w e z i t o Kedong, a d i s t a n c e o f

130 m i l e s , and on t o V i c t o r i a Nyanza on the Lake. A t a c o n v e n i e n t p o i n t
a b r a n c h r o a d was c o n s t r u c t e d west t o the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c e n t r e o f
Machakos and thence t o A t h i , N a i r o b i and K i k u y u . The P r o v i n c e o f Ukamba,
seen b y Hardinge as t h e "most u n c i v i l i z e d d i v i s i o n o f t h e t e r r i t o r y " was
b e t t e r p r o v i d e d w i t h roads t h a n the o t h e r P r o v i n c e s and the c o n s t r u c t i o n
of roads was "welcomed by l o c a l Headmen." A t Machakos the Wakamba
even v o l u n t e e r e d t o c o n s t r u c t roads " a t t h e i r own expense." The r e m a i n i n g
roads throughout the P r o t e c t o r a t e were mere p a t h s c u t t h r o u g h the bush
which, a c c o r d i n g t o H a r d i n g e , were well-known and w e l l used.

A l o n g the main r o a d t o Uganda v a r i o u s means o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n were t r i e d .

The f i r s t s e c t i o n p r o v e d d i f f i c u l t f o r c a r t s h a u l e d by b u l l o c k s due t o
the presence o f T s e t s e F l y . The second s e c t i o n , between K i b w e z i and
K i k u y u , was c o n s i d e r e d f r e e o f T s e t s e F l y and thus p a s s a b l e by B u l l o c k
c a r t . T r a n s p o r t between K i b w e z i and the c o a s t by r a i l was p o s s i b l e
a f t e r 1897. Experiments were conducted w i t h camels b u t p r o v e d u n s u c c e s s f u l
due t o the h i g h m o r t a l i t y r a t e o f t h e b e a s t s . Horses were used and
to some e x t e n t donkeys a l s o . By f a r the most p o p u l a r method o f t r a n s -
p o r t a t i o n was the use o f human p o r t e r s . A f r i c a n p o r t e r s were r e c r u i t e d
m o s t l y i n Mombasa, R a b a i and t h e T e i t a c o u n t r y t o t h e s o u t h e a s t o f Mount
K i l i m a n j a r o . N o t a b l y some K i k u y u had been persuaded t o c a r r y l o a d s but
were found u n s u i t a b l e f o r l o n g d i s t a n c e s . Hardinge r e p o r t e d t h a t i n
1897 about 1,100 known p o r t e r s r e s i d e d i n t h e Mombasa a r e a and 600 o f
t h i s number were d i s t r i b u t e d a t key p o i n t s a l o n g the r o a d t o the Lake.
In R a b a i , a l s o , about 1000 men were a v a i l a b l e t o supplement the r e g u l a r
work f o r c e on a p a r t - t i m e b a s i s . Few would t r a v e r s e t h e n o r t h e r n reaches
of t h e r o a d t h r o u g h K i k u y u c o u n t r y .

The average wages o f p o r t e r s amounted t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10 rupees p e r

month. (A Rupee was w o r t h a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 s h i l l i n g and twopence s t e r l i n g . )
Each p o r t e r was p a i d a l s o 4 rupees p e r month f o r posho (maize m e a l ) .
Head p o r t e r s were p a i d 20 t o 50 rupees p e r month. P o r t e r s c o u l d c a r r y
about 70 pounds on t h e i r heads. 2,500 l o a d s p e r y e a r were r e q u i r e d t o
s u s t a i n P r o t e c t o r a t e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n s t a t i o n s a l o n g the road:" 7000 l o a d s
 179

were required yearly to sustain the B r i t i s h i n Uganda.

A private firm, Smith, Mackenzie Company was i n i t i a l l y given the contract

for cartage to Uganda. In 1897, however, the Administration took on
the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y only to give i t up to armed European Traders l i k e
John Boyes.

The following table i l l u s t r a t e s the cost of porterage and the number of

loads to key administrative stations along the road In the year 1897.

Loads of Trade Goods, Expend, (approx)

Provisions and Stores. i n Rupees.

Ndi Station 786 5,895

Kibwezi 91 1,820
Machakos (Admin. H.Q. ) 763 19,075
Kikuyu 136 3,672

Total 1,776 30,462

Note that Machakos,.the administrative centre for Ukamba Province, including

the Kikuyu areas, had the highest expenditure, while Kikuyu, a sub-station
i n Kikuyuland, received considerably less i n stores, goods and general
provisions. This may be i n d i c a t i v e of the fact that Government stations
i n Kikuyuland provisioned themselves l o c a l l y — o f t e n at the expense of the
Kikuyu.

Mail

Mail communications were of the utmost necessity to the Administration

resident i n the i n t e r i o r . Oversea mail came by steamer to Mombasa and
thence overland to the various administrative stations. For the i n t e r i o r
part of the journey mail was carried by runners who covered great distances
i n comparatively short periods of time. The f i r s t 110 miles, to Ndi,
was covered i n four days. At Ndi the mail was transferred to Wakamba
runners sent down from Machakos by Sub-Commissioner Ainsworth. Wakamba
runners then t r a v e l l e d the next 245 miles to Kikuyu where they handed
t h e i r loads to Masai. Each load for t h i s part of the journey was 30
pounds weight. Masai runners then carried t h e i r loads the next 245 miles
to Eldama Ravine. The t o t a l distance of 495 miles was covered i n 20
days or approximately 25 miles per day. Twenty-six loads were dispatched
inland per month.

Posts and Telegraphs

To 1897 there was no completed telegraph l i n e inland. A l i n e was being

b u i l t , however, along the l i n e of the railway at that time under construction.
 180

The P r o t e c t o r a t e was c o n n e c t e d b y t e l e g r a p h f r o m Mombasa t o Z a n z i b a r

and E u r o p e . Thus t h e i n t e r i o r c o u l d b e r e a c h e d f r o m E n g l a n d v i a
Mombasa a n d t h e n t h e n o r m a l m a i l s e r v i c e d e l i v e r y b y r u n n e r . The c a b l e
was c o n s t a n t l y b r e a k i n g down a n d was v e r y i n e f f i c e n t .
 181

Notes on Revenue and Expenditure, 1895-1897.

Revenue and expenditure f o r 9 months between the creation of the

Protectorate and the beginning of the f i n a n c i a l year were as
follows:

Actual receipts 22,865 pounds

Actual expenditure ... 77,920 pounds

Of the sum expended, 12,750 pounds were paid as rent and interest
to the Sultan of Zanzibar; 18,327 pounds was spent f o r m i l i t a r y
expeditions f o r "establishing the authority of the Government."
Ordinary expenditure ( s i c ) was 4-6,843 pounds and thus a d e f i c i t of
23,978 pounds was manifest. Grants-in-Aid amounted to 50,975
pounds between July 1 1895 and A p r i l 1 1896.

1896 receipts rose s l i g h t l y to 32,670 pounds while expenditure rose

to 134,346 pounds. Higher expenses included the cost of quelling
the rebellious coastal peoples, payment to the Sultan of Zanzibar
and the purchase of the former IBEA Co. Mackinnon Road trading
station and sundry mortgages from the defunct Company. Administra-
tive work cost 91,464 pounds and c o l l e c t e d revenue was 32,670
pounds. Thus there was i n 1896 a d e f i c i t of 58,794 pounds; a
r i s e of 25% i n administrative costs over the previous year.

Commissioner Hardinge pointed out that i t i s only natural that

expenditure should be more than revenue i n an underdeveloped country.
But he was optimistic i n forecasting the future; i n ten years from
1897 he foresaw the end of Grants-in-Aid.

Hardinge pointed out that two provinces, Tanaland and Seyyidich,

were i n 1897 self-supporting but cautioned optimism when considering
Ukamba and Masailand. He observed money was hardly known by the
tribesmen and payments were made i n kind. Here, also, the largest
expense to be anticipated was that of the maintenance of m i l i t a r y
forces (31,600 pounds); an amount which " r e a l l y equals the whole
of the receipts of the Protectorate." S t i l l , he pointed out,
given the size of the t e r r i t o r y and the warlike nature of the
Kikuyu and Masai, the number of troops (1,120 i n 1897) was not
unduly large.

As of 1897 there was no form of direct taxation. This was because

various Treaties signed with coastal Arabs and heads of coastal
t r i b e s , forbade the c o l l e c t i o n of direct taxes. Hardinge saw the
 182

p o s s i b i l i t y of a d i r e c t tax l e v y o f the e x p i r a t i o n o f the T r e a t i e s .

D i r e c t t a x , he e n v i s a g e d , c o u l d e i t h e r b e e x t r a c t e d d i r e c t l y o r
on a house o r h u t . I n the i n t e r i o r , where t h e T r e a t i e s were n o t
o p e r a t i v e , "some D i s t r i c t O f f i c e r s ( w e r e ) d e s i r o u s o f i m p o s i n g
a hut tax at once." Here Hardinge c o u n s e l l e d r e s t r a i n t b y a r g u i n g
t h a t " t h e n a t i v e t a k e s some t i m e t o u n d e r s t a n d why he s h o u l d p a y
a t a x f o r the r i g h t t o use a house o r p i e c e o f ground w h i c h i s
h i s o w n . " F u r t h e r , he s u g g e s t e d , " t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f a c o n t r i b u t i o n
towards the maintenance o f the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n r e t u r n f o r b e n e f i t s
a n d p r o t e c t i o n w h i c h he d e r i v e s f r o m i t ( t h e t a x ) i s a s y e t q u i t e
f o r e i g n t o h i s m i n d ( t h e n a t i v e ) , a n d , s l o w a s he i s t o a p p r e h e n d
new i d e a s , i t i s n o t t o b e e x p e c t e d t h a t i t s h o u l d q u i c k l y become
f a m i l i a r to h i m . "

The e f f e c t o f p r e c i p i t a t i n g a n e a r l y i m p o s i t i o n o f h u t t a x w o u l d
b e , H a r d i n g e p o i n t e d o u t , " t o d r i v e t h e n a t i v e s away f r o m t h e
n e i g h b o u r h o o d o f s t a t i o n s w h e r e we w i s h t o e n c o u r a g e t h e m t o
s e t t l e . . . w h i l e i f i t s c o l l e c t i o n i n remote d i s t r i c t s were l e f t i n
t h e h a n d s o f s t i l l i n s u f f i c i e n t l y e d u c a t e d n a t i v e Headmen, g r e a t
abuses and i n j u s t i c e s might r e s u l t . "
H a r d i n g e saw d i s t r i c t s w h i c h l e n t t h e m s e l v e s t o e a s y t a x c o l l e c t i o n
a s b e i n g d e s i r a b l e p l a c e s t o commence c o l l e c t i o n . M o r e o v e r , he
reasoned t h a t a p o l i c y o f d i v i d e and r u l e had i t s advantages as
f a r a s t a x c o l l e c t i o n was c o n c e r n e d . F o r e x a m p l e , i f one s e g m e n t
o f a t r i b e was a b o u t t o a t t a c k a n o t h e r , t h e n t h e t r i b e a b o u t t o
be a t t a c k e d w o u l d s u b m i t t o t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f t a x i n r e t u r n f o r
Government p r o t e c t i o n .

H a r d i n g e saw a l s o t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f i m p o s i n g t a x o n s t a t i c t r i b e s
l i k e the K i k u y u r a t h e r than p a s t o r a l t r i b e s l i k e the Afesai. Static
t r i b e s , a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s l i k e t h e K i k u y u , were t h u s e a s i e r
prospects f o r the i m p o s i t i o n o f f o r e i g n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s , f o r e i g n
economic and v a l u e systems, than o t h e r t r i b e s . Indigenous tax
systems a l s o a i d e d the i m p o s i t i o n o f t a x c o l l e c t i o n by the
Administration. Where A f r i c a n s , c h i e f s o r o t h e r w i s e , w e r e i n t h e
h a b i t o f e x a c t i n g r e t r i b u t i o n from s u b j e c t s , f o r example, i v o r y ,
t h e " i d e a " o f p a y m e n t t o a u t h o r i t y f o r s e r v i c e s r e n d e r e d , was w e l l
i n c u l c a t e d i n t o the A f r i c a n mind.
 Appendix C

Commissioners and Governors o f t h e

E a s t A f r i c a P r o t e c t o r a t e 1895-1912.

S i r A r t h u r Hardinge 1895-1900

S i r Charles E l i o t 1900-1904

S i r Donald S t e w a r t 1904- 1905

S i r James Hayes S a d l e r 1905- 1909

S i r Percy Girouard 1909-1912

 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Barber, James.. Imperial F r o n t i e r : A Study of R e l a t i o n s between the

B r i t i s h and the P a s t o r a l Tribes of North East Uganda. Nairobi:
EAPH, 1968.

Bennett, George. Kenya: A P o l i t i c a l H i s t o r y : The C o l o n i a l Period.

New York: Oxford, 1963.

Bennett, Norman, R. Studies i n East A f r i c a n H i s t o r y . Boston: Uni-

v e r s i t y Press, 1963-

Boyes, John. King of the WaKikuyu. London: Methuen, 1911.

Boyes, John. The Company of Adventurers. London: Methuen, 1928.

Cagnolo, F r . The Akikuyu. Consolata M i s s i o n , 1933-

Cairns, H.A.C. Prelude to Imperialism: B r i t i s h Reactions to Central

A f r i c a n Society, 1840-1890. London: Routledge and Keegan
Paul, 1965.

Cole, Sonia. The Pre-History of East. A f r i c a . London: Harmonsworth,

1964.

Coupland, Reginald. The E x p l o i t a t i o n of East Africa-1856-1890, the

Slave Trade and Scramble. London: Faber and Faber, 1939.

Coupland, Reginald, REast A f r i c a and i t s Invaders from the E a r l i e s t

Times to the Death of Seyyid Said Ln.l856T Oxford: Clarendon,

- 184 -
 185/

Dundas, S i r Charles. A f r i c a n Crossroads. London: Macmillan, 1955.

E l i o t , Charles, The East A f r i c a Protectorate. London: n.p., 1905.

Evans, I. L e s l i e . The B r i t i s h i n Tropical A f r i c a , An H i s t o r i c a l Out-

l i n e . London: Cambridge University Press, 1929.

Fitzgerald, Walter. A f r i c a : A S o c i a l , Economic and P o l i t i c a l Geography

of i t s Major Regions. London: Methuen, 1934-•

Foran, Robert, W. The Kenya Police, 1887-1960. London: Robert Hale,

1962.

Galbraith, John, S. Mackinnon and East A f r i c a 1878-1895: A Study i n

the New Imperialism. Cambridge: UP, 1972.

Gann, L.H., Duignan, Peter (eds.). Colonialism i n A f r i c a 1870-1960.

vols. 1 and 2. Cambridge: University Press, 1969, 1970.

Goldsmith, F.H. John Ainsworth, Pioneer Kenya Administrator, 1864--1946.

London: Macmillan, 1959.

Goldthorpe, John and Wilson, F.B. T r i b a l Maps of East A f r i c a and Zanzi-

bar. Kampala: East A f r i c a n Institute of S o c i a l Research, I960.

Hailey, Lord William, Malcolm. An A f r i c a n Survey. Rev. 1956. Oxford:

0UP, 1957.

Hanash, Frontier Adventure i n Kenya. London: Struik, 1925.

Hardinge, S i r Arthur. A Diplomatist i n the East. London: Methuen,

1928.

Harlow, Vincent, E.M. Chilver, (eds.) assisted by A l i s o n Smith. History

of East A f r i c a , v o l . 2. Oxford: Clarendon, 1965.
 186

Hindlip, Lord. B r i t i s h East A f r i c a . Past, Present and Future.

London: n.p., 1905.

H i l l , M.F. The Permanent Way. 2 vols. Nairobi: EAPH, 1950.

Hobley, C.W. Bantu B e l i e f s and Magic. London: Witherby, 1922.

Hohnel, Lieut. Ludwig von. The Discovery of Lakes Rudolph and-Stefanie,

q London: Longmans Green, 189-4.

Huxley, Elspeth. White Man's Country, vols. 1 and 2. London: Mac-

millan, 1935.

Jackson, S i r Frederick. Early Days i n East A f r i c a . London: Arnold,

1930.

Kenyatta, Jomo. My People of Kikuyu and the L i f e of Chief Wangombe,

Nairobi: OUP, 1966.

Kenyatta, Jomo. Facing Mount Kenya: The T r i b a l L i f e of the Gikuyu.

London: Seeker and Warburg, 19-44.

Klein,. Martin A., Johnson, G. Wesley, (eds.) Perspectives on the A f r i c a n

Past. Boston: L i t t l e , Brown and Company, 1972.

Krapf, John, L. Travels, Researches and. Missionary Labours. London:

Trubner, i860.

Lambert, H.E. Kikuyu S o c i a l and P o l i t i c a l I n s t i t u t i o n s. London: Inter-

national A f r i c a n Institute and OUP, 1956.

Lambert, H.E. Systems of Land Tenure i n the Kikuyu Land Unit. Capetown:
School of A f r i c a n Studies, 1950.

Lambert, H.E. The Use of Indigenous Authorities i n T r i b a l Administration:

Studies of the Meru of Kenya. Capetown: School of A f r i c a n
Studies, 1947.
 187

Lambert, H.E. The Work of an A f r i c a n - C h i e f i n Kenya (Kazi za Machifu

wa Kenya ). N a i r o b i : Eagle Press, 1949.

Leakey, L.S.B. The Stone-Age Cultures of Kenya Colony. London:

Methuen, 1931.

Leakey, L.S.B. The Stone-Age Races of Kenya. London: Methuen, 1934•

Leakey, L.S.B. Mau Mau and the Kikuyu. London: Methuen, 1952.

Lindblom, K.G. The Akamba i n East A f r i c a . Upsala: n.p., 1920.

Low, D.A. L i o n Rampant: Essays i n the Study of B r i t i s h Imperialism.

London: Cass, 1973.

Lugard, Capt. F.D. The Rise of Our East A f r i c a n Empire. London:

Blackwood, 1893-

Lugard, Lord F.D. The Dual Mandate i n A f r i c a . London: Blackwood,

1923.

Macdonald, Major J.R.L. S o l d i e r i n g and Surveying i n B r i t i s h East

A f r i c a 1891-1894. London: Arnold, 1897.

McDermott, P.L. B r i t i s h East A f r i c a or IBEA: A H i s t o r y of the Formation

and Work of the Imperial B r i t i s h East A f r i c a Company. London:
Chapman H a l l , 1893-

Mair, Lucy, P r i m i t i v e Government, London: Penguin, 1962.

Meinhertzhagen, Richard. Kenya Diary, 1902-1906. London: Witherby,

1957.

M i l l e r , Charles. The Lunatic Express: An Entertainment i n Imperial-

ism. New York: Macmillan, 1971.

Mockerie, Parmenas Githendu. An A f r i c a n Speaks f o r h i s People. London:

Hogarth Press, 1934.
 3 88 ;

Moyse-Bartlett, L t . Col. H. . The King's A f r i c a n R i f l e s : A Study i n

the M i l i t a r y History of East and Central A f r i c a , 1890-19-45.
Aldershot: Gale and Polden, 1956.

Mungeam, George, H. B r i t i s h Rule i n Kenya, 1895-1912. London: OUP,

1966.

Ogot, B.A., Kieran, J.A..(eds.) Zamani: A Survey of East A f r i c a n

History. Nairobi: EAPH, 1968.

Oliver, Roland and Mathew, Gervase (eds.) History of East A f r i c a ,

v o l . 1. Oxford: Clarendon, 1963.

Oliver, Roland, Fage, John D. A Short History of A f r i c a . London:

Penguin, 1962.

Oliver, Roland. The Missionary Factor i n East A f r i c a . London:

Longmans, 1952.

Oliver, Roland, (ed.) The Dawn of A f r i c a n History. London: OUP,

1961.

Ominde, S.H. Land and Population Movements i n Kenya. London:

He inemann, 1968.

Perham, Margery (ed.) The D i a r i e s of Lord Lugard. Evanston: North-

western University Press, 1959.

Perham, Margery. Lugard, The Years of Adventure, 1858-1898. London:

Collins, 19~W.

Perham, Margery. Lugard, The Years of Authority. London: Collins,

1960.

Portal, S i r Gerald. The Mission to Uganda i n 1893« London: Arnold,

1894.

Prins, A.H.J. East A f r i c a n Age-Class Systems. ,Groningen, Djarkarta:

J.B. Wolters, 1953-
 189

Richards, Charles (ed. ) Some H i s t o r i c Journeys i n East A f r i c a .

London: OUP, 1961.

Robinson, R., Gallagher, John. A f r i c a and the V i c t o r i a n s : The

O f f i c i a l Mind of Imperialism. London: Macmillan, 1961.

Sanford, G.K. Administrative and P o l i t i c a l History of the Masai

Reserve. London: Waterlow, 1919.

Schapera, I. Government and P o l i t i c s i n T r i b a l Societies . New York:

Schocken, 1967.

Seaton, Henry. Lion i n the Morning. London: John Murray, 1963.

Seligman, C.C. Races of A f r i c a . London: OUP, 1937.

Soja, Edward, W. The Geography of Modernization i n Kenya: A Spatial

Analysis of S o c i a l , Economic and P o l i t i c a l Change. Syracuse:
University Press, 1968.

Stigand, Capt. C E . The Land of Z i n j . London: Constable, 1913.

Strayer, Robert W. et a l . . Protest Movements i n Colonial East A f r i c a :

Aspects of Early A f r i c a n Response to European Rule. Syracuse -
University, 1973.

Thomson, Joseph. Through Masailand. London: Sampson Low, 1885.

Turner, V i c t o r (ed. ) Colonialism i n A f r i c a 1870-1960. v o l 3. Cambridge:

University Press, 1971.

Vere-Hodge, E.R. Imperial B r i t i s h East A f r i c a Company. London: Mac-

millan, 1960.
 190

Articles

Alpers, E.A. "The Nineteenth Century: Prelude to Colonialism,"

eds. B.A. Ogot and J . Kieran, Zamani. N a i r o b i : EAPH,
1968.

Beachey, R.W. "The Arms Trade i n East A f r i c a , " Journal of A f r i c a n

H i s t o r y , v o l . 3 , 1962.

Beachey, R.W. "The East A f r i c a n Ivory Trade i n the Nineteenth Cen-

tury, "-JJournal of A f r i c a n H i s t o r y , v o l . 8,. 1967.

Crawshay, Richard. "Kikuyu: Notes on the Country, People, Fauna and

F l o r a , " Geographical Journal, v o l . 20, 1902.

Dewinton, S i r F.W. "England and Germany i n East A f r i c a , " ' 1 9 t h Century.

May 1890.

Dundas, S i r Charles. "Notes on the O r i g i n and H i s t o r y of the Dorobo

and Kikuyu Tribes," Man. 1908.

Fadiman, J e f f r e y A. "Early H i s t o r y of the Meru of Mt. Kenya," Journal

of A f r i c a n H i s t o r y , v o l . 14, 1973.

F a r l e r , J.P. "England and Germany i n East A f r i c a , " F o r t n i g h t l y Review.

February 1889.

F l i n t , John E. "Zanzibar 1890-19-50," H i s t o r y of. East A f r i c a . Eds. Vincent

Harlow, E.M. C h i l v e r a s s i s t e d by A l i s o n Smith. Oxford: Clarendon
Press,, 1965.

Foran, W. Robert. "Rise of N a i r o b i : From Camp S i t e to C i t y , " Crown

Colonist. 1950.

Freeman-Granville, G.S.P. "The Coast 1 4 9 8 - 1 8 4 - 0 , " H i s t o r y of East A f r i c a .

Eds. R. O l i v e r and C. Matthew. Oxford: Clarendon Press.., 1 9 6 3 .
 191

Gatheru, R. Mugo. "The Day the Knife B i t Me," Mirror of Man. Ed.
Jane Dubaghgian, Toronto: L i t t l e Brown and Co., 1975.

Grimthorpe, 2nd Lord. "England, and Germany i n A f r i c a , " Fortnightly

Review. July 1890.

G r o t a n e l l i , V.L. "A Lost A f r i c a n Metropolis," A f r i k a n i s t i s c h e Studien.

B e r l i n : n.p. 1955.

H a l l , B.E.F. "How Peace Came to Kikuyu: Extracts of Letters from

Francis George H a l l , " Journal of the Royal A f r i c a n Society,
v o l . 37, October 1938.

Hartig, Gerald W. "The V i c t o r i a Nyanza as a Trade Route i n the Nine-

teenth Century," Journal of A f r i c a n History, v o l . 11, 1970.

Johnston, S i r Harry. "The East A f r i c a n Problem," Nineteenth Century.

1908.

Kimambo, I s a r i a N. "The Economic History of the Wakamba, 1850-1950,"

Hadith 2, Ed. B.A. Ogot. Nairobi: EAPH, 1970.

Lamphear, John. "The Kamba and Northern Mrima Coast," Pre-Colonial

Trade: Essays on Trade i n Central and Eastern A f r i c a before
1900. Eds. Richard Gray and.David Birmingham. London: OUP,
1970.

Lawren, William L. "Masai and Kikuyu: An H i s t o r i c a l Analysis of Cul-

ture Transmission," Journal of A f r i c a n History, v o l . 9, 1969.

Low, D.A. "The Northern Interior 1840-1884," History of East A f r i c a .

Eds. R. Oliver and G. Mathew. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963.

Low, D.A. " B r i t i s h East A f r i c a : The Establishment of B r i t i s h Rule

1895-1912," History of East A f r i c a . Eds. Vincent Harlow,
ErcM. Chilver assisted by A l i s o n Smith. Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1965.

Lugard, Lord F.D. "The Rise of Our East A f r i c a n Empire," Blackwood's.

December,1893.
 192

Mackinder, H.J. " A Journey to the Summit of Mount Kenya," The Geo-
graphical Journal, v o l . 15, 1900.

Mcrlntosh, B.G. "The Eastern Bantu Peoples," Zamani: • A Survey of East

A f r i c a n H i s t o r y . Eds. B.A. Ogot and J.A. Kieran. Nairobi:
EAPH, 1968.

Mungeam, G.H. "Masai and Kikuyu Responses t o the Establishment of

B r i t i s h Administration i n the East A f r i c a n Protectorate,"
Journal of A f r i c a n H i s t o r y , v o l . 2, 1970.

Munro, J . Forbes. "Migrations of the Bantu-speaking Peoples of the

Eastern Kenya Highlands: A r e a p p r a i s a l , " Journal of A f r i c a n
H i s t o r y , v o l . 8, 1967.

Oland, B.F. "The 'Shamba System of P l a n t a t i o n Development," East

r

A f r i c a A g r i c u l t u r e and Forestry Journal, v o l . 27, 1962.

O l i v e r , Roland. "Discernible Developments i n the I n t e r i o r , " H i s t o r y

of East A f r i c a . Eds. R. O l i v e r and G. Mathew. Oxford: Claren-
don Press, 1963.

O l i v e r , Roland. "Some Factors i n the B r i t i s h Occupation of East A f r i c a , "

Uganda Journal, v o l . 15, 1951.

P r i n s , A.H.J. "The Coastal Tribes of North-Eastern Bantu," Ethnographic

Survey of A f r i c a . Ed. D. Forde. London: I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f r i c a n
I n s t i t u t e , 1952.

Robertson, H.E. "Nairobi, Past and Present," R e v e i l l e , v o l . 2, 1916.

Saterwal, S a t i s h , C. " H i s t o r i c a l Notes on the Embu of Central Kenya,"

Journal of A f r i c a n H i s t o r y , v o l . 8, 1967.

Sutton, J.E.G. "The Settlement of East A f r i c a , " Zamani: A Survey of

East A f r i c a n History. Eds. B.A. Ogot and.J.A. Kieran.
N a i r o b i : EAPH, 1968.
 193

Tate, H.R. "Further Notes on the Southern Gikuyu of B r i t i s h East

A f r i c a , " Journal of the A f r i c a n Society, v o l . 10, 1910.

Tate, H.R. "Two A f r i c a n Explorers, 11-Joseph Thomson," Journal of

the Royal A f r i c a n Society, v o l . 3V, October 1938.

T a y l o r , D.R.F. "Changing Food H a b i t s i n K i k u y u l a n d , " Canadian Journal

o f A f r i c a n S t u d i e s , v o l . 4, 1970.

Thomas, H.B. "George Wilson and Dagoretti F o r t , " Uganda Journal, v o l ,

23, 1959.

Thomson, Joseph, "East A f r i c a as i t Was and I s , " Contemporary Review,

1889.

Trevelyan, Otto. "Memories of Nairobi i n the Old Days. E a r l y S e t t l e r s

R e c a l l t h e i r Experiences," East A f r i c a and Rhodesia, v o l . 26,
A p r i l 1950.

Wolf, James B. "Asian and A f r i c a n Recruitment i n the Kenya P o l i c e ,

1920-1950," The I n t e r n a t i o n a l Journal of A f r i c a n H i s t o r i c a l
Studies. Ed. Norman R. Bennett, v o l . 6, 1973.

"Kikuyu R e l i g i o n , Ancestor Worship and S a c r i f i c i a l P r a c t i c e s , "

A f r i c a , v o l . 10, 1937.

Documents

Great B r i t a i n , Foreign O f f i c e . Report by S i r A. Hardinge on the Condi-

t i o n and Progress of the East A f r i c a P r o t e c t o r a t e from i t s Estab-
lishment to the 20th -Julyul"897 .TuILoMoff,, l89^Tidc@md J >8683 • , J

Great B r i t a i n , Foreign O f f i c e . Report by His Majesty's Commissioner on

the East A f r i c a n Protectorate, London, 1903- Cmd. 1626.

Great B r i t a i n , H i s t o r i c a l Survey of the Origins and Growth of Mau Mau

( C o r f i e l d Report), London, I960. Cmd. 1030.
 194

Great B r i t a i n , Foreign O f f i c e . Report By Hardinge on B r i t i s h East

A f r i c a Protectorate f o r 1897-98, London, 1899. Cmd. 1925.