SCSR3443 Cryptography 9-Dec-15

[Part 3]
Integrity, Authenticity, and Key
Management

Chapter 15

Key Management

Forouzan, B.A. Cryptography and Network Security (International Edition). United States: McGraw Hill, 2008.

Chapter 15 Objectives

•  To explain the need for a Key-Distribution Center

(KDC).
•  To show how a KDC can create a session key
between two parties.
•  To show how two parties can use a symmetric-key
agreement protocol to create a session between
themselves without using the services of a KDC.

15.2

m @ 2015/2016-1 1
SCSR3443 Cryptography 9-Dec-15

Chapter 15 Contents

15.1 Introduction
15.2 Symmetric-Key Distribution
15.3 Symmetric-Key Agreement: Diffie-Hellman
15.4 Summary

15.3

Chapter 15 15.1 Introduction

•  In previous chapters, we have discussed symmetric-key

and asymmetric-key cryptography.

•  However, we have not discussed yet on how secret key in

symmetric-key cryptography, and public key in
asymmetric-key cryptography are distributed and
maintained.

15.4

m @ 2015/2016-1 2
SCSR3443 Cryptography 9-Dec-15

Chapter 15 15.1 Introduction

•  This chapter will touches the secret key in symmetric-key

cryptography only.

•  The discussion will be on:

•  the distribution of symmetric keys using a trusted
third party.
•  How two parties can establish a symmetric key
between themselves without using a trusted third
party.

15.5

Chapter 15 15.1 Introduction

Key Management

•  Key management is the way how we manage the

cryptographic keys in a cryptosystem.
•  This may includes the dealing with the key generation,
key exchange, key storage, key use, and key
replacement.
•  Successful key management is critical to the security of a
cryptosystem.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_management 15.6

m @ 2015/2016-1 3
SCSR3443 Cryptography 9-Dec-15

Chapter 15 Contents

15.1 Introduction
15.2 Symmetric-Key Distribution
15.3 Symmetric-Key Agreement: Diffie-Hellman
15.4 Summary

15.7

Chapter 15 15.2 Symmetric-Key Distribution

•  Symmetric-key cryptography is more efficient than

asymmetric-key cryptography for encrypting large
messages.
•  Symmetric-key cryptography, however, needs a shared
secret key between two parties.

•  Problems:
•  The number of keys;
•  The distribution of keys is another problem.

•  Solution: Use a trusted third party.

15.8

m @ 2015/2016-1 4
SCSR3443 Cryptography 9-Dec-15

Chapter 15 15.2 Symmetric-Key Distribution

Key-Distribution Center (KDC)

•  KDC is a practical solution that use a trusted third party.

•  To reduce the number of keys, each person establishes a
shared secret key with the KDC.

Figure 15.1: Key-distribution center (KDC)

15.9

Chapter 15 15.2 Symmetric-Key Distribution

•  (Figure 15.1)
•  A secret key is established between the KDC and each
members.

•  Alice can sends a confidential message to Bob with the

following process:
①  Alice sends a request to the KDC stating that she
needs a session (temporary) secret key with Bob.
②  The KDC informs Bob about Alice’s request.
③  If Bob agrees, a session key is created between them.

15.10

m @ 2015/2016-1 5
SCSR3443 Cryptography 9-Dec-15

Chapter 15 15.2 Symmetric-Key Distribution

•  When the number of people using a KDC increases, the

system becomes unmanageable and a bottleneck can
result.
•  Solution: Multiple KDCs.

Types of KDC

Hierarchical Multiple
Flat Multiple KDCs
KDCs

15.11

Chapter 15 15.2 Symmetric-Key Distribution

Figure 15.2: Flat multiple KDCs

15.12

m @ 2015/2016-1 6
SCSR3443 Cryptography 9-Dec-15

Chapter 15 15.2 Symmetric-Key Distribution

Figure 15.3: Hierarchical multiple KDCs

15.13

Chapter 15 15.2 Symmetric-Key Distribution

Session Keys:
•  A KDC creates a secret key for each member.
•  This secret key can be used only between the member and
the KDC, not between two members.

Note
A session symmetric key between two parties
is used only once.

15.14

m @ 2015/2016-1 7
SCSR3443 Cryptography 9-Dec-15

Chapter 15 Contents

15.1 Introduction
15.2 Symmetric-Key Distribution
15.3 Symmetric-Key Agreement
•  Diffie-Hellman
•  Analysis of Diffie-Hellman
•  Security of Diffie-Hellman
15.4 Summary

15.15

Chapter 15 15.3 Symmetric-Key Agreement

•  Sender and receiver can create a session key between

themselves without using a KDC.
•  This method of session-key creation is referred to as the
symmetric-key agreement.

•  There are several ways to accomplish this.

•  Two common methods are Diffie-Hellman and station-to-
station.
•  However, we shall discuss the Diffie-Hellman only.

15.16

m @ 2015/2016-1 8
SCSR3443 Cryptography 9-Dec-15

Chapter 15 15.3 Symmetric-Key Agreement

Diffie-Hellman (DH)

•  In DH protocol, two parties create a symmetric session key

without the need of a KDC.
•  Before establishing a symmetric-key, the two parties need to
choose two numbers :

p A large prime number on the order of 300

decimal digits (1024 bits)
g A generator of order p – 1 in the group < Zp*, x >

•  These p and g do not need to be confidential.

•  They can be sent through the Internet; can be public.
15.17

Chapter 15 15.3 Symmetric-Key Agreement

•  Sender

Figure 15.4: Diffie-Hellman method

15.18

m @ 2015/2016-1 9
SCSR3443 Cryptography 9-Dec-15

Chapter 15 15.3 Symmetric-Key Agreement

•  Figure 15.4 shows the procedure.

•  The steps are as follows:

①  Alice chooses a large random number x such that
0 ≤ x ≤ (p – 1) and calculates R1 = gx mod p.
②  Bob chooses another large random number y such
that 0 ≤ y ≤ (p – 1) and calculates R2 = gy mod p.
③  Alice sends R1 to Bob (but not sends the value of x).
④  Bob sends R2 to Alice (but not sends the value of y).
⑤  Alice calculate K = (R2)x mod p.
K is the symmetric
⑥  Bob calculate K = (R1)y mod p. key for the session.

Chapter 15 15.3 Symmetric-Key Agreement

•  Bob has calculated K as:

R1 = g x mod p

K = (R1 ) y mod p = (g x mod p) y mod p = g xy mod p

•  Alice has calculated K as:

R2 = g y mod p

K = (R2 ) x mod p = (g y mod p) x mod p = g xy mod p

15.20

m @ 2015/2016-1 10
SCSR3443 Cryptography 9-Dec-15

Chapter 15 15.3 Symmetric-Key Agreement

Bob
•  Both have reached the
same value without Bob K = g xy mod p
knowing the value of x and
without Alice knowing the
value of y.

Alice

K = g xy mod p
15.21

Chapter 15 15.3 Symmetric-Key Agreement

Example 15.1: Let us give a trivial example to make the procedure

clear.
Our example uses small numbers, but note that in a
real situation, the numbers are very large.
Assume that g = 7 and p = 23.
The steps are as follows:

①  Alice chooses x = 3 and calculates R1 = 73 mod 23 = 21.

②  Bob chooses y = 6 and calculates R2 = 76 mod 23 = 4.
③  Alice sends the number 21 to Bob.
④  Bob sends the number 4 to Alice.
⑤  Alice calculates the symmetric key K = 43 mod 23 = 18.
⑥  Bob calculates the symmetric key K = 216 mod 23 = 18.
The value of K is the same for both Alice and Bob;
gxy mod p = 718 mod 35 = 18.

m @ 2015/2016-1 11
SCSR3443 Cryptography 9-Dec-15

Chapter 15 15.3 Symmetric-Key Agreement

Exercise 15.1: Given p = 97 and g = 5. Assume that Alice and Bob

choose the private key as x = 36 and y = 58
respectively.

a)  Calculate Alice public key, RA.

b)  Calculate Bob public key, RB.
c)  Calculate the symmetric key KA value for Alice.
d)  Calculate the symmetric key KB value for Bob.
e)  Do they reach the same value of symmetric key?

Assoc. Prof. Mazleena Salleh, Cryptography and Network Security, 2014/2015-Semester 2. 15.23

Chapter 15 15.3 Symmetric-Key Agreement

Exercise 15.2: Alice and Bob who wish to swap keys agree on p = 353
and g = 3. Assume that Alice and Bob choose the
private key as x = 97 and y = 233 respectively.

a)  Calculate Alice public key, RA.

b)  Calculate Bob public key, RB.
c)  Calculate the symmetric key KA value for Alice.
d)  Calculate the symmetric key KB value for Bob.

Assoc. Prof. Mazleena Salleh, Cryptography and Network Security, 2014/2015-Semester 2. 15.24

m @ 2015/2016-1 12
SCSR3443 Cryptography 9-Dec-15

Chapter 15 15.3 Symmetric-Key Agreement

Exercise 15.3: Choose a partner in the class. Assume the prime p = 97

and g = 5.

•  Each person select a

random secret key that
must less than p.
•  Computer your public key.
•  Tell your public key to your
partner.

•  Compute your shared

session key.
•  Check with your partner
whether the keys are the
same.
Assoc. Prof. Mazleena Salleh, Cryptography and Network Security, 2014/2015-Semester 2.
https://kellysisco.files.wordpress.com/2014/06/two-people-speech-bubbles1.jpg 15.25

Chapter 15 15.3 Symmetric-Key Agreement

Example 15.2: Let us give a more realistic example.

We used a program to create a random integer of 512

bits (the ideal is 1024 bits).

The integer p is a 159-digit number.

We also choose g, x, and y as shown below:

m @ 2015/2016-1 13
SCSR3443 Cryptography 9-Dec-15

Chapter 15 15.3 Symmetric-Key Agreement

(Continued)

The following shows the values of R1, R2, and K.

Chapter 15 15.3 Symmetric-Key Agreement

Analysis of Diffie-Hellman:
•  The DH concept is simple but elegant.
•  The secret key between Alice and Bob is made of three
parts: g, x, and y.
•  However, 1/3 of the key is public: g.
•  The other 2/3 of the key must be added by Alice and Bob.

Note Although the key in Alice’s hand (g, y, and x) and the
key in Bob’s hand (g, x, and y), these two keys are the
same because gxy = gyx

Although the two keys are the same, Alice cannot find
the value of y used by Bob because the calculation is
done in modulo p.

m @ 2015/2016-1 14
SCSR3443 Cryptography 9-Dec-15

Chapter 15 15.3 Symmetric-Key Agreement

R1 = g x mod p R2 = g y mod p

K = (R2 ) x mod p K = (R1 ) y mod p

Figure 15.5: Diffie-Hellman idea

15.29

Chapter 15 15.3 Symmetric-Key Agreement

Security of Diffie-Hellman:
•  The DH key exchange is susceptible to two attacks:

DH Attacks

Discrete Logarithm Man-in-the-Middle

Attack Attack

•  Eve can intercept R1 and R2. •  Eve does not have to find the value of
•  If the x and y found from R1 x and y.
and R2, the symmetric key K •  Eve can fool Alice and Bob by creating
can be calculated. two keys; one between herself and
Alice, one between herself and Bob.
(Figure 15.6)

m @ 2015/2016-1 15
SCSR3443 Cryptography 9-Dec-15

Chapter 15 15.3 Symmetric-Key Agreement

Figure 15.6: Man-in-the-middle attack

15.31

Chapter 15 Contents

15.1 Introduction
15.2 Symmetric-Key Distribution
15.3 Symmetric-Key Agreement: Diffie-Hellman
15.4 Summary

15.32

m @ 2015/2016-1 16
SCSR3443 Cryptography 9-Dec-15

Chapter 15 15.4 Summary

•  Symmetric-key cryptography needs a shared secret key

between two parties.
•  N people need N(N – 1 )/2 keys.
•  The problem are the number of keys and the
distribution of the keys.

•  A practical solution is the use of a trusted third party, referred

to as a Key-Distribution Center (KDC).
•  Create a session key temporarily between Alice and Bob.
•  Their keys are used to authenticate themselves to the
center.
15.33

Chapter 15 15.4 Summary

•  Alice and Bob can create a session key between

themselves without using KDC referred to as the
Symmetric-Key Agreement.
•  One method discussed: Diffie-Hellman (DH).
•  However, DH is susceptible to the man-in-the-middle
attack.

15.34

m @ 2015/2016-1 17
SCSR3443 Cryptography 9-Dec-15

Chapter 15 Exercises

Exercise 15.4: a)  What is the main duties of a KDC?

b)  Define a session key and show how a KDC can

create a session key between Alice and Bob.

c)  Define the Diffie-Hellman protocol and its purpose.

d)  Define man-in-the-middle attack.

Forouzan,B.A. Cryptography and Network Security (International Edition). Singapore: McGraw-Hill, 2008. (page 463) 15.35

Chapter 15 Exercises

Exercise 15.5: In the Diffie-Hellman protocol, g = 7, p = 23, x = 3,

and y = 5.

a)  What is the value of R1 and R2?

b)  What is the value of the symmetric key?

Forouzan,B.A. Cryptography and Network Security (International Edition). Singapore: McGraw-Hill, 2008. (page 463)

m @ 2015/2016-1 18
SCSR3443 Cryptography 9-Dec-15

Chapter 15 Exercises

Exercise 15.6: In the Diffie-Hellman protocol, what happen if x and y

have the same value, that is, Alice and Bob have
accidently chosen the same number? Are the R1 and R2
the same? Do the session keys calculated by Alice and
Bob have the same value?

Use an example to prove your claims.

Forouzan,B.A. Cryptography and Network Security (International Edition). Singapore: McGraw-Hill, 2008. (page 464)

m @ 2015/2016-1 19