Unit-I

Introduction to Computer Networks

By,
Prof. Pradnya K. Bachhav
Syllabus
 Definition, Types of Networks: Local area networks (LAN),
 Metropolitan area networks (MAN),
 Wide area networks (WAN),
 Wireless networks, Networks Software, Protocol,
Design issues for the Network layers.
 Network Models: The OSI Reference Model, TCP/IP Model
, Network Topologies, Types of Transmission Medium.
 Network Architectures: Client-Server, Peer To Peer, Hybrid
. Network Devices: Bridge, Switch, Router, Gateway,
Access Point.
 Line Coding Schemes: Manchester and Differential Manch
ester Encodings, Frequency Hopping (FHSS) and Direct S
equence Spread Spectrum (DSSS).
Outline

Introduction of LAN; MAN;WAN; PAN, Ad-hoc Network

Topologies

Network Architectures

Network Software

OSI Model

TCP/IP Model

Design issues for Layers

Transmission Mediums

Manchester and Differential Manchester Encodings

IEEE802.11: Frequency Hopping (FHSS) and Direct Sequence (DSSS)

Computer Network

 A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)

connected by communication links.

 A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device

capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by
other nodes on the network.

 A link can be a cable, air, optical fibre, or any medium

which can transport a signal carrying information.
Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint
Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)
Network Criteria
 Performance
– Depends on Network Elements
– Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput
 Reliability
– Failure rate of network components
– Measured in terms of availability/robustness
 Security
– Data protection against corruption/loss of data due to:
– Errors
– Malicious users
Types of Networks

 Local Area Networks (LAN)

– Short distances
– Designed to provide local interconnectivity
 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
- Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a campus
 Wide Area Networks (WAN)
– Long distances
– Provide connectivity over large areas
 Wireless Networks
Local Area Networks (LAN)
A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and connects some
hosts in a single office, building, or campus.
Fig: An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet
Local Area Networks (LAN)

⚫ floor/building-wide

⚫ single communication medium

⚫ no routing, broadcast

⚫ segments connected by switches or hubs

⚫ high bandwidth, low latency

⚫ Ethernet - 10Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps

⚫ no latency guarantees
Local Area Networks (LAN)
⚫ It is designed for small physical areas such as an office, group of buildings

or a factory.
⚫ LANs are used widely as it is easy to design and to troubleshoot.

⚫ Personal computers and workstations are connected to each other

through LANs.

⚫ We can use different types of topologies through LAN, these are Star,

Ring, Bus,Tree etc.

⚫ LAN can be a simple network like connecting two computers, to share

files and network among each other while it can also be as complex as
interconnecting an entire building.
⚫ LAN networks are also widely used to share resources like printers, shared

hard-drive etc.
LAN (Continued)
 LAN Advantages

• Cost reductions through sharing of information

and databases, resources and network services.

• Increased information exchange between different

departments in an organization, or between
individuals.

• The trend to automate communication and

manufacturing process.
LAN Disadvantages
⚫ Special security measures are needed to stop u
sers from using programs and data that they s
hould not have access to;
⚫ Networks are difficult to set up and need to be

maintained by skilled technicians.

⚫ If the file server develops a serious fault, all the

users are affected, rather than just one user in the

case of a stand-alone machine.
Applications
⚫ One of the computer in a network can become a server

serving all the remaining computers called clients. Software

can be stored on the server and it can be used by the
remaining clients.

⚫ Connecting Locally all the workstations in a building to let

them communicate with each other locally without any

internet access.

⚫ Sharing common resources like printers, scanners, etc are

some common applications of LAN.

Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is basically a bigger version of LAN. It
is also called MAN and uses the similar technology as LAN.
Fig: A metropolitan area network based on cable TV
MAN- Metropolitan Area Network

⚫ It is designed to extend over the entire city.

⚫ It can be means to connecting a number of LANs

into a larger network or it can be a single cable.

⚫ It is mainly hold and operated by single private

company or a public company.

Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
MAN-Advantages

⚫ It provides a good back bone for a large network and

provides greater access to WANs.

⚫ The dual bus used in MAN helps the transmission of

data in both direction simultaneously.

⚫ A MAN usually encompasses several blocks of a city

or an entire city.
MAN-Disadvantages

⚫ More cable required for a MAN connection from one

place to another.

⚫ It is difficult to make the system secure from hackers

and industrial espionage (spying) graphical regions.

MAN Applications

⚫ The MAN can be used to provide services including

⚫ telecoms,

⚫ Internet access,

⚫ television and

⚫ CCTV to businesses and citizens in these metropolitan

areas.
Wide Area Networks (WAN)
A wide area network (WAN) is also an interconnection of devices capable
of communication for long distance.
Fig: WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN
Wide Area Networks (WAN)
Wide Area Networks (WAN)

⚫ WAN can be private or it can be public leased

network.

⚫ It is used for the network that covers large distance

such as cover states of a country.

⚫ It is not easy to design and maintain.

⚫ Communication medium used by WAN are PSTN or

Satellite links.

⚫ WAN operates on low data rates.

WAN - Advantages
• Covers a large geographical area so long distance businesses can
connect on the one network.
• Shares software and resources with connecting workstations.
• Messages can be sent very quickly to anyone else on the network
• Expensive things (such as printers or phone lines to the internet)
can be shared by all the computers on the network without having to
buy a different peripheral for each computer.
• Everyone on the network can use the same data. This avoids
problems where some users may have older information than others.
WAN - Disadvantages

⚫ Need a good firewall to restrict outsiders from entering and disrupting the

network

⚫ Setting up a network can be an expensive, slow and complicated. The bigger

the network the more expensive it is.

⚫ Once set up, maintaining a network is a full-time job

⚫ which requires network supervisors and technicians to be employed.

⚫ Security is a real issue when many different people have

⚫ the ability to use information from other computers.

⚫ Protection against hackers and viruses adds more complexity and expense.
PAN-Personal Area Network

⚫ PAN stands for personal area network, a network

covering a very small area, usually a small room.

⚫ PAN’s can be wired or wireless.

⚫ The best known wireless PAN network technology is

Bluetooth, and the most popular wired PAN is USB.

⚫ Wi-Fi also serves as a PAN technology, since Wi-Fi is

also used over a small area.

PAN-Personal Area Network
PAN-Advantages

The pan is a personal network of one or two person so

there is no risk of any leak of data.
PAN-Disadvantages

⚫ The network it can only travel straight up to 10mts and

if in different rooms then only 2mts.

⚫ In the case of infrared the infrared sensor must be in a

straight line otherwise it won't communicate.

⚫ Transmission speed is slow to moderate.

Ad-hoc Networks

⚫ A wireless ad hoc network (WANET) or MANET is

a decentralized type of wireless network.
⚫ The network is ad hoc because it does not rely on
a pre- existing infrastructure, such as routers in
wired networks or access points in managed
(infrastructure) wireless networks.
⚫ Ad-hoc means without base station or Access
point
(means without infrastructure)
 Ad-hoc Networks

Figure (a)Wireless networking with a base station.

(b)Ad hoc networking.
Ad-hoc Networks- Advantages

 Ad-hoc networks can have more flexibility.

 It is better in mobility.

 It can be turn up and turn down in a very short time.

 It can be more economical.

 It considered a robust network because of its non-

hierarchical distributed control and management

mechanisms
Ad-hoc Networks- Disadvantages

⚫ Hostile environment and irregular connectivity.

⚫ There are no known boundaries for the maximum
range that nodes will be able to receive network
frames.
⚫ The wireless channel is weak, unreliable, and
unprotected from outside interferences.
• Limited wireless range.
• Hidden terminals.
• Packet losses.
• Routes changes.
• Devices heterogeneity.
• Battery power constraints.
 Ad-hoc Network Applications
⚫ Group of people with laptops and they want to
exchange files and data without having an access
point.
⚫ Incase if we need to exchange information and the
network's infrastructure has been destroyed.
⚫ It is suitable for military communications at battlefield
where there is no network infrastructure.
Wireless Networks
• A wireless LAN or WLAN is a network that uses radio
waves as its carrier.
⚫ Wireless local area networks (WLAN)
⚫ IEEE 802.11 (WiFi)
⚫ 10-100 Mbps, 1.5km
⚫ 802.11 (1997): upto 2 Mbps, 2.4 GHz
⚫ 802.11a (1999): upto 54 Mbps, 5 GHz, ~75 feet outdoor
⚫ 802.11b (1999): upto 11 Mbps, 2.4 GHz, ~150 feet [most
popular]
⚫ 802.11g (2003): upto 54 Mbps, 2.4 GHz, ~150 feet
[backward compatible with 802.11b, becoming more
popular]
⚫ Wireless metropolitan area networks (WMAN)
⚫ IEEE 802.16 (WiMax)
⚫ 1.5-20 Mbps, 5-50km
Other Wireless Networks

⚫ Wireless wide area networks (WWAN)

⚫ worldwide
⚫ GSM (Global System for Mobile communications)
⚫ 9.6 – 33 kbps
⚫ 3G (“third generation”): 128-384 kbps to 2Mbps
⚫ 4G (“forth generation”): up to 150 mbps
⚫ 5G (“fifth generation”): up to 10 Gbps+
 WAN
LAN

PAN

CAN
MAN
 Distinguish between LAN,WAN,MAN
PARAMETERS LAN WAN MAN

Ownership of network Private Private or public Private or public

Geographical area co
Small Very large Moderate
vered

Design and maintenance Easy Not easy Not easy

Coaxial cables, PSTN

Communication Twisted Pair cable
PSTN or satellite links , optical fibre,
medium (UTP)
cables, wireless

Bandwidth Low High moderate

Data rates(speed) High Low moderate

Network performance
Example Range Bandwidth Latency
(Mbps) (ms)
Wired:
LAN Ethernet 1-2 km 10-1000 1-10
MAN ATM 250 km 1-150 10
WAN IP routing worldwide .01-600 100-500
Internetwork Internet worldwide 0.5-600 100-500
Wireless:
WPAN Bluetooth (802.15.1) 10 - 30m 0.5-2 5-20
WLAN WiFi (IEEE 802.11) 0.15-1.5 km 2-54 5-20
WMAN WiMAX (802.16) 550 km 1.5-20 5-20
WWAN GSM, 3G phone nets worldwide 0.01-2 100-500
Outline
Introduction of LAN; MAN;WAN; PAN, Ad-hoc Network

Topologies
Network Architectures OSI Model

TCP/IP Model
Design issues for Layers Transmission Mediums Network Devices

Manchester and Differential Manchester Encodings;

IEEE802.11: Frequency Hopping (FHSS) and Direct Sequence (DSSS)

Topology

Topology defines the structure of the network of

how all the components are interconnected to
each other.
Topologies-Types of Network Topology
⚫ BUS
⚫ RING
⚫ STAR
⚫ MESH
⚫ TREE
⚫ HYBRID
BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network
device is connected to single cable.When it has exactly two endpoints,
then it is called Linear Bus topology.

Features of Bus Topology

It transmits data only in one direction.
Every device is connected to a single
cable
BUS Topology
Advantages of Bus Topology
⚫It is cost effective.
⚫Cable required is least compared to other network
topology.
⚫Used in small networks.
⚫It is easy to understand.
⚫Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
⚫Cables fails then whole network fails.
⚫If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the
performance of the network decreases.
⚫Cable has a limited length.
⚫It is slower than the ring topology.
RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.
 Features of Ring Topology

⚫ A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes,

because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology
with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th
node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.

⚫ The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2

connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.

⚫ In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite

direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep
the network up.

⚫ Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to

pass through each node of the network, till the destination node.
 Ring Topology

Advantages of Ring Topology

⚫Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by
adding more nodes, as only the nodes having tokens can
transmit data.
⚫Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
⚫Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
⚫Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network
activity.
⚫Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
 STARTopology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a
cable. This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central
node.

Features of Star Topology

Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.
STAR Topology
Advantages of Star Topology
⚫Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
⚫Hub can be upgraded easily.
⚫Easy to troubleshoot.
⚫Easy to setup and modify.
⚫Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can
work smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
⚫Cost of installation is high.
⚫Expensive to use.
⚫If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all
the nodes
depend on the hub.
⚫Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its
capacity
MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network
nodes are connected to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to
link n devices.

Features of Mesh Topology

Fully connected.
Robust.
Not flexible.
MESH Topology
Advantages of MeshTopology
⚫ Each connection can carry its own data load.
⚫ It is robust.
⚫ Fault is diagnosed easily.
⚫ Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of MeshTopology
⚫ Installation and configuration is difficult.
⚫ Cabling cost is more.
⚫ Bulk wiring is required.
TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy.
It is also called hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to
the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
Used in Wide Area Network.
TREE Topology
Advantages ofTreeTopology
⚫ Extension of bus and star topologies.
⚫ Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
⚫ Easily managed and maintained.
⚫ Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages ofTreeTopology
⚫ Heavily cabled.
⚫ Costly.
⚫ If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
⚫ Central hub fails, network fails.
HYBRID Topology
It is a different type of topology which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For
example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star
topology is used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring
topology and star topology).
HYBRID Topology
Features of HybridTopology
⚫ It is a combination of two or topologies
⚫ Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies
included
Advantages of HybridTopology
⚫ Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
⚫ Effective.
⚫ Scalable as size can be increased easily.
⚫ Flexible.
Disadvantages of HybridTopology
⚫ Complex in design.
⚫ Costly.
Protocols And Standards

• We define two widely used terms:

1] Protocols and
2] Standards.

• Protocol, which is synonymous with rule.

• Standards, which are agreed-upon rules.

 Protocol
Definition:-

- Protocol is a set of rules that govern all aspect of data

communication between computers on a network.

- These rules include guidelines that regulate the following

characteristics of a network: access method, allowed physical
topologies, types of cabling, and speed of data transfer.

- A protocol defines what, how, when it communicated.

- The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics and

timing.
Elements of a Protocol

 Syntax
– Structure or format of the data
– Indicates how to read the bits - field delineation
 Semantics
– Interprets the meaning of the bits
– Knows which fields define what action
 Timing
– When data should be sent and what
– Speed at which data should be sent or speed at which it is
being received.
Elements of a Protocol - Syntax
 The structure or format of the data.
Eg. A simple protocol;

Sender Receiver data

address address

8 bits 8 bits

64 bits
Elements of a Protocol - Semantics
- Refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
- how is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and
what action is to be taken based on that
interpretation.
Eg. Does an address identify the route to be
taken or the final of the message?
Elements of a Protocol - Timing
Refers to two characteristics:
a. When data to be sent
b. How fast it can be sent

Eg. If a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the

receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps, the
transmission will overload the receiver and data
will be largely lost.
Standards
‘A set of rules for ensuring quality'.

• Standards are developed by cooperation among

standards creation committees, forums, and
government regulatory agencies.

Data communication falls into two categories:

1] De facto (by fact or by convention)

2] De jure (by law or by regulation)

Standards
Standards Creation Committees:-

a) International Standards Organization (ISO)

b) International Telecommunications Union (ITU)

c) American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

d) Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

e) Electronic Industries Association (EIA)

f) Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

 Outline

Introduction of LAN; MAN;WAN; PAN, Ad-hoc Network

Topologies

Network Architectures

Network Software

OSI Model

TCP/IP Model

Design issues for Layers

Transmission Mediums

Manchester and Differential Manchester Encodings

IEEE802.11: Frequency Hopping (FHSS) and Direct Sequence (DSSS)

Network Classification by their Component Role

LOCAL AREA NETWORK

PEERTO PEER NETWORK CLIENT SERVER NETWORK

 PEER TO PEER NETWORK
⚫ A peer-to-peer network is a distributed network architecture composed of
participants that make a portion of their resources, such as processing
power, disk storage or network bandwidth directly to network participants
without the need for central coordination instances.
⚫ Used largely for sharing of content files such as audio, video, data or
anything in a digital format.
⚫ There are many p2p protocols such as Ares, Bittorrent, or eDonkey.
⚫ Can also be used for business solutions for relatively small companies that
may not have resources available to implement a server solution.
⚫ Peer to peer network is useful for a small network containing less than 10
computers on a single LAN .
⚫ In peer to peer network each computer can function as both client and
server.
⚫ Peer to peer networks do not have a central control system. There are no
servers in peer networks.
⚫ Peer networks are amplified into home group.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Peer To Peer Network

Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Use less expensive computer Not very secure

hardware No central point of storage

 Easy to administer or file archiving

 No NOS required Additional load on

computer because of
 More built in redundancy
resource sharing
 Easy setup &low cost
Hard to maintain version

control
 Client/Server Network
⚫ In client-server network relationships, certain computers act as server
and other act as clients.
⚫ A server is simply a computer, that available in the network to share
resources and provides service to other computers when they request it.
⚫ A client is the computer running a program that requests the service from
a server.
⚫ Local area network(LAN) is based on client server network relationship.

⚫ A client-server network is one in which all available network resources

such as files, directories, applications and shared devices, are centrally
managed and hosted and then are accessed by client.
⚫ Client server network are defined by the presence of servers on a
network that provide security and administration of the network.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Client-server Network

Advantages: Disadvantages:

 Very secure requires professional

administration
 Better performance
More hardware-intensive
 Centralized backup
More software intensive
 very reliable
Expensive dedicated
software
TYPES OF SERVERS
 TYPES OF SERVERS
⚫ File server: These servers provide the services for storing, retrieving and
moving the data. A user can read, write, exchange and manage the files with
the help of file servers.
⚫ Printer server: The printer server is used for controlling and managing
printing on the network. It also offers the fax service to the network users.
⚫ Application server: The expensive software and additional computing power
can be shared by the computers in a network with the help of application
servers.
⚫ Message server: It is used to co-ordinate the interaction between users,
documents and applications. The data can be used in the form of audio,
video, binary, text or graphics.
⚫ Database server: It is a type of application server. It allows the uses to
access the centralized strong database.
Distributed Networks
⚫ Arrangement of networked computers in which several processors

(the CPUs) are located on scattered machines, but are capable of

working both independently and jointly as required.

⚫ The key elements of Distributed Network Architecture are, as the

name implies, the distribution of decision-making and control out to

each site, while simultaneously, networking and synchronizing the
various sites together via a central hub.

⚫ Distributed networking is a distributed computing network system,

said to be distributed when the computer programming and the data

to be worked on are spread out across more than one computer.
Usually, this is implemented over a computer network.
 Benefits of Distributed NetworkArchitecture

⚫ Scalability: Enterprise solutions that rely on a single

Enterprise server inevitably suffer from performance issues as
the Enterprise grows and the server is overwhelmed.
Moreover, single server solutions are highly susceptible to
network failures.
⚫ Cost: Servers and software at each local site can be
appropriately sized to meet the specific needs of each site,
without requiring installing an expensive server at even the
smallest sites.
⚫ Reliability: Distributed Network Architecture is much more
tolerant of network and hardware failures than a single server
approach.
 Outline

Introduction of LAN; MAN;WAN; PAN, Ad-hoc Network

Topologies

Network Architectures

Network Software

OSI Model

TCP/IP Model

Design issues for Layers

Transmission Mediums

Manchester and Differential Manchester Encodings

IEEE802.11: Frequency Hopping (FHSS) and Direct Sequence (DSSS)

Network Software

• Network software encompasses a broad range of software

used for design, implementation, and operation and
monitoring of computer networks.
• Traditional networks were hardware based with software
embedded.
• With the advent of Software – Defined Networking (SDN),
software is separated from the hardware thus making it
more adaptable to the ever-changing nature of the
computer network.
Network Software - Functions

• Helps to set up and install computer networks

• Enables users to have access to network resources in a
seamless manner
• Allows administrations to add or remove users from the
network
• Helps to define locations of data storage and allows users
to access that data
• Helps administrators and security system to protect the
network from data breaches, unauthorized access and
attacks on a network
• Enables network virtualizations
Network Software – Layered Architecture

• Computer network is designed around the concept of

layered protocols or functions.
• For exchange of data between nodes there is data path
present either directly or via communication network.
• Following factors should be considered:
1. The source system must either activate the direct data
communication path or inform the communication network to the
identity of the desired destination system.
2. Provide for standard interface between network functions.
3. Provide symmetry in function performed at each node.
4. The network software is now highly structured.
Network Software – Protocol Hierarchies

• Most of all networks are organized as a series of layers,

each one built upon the one below it. Because of layer, it
reduces the design complexity.
• In layer protocol, a layer is a service provider and may
consist of several service functions. Function is sub
system of a layer.
• Each subsystem may also be made up of entities. An
entity is a specialized module of layer or subsystem.
• Name of the layer, total no. of layer, function and content
of each layer differ from network to network.
• Protocols are the rules that govern network
communication.
Layers, protocols and interfaces
Layers, protocols and interfaces

• Layer n on one node carries on a conversation with layer

n on other node.
• The entities comprising the corresponding layers on
different machine are called peers.
• The actual data flow is from upper layer to its below layer
and then from physical medium to destination layer.
• Between each pair of adjacent layers is called interface.
• The interface defines which primitive operations and
services the lower layer offers to the upper one.
• A set of layers and protocols is called a network
architecture.
Network Software – Interfaces & Services
• The process provides a common technique for the layer to
communicate with each other.
• The standard terminology used for layered networks to request
services is provided.
• Components are:
Sr. Name Function
No.
1 Service Data Unit (SDU) Transfer user data by layer N+1 to N and N-1.

2 Protocol Control Information To perform service function, it is used to

(PCI) exchange information by peer entities at
different sites on the network.
3 Protocol Data Unit (PDU) Combination of the SDU and PCI
4 Interface Control Information It passes temporary parameter between N and
(ICI) N-1 to invoke service function.
5 Interface Data Unit (IDU) The total unit of information transferred across
the layer boundaries.
Network Software – Interfaces & Services
Communication between two sites in a network
Network Software –Connection Oriented and Connectionless Services

• These are two types of services

• In connection oriented, direct path is established between source
and destination. E.g. Telephone system
• The connectionless (also called datagram) service to goes directly
from an idle condition into a data transfer mode, followed directly by
the idle condition.
• The connectionless service is comparable to mailing a letter. Each
message carries the full destination address and each one is routed
through the system independent of all the others.
Network Software –Connection Oriented and Connectionless Services
Network Software –Relationship of Services to Protocols

• Service interface provides an entry point that users use to access the
functionality exposed by the application.
• Service interface is usually network addressable.
• Provides coarse-grained interface while preserving the semantics and
finer granularity of the application logic.
• It also provides a barrier that enables the application logic to change
without affecting the users of the interface.
• The service interface should encapsulate all aspects of the network
protocol used for communication between user and service.
• E.g. suppose that a service is exposed to consumers through HTTP
over a TCP/IP network. User can implement the service interface as
an ASP.NET component published to well-known URL.
 SDN
The Software Defined Networking framework has three layers as
depicted in the following diagram −
 SDN Concept

Software-defined networking (SDN) is an approach to

computer networking that allows network administrators to
manage network services through abstraction of higher-
level functionality.
This is done by decoupling the system that makes decisions
about where traffic is sent (the control plane) from the
underlying systems that forward traffic to the selected
destination (the data plane).

SDN requires some method for the control plane to

communicate with the data plane. One such mechanism is
OpenFlow.
Need /Goal of SDN
⚫ The goal of SDN is to allow network engineers and
administrators to respond quickly to changing business
requirements.
⚫ In a software-defined network, a network administrator
can shape traffic from a centralized control console
without having to touch individual switches, and can
deliver services to wherever they are needed in the
network, without regard to what specific devices a server
or other hardware components are connected to.
⚫ The key technologies for SDN implementation are
functional separation, network virtualization and
automation through programmability.
SDN Benefits

• Dynamic , Manageable ,cost-effective, adaptable

• Directly programmable
• Agile: administrators dynamically adjust network-wide traffic flow to
meet changing needs.
• Centrally managed
• Programmatically configured: SDN lets network managers
configure, manage, secure, and optimize network resources very
quickly via dynamic, automated SDN programs
• Open standards-based and vendor-neutral
 Outline

Introduction of LAN; MAN;WAN; PAN, Ad-hoc Network

Topologies

Network Architectures

Network Software

OSI Model

TCP/IP Model

Design issues for Layers

Transmission Mediums

Manchester and Differential Manchester Encodings

IEEE802.11: Frequency Hopping (FHSS) and Direct Sequence (DSSS)

Reference Models in Communication Networks

The most important

reference models
are :

OSI reference TCP/IP reference

model. model.
 OSI

⚫ There are many users who use computer network and are
located all over the world.
⚫ To ensure national and worldwide data communication ISO
(International Organization of Standardization.)developed
this model.
⚫ This is called a model for Open System Interconnection
(OSI) and is normally called as OSI model.
⚫ OSI model architecture consists of seven layers.
⚫ It defines seven layers or levels in a complete
communication system.
⚫ It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
 Please Do Not Tell Secret Passwords Anytime
OSI Model
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
An exchange using the OSI model
 Feature of OSI Model :

⚫ Big picture of communication over network is

understandable through this OSI model.
⚫ We see how hardware and software work together.
⚫ We can understand new technologies as they are
developed.
⚫ Troubleshooting is easier by separate networks.
⚫ Can be used to compare basic functional relationships
on different networks.
 Layer 1: The Physical Layer
⚫ It is the lowest layer of the OSI Model.
⚫ It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
⚫ It is responsible for transmission and reception of the unstructured raw data over
network.
⚫ Voltages and data rates needed for transmission is defined in the physical layer.
⚫ It converts the digital/analog bits into electrical signal or optical signals.
⚫ Data encoding is also done in this layer.
 Layer 2: Data Link Layer
⚫ Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be transmitted over the physical
layer.
⚫ The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one node to
another, over the physical layer.

⚫ Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by this layer.

⚫ This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames received and sent respectively.
Resending of non-acknowledgement received frames is also handled by this layer.
⚫ This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes and also manages the Frame
traffic control over the network. It signals the transmitting node to stop, when the frame
buffers are full.
 Layer 3: The Network Layer
⚫ It routes the signal through different channels from one node to other.
⚫ It acts as a network controller. It manages the Subnet traffic.
⚫ It decides by which route data should take.
⚫ It divides the outgoing messages into packets and assembles the
incoming packets into messages for higher levels.
 Layer 4: Transport Layer
⚫ It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.

⚫ Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on the data are done by this layer
⚫ It receives messages from the Session layer above it, convert the message into smaller units
and passes it on to the Network layer.
⚫ Transport layer can be very complex, depending upon the network requirements.

⚫ Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more

efficiently by the network layer.

 Layer 5: The Session Layer
⚫ Session layer manages and synchronize the conversation between two different
applications.
⚫ To transfer of data from source to destination, in session layer streams of data are
marked and are resynchronized properly, so that the ends of the messages are not
cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
 Layer 6: The Presentation Layer
⚫ Presentation layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the receiver
will understand the information (data) and will be able to use the data.
⚫ While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms the data to be ready for the
application layer.
⚫ Languages(syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems. Under this
condition presentation layer plays a role of translator.
⚫ It performs Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion etc.
 Layer 7: Application Layer
⚫ It is the topmost layer.
⚫ Transferring of files, distributing the results to the user is also done in this
layer. Mail services, directory services, network resource, etc. are
services provided by application layer.
⚫ This layer mainly holds application programs to act upon the received
and to be sent data.
Summary of OSI Layers
 Merits of OSI reference model:

⚫ OSI model distinguishes well between the services,

interfaces and protocols.
⚫ Protocols of OSI model are very well hidden.
⚫ Protocols can be replaced by new protocols as
technology changes.
⚫ Supports connection oriented services as well as
connectionless service.
Demerits of OSI reference model:

⚫ Model was devised before the invention of protocols.

⚫ Fitting of protocols is tedious task.

⚫ It is just used as a reference model.

 Outline

Introduction of LAN; MAN;WAN; PAN, Ad-hoc Network

Topologies

Network Architectures

Network Software

OSI Model

TCP/IP Model

Design issues for Layers

Transmission Mediums

Manchester and Differential Manchester Encodings

IEEE802.11: Frequency Hopping (FHSS) and Direct Sequence (DSSS)

 TCP/IP model overview
⚫ TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and Internet
Protocol was developed by Department of Defence's Project
Research Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) as a part of a research
project of network interconnection to connect remote
machines.
⚫ The features of TCP/IP reference model were:
⚫ Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more machines to a
network was easy.
⚫ The network was robust, and connections remained intact until the
source and destination machines were functioning.
⚫ The overall idea was to allow one application on one computer to
talk to(send data packets) another application running on different
computer.
TCP/IP reference model diagram
 Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer

⚫ Lowest layer of the all.

⚫ Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the

packets can be sent over it.

⚫ Varies from host to host and network to network.

 Layer 2: Internet layer
⚫ Selection of a packet switching network which is based
on a connectionless internetwork layer is called a
internet layer.
⚫ It is the layer which holds the whole architecture
together.
⚫ It helps the packet to travel independently to the
destination.
⚫ Order in which packets are received is different from the
way they are sent.
⚫ IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
 Layer 3: Transport Layer
⚫ It decides if data transmission should be on parallel
path or single path.
⚫ Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting
on the data is done by transport layer.
⚫ The applications can read and write to the transport
layer.
⚫ Transport layer adds header information to the data.
⚫ Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small
units so that they are handled more efficiently by the
network layer.
⚫ Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in
sequence.
 Layer 4: Application Layer

The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that

were at the top of the protocol stack. Some of them were
TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.
⚫TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows
connecting to a remote machine and run applications on it.
⚫FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File
transfer amongst computer users connected over a network.
It is reliable, simple and efficient.
⚫SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is
used to transport electronic mail between a source and
destination, directed via a route.
⚫DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a
textual address for Hosts connected over a network.
Merits of TCP/IP model

⚫ It operated independently.
⚫ It is scalable.
⚫ Client/server architecture.
⚫ Supports a number of routing protocols.
⚫ Can be used to establish a connection between two
computers.
 Demerits of TCP/IP

⚫ In this, the transport layer does not guarantee

delivery of packets.
⚫ The model cannot be used in any other application.
⚫ Replacing protocol is not easy.
⚫ It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces
and protocols.
Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models

TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol /

OSI(Open System Interconnection)
Internet Protocol)
OSI is a generic, protocol independent TCP/IP model is based on standard
standard, acting as a communication gateway protocols around which the Internet has
between the network and end user. developed. It is a communication protocol,
which allows connection of hosts over a
network.
In TCP/IP model the transport layer does
In OSI model the transport layer guarantees
not guarantees delivery of packets. Still the
the delivery of packets.
TCP/IP model is more reliable.
Follows vertical approach. Follows horizontal approach.
OSI model has a separate Presentation layer TCP/IP does not have a separate
and Session layer. Presentation layer or Session layer.
OSI is a reference model around which the
TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation
networks are built. Generally it is used as a
of the OSI model.
guidance tool.
Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models

TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol /

OSI(Open System Interconnection)
Internet Protocol)
Network layer of OSI model provides both
The Network layer in TCP/IP model
connection oriented and connectionless
provides connectionless service.
service.
OSI model has a problem of fitting the
TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
protocols into the model.
Protocols are hidden in OSI model and are
easily replaced as the technology changes. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.

OSI model defines services, interfaces and

In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and protocols
protocols very clearly and makes clear
are not clearly separated. It is also protocol
distinction between them. It is protocol
dependent.
independent.
It has 7 layers It has 4 layers
Diagrammatic Comparison between OSI and TCP/IP Reference Model
Diagrammatic Comparison between OSI and TCP/IP Reference Model
 Outline

Introduction of LAN; MAN;WAN; PAN, Ad-hoc Network

Topologies

Network Architectures

Network Software

OSI Model

TCP/IP Model

Design issues for Layers

Transmission Mediums

Manchester and Differential Manchester Encodings

IEEE802.11: Frequency Hopping (FHSS) and Direct Sequence (DSSS)

Design issues for Layers
⚫ Addressing
⚫ Error Control
⚫ Flow Control
⚫ Multiplexing
⚫ Routing
Addressing
⚫Addressing Level
•Unique address for each end system (computer) and each intermediate
system (router)
•Network level address- IP or internet address (TCP/IP) , Network
service access point or NSAP (OSI)
•Process within the system-Port number (TCP/IP),
•Service access point or SAP
⚫Addressing Scope
•Global nonambiguity-Global address identifies unique system,
•There is only one system with address X
•Global applicability-It is possible at any system (any address) to
identify
any other system (address) by the global address of the other system
Address X identifies that system from anywhere on the network
•e.g. MAC address on IEEE 802 networks
Error Control

⚫ Guard against loss or damage of data and control

information Error control is implemented as two
separate functions:
-Error detection
-Sender inserts error detecting bits Receiver checks these
bits
-If OK, acknowledge
-If error, discard packet Retransmission
-If no acknowledge in given time, re-transmit Performed at
various layers of protocol
Flow Control

⚫ Done by receiving entity

-Function to limit amount or rate of data sent by a

transmitting entity
-Simplest form: stop-and-wait procedure
-More efficient protocols: Credit systems Sliding
window needed at application as well as network
layers
Multiplexing

⚫ Supporting multiple connections on one machine

-Mapping of multiple connections at one level to a

single connection at another
-Carrying a number of connections on one fiber optic
cable
-Aggregating or bonding ISDN lines to gain bandwidth
 Routing

⚫ Determine path or route that packets will follow Use

routing protocol based on a routing algorithm
“Good” path should be least cost path
Cost : depends on the following factors.
-Average queuing delay
-Propagation delay
-Bandwidth, mean queue length, etc.
End systems and routers maintain routing tables
-Dynamic or static
 Outline

Introduction of LAN; MAN;WAN; PAN, Ad-hoc Network

Topologies

Network Architectures

Network Software

OSI Model

TCP/IP Model

Design issues for Layers

Transmission Mediums

Manchester and Differential Manchester Encodings

IEEE802.11: Frequency Hopping (FHSS) and Direct Sequence (DSSS)

Transmission medium and
physical layer
Classification of transmission media

Radiowaves or
Infrared
Microwaves
 Common network cable types

• Coaxial cable

• Unshielded
twisted pair

• Fiber optic
 Guided Media

1] Twisted-Pair Cable

2] Coaxial Cable

3] Fiber-Optic Cable

Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper)

conductors that accept and transport signals in the
form of electric current. Optical fiber is a cable that
accepts and transports signals in the form of light.
 Twisted-pair cable

Plastic Copper

One of the wires is used to carry signals to

the receiver, and the other is used only as a ground
reference.
 Twisted-pair cable

In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one

of the wires, interference (noise) and crosstalk may affect
both wires and create unwanted signals.
If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these
unwanted signals is not the same in both wires because
they are at different locations relative to the noise or
crosstalk sources (e,g., one is closer and the other is
farther).
 UTP characteristics

• Unshielded
• Twisted (why?) pairs of insulated
conductors
• Covered by
insulating sheath
UTP and STP
UTP connector
 UTP categories

Category 1 Voice only (Telephone)

Category 2 Data to 4 Mbps (Localtalk)

Category 3 Data to 10Mbps (Ethernet)

Category 4 Data to 20Mbps (Token ring)

Category 5 Data to 100Mbps (Fast Ethernet)
Category 5e Data to 1000Mbps (Gigabit Ethernet)
Category 6 Data to 2500Mbps (Gigabit Ethernet)
Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables

Category Bandwidth Data Rate Digital/Analog Use

1 very low < 100 kbps Analog Telephone

2 < 2 MHz 2 Mbps Analog/digital T-1 lines

3 16 MHz 10 Mbps Digital LANs

4 20 MHz 20 Mbps Digital LANs

5 100 MHz 100 Mbps Digital LANs

6 (draft) 200 MHz 200 Mbps Digital LANs

7 (draft) 600 MHz 600 Mbps Digital LANs

 Cat 5 cable
 Category 5 cable, commonly referred to
as Cat 5, is a twisted pair cable for
carrying signals.

 This type of cable is used in structured cabling

for computer networks such as Ethernet.

 The cable standard provides performance of up

to 100 MHz and is suitable for most varieties
of Ethernet over twisted pair.

 Cat 5 is also used to carry other signals such

as telephony and video.
 Cat5e cable

• 1000Mbps data capacity

• For runs of up to 90 meters
• Solid core cable ideal for structural
installations (PVC or Plenum)
• Standard cable ideal for patch cables
• Terminated with RJ-45 connectors
 Cat 6 cable
CAT6 or Category 6 is a description of network
cabling that consists of four twisted pair wires,
has a data rate of 10000 Mbps, and is used
in Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet.

It additionally can support 10 Gigabit Ethernet

connections over a limited distance.(technically,
50 meters or 164 feet for a single cable).
 Applications

• Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines

to provide voice and data channels.

• The local loop-the line that connects

subscribers to the central telephone office-
commonly consists of unshielded twisted-pair
cables.
Coaxial cable
Categories of coaxial cables

Category Impedance Use

RG-59 75 W Cable TV

RG-58 50 W Thin Ethernet

RG-11 50 W Thick Ethernet

 Coaxial cable

Coaxial cables are categorized by their radio

government (RG) ratings.

Each RG number denotes a unique set of physical

specifications, including the wire gauge of the
inner conductor, the thickness and type of the inner
insulator, the construction of the shield, and the
size and type of the outer casing.
BNC (Bayone-Neill concelman) connectors
 BNC (Bayone-Neill concelman) connectors

1] The BNC connector is used to connect the end

of the cable to a device, such as a TV set.

2] The BNC T connector is used in Ethernet

networks to branch out to a connection to a
computer or other device.

3] The BNC terminator is used at the end of the

cable to prevent the reflection of the signal.
 Applications

• Coaxial cable was widely used in analog

telephone networks where a single coaxial
network could carry 10,000 voice signals.

• Later it was used in digital telephone networks

where a single coaxial cable could carry digital
data up to 600 Mbps.

• However, coaxial cable in telephone networks has

largely been replaced today with fiber-optic cable.
Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables.
 Fiber-optic cable

⚫ An optical fiber cable, also known as fiber optic cable, is an

assembly similar to an electrical cable, but containing one or more
optical fibers that are used to carry light.

⚫ The optical fiber elements are typically individually coated with plastic

layers and contained in a protective tube suitable for the environment

where the cable will be deployed.

⚫ Different types of cable are used for different applications, for

example long distance telecommunication, or providing a high-speed
data connection between different parts of a building.
 Fiber-optic cable

A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals

in the form of light.

A fiber optic cable is a network cable that contains stands of glass

fibers inside an insulated casing.

 They're designed for long distance, very high performance data

networking and telecommunications.

 Compared to wired cables, fiber optic cables provide higher

bandwidth and can transmit data over longer distances.

 Fiber optic cables support much of the world's internet, cable

television and telephone systems
Fiber types
Fiber Media

⚫ Optical fibers use light to send information through the

optical medium.
⚫ It uses the principal of total internal reflection.
⚫ Modulated light transmissions are used to transmit the
signal.
 Fiber Media

⚫ Light travels through the optical media by the way of total

internal reflection.
⚫ Modulation scheme used is intensity modulation.
⚫ Two types of Fiber media :
1. Multimode
2. Singlemode
⚫ Multimode Fiber can support less bandwidth than
Singlemode Fiber.
⚫ Singlemode Fiber has a very small core and carry only one
beam of light. It can support Gbps data rates over > 100
Km without using repeaters.
Single and Multimode Fiber
⚫ Single-mode fiber
⚫ Carries light pulses along single path
⚫ Uses Laser Light Source
⚫ Multimode fiber
⚫ Many pulses of light generated by LED travel at different angles
Fiber construction
Fiber-Optic Cable
⚫ Contains one or several glass fibers at its core
⚫ Surrounding the fibers is a layer called cladding
Fiber-optic cable connectors
 Fiber-optic cable connectors

1] The subscriber channel (SC) connector is used

for cable TV. It uses a push/pull locking system.

2] The straight-tip (ST) connector is used for

connecting cable to networking devices. It is more
reliable than SC.

3] MT-RJ is a connector that is the same size as

RJ45.
 Characteristics of Fiber Optic Cable

1] It can provide extremely high bandwidths in the

range from 100 Mbps to 2 Gbps because light
has a much higher frequency than light.

2] The installation of OFC is difficult and tedious.

3] The cost of OFC is more as compared to Other

cable.
 Advantages of Fiber Optic Cables

• Fiber cables offer several advantages over traditional

long-distance copper cabling.
• Fiber optics have a higher capacity. The amount of
network bandwidth a fiber cable can carry easily
exceeds that of a copper cable with similar thickness.
• Fiber cables rated at 10 Gbps, 40 Gbps and even 100
Gbps are standard.
• Since light can travel much longer distances down a fiber
cable without losing its strength, it lessens the need for
signal boosters.
• Small size and light weight.
• No electrical or electromagnetic interference.
• Security.
Disadvantages of Fiber Optic Cables

1] Sophisticated plants are required for manufacturing.

2] Joining the optical fibers is a difficult Job.

3] The initial cost incurred is high.

 Applications

• Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks

because its wide bandwidth is cost-effective. Today, with
wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), we can transfer
data at a rate of 1600 Gbps.

• Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber

and coaxial cable, thus creating a hybrid network.

• This is a cost-effective configuration since the narrow

bandwidth requirement at the user end does not justify the
use of optical fiber.
 UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

Unguided media transport electromagnetic

waves without using a physical conductor.
This type of communication is often
referred to as wireless communication.
Wireless transmission waves
Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless
communication
 Outline
Introduction of LAN; MAN;WAN; PAN, Ad-hoc Network

Topologies

Network Architectures

Network Software

OSI Model

TCP/IP Model

Design issues for Layers

Transmission Mediums

Network Devices

Manchester and Differential Manchester Encodings

IEEE802.11: Frequency Hopping (FHSS) and Direct Sequence (DSSS)

Network Devices
⚫ Bridge
⚫ Switch
⚫ Router
⚫ Gateway
⚫ Access Point
 Hubs

• A hub is used as a central point of connection among

media segments.
• Cables from network devices plug in to the ports on the
hub.
• Types of HUBS :
– A passive hub is just a connector. It connects the wires
coming from different branches.
– The signal pass through a passive hub without regeneration
or amplification.
– Connect several networking cables together
– Active hubs or Multiport repeaters- They regenerate or
amplify the signal before they are retransmitted.
 Repeaters Optic fiber repeater

• A repeater is a device that operates only at

the PHYSICAL layer.
• A repeater can be used to increase the length of the network
by eliminating the effect of attenuation on the signal.
• It connects two segments of the same network, overcoming
the distance limitations of the transmission media.
• A repeater forwards every frame it has no filtering capability.
• A repeater is a regenerator, not an amplifier.
• Repeaters can connect segments that have the same access
method. (CSMA/CD, Token Passing, Polling, etc.)
Repeater connecting two segments of a LAN

Function of a repeater
 Switches

⚫ A network switch is a computer networking device that

connects devices together on a computer network by using
packet switching to receive, process, and forward data to the
destination device.
⚫ Unlike less advanced network hubs, a network switch
forwards data only to the devices that need to receive it,
rather than broadcasting the same data out of each of its
ports.
⚫ It uses Ethernet (MAC Address) address.
Store and Forward Switches

⚫ Do error checking on each frame after the entire frame has

arrived into the switch
⚫ If the error checking algorithm determines there is no error,
the switch looks in its MAC address table for the port to
which to forward the destination device
⚫ Highly reliable because doesn’t forward bad frames
⚫ Slower than other types of switches because it holds on to
each frame until it is completely received to check for errors
before forwarding
 Cut Through Switch

⚫ Faster than store and forward because doesn’t perform error

checking on frames
⚫ Reads address information for each frame as the frames enter
the switch
⚫ After looking up the port of the destination device, frame is
forwarded
⚫ Forwards bad frames
⚫ Performance penalty because bad frames can’t be used and
replacement frames must be sent which creates additional traffic
Unmanaged/ Intelligent switches

⚫ Unmanaged – provides LAN’s with all the benefits of

switching. Fine in small networks

⚫ Intelligent switches tracks and reports LAN performance

statistics. Have a database ASIC (application specific
integrated circuit) on board to collect and store data which
you view through a software interface
 Comparison of Hub and Switch
Basis for
Hub Switch
Comparison
Layer Physical layer. Layer 1 devices Data Link Layer. Layer 2 device.
To connect a network of personal Allow to connect multiple device and port can be
Function computers together, they can be joined manage,Vlan can create security also can apply
through a central hub.

Data Transmission Electrical signal or bits Frame (L2 Switch), Frame & Packet (L3 switch)

Ports 4/12 ports Switch is multi port Bridge. 24/48 ports

Device Type Passive Device (Without Software) Active Device (With Software) & Networking device
Used in LAN LAN
Transmission Mode Half duplex Half/Full duplex
Broadcast Domain Hub has one Broadcast Domain. Switch has one broadcast domain
An electronic device that connects A network switch is a computer networking device
many network device together so that that is used to connect many devices together on a
devices can exchange data computer network. A switch is considered more
Definition
advanced than a hub because a switch will only send
msg to device that needs or request it

Speed 10Mbps 10/100 Mbps, 1 Gbps

Collisions occur in setups using hubs. No collisions occur in a full-duplex switch.
Collisions
Address Used Uses MAC address Uses MAC address
Bridges
• Operates in both the PHYSICALand the data link layer.
• As a Physical layer device, it regenerates the signal it
receives.
• As a data link layer device, the bridge can check the
PHYSICAL/MAC addresses (source and destination)
contained in the frame.
• A bridge has a table used in filtering decisions.
• It can check the destination address of a frame and decide if
the frame should be forwarded or dropped.
• If the frame is to be forwarded, the decision must specify the
port.
• A bridge has a table that maps address to ports.
• Limit or filter traffic keeping local traffic to allow connectivity to
other parts (segments).
 A bridge connecting two LANs

Abridge does not change the physical (MAC) addresses in a frame.

 How BridgesWork
Bridges work at the Media Access Control
•Routing table is built to record the segment no. of address
•If destination address is in the same segment as the source
address, stop transmit
•Otherwise, forward to the other segment
 Characteristics of Bridges
• Contains one entry per station of network to which
Routing bridge is connected.
• Is used to determine the network of destination station of
Tables a received packet.

• Is used by bridge to allow only those packets destined to

the remote network.
Filtering • Packets are filtered with respect to their destination and
multicast addresses.

Forwarding • the process of passing a packet from one network to another.

Learning • the process by which the bridge learns how to reach

stations on the internetwork.
Algorithm
 Types of Bridges
Transparent Bridge
•Also called learning bridges
•Build a table of MAC addresses as frames arrive
•Ethernet networks use transparent bridge
•Duties of transparent bridge are : Filtering frames,
•forwarding and blocking

Source Routing Bridge

•Used in Token Ring networks
•Each station should determine the route to the destination when it wants
to send a frame and therefore include the route information in the header
of frame.
•Addresses of these bridges are included in the frame.
•Frame contains not only the source and destination address but also
the bridge addresses.
AdvantagesAnd Disadvantagesof Bridges

• Advantages of using a bridge

– Extend physical network
– Reduce network traffic with minor segmentation
– Creates separate collision domains
– Reduce collisions
– Connect different architecture
• Disadvantages of using bridges
– Slower that repeaters due to filtering
– Do not filter broadcasts
– More expensive than repeaters
 Comparison of Switch and Bridge
Sr.
Switch Bridge
No.
A switch when compared to bridge has Bridge has a single incoming and outgoing
1 multiple ports. port.
Switch can perform error checking before A bridge maintains a MAC address table for
2 forwarding data both LAN segments it is connected to it.

Switches are very efficient by not forwardi Bridge looks at the destination of the packet
ng packets that error-rd out or forwarding before forwarding unlike a hub.
3 good packets selectively to correct
devices only.

Switches can support both layer 2 (Based It restricts transmission on the other LAN
on MAC Address) and Layer 3 (Based on I segment if destination is not found.
4 P address) depending on the type of
switch.

Usually large networks use switches inste Bridges are used to separate parts of a
5 ad of hubs to connect computers within network that do not need to communicate
the same subnet regularly, but need to be connected.
 Two andThree layer switches
• Two layer switch operate at physical and data link
layer
• Three layer switch operates at network layer
• Bridge is an example of two-layer switch.
• Bridge with few port can connect a few LANs.
• Bridge with many port may be able to allocate
a unique port to each station, with each
station on its own independent entity. This
means no competing traffic (no collision as we
saw in Ethernet)
 3-layer switches: Router
• Routes packets based on their logical addresses (host-to-
host addressing)
• A router normally connects LANs and WANs in the
Internet and has a routing table that is used for making
decision about the route.
• The routing tables are normally dynamic and are updated
using routing protocols.
Routers connecting
independent LANs
and WANs
Advantages and Disadvantages of Routers

• Advantages
– Routers provide sophisticated routing, flow control, and
traffic isolation
– are configurable, which allows network manager to make
policy based on routing decisions
– allow active loops so that redundant paths are available
• Disadvantages
– Routers are protocol-dependent devices that must
understand the protocol they are forwarding.
– can require a considerable amount of initial configuration.
– are relatively complex devices, and generally are more
expensive than bridges.
Routers versus Bridges
 Brouters: Bridging Routers

 Combine features of bridges and routers.

 Capable of establishing a bridge between two networks
as well as routing some messages from the bridge
networks to other networks.
 Are sometimes called (Layer 2/3) switches and are a
combination of bridge/router hardware and software.
 Gateway

• Interchangeably used term router and gateway

• Connect two networks above the network layer of OSI model.
• Are capable of converting data frames and network protocols into
the format needed by another network.
• Provide for translation services between different computer
protocols.
• Transport gateways make a connection between two networks at
the transport layer.
• Application gateways connect two parts of an application in the
application layer, e.g., sending email between two machines
using different mail formats
• Broadband-modem-router is one e.g. of gateway
 Access Point
⚫ In computer networking, a wireless access point (WAP)
is a networking hardware device that allows a Wi-Fi
device to connect to a wired network. The WAP usually
connects to a router (via a wired network) as a standalone
device, but it can also be an integral component of the
router itself.
Access Point
⚫ Access Point(AP) units serve areas of a building, similar to
base units of cordless telephones except each AP can
connect to many computers. APs serve as network bridges
between the wired and wireless portions of the network.
Summary N/W devices
Comparison
 Outline
Introduction of LAN; MAN;WAN; PAN, Ad-hoc Network

Topologies

Network Architectures

Network Software

OSI Model

TCP/IP Model

Design issues for Layers

Transmission Mediums

Network Devices

Line Coding Schemes: Manchester and Differential Manchester Encodings

IEEE802.11: Frequency Hopping (FHSS) and Direct Sequence (DSSS)

Line Coding

Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital signals. By this
technique we converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal.

Transmitter is responsible for "encoding" i.e. inserting clocks into data

according to a selected coding scheme

Receiver is responsible for "decoding" i.e. separating clocks and data from
the incoming embedded stream.

A signal needs to be manipulated in such a way so that it contains identifiable

changes that are recognizable to the sender and receiver.

There are 4 possible encoding techniques that can be used on the data:
Digital- to-digital, Digital-to-Analog, Analog-to-analog, Analog-to-digital.
 Digital-to-Digital Encoding
•The binary signals created by your computer (DTE) are translated into a sequence of
voltage pulses that can be sent through the transmission medium.
•Binary signals have two basic parameters: amplitude and duration.
•As the number of bits sent per unit of time increases, the bit duration decreases.
•The three most common methods of encoding used are: unipolar , polar , and bipolar .
UNIPOLAR ENCODING

Unipolar encoding uses only one

voltage level.
Lack of synchronization
POLAR ENCODING

Polar encoding uses two voltage levels

(positive and negative).
Manchester (or diphase or biphase encoding)

This code is self-clocking.

Provides a transition for every bit in the middle of the bit
cell. This transition is used only to provide clocking.
+ve to -ve transition for a "0" bit

-ve to +ve transition for a "1" bit

Residual DC component is eliminated by having both
polarities for every bit.
This scheme is used in Ethernet and IEEE 802.3 compliant
LANs
Manchester Encoding

In Manchester encoding, the

transition at the middle of the bit is
used for both synchronization and bit
representation.
 Differential Manchester Coding

⚫ Code is self-clocking

⚫ Transition for every bit in the middle of the bit cell

⚫ Transition at the beginning of the bit cell if the next bit is " 0 "

⚫ NOTransition at the beginning of the bit cell if the next bit is " 1 "

⚫ Used inToken Ring or IEEE 802.5-compliant LANs.

Differential Manchester encoding

In differential Manchester encoding, the transition

at the middle of the bit is used only for
synchronization.
The bit representation is defined by the inversion
or noninversion at the beginning of the bit.
 Outline
Introduction of LAN; MAN;WAN; PAN, Ad-hoc Network

Topologies

Network Architectures

Network Software

OSI Model

TCP/IP Model

Design issues for Layers

Transmission Mediums

Network Devices

Line Coding Schemes: Manchester and Differential Manchester Encodings

IEEE802.11: Frequency Hopping (FHSS) and Direct Sequence (DSSS)

 IEEE 802 Standards

The important ones are marked with *. The ones marked with  are hibernating. The
15 one marked with † gave up.
8
IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN Standard

IEEE developed the first

internationally recognized wireless
LAN standard – IEEE 802.11 in 1997

Scope of IEEE 802.11 is limited to

Physical and Data Link Layers.
IEEE 802.11 Standards
 802.11a (OFDMWaveform)
 802.11b
 802.11g
 802.11n
 802.11ac
 802.11ad
 802.11af
 802.11ah
 802.11ai
 802.11aj
 802.11aq
 802.11ax
 Physical Media of 802.11 Standard

Frequency- • Operating in 2.4 GHz ISM band

hopping spread • Lower cost, power consumption
spectrum • Most tolerant to signal interference

Direct-sequence • Operating in 2.4 GHz ISM band

spread • Supports higher data rates
spectrum • More range than FH or IR physical layers

• Lowest cost
Infrared • Lowest range compared to spread spectrum
• Doesn’t penetrate walls, so no eavesdropping
What is meant by Spread Spectrum

Spread spectrum is a form of wireless communications

in which the frequency of the transmitted
signal is varied. This results in a much greater
bandwidth than the signal (Bss >> B)

This technique decreases the potential

interference to other receivers while
achieving privacy.
Two types of Spread Spectrum- FHSS and
DSSS
Spread Spectrum
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

Signal is broadcast over seemingly random series of radio

frequencies
Signal hops from frequency to frequency at fixed intervals
Receiver, hopping between frequencies in synchronization
with transmitter, picks up message
Advantages
Efficient utilization of available bandwidth
Eavesdropper hear only unintelligible blips
Attempts to jam signal on one frequency succeed only at knocking
out a few bits
Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
FHSS cycles
Bandwidth sharing difference between FDM and FHSS
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Each bit in original signal is represented by multiple bits in

the transmitted signal
Spreading code spreads signal across a wider frequency band

DSSS is the only physical layer specified for the 802.11b

specification:
802.11a and 802.11b differ in use of chipping method
802.11a uses 11-bit barker chip
802.11b uses 8-bit complimentary code keying (CCK) algorithm
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
DSSS example
 FHSS Vs DSSS

⚫ FH systems use a radio carrier that “hops” from frequency

to frequency in a pattern known to both transmitter and
receiver
⚫ Easy to implement
⚫ Resistance to noise
⚫ Limited throughput (2-3 Mbps @ 2.4 GHz)
⚫ DS systems use a carrier that remains fixed to a specific
frequency band.The data signal is spread onto a much
larger range of frequencies (at a much lower power level)
using a specific encoding scheme.
⚫ Much higher throughput than FH (11 Mbps)
⚫ Better range
⚫ Less resistant to noise (made up for by redundancy – it transmits at
least 10 fully redundant copies of the original signal at the same
time)
 References
Websites:
⚫http://www.studytonight.com/computer-networks/
⚫https://cs.fit.edu/~pkc/classes/dc/slides/ch3.ppt
⚫https://www.techopedia.com/2/29090/networks/lanwanman-an-overview-of-
network-types
⚫https://www.slideshare.net/ENGMSHARI/adhoc-networks
⚫http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/distributed-network-
architecture-DNA.html
⚫https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber_cable
⚫https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_spectrum
⚫https://www.slideshare.net/rupinderj/networking-devices-12807479
⚫https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_access_point
⚫https://www.slideshare.net/LukaXavi/data-encoding

Text Books:
⚫Andrew S.Tenenbaum, “Computer Networks”,5th Edition, PHI, ISBN 81-203-2175-8.
⚫Fourauzan B., "Data Communications and Networking", 5th Edition, Tata McGraw-
Hill, Publications, 2006
Assignment No-1
1. What are different types of topology? Explain any one
2. What are the reason for using layered protocol?
3. What are the design issues of layers? Explain it
4. Explain connect oriented & connectionless services
5. What is OSI model? Explain the functions of different layers in OSI
model.
6. Explain TCP/IP Model and compare TCP/IP and OSI Model.
7. List and write the use of different network connecting devices.
8. Write a short note on Fibre Optic Cable with fig.
9. What is line coding? Give the manchetser line code and differential M
anchester code for the bit sequence: 1100110
10. Explain in brief: FHSS and DSSS