Third version

© 2017 Curriculum Planning and Development Division

Ministry of Education, Singapore

MOE Building
1 North Buona Vista Drive
Singapore 138675

First published 2017

Second version 2018
Third version 2021

All rights reserved

ii
 Preface
This textbook is written in alignment with the Ministry of Education’s O-Level Computing syllabus.

The concepts are presented through the use of real-life examples and authentic contexts with the
aim of equipping students with the necessary knowledge in the subject, as well as opportunities
for the development of computational thinking skills, and the ethical use and handling of data.

Chapter Opener
• Full-page lead-in to the chapter with a defined problem context
• Framed as a question and supported with characters or illustrations to stimulate thinking

1 Module 2: Systems and Communications

How Do Computers Work? Modules

Alex visits several computer retail stores and collects some flyers on computers for
comparison. One of them is shown below. What do you think the specifications on
• The syllabus content is grouped into four modules.
The module of the chapter is indicated at the top.
the flyer mean?

• High-End CPU (8-Core, 16 MB Cache, up to 4.8 GHz)

• High-End GPU 8 GB GDDR6
– Module 1: Data and Information
• 16 GB Dual Channel DDR4 XMP at 2933 MHz
• 1 TB M.2 PCIe NVMe SSD

– Module 2: Systems and Communications

• RJ-45 2.5 Gigabit Ethernet NIC
• Wi-Fi 6 802.11ax Wireless and Bluetooth 5.1

– Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

• Mid-Range CPU (6 MB Cache, 3.6 GHz)
• 1 TB 5400 RPM 2.5-inch SATA Hard Drive
• Integrated Graphics
• 15.6-inch FHD LED-Display
• 8 GB DDR4 2666 MHz RAM
• 802.11ac with Bluetooth 4.1
• Optical Disk Drive
– Module 4: Programming
• 3.6 GHz Quad-Core Low-End CPU 6 MB shared L3 Cache
• 8 GB of 2666 MHz DDR4 SO-DIMM memory
• 256 GB PCIe-based SSD
• Integrated graphics
• 802.11ac Wi-Fi with Bluetooth 5.0

Computers have changed the way we work, live and play. Besides desktops and laptops,
today you can find computers in cars, mobile phones and even watches. To make
the most of the computers around us, we need to understand how they are designed
to function.

This chapter will introduce the major components of computer architecture and their
functions. You will also learn about how instructions are executed during program
operation and how the various components work together.

PB 1 How Do I Use Flowcharts and Pseudo-Code?

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Produce an algorithm, in pseudo-code or diagrammatically, to solve a problem.

• Perform a dry run of a set of steps to determine its purpose and/or output. Learning Outcomes
• Produce trace tables to show values of variables at each stage in a set of steps.

• Locate logic errors in an algorithm, and correct or modify an algorithm to remove the
errors or for changes in task specification. • Provided at the beginning to
3.1 Variables
direct students towards the
We often give names to values when defining inputs and outputs or generalising problems and
solutions. For example, in the problem shown in Table 3.1, x and y are the named values.
focus of the chapter
‚ Table 3.1 Defining the addition problem

Input Output

• x: a positive whole number • The sum of x and y

• y: a positive whole number

In flowcharts and pseudo-code, these named

Key Term
values are called variables. Imagine a variable
as a box that is labelled with its name. A variable
can store different types of data just as a box can Variable (flowchart and pseudo-code)
Named storage space for a value that
Key Term
store different kinds of items (see Figure 3.1). Data
can come in many forms such as letters, lists, can be changed while the algorithm
numbers and words. is running
• Defines important terms
used in the chapter

p Figure 3.1 Just like a box can store different kinds of items,
a variable can store different types of data

42

iii
 Did you know?
Module 4: Programming

In summary, the syntax for a replacement field is as follows: • Provides interesting facts relevant to the topic
Syntax 5.3 Replacement field

Quick Check
{}

{index}

• Provided at the end of each section to reinforce

p Figure 5.25 Syntax for replacement fields

Did you know?

The str.format() method and replacement fields can also perform more complex tasks such
concepts through short-answer questions
as lengthening strs to a specified width and restricting the number of decimal places used when
converting a float to a str. Use of the str.format() method to perform such tasks will not
be covered in this textbook.

Quick Check 5.3 Module 4: Programming

1. Fill in the blank in the program below so that it correctly outputs whether the first
character of name is an upper-case letter. Review Questions
name = input("Enter name: ")
1. A program is needed to solve the following word reversal problem:
print( )
‚ Table 6.34 Defining the word reversal problem
p Figure 5.26 Program template

Input Output
2. Complete the program below by filling in the blank with one or more lines of code so
that it correctly outputs whether title contains upper-case letters and spaces only • input_text: phrase to • Given phrase with the order of the letters
(i.e., no lower-case letters, symbols or digits). reverse, should contain only of each word reversed but the words
letters and spaces themselves still in order, separated by one
title = input("Enter title: ") space between words

p Figure 5.27 Program template The draft program in Figure 6.42 is written for this purpose.

a) The main algorithm for the program consists of three parts. Read through the code and
state what each of the following parts of the program are intended to do:
i) Lines 13 to 25
ii) Lines 27 to 35
iii) Lines 37 to 42

b) When this program is run on the following test case, the actual output does not match the
72 173 expected output:

‚ Table 6.35 Running word_reversal_draft.py on a test case

 Input Expected Output 

• input_text: "Meetings on etiquette" sgniteeM no etteuqite

Running word_reversal_draft.py on test case 

Review Questions
Result

Enter input text: Meetings on etiquette Failed

Msgnitee on eetteuqit

• Provided at the end of the chapter to reinforce i) State the kind of condition (normal, boundary or error) covered by this test case.
ii) State the kind of error (syntax, run-time or logic) that has occurred and why.

and consolidate the concepts learnt in the iii) Find out where the error is located by disabling lines of code and testing the program
in chunks or parts. State the line on which the error is located and explain why the line
is incorrect.

chapter through structured questions iv) Rewrite the program to fix the error so that it passes the test case.

242 243

Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

Chapter Summary Answers

ANSWERS
IF...ELSE... CASE...OTHERWISE... WHILE... REPEAT... FOR... Chapter 1 How Do Computers Work?
ENDIF ENDCASE ENDWHILE UNTIL NEXT
Quick Check 1.1

1. True. However, “kilobyte” is still often confused with “kibibyte”, which is 1,024 bytes.

Selection Input/Output Sequence Iteration 2. a) 2,017 kB = 2,017 × (103 bytes) = 2,017,000 bytes
Constructs Constructs Constructs
b) 19 GB = 19 × (109 bytes) = 19,000,000,000 bytes
c) 65 MB = 65 × (106 bytes) = 65,000,000 bytes

PSEUDO-CODE Quick Check 1.3

1. The main differences between RAM and ROM are summarised below:

RAM ROM
FLOWCHARTS AND
PSEUDO-CODE Read and write: stored data can be Read only: stored data cannot be easily
easily changed changed

Volatile: loses data once power supply Non-volatile: retains data regardless of
to the computer is interrupted whether the power supply is switched
TRACE TABLES FLOWCHARTS on or off

Purpose: to store data and instructions Purpose: to store data and instructions
temporarily so that they can be quickly that would be needed for a computer to
Dry Runs
accessed by the processor when needed start up or before data can be loaded into
Symbols Structuring
RAM
Flowcharts

Producing a
Terminator Quick Check 1.4
Trace Table Sequence

1. True. Memory addresses are just numbers so they can also be treated as data.
Data
Selection
Correcting
an Algorithm Quick Check 1.6
Decision
Iteration
1. a) A hard disk. It is the only device with storage capacity available in terabytes.
Process b) A memory card. It is the only device small and flat enough to fit in a wallet. A memory
card would also be less vulnerable to mechanical shocks that could occur in a wallet.

68 69

A–PB A–1

Chapter Summary
Answers
• Provides an overview of the key concepts
in the chapter as well as links between • Provides answers and explanations to
them using a concept map Quick Check and Review Questions

iv
Contents

PREFACE

Chapter 1 How Do Computers Work? 1

1.1 Computer Architecture 2

1.2 Processor 5
1.3 Memory 6
1.4 Data and Address Buses 8
1.5 Input and Output 10
1.6 Secondary Storage 11

Chapter 2 How Can Algorithms Be Used to Solve Problems? 17

2.1 Understanding Algorithms 18

2.2 Understanding Problems 22
2.3 Problem-Solving Techniques 25

Chapter 3 How Do I Use Flowcharts and Pseudo-Code? 37

3.1 Variables 38
3.2 Flowcharts 40
3.3 Trace Tables 51
3.4 Pseudo-Code 57

Chapter 4 How Do I Write Programs? 69

4.1 Flowcharts and Programs 70

4.2 Programming Languages 72
4.3 Compilers and Interpreters 74
4.4 Variables and Constants 80
4.5 Data Types 89
4.6 Functions and Operators 98
4.7 Control Flow Statements 124

Chapter 5 How Can Programs Be Used to Solve Problems? 147

5.1 Stages in Developing a Program 148

5.2 Mathematical Functions 158
5.3 String Functions 166
5.4 Common Problems and Solutions 175

Chapter 6 How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended? 189

6.1 Validating Input Data 190

6.2 Designing Test Cases 201
6.3 Debugging Program Errors 218

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Chapter 7 How Can I Be a Safe and Responsible Computer User? 239

7.1 Data Corruption and Loss 240

7.2 Unauthorised Access 244
7.3 Threats to Privacy and Security 254
7.4 Intellectual Property 262
7.5 Impact of Technology on Everyday Life 267

Chapter 8 How are Number Systems Applied in Real Life? 277

8.1 The Denary Number System 278

8.2 The Binary Number System 280
8.3 The Hexadecimal Number System 286
8.4 Applications of Binary and Hexadecimal Number Systems 297

Chapter 9 How Do Logic Circuits Make Decisions? 311

9.1 Boolean Logic 312

9.2 Truth Tables 313
9.3 Logic Gates 315
9.4 Logic Circuit Diagrams 319
9.5 Boolean Statements 322
9.6 Applications of Logic Circuits 331

Chapter 10 How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data? 337
10.1 Understanding Spreadsheets 338
10.2 Data Management 352
10.3 Functions 356
10.4 What-If Analysis 378
10.5 Conditional Formatting 382

Chapter 11 How Do I Create a Simple Network? 395

11.1 Computer Network 396

11.2 Types of Computer Networks 397
11.3 Factors Affecting Choice of Transmission Medium 404
11.4 Identifiers 405
11.5 Network Hardware and Their Functions 407
11.6 Network Topologies 412
11.7 Error-Checking Methods in Data Transmission 416

Answers A–1
 1 Module 2: Systems and Communications

How Do Computers Work?

Alex visits several computer retail stores and collects some flyers on computers for
comparison. One of them is shown below. What do you think the specifications on
the flyer mean?

• High-End CPU (8-Core, 16 MB Cache, up to 4.8 GHz)

• High-End GPU 8 GB GDDR6
• 16 GB Dual Channel DDR4 XMP at 2933 MHz
• 1 TB M.2 PCIe NVMe SSD
• RJ-45 2.5 Gigabit Ethernet NIC
• Wi-Fi 6 802.11ax Wireless and Bluetooth 5.1

• Mid-Range CPU (6 MB Cache, 3.6 GHz)

• 1 TB 5400 RPM 2.5-inch SATA Hard Drive
• Integrated Graphics
• 15.6-inch FHD LED-Display
• 8 GB DDR4 2666 MHz RAM
• 802.11ac with Bluetooth 4.1
• Optical Disk Drive

• 3.6 GHz Quad-Core Low-End CPU 6 MB shared L3 Cache

• 8 GB of 2666 MHz DDR4 SO-DIMM memory
• 256 GB PCIe-based SSD
• Integrated graphics
• 802.11ac Wi-Fi with Bluetooth 5.0

Computers have changed the way we work, live and play. Besides desktops and laptops,
today you can find computers in cars, mobile phones and even watches. To make
the most of the computers around us, we need to understand how they are designed
to function.

This chapter will introduce the major components of computer architecture and their
functions. You will also learn about how instructions are executed during program
operation and how the various components work together.

1
How Do Computers Work?

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Describe basic computer architecture with reference to:
– Computer processors
– Memory
– Data and address buses
– Input (e.g., data and instructions) and output (e.g., intermediate and final results
of processing)
– Storage media

1.1 Computer Architecture

A computer (or computer system) is a device that can receive data, process the data according
to a set of instructions and produce the processed data as a result. The computer architecture
used describes how a computer is designed and built to function, including how its parts are
designed, organised and connected.

Did you know?

There are many ways to build a computer. For instance, while most computers today run on
electricity, early computers did not use electricity at all. Instead, they worked based on mechanisms
such as cranks, gears and levers. These mechanical computers thus used a completely different
computer architecture from the computers we are familiar with today.

1.1.1 Units of Data

Key Terms
Since a computer has to receive, process and
produce data, one of the most basic design choices Computer
for a computer is how the data is represented. Device that can receive data,
process the data according to a set
Modern computers evolved from machines designed of instructions and produce the
for doing calculations, so for most computers today, processed data as a result
data is represented as numbers. The smallest unit of
data in a computer is a bit, or binary digit, which Computer architecture
can take on the value of either 0 or 1. A computer How a computer is designed and
stores and processes all data using binary numbers built to function, including how the
that consist of these digits. parts of the computer are designed,
organised and connected

Data
Information that is used in a
computer program (singular: datum)

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 Module 2: Systems and Communications

A single bit would be too simple to represent complex data, so we usually talk about data being
represented as bytes instead. A byte is a unit of data made up of eight bits.

Table 1.1 summarises some units of measure of data in order of increasing size.

‚ Table 1.1 Units of measure of data

Name of unit Symbol Size in bytes Key Terms

kilobyte kB 1,000
Bit
kibibyte KiB 1,024 Binary digit which
megabyte MB 1,0002 = 1,000,000 can take on the value
mebibyte MiB 1,0242 = 1,048,576 of either 0 or 1

gigabyte GB 1,0003 = 1,000,000,000 Byte

gibibyte GiB 1,024 = 1,073,741,824
3 Binary number
made up of
terabyte TB 1,0004 = 1,000,000,000,000
eight bits
tebibyte TiB 1,0244 = 1,099,511,627,776

Did you know?

In the past, units of data such as “kilobyte”, “megabyte” and “gigabyte” were based on powers
of 1,024 (or 210) instead of the standard powers of 1,000 used in the International System of Units
(SI). However, since 1998, multiple standards organisations have agreed that SI prefixes (i.e., “kilo”,
“mega”, “giga”, etc.) should follow their standard meanings while new binary prefixes (i.e., “kibi”,
“mebi”, “gibi”, etc.) would be used to represent powers of 1,024.

Despite this change, you may still encounter the use of “kilobyte” and “megabyte” to represent
1,024 bytes and 1,0242 bytes respectively, instead of the correct units “kibibyte” and “mebibyte”.

1.1.2 Inside the Computer

Most computer parts can be organised into the following roles:

‚ Table 1.2 Inside the computer

Role Description
Processes data and follows instructions; consists of an
Processor
arithmetic logic unit and a control unit
Stores data, instructions and the results of processing for
Memory
immediate use
Stores large amounts of data that will not be lost when power
Secondary storage
supply is interrupted

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How Do Computers Work?

‚ Table 1.2 Inside the computer (continued)

Role Description
Data bus Transports data between memory and processor; bi-directional
Transports required memory location from processor to
Address bus
memory; uni-directional
Input Data or instructions that the computer receives
Intermediate or final results produced by the computer; usually
Output
in the form of processed data

Figure 1.1 shows where the parts performing these roles may be found inside the case of a
desktop computer.

Input/Output

Memory

Secondary
storage

Address bus
(green)
Data bus
(red)
Processor

p Figure 1.1 Components in a desktop computer case

The sections that follow will elaborate on each of these parts.

Quick Check 1.1

1. 1 kilobyte is the same size as 1,000 bytes. True or false?

2. Convert the following amounts of data into bytes:

a) 2,017 kB
b) 19 GB
c) 65 MB

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 Module 2: Systems and Communications

1.2 Processor

You have already learnt that computers need to

process data and follow instructions. The computer Key Terms
part that does this is called the processor or central
processing unit (CPU). It is usually a complex circuit Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
made of many components that is compressed into a Part of the processor that
square or rectangular package. You will learn more processes data by performing basic
about the components that make up this circuit in mathematical and logical operations
Chapter 9.
Central processing unit
The two main functions of a processor are usually (or processor)
handled by separate parts: Part of the computer that processes
data and follows instructions
1. The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) processes
data by performing basic mathematical and
Control unit
logical operations such as addition,
Part of the processor that follows
subtraction, multiplication and division.
instructions and decides when
This unit performs the actual work of
data should be stored, received or
performing calculations and transforming data.
transmitted by different parts of
2. The control unit follows instructions and the computer
decides when data should be stored, received
or transmitted by different parts of the Execute
computer (including the ALU). This unit makes To follow or perform an instruction
sure that data is transported to where it
needs to be, and that it is processed in the Software
correct order. Set of instructions to perform
specific tasks on a computer

p Figure 1.2 Some common processor packages

When we say that a processor runs or executes instructions, it means that the processor follows
or performs instructions. A series of instructions is called a program, or simply software.

Often, a processor’s speed is described by the number of instructions that the processor can
perform in one second. For instance, a 1 MHz (megahertz) processor can perform one million
instructions per second while a 1 GHz (gigahertz) processor can perform one billion instructions
per second. In general, the larger the number and unit, the faster and more powerful the processor.

5
How Do Computers Work?

There are also “multi-core” processors that contain multiple processing units inside a single
package. For instance, a “dual-core” package has two such processing units while a “quad-core”
package has four. These “multi-core” processors can perform more than one instruction at the
same time, and thus are more powerful than “single-core” processors.

1.3 Memory

Whenever a computer needs to store data, it uses

memory. Physically, memory can exist in many Key Terms
forms, but in general, it is made up of many switches
arranged in a fixed order. Each switch can store one Address
bit of data based on whether it is ON or OFF (i.e., Number that is used to locate a
ON = 1, OFF = 0). byte in memory

Since a byte consists of eight bits, we usually look Memory

at eight consecutive switches at a time, as shown in Device that is used to store data for
Figure 1.3. immediate use in a computer

Address Switches (memory)

... ...and so on...

p Figure 1.3 Memory as a collection of switches in a fixed order

In Figure 1.3, we used big physical switches to represent memory, but in most computers, memory
is actually made up of very small electronic switches that take up much less space.

Usually, the position of each byte is represented by a number called an address. This is a number
that allows a computer to quickly find those switches again if it needs to read or change the
data that is stored. This is similar to how a unit number is used to identify the location of each
residence in an HDB block.

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 Module 2: Systems and Communications

The type of memory employed depends on how the

data stored inside is meant to be used:
Key Terms
1. Processor registers are physically located inside Hard disk (or hard drive)
the processor. These extremely fast but small data Secondary storage where data
storage spaces are used directly by the ALU and is stored on rigid rotating disks
control unit. The number and size of processor coated with a magnetic material
registers cannot be changed without changing
the processor. Volatile
2. Random access memory (RAM) or main memory Lost when the power supply
is where data and instructions are stored is interrupted
temporarily so that they can be quickly accessed
by the processor when needed. For instance,
when an application is started, its instructions may be loaded into RAM. Data stored on
RAM can be easily changed and is also volatile, which means that it is lost once the power
supply to the computer is interrupted.

p Figure 1.4 Example of a RAM card

When we use the word “memory”, we are usually referring to RAM and not the other types
of memory. Most desktop computers have RAM located on removable cards so that the
amount of RAM in the computer can be upgraded. Other kinds of computers, however,
may have only a fixed amount of RAM that cannot be changed.
3. Read-only memory (ROM) is where data and instructions that rarely need to change or
would be needed for a computer to start up are stored. Data stored on ROM cannot be
easily changed and remains there regardless of whether the power supply is switched on
or off. This makes it ideal for storing instructions that are needed before data can be loaded
into RAM.
4. Secondary storage is where large amounts of data are stored, such as in a hard disk
or hard drive. To avoid confusion, we typically use the word “storage” for this kind of
storage space instead of the word “memory”. Different storage media are used for secondary
storage. The different kinds of storage media will be discussed in section 1.6.

Quick Check 1.3

1. Describe the main differences between RAM and ROM.

7
How Do Computers Work?

1.4 Data and Address Buses

Besides storing data, computers also use buses to

transport data from one part of the computer to Key Term
another. A bus is a collection of wires that serves as
a “highway” for data to travel on. It can be made of Bus
either physical wires or conductive lines printed on Collection of wires for transporting
a circuit board. data from one part of a computer
to another

p Figure 1.5 Example of a computer bus made of physical wires

Front of circuit board Back of circuit board

Conductive lines
(including data and address buses)

p Figure 1.6 Example of computer buses made of conductive lines

Two important buses that transport data between

the processor and memory parts of a computer are Key Terms
the data bus and the address bus:
Bi-directional
1. The data bus transports data that is going to Able to work in two directions, to
be processed to the CPU, as well as data that and fro
has already been processed from the CPU.
The data bus is bi-directional because data Data bus
can be sent in both directions between the Bus that is used to transport data
processor and memory. between memory and the processor

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 Module 2: Systems and Communications

2. The address bus specifies memory address

information. When the processor reads Key Terms
from or writes to memory (RAM), the
relevant address information is provided Address bus
on the address bus. The address bus is Bus that is used to specify memory
uni-directional because address information address information
is always sent in one direction only, that is,
from the processor to memory. Uni-directional
Able to work in one direction only

Did you know?

There are many other buses that transport data from one part of the computer to another. Some
examples are the control bus that transports instructions from the processor’s control unit, and
the expansion buses such as those used for connecting external devices.

For instance, to read data from memory, the processor requests the data, and the address bus
transports the requested data’s address to RAM. A copy of the requested data is then sent from
RAM back to the processor via the data bus. This is illustrated in Figure 1.7, which uses bits for
data and simple numbers for addresses.

Data bus

Address bus

p Figure 1.7 How the data bus and address bus are used to read from memory

When writing data to memory, the processor uses both the data bus and address bus at the
same time to transport the data for writing as well as the destination address to RAM. RAM then
sets the switches at the destination address according to the data received via the data bus, as
illustrated in Figure 1.8.

9
 How Do Computers Work?

Before Writing to Memory After Writing to Memory

Before writing to memory After writing to memory

0 01001011 0 01001011
1 10100101 1 10100101
11111111
2 01100101 2 01100101
CPU
3 10110010 3 10110010
CPU Databus
Data Bus

4
4 01100100 4 11111111
Address bus
Address Bus
5 01110101 5 01110101
6 11001100 6 11001100
… …and so on... … …and so on...

p Figure 1.8 How the data bus and address bus are used to write to memory

As can be seen by the arrows in Figures 1.7 and 1.8, while the address bus is always used to
transport information from the processor to memory, the data bus can transport information in
either direction.

Quick Check 1.4

1. Memory addresses can also be read from or written to memory as data. True or false?

1.5 Input and Output

In computer architecture, input refers to data or

instructions that the computer receives for processing Key Terms
while output refers to any intermediate or final results
produced by the computer in the form of processed Input (computer architecture)
data. Examples of input are words entered using a Data or instructions that the
keyboard, pictures taken by a digital camera, and computer receives for processing
movement instructions entered using a mouse.
Examples of output are images displayed on a screen, Output (computer architecture)
sounds played on a speaker and even sculptures Intermediate or final results
printed using a 3D printer. produced by the computer in the
form of processed data

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 Module 2: Systems and Communications

Often, input is received from and output is sent to

hardware devices:
Key Terms
• An input device is a hardware device that Hardware
allows users to enter data and instructions Physical part of a computer
into a computer. Examples of input devices
are keyboards, mice, scanners, touch screens Input device
and microphones. Hardware device that allows users
• An output device is a hardware device used to enter data and instructions into
to display, project or print processed data from a computer
a computer so it can be used or understood by
people using the computer. Examples of Output device
output devices are monitors, speakers Hardware device used to display,
and printers. project or print processed data
from a computer
A computer usually has multiple input and output
devices connected to it, as seen in Figure 1.9.

Inputs Outputs

Scanner
Printer

Camera

CPU

Keyboard Mouse Monitor Speaker

p Figure 1.9 Examples of connected input and output devices

1.6 Secondary Storage

Secondary storage is a way of storing large amounts of data that will not be lost when power supply
is interrupted. Compared to RAM, secondary storage is usually cheaper and able to store much
more data. It is also non-volatile, so the data that is stored
remains there even without a power supply. This makes Key Term
secondary storage ideal for physically transporting data from
one computer to another. On the other hand, secondary
Secondary storage
storage is usually much slower in speed compared to RAM.
Way of storing large
amounts of data that will not
The processor usually does not access data in secondary
be lost when power supply
storage directly. Instead, any data in secondary storage that
is interrupted
the processor needs might be copied to RAM first.

11
How Do Computers Work?

1.6.1 Choosing Storage Media for Secondary Storage

There are many types of storage media available. When deciding on the best type of storage
media to use, these factors should be considered:

‚ Table 1.3 Factors to consider when choosing storage media

Factor Consideration

Capacity What is the size of the data to be stored?

Speed Does the data need to be accessed quickly?

Portability Does the data need to be physically transported frequently?

Durability How long is the storage device expected to last?

Cost How much does the storage device cost?

1.6.2 Types of Storage Media

Table 1.4 summarises three main types of storage media as well as their respective advantages
and disadvantages.

‚ Table 1.4 Three main types of storage media

Type Description Advantages Disadvantages

Magnetic Data is stored on a • Large storage • Easily damaged

magnetic material capacity of up and will
that can be read to terabytes (TB) eventually break
or written by a of data over time
magnetic “head”
• Relatively • Much slower
Example: hard disk cheaper than than solid-state
optical and storage media
solid-state
storage media

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 Module 2: Systems and Communications

‚ Table 1.4 Three main types of storage media (continued)

Type Description Advantages Disadvantages

Optical Data is stored as • Large storage • Data can only

very small pits or capacity of up to be written
indentations that gigabytes (GB) once for some
can be read or of data non-rewritable
written by a laser formats

Example: digital • Lower

versatile disc maximum
(DVD) storage
capacity than
magnetic
storage media

• Vulnerable to
scratches and
fingerprints

Solid-state Data is stored in • Much faster than • Much more

electronic circuits magnetic or optical expensive than
called “flash storage media magnetic or
memory” that optical storage
• Not as vulnerable
have no moving media
to drops,
parts
mechanical shocks,
Example: memory scratches or
cards fingerprints

• Smaller in size and

lighter in weight
than magnetic or
optical storage
media

• Uses very little

power and
produces no noise

Quick Check 1.6

1. For each of the following situations, suggest an appropriate secondary storage

medium that should be used and give a reason for your choice:
a) Storing terabytes of video files for backup
b) Keeping an emergency copy of some important files in a wallet

13
How Do Computers Work?

Chapter Summary

Random Access Read-only Input Output

Memory (RAM) Memory (ROM) Devices Devices

MEMORY PROCESSOR INPUT AND OUTPUT

COMPUTER
ARCHITECTURE

STORAGE MEDIA BUSES

Magnetic Data Bus

Optical Address Bus

Solid-state

14
 Module 2: Systems and Communications

Review Questions

1. Describe the function of each of the following components:

a) Control unit
b) Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
c) Main memory
d) Secondary storage

2. Classify the following as either volatile or non-volatile data storage:

a) Processor register
b) RAM
c) ROM
d) Secondary storage

3. Arrange the following storage media in order of increasing typical storage capacity.

DVD Processor register Hard disk

4. Refer to the flyers that Alex collected earlier in the chapter. Tabulate the specifications of
the following items for each computer stated in the flyers:
• Processor
• Memory
• Storage media options (such as magnetic hard disks and optical disc writers)

5. Calculate the number of bytes in the following amounts of data:

a) 17 kB
b) 18 KiB

6. Calculate the number of bits (not bytes) in the following amounts of data:
a) 8 TB
b) 0.125 MB
c) 0.125 MiB

15
How Do Computers Work?

7. The position of each byte in memory is called its address.

a) Calculate the number of addresses needed for 64 KiB of memory.
b) The memory in a computer has 256 possible addresses. Calculate the total size of the
computer’s memory in bits (not bytes).

8. Suppose A and B are two memory addresses and R is a processor register. One way to
copy data from address A to address B of memory is to perform the following two steps:
Step 1: Read the data at address A of memory and store it in register R.
Step 2: Write the data in register R to address B of memory.

a) State where R is physically located.

b) Use the words “memory” and “processor” to complete the following paragraphs:
In Step 1, the address bus is used to transport A from the      to the     ,
and the data bus is used to transport data from the      to the     .

In Step 2, the address bus is used to transport B from the      to the     ,
and the data bus is used to transport data from the      to the     .

c) Suppose R and S are two processor registers. Explain why the data and address buses
are not needed to copy data from R to S.

9. A hard disk is used as secondary storage for a laptop.

a) A data bus connects the laptop’s processor directly to its hard disk. True or false?
b) The laptop’s owner replaces the hard disk with a solid-state drive. Identify two
improvements that the owner is likely to experience.

16
 2 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

How Can Algorithms Be

Used to Solve Problems?
Siti and her family have just moved to a new neighbourhood as her younger sister is
attending Pines Primary School. Using the roads shown on the map below, which do
you think is the shortest route from her home to her sister’s school?

Pines Primary
School

Siti's house

In the previous chapter, we learnt about the architecture of computers used today. One
feature of this architecture is that computers can follow step-by-step instructions stored
in memory. Whenever instructions to solve a problem can be represented as a number
of steps, this set of steps is known as an algorithm.

In this chapter, you will learn about algorithms and what they can be used for. You
will also learn how to specify inputs and outputs to problems so that algorithms can
be used to solve them. Finally, you will apply the techniques of decomposition and
generalisation to design your own algorithms.

17
How Can Algorithms Be Used to Solve Problems?

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• For a given problem, specify the:
– Inputs and the requirements for valid inputs
– Outputs and the requirements for correct outputs

• Solve problems by decomposing them into smaller and manageable parts.

• Identify common elements across similar problems and state generalisations.

2.1 Understanding Algorithms

An algorithm is a solution that solves a problem through a set of clearly defined steps. It involves
the development of a set of instructions or rules.

Rubik's cube

Sudoku puzzle

Navigation device

p Figure 2.1 Examples of games and applications involving algorithms

For instance, the step-by-step process of solving a

Rubik’s cube can be considered an algorithm. The
Key Term
driving directions suggested by a navigation device
or the steps needed to solve a Sudoku puzzle are Algorithm
also algorithms. Set of step-by-step instructions for
solving a problem

18
 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

2.1.1 Example: Addition Algorithm

We use algorithms every day, although we may not see them explicitly written out. For example,
the following steps can be used to add two positive whole numbers:

Step 1: Write the first number, then write the second number below it such that the digits
in the ones place are aligned vertically. Draw a horizontal line below the second
number, as in Figure 2.2.

First number

Second number

p Figure 2.2 Step 1 of addition algorithm

Step 2: Let the current column be the right-most column of digits in the ones place.
Step 3: Add all the digits (including any “carry-over” digits) in the current column. If a digit
is missing, treat it as 0. There is no “carry-over” digit for the right-most column.
Step 4: If the result is greater than 9, write “1” at the top of the column immediately to the
left of the current column as a “carry-over” digit.
Step 5: Write the last digit of the result at the bottom of the current column, below the line.
Step 6: If there are still digits (including “carry-over” digits) to the left of the current column,
redefine that column on the left as the new current column and go back to Step 3.
Otherwise, the final answer is formed by the row of digits below the line.

"Carry-over" digits

First number

Second number

Final answer

p Figure 2.3 Example of completed addition algorithm

The advantage of writing out an algorithm step by step is that these steps can be followed precisely
by anyone who can add digits to obtain the correct answer. This particular algorithm is also useful
because it is general and works for adding any two positive whole numbers.

19
How Can Algorithms Be Used to Solve Problems?

2.1.2 Example: Algorithm for Calculating the Mean Subject Grade for
Seven Subjects
In some secondary schools, the Mean Subject Grade (MSG) is used to measure a student’s
performance in school. The MSG is a number between 1 (best) and 9 (worst) calculated from
the student’s rounded percentage scores in each subject.

The following steps provide an algorithm to calculate the MSG of a student taking seven subjects:
Step 1: Convert the rounded percentage scores into grade points using the table below.

‚ Table 2.1 Converting rounded percentage scores to grade points

Rounded percentage score Grade Grade points

75–100 A1 1

70–74 A2 2

65–69 B3 3

60–64 B4 4

55–59 C5 5

50–54 C6 6

45–49 D7 7

40–44 E8 8

Less than 40 F9 9

Step 2: Add up all the grade points.

Step 3: Divide the result by 7.
Step 4: Round the result to two decimal places. This is the student’s MSG.

For instance, if the rounded percentage scores for the student’s seven subjects are as shown in
Table 2.2, the corresponding MSG would be 3.14.

20
 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

‚ Table 2.2 Rounded percentage scores of a student taking seven subjects

Subject Rounded percentage score

#1 63

#2 74

#3 73

#4 56

#5 80

#6 50

#7 72

This algorithm is useful as anyone can follow the steps precisely to obtain the MSG of any
student (as long as the student takes exactly seven subjects).

2.1.3 Example: Algorithm for Baking a Cake

Cooking recipes are also examples of algorithms. The following example is a simplified recipe
or algorithm for baking a cake:
Step 1: Pre-heat oven to 180 °C.
Step 2: Mix 250 g of butter, 1 cup of sugar, 4 eggs and 2 cups of flour in a bowl.
Step 3: Pour mixture into a baking pan.
Step 4: Place baking pan in pre-heated oven for 60 minutes.
Step 5: Take baking pan out of oven and cool for 10 minutes. The cake is complete.

Just like the addition and MSG calculation algorithms, this algorithm is useful because anyone
can follow these steps precisely to bake a cake. However, this particular algorithm is not general
as it only works for baking one type of cake and for a fixed serving size.

We usually want algorithms to be as general as possible so that they can be used for different
problems. You will learn later about a technique for doing this, which is called generalisation.

21
How Can Algorithms Be Used to Solve Problems?

Quick Check 2.1

1. Which of the following is not an algorithm?

A A map of your neighbourhood
B A recipe for pineapple tarts
C Instructions on how to use a phone
D Walking directions to get from home to school

2. Modify the addition algorithm described in section 2.1.1 so that it works for three
positive whole numbers. Describe the changes that you made.

3. Write out the steps for an algorithm to find the top score of a class test.
(Hint: Make sure that the steps are written clearly so that anyone with just the steps
and a list of scores can obtain the correct answer.)

2.2 Understanding Problems

2.2.1 Problems
Algorithms are used to solve problems. To understand a
problem, we first need to specify its: Key Terms
1. Inputs and requirements for valid inputs Input (algorithms)
2. Outputs and requirements for correct outputs Data used by an algorithm that
can affect what is required for
Here, output is the result that the algorithm produces correct output
while input is any detail that can affect what we require
for the output. In computing, “input” and “output” usually Output (algorithms)
refer to data or instructions. Results produced by an
algorithm
An algorithm describes the process of transforming inputs
into outputs. In particular, a solution is defined as an Solution
algorithm that solves the given problem by always giving Algorithm that always gives
correct outputs when some valid inputs are provided. correct outputs when provided
with valid inputs

Input Processes Output

p Figure 2.4 Process flow in problem-solving

22
 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

2.2.2 Specifying the Inputs

It is not always easy to specify the inputs for a problem correctly. Good input specifications must:
1. include only the important data that can affect what we require for the output and exclude
any irrelevant details; and
2. state the range of valid or acceptable values for these inputs.

It is also a good practice to give each input a name. For instance, we can specify the inputs to
the addition problem that can be solved using the algorithm in section 2.1.1 in this manner:

‚ Table 2.3 Specifying the inputs to the addition problem for whole numbers (positive only)

Input

• x: a positive whole number

• y: a positive whole number

Similarly, the inputs to the problem of calculating the MSG for a student taking seven subjects
can be specified by treating each subject’s rounded percentage score as a separate input:

‚ Table 2.4 Specifying the inputs to the problem of calculating the MSG for seven subjects

Input

• Score 1: rounded percentage score for subject #1; must be a

whole number between 0 and 100 inclusive

• Score 2: rounded percentage score for subject #2; must be a

whole number between 0 and 100 inclusive

• Score 3: rounded percentage score for subject #3; must be a

whole number between 0 and 100 inclusive

• Score 4: rounded percentage score for subject #4; must be

a whole number between 0 and 100 inclusive

• Score 5: rounded percentage score for subject #5; must be a

whole number between 0 and 100 inclusive

• Score 6: rounded percentage score for subject #6; must be

a whole number between 0 and 100 inclusive

• Score 7: rounded percentage score for subject #7; must be a

whole number between 0 and 100 inclusive

23
How Can Algorithms Be Used to Solve Problems?

However, this way of specifying the inputs can be quite repetitive. Since the requirements for
each rounded percentage score are the same, we can shorten the specification as follows:

‚ Table 2.5 Simplified way of specifying the inputs to the problem of calculating the MSG for seven subjects

Input

• Score: rounded percentage score for subject; must be a

whole number between 0 and 100 inclusive (provided
seven times, once for each subject)

2.2.3 Specifying the Outputs

To specify the outputs for a problem correctly, we need to include all the important features that
the output is required to have. Any details that are not mentioned are assumed to be unimportant
or irrelevant, and thus these details may differ from the output of one solution to another.

For instance, we can specify the output of the addition problem that can be solved using the
algorithm in section 2.1.1 in this manner:

‚ Table 2.6 Specifying the output of the addition problem for whole numbers (positive only)

Output

• The sum of x and y

Similarly, we can specify the output of the problem of calculating the MSG for a student taking
seven subjects in this manner:

‚ Table 2.7 Specifying the output of the problem of calculating the

MSG for seven subjects (original)

Output

• MSG for the seven subjects

However, if we require the MSG values to be rounded to two decimal places, we can revise the
problem of calculating the MSG for seven subjects accordingly:

‚ Table 2.8 Specifying the output of the problem of calculating the

MSG for seven subjects (rounded)

Output

• MSG for the seven subjects, rounded to two decimal places

24
 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

Quick Check 2.2

1. Modify the input specifications for the addition problem in Table 2.3 so that both
positive and negative whole numbers are valid inputs. Determine whether the original
addition algorithm is a solution to this modified problem, and if not, explain why.

2. Alex wants to find the weight of the heaviest apple on display at the market. Specify
the input and output requirements for Alex’s problem.

3. Table 2.9 shows a possible set of input and output requirements for calculating the
average score of a class test. Suggest how it can be improved and why.

‚ Table 2.9 Input and output requirements for the average-score problem

Input Output

• Title: name of the class test • The average score of

the class test
• Scores: list of class test scores with
each student’s score on a separate
row

2.3 Problem-Solving Techniques

2.3.1 Decomposition
Key Terms
Decomposition is a technique of breaking down
a complex problem or process into smaller parts Decomposition
(known as sub-problems) such that each part is Breaking down a complex problem
more manageable and easier to understand. The or process into smaller and more
parts are evaluated separately and the solutions manageable parts
to these parts are then combined to solve the
original problem. Sub-problem
A problem whose solution contributes
Decomposing a problem is used not just for to the solution of a bigger problem
computing, but for any problem that may appear
too big or complex to understand or solve. For
instance, to lift and install the 7,000-tonne Marina Bay Sands SkyPark, the structure was divided
into 14 different pieces which were built and assembled separately at ground level. Breaking
down the construction into 14 pieces made each piece small enough to be lifted up, piece
by piece, onto the 57th floor. This would not have been possible if this problem had not been
decomposed beforehand.

25
How Can Algorithms Be Used to Solve Problems?

Two common approaches to decomposing a problem:

1. Incremental approach:
Identify quantitative features of the input or output that are causing the problem to be
too large to handle. Sometimes, the solution to a small version of the problem with one
or more of these features reduced can be found and gradually extended to larger
versions of the problem. Each gradual extension of the solution is a separate
sub-problem.

2. Modular approach:
Solve simple examples of the problem manually and identify tasks that are of different
natures. Usually, these tasks can be separated from each other to become distinct
(and sometimes unrelated) sub-problems. This usually results in sub-problems that
are different from each other.

2.3.1.1 Example: Decomposing the Addition Problem

Let us look at the addition problem shown earlier:

‚ Table 2.10 Input and output requirements for the addition problem
for whole numbers (positive only)

Input Output

• x: a positive whole number • The sum of x and y

• y: a positive whole number

We know how to add single digits. The reason why this problem is more difficult to solve is that
both the inputs and the output can have multiple digits.

Using the incremental approach, we can identify the number of digits for the inputs as one of
the features that cause the problem to be too large to handle.

Incremental approach:
Identify quantitative features of the input or output that are causing the problem to be too
large to handle. Sometimes, the solution to a small version of the problem with one or
more of these features reduced can be found and gradually extended to larger versions of
the problem. Each gradual extension of the solution is a separate sub-problem.

26
 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

Suppose the inputs to the problem have multiple digits; we can then gradually extend the solution
for single digits to larger versions of the problem via the following sub-problems:

‚ Table 2.11 Decomposing the addition problem for whole numbers (positive only)

Sub-problem Input Output

#1 • x1: the last digit of x • Result #1: The sum of x1

and y1
• y1: the last digit of y

#2 • x2: the last two digits of x • Result #2: The sum of x2

and y2
• y2: the last two digits of y

• Result #1: The result of

solving sub-problem #1

#3 • x3: the last three digits of x • Result #3: The sum of x3

and y3
• y3: the last three digits of y

• Result #2: The result of

solving sub-problem #2

...and so on... ...and so on... ...and so on...

This is how the addition algorithm in section 2.1.1 was developed.

2.3.1.2 Example: Decomposing the Calculation of MSG for Seven Subjects

Let us look at the revised problem of calculating the MSG for seven subjects:

‚ Table 2.12 Input and output requirements for the problem of calculating the
MSG for seven subjects

Input Output

• Score: rounded percentage • MSG for the seven subjects,

score for subject; must be a rounded to two decimal places
whole number between 0 and
100 inclusive (provided seven
times, once for each subject)

If we try to calculate the MSG for the example provided in Table 2.2, we find that the task of
converting rounded percentage scores to grade points is quite separate from the task of summing
up the grade points and dividing the result by 7. This motivates us to use the modular approach.

27
How Can Algorithms Be Used to Solve Problems?

Modular approach:
Solve simple examples of the problem manually and identify tasks that are of different
natures. Usually, these tasks can be separated from each other to become distinct (and
sometimes unrelated) sub-problems. This usually results in sub-problems that are different
from each other.

We can thus decompose the original problem into the following two sub-problems:

‚ Table 2.13 Decomposing the problem of calculating the MSG for seven subjects

Sub-problem Input Output

#1 • Score: rounded • Grade points:

percentage score for corresponding grade
subject; must be a points for subject (output
whole number between seven times, once for
0 and 100 inclusive each subject)
(provided seven times,
once for each subject)

#2 • Grade points: grade • MSG for the seven

points for subject; must subjects, rounded to two
be a whole number decimal places
between 1 and 9
inclusive (provided
seven times, once for
each subject)

Each sub-problem is simpler and easier to solve on its own compared to the original problem.

2.3.2 Pattern Recognition

Pattern recognition is the technique of identifying similarities among two or more items. In
problem-solving and algorithm design, it is usually used in three ways:

1. Identifying patterns among two or more problems. These

problems may come from different situations or they Key Term
may be sub-problems obtained from decomposition.
These patterns are clues that the solutions to these Pattern recognition
problems will most likely be similar. Thus, if we already Identifying similarities
know the solution for one problem, we can probably among two or more items
modify that solution to solve other problems that follow
a similar pattern.

28
 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

2. Identifying patterns among two or more solutions. These solutions may come from solving
the sub-problems obtained from decomposition, or from solving examples of a more general
problem. These patterns are clues that these solutions can be generalised to produce a
single solution that can solve multiple problems.

3. Identifying patterns among two or more steps in a solution. These patterns indicate that the
solution can be simplified or shortened using iteration structures that you will learn about
in the next chapter.

2.3.2.1 Example: Solving the Sub-Problem of Calculating the MSG from the Grade
Points of Seven Subjects

Let us look at sub-problem #2 we obtained from decomposing the calculation of MSG for
seven subjects:

‚ Table 2.14 Input and output requirements for the problem of calculating
MSG from the grade points of seven subjects

Sub-problem Input Output

#2 • Grade points: grade • MSG for the seven

points for subject; must subjects, rounded to two
be a whole number decimal places
between 1 and 9
inclusive (provided
seven times, once for
each subject)

Compare this with the problem of calculating the average of seven numbers:

‚ Table 2.15 Input and output requirements for the problem of calculating
the average of seven numbers

Input Output

• Number: a number • Average: average of the

(provided seven times) seven numbers

A simple solution to this problem is as follows:

Step 1: Add up all the numbers.
Step 2: Divide the result by 7.

29
How Can Algorithms Be Used to Solve Problems?

The MSG is just an average of the grade points, so by using pattern recognition, we can see that
both problems are similar, with the only differences being that:
1. The numbers to be averaged are called “grade points” and must be whole numbers between
1 and 9 inclusive.
2. The average is called “MSG” and must be rounded to two decimal places.

With this information as a guide, we can easily modify the algorithm to calculate the average of
seven numbers so that it becomes a solution to the problem of calculating MSG from the grade
points of seven subjects:
Step 1: Add up all the grade points.
Step 2: Divide the result by 7.
Step 3: Round the result to two decimal places.

In this case, the only significant modifications needed are the renaming of “numbers” to “grade
points” and the addition of one more step.

2.3.3 Generalisation
Generalisation is a technique of replacing two or more similar items with a single, more general item.
This can be done with both problems and solutions. In particular, a general solution is extremely
useful because it allows us to solve a large number of problems
with just a single solution. The addition algorithm we learnt
Key Term
earlier is an example of a general solution.

In most cases, generalisation can be accomplished by following Generalisation

a basic algorithm similar to how factorisation is done in algebra. Technique of replacing two
For example, the expression “x2y + xy2” can be simplified or more similar problems or
by identifying “xy” as the common factor in every term. The solutions with a single, more
common factor can then be “pulled out” so that only the factors general problem or solution
that are different remain.

x2y + xy2 = xxy + xyy

= x(xy) + (xy)y
= (xy)(x + y)
p Figure 2.5 Factorising x2y + xy2

The same idea can be used to “pull out” common elements or steps from multiple problems
or solutions into a more general problem or solution.

30
 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

2.3.3.1 Example: Generalising Similar Problems

Suppose we want to generalise the following three problems:

‚ Table 2.16 Input and output requirements for the problem of calculating the MSG for seven subjects

Input Output

• Score: rounded percentage score • MSG for the seven subjects, rounded
for subject; must be a whole to two decimal places
number between 0 and 100
inclusive (provided seven times,
once for each subject)

‚ Table 2.17 Input and output requirements for the problem of calculating the MSG for eight subjects

Input Output

• Score: rounded percentage score • MSG for the eight subjects, rounded
for subject; must be a whole to two decimal places
number between 0 and 100
inclusive (provided eight times,
once for each subject)

‚ Table 2.18 Input and output requirements for the problem of calculating the MSG for nine subjects

Input Output

• Score: rounded percentage score • MSG for the nine subjects, rounded
for subject; must be a whole to two decimal places
number between 0 and 100
inclusive (provided nine times,
once for each subject)

The only difference between the three problems is the number of subjects. Let us call this value
number and come up with a more general problem with this name:

‚ Table 2.19 Input and output requirements for the problem of calculating
the MSG for a number of subjects

Input Output

• Number: number of subjects; • MSG for the number subjects,

must be a positive whole number rounded to two decimal places

• Score: rounded percentage score

for subject; must be a whole
number between 0 and 100
inclusive (provided number times,
once for each subject)

31
How Can Algorithms Be Used to Solve Problems?

Table 2.19 shows the generalised version of the three problems because it can recreate those
problems by just providing different values for number.

2.3.3.2 Example: Generalising Similar Solutions

The solutions to the three problems can also be generalised in this way. Suppose that the three
solutions are identical except for Step 3 in the algorithm:
• For the original problem of calculating the MSG for seven subjects:
Step 3: Divide the result by 7.
• For the problem of calculating the MSG for eight subjects:
Step 3: Divide the result by 8.
• For the problem of calculating the MSG for nine subjects:
Step 3: Divide the result by 9.

From this, we can see that the sum of grade points must be divided by the number of subjects to
obtain the correct MSG. If we use number to represent the number of subjects that the student
is offering, we have the following general solution:
Step 1: Convert the rounded percentage scores into grade points using the table below.

‚ Table 2.20 Converting rounded percentage scores to grade points

Rounded percentage score Grade Grade points

75–100 A1 1

70–74 A2 2

65–69 B3 3

60–64 B4 4

55–59 C5 5

50–54 C6 6

45–49 D7 7

40–44 E8 8

Less than 40 F9 9

Step 2: Add up all the converted grade points.

Step 3: Divide the result by number.
Step 4: Round the result to two decimal places. The final answer is the student’s MSG.

32
 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

This general solution solves the corresponding general problem:

‚ Table 2.21 Input and output requirements for the problem of calculating
the MSG for a number of subjects

Input Output

• Number: number of • MSG for the number

subjects; must be a subjects, rounded to
positive whole number two decimal places

• Score: rounded
percentage score for
subject; must be a
whole number
between 0 and 100
inclusive (provided
number times, once for
each subject)

2.3.3.3 Basic Algorithm for Generalising Problems and Solutions

Based on the earlier examples, a basic algorithm to generalise two or more problems would be:
Step 1: Identify the parts that are different among the problems being considered and give
each part a name (e.g., number for the different number of subjects).
Step 2: Copy the identical parts into a new problem, replacing the parts that are different
using the names chosen in Step 1.
Step 3: Add the names chosen in Step 1 as required inputs to the problem. Think through
and define the range of valid or acceptable values for these new inputs (e.g., number
should be a positive whole number). The result is a generalised version of the problems
being considered.

We can use a similar algorithm to generalise the corresponding solutions:

Step 1: Identify the parts that are identical among the solutions being considered and copy
them to a new solution.
Step 2: Generalise the corresponding problems using the previous algorithm.
Step 3: Fill in the parts that are different by expressing them in terms of required inputs to
the general problem (e.g., dividing the result by number instead of a fixed value).
The result is a generalised version of the solutions being considered.

33
How Can Algorithms Be Used to Solve Problems?

Quick Check 2.3

1. Choose the correct words for the passage below from the given choices:
If a complex problem is not broken down into parts, the time taken to solve
the problem may be too (short/long). The technique of breaking down the
problem into parts, called (decomposition/generalisation), allows the parts
to be evaluated separately. By making the parts (less/more) manageable, the
solutions to these parts can then be (combined/separated), and the original
problem can be solved.

2. Why do we look for patterns in problems?

A It helps in identifying common solutions that can be applied to similar problems.
B It becomes more difficult to solve complex problems using patterns.
C The patterns would be pulled out from the problems as they are unnecessary.
D The patterns help us to specify and state a problem clearly.

3. Siti wants to find a general solution to calculate the absolute or positive difference
between any two positive whole numbers. For example, the absolute difference
between 17 and 20 is 3 (not –3) and the absolute difference between 20 and 17
is also 3.
a) Specify the input and output requirements for Siti’s problem.
b) Calculate the absolute difference between 2017 and 1965. Write out the algorithm
that you used. You may assume that the person following the algorithm can
subtract and compare numbers without help.
c) Calculate the absolute difference between 2017 and 2020. Write out the
algorithm that you used. You may assume that the person following the algorithm
can subtract and compare numbers without help.
d) Generalise the solutions used for the two problems in b) and c) above and write
out a general solution for Siti’s problem.

34
 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

Chapter Summary

DEFINITION EXAMPLES

ALGORITHMS

UNDERSTANDING PROBLEM-SOLVING
PROBLEMS TECHNIQUES

Specifying Inputs Decomposition

Pattern Recognition

Specifying Outputs Generalisation

35
How Can Algorithms Be Used to Solve Problems?

Review Questions

1. The following are the steps involved in making and drinking a cup of tea. Arrange the steps
in the appropriate order to describe the correct algorithm for this process.
– Drink the contents of the cup.
– Add tap water to the kettle.
– Wait for a few minutes to let the tea steep.
– Place a teabag in a cup and pour some water from the kettle into the cup.
– Boil the contents of the kettle.

2. Consider Siti’s problem of finding the shortest route from her home to her sister’s school,
which was shown at the beginning of this chapter.

‚ Table 2.22 Input and output requirements for Siti's problem

Input Output

• Map: a map of roads in Siti's • The shortest route from home

neighbourhood to school using the roads shown
on map
• Home: the position of Siti's
home on map

• School: the position of Pines

Primary School on map

The following is a set of input and output requirements for sub-problem #2 after Siti’s
problem is decomposed into two sub-problems.

‚ Table 2.23 Sub-problem #2 obtained by decomposing Siti’s problem

Sub-problem Input Output

#2 • Routes: list of routes • Shortest route in routes

Suggest a possible set of input and output requirements for sub-problem #1.

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 3 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

How Do I Use Flowcharts

and Pseudo-Code?
Recently, there has been a significant increase in the number of latecomers at Alex’s
school. Alex has never been late and wants to share how he has achieved this with his
schoolmates. What methods can Alex use to represent the algorithm that he uses to
reach school on time?

In the previous chapter, we learnt how to write out algorithms as a series of steps.
Sometimes, this may not be the best way to represent an algorithm.

In this chapter, you will learn how to give names to values and represent algorithms in
flowcharts and pseudo-code, as well as how to analyse and correct algorithms using
trace tables.

37
How Do I Use Flowcharts and Pseudo-Code?

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Produce an algorithm to solve a problem, either as a flowchart or in pseudo-code.
The following pseudo-code keywords and constructs should be used:
– INPUT/OUTPUT
– IF...THEN...ELSEIF...ELSE...ENDIF
– WHILE...ENDWHILE
– FOR...NEXT

• Perform a dry run of a set of steps to determine its purpose and/or output.

• Produce trace tables to show values of variables at each stage in a set of steps.

• Locate logic errors in an algorithm, and correct or modify an algorithm to remove the
errors or for changes in task specification.

3.1 Variables

We often give names to values when specifying inputs and outputs or generalising problems and
solutions. For example, in the problem shown in Table 3.1, x and y are the named values.

‚ Table 3.1 Input and output requirements for the addition problem

Input Output

• x: a positive whole number • The sum of x and y

• y: a positive whole number

In flowcharts and pseudo-code, these named values are called variables. Imagine a variable as
a box that is labelled with its name. A variable can store different types of data just as a box can
store different kinds of items (see Figure 3.1). Data can come in many forms such as letters, lists,
numbers and words.

Key Term

Variable (flowchart and pseudo-code)

Named storage space for a value that
can be changed while the algorithm
is running

p Figure 3.1 Just like a box can store different kinds

of items, a variable can store different
types of data

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 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

3.1.1 Storing Values

We use the equals sign (=) when we want to store a value in a variable. The value to be stored
is placed to the right of the equals sign, while the variable to store it in is placed on the left. For
example, to store the value 5 in a variable named x, we can say x = 5.

Did you know?

The left arrow symbol (←) is sometimes used instead of the equals sign (=) to store values in
variables. For example, x ← 5 has the same meaning as x = 5.

A variable is initialised when a value is first stored in it. It is usually a good practice to initialise
a variable as soon as there is a value to be assigned to it.

In flowcharts and pseudo-code, a variable can only store one value at a time. Assigning new data
to a variable that already contains data will overwrite the old data. In this way, the stored value
of a variable can be changed.

Variable names should be meaningful, short and consist of a single word only. They need to
be meaningful as variable names are often the only descriptions readers have to help them
determine what each variable represents.

At the same time, they need to be short as variable names are Key Term
likely to be used multiple times in an algorithm. Variable names
that are too long can result in algorithms that are tedious to both Initialise
write and read. For example, “name” or “age” would be good To store or assign a
variable names. If a variable is meant to store just a number or value to a variable for
numerical value, then single-letter names like “x” and “y” are the first time
also acceptable.

3.1.2 Reading Values

To use the value stored in a variable, we should just use the name of the variable. For example,
we can say x + 1 to take a copy of the value stored in x and add 1 to it.

3.1.3 List Variables

Some variables store a list of multiple values. Each value is identified by a position number starting
from 0 and we can access individual values by using the variable name followed by its position
number in square brackets. Each numbered position in the list serves as a separate variable.

For example, if a variable named y is a list, then we can use the variables y[0], y[1] and y[2] to
access the first three values stored in y. To store the value 5 in the first position of the list, we
can say y[0] = 5.

39
How Do I Use Flowcharts and Pseudo-Code?

3.2 Flowcharts

The algorithm below shows a part of Alex's routine each

morning: Key Term
Step 1: Leave home.
Flowchart
Step 2: Check the time. Visual presentation of an
algorithm using symbols to
Step 3: If it is before 7 a.m., proceed to Step 4.
show the flow of a sequence
Otherwise, proceed to Step 5.
of steps
Step 4: Take the bus, then proceed to Step 6.
Step 5: Take the MRT, then proceed to Step 6.
Step 6: Reach school.

This same algorithm can also be represented using the flowchart as shown in Figure 3.2.

Leave home

Check time

Is time before 7 a.m.?

Yes No

Take the bus Take the MRT

Reach school

p Figure 3.2 Alex’s algorithm represented in a flowchart

Did you know?

The earliest forms of flowcharts were introduced by engineer Frank Gilbreth in 1921 to visualise
processes used in industrial production, sales and finance.

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 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

As can be seen, a flowchart is a more visual way of

presenting an algorithm and may be easier to understand Key Terms
than a long series of steps. Each step is represented by a
symbol and the order in which steps are followed is shown Flow line
using flow lines or arrows. To create our own flowcharts, Arrow that indicates the
we need to learn about the symbols that are used and how order in which steps should
to connect them in a structured manner. be followed

Symbol (flowchart)
Special shape used to
3.2.1 Standard Flowchart Symbols represent an action or step in
There are four standard symbols used in flowcharts: a flowchart

1. Terminator
2. Data
3. Decision
4. Process

3.2.1.1 Terminator Symbol

The terminator symbol is a rectangle with rounded corners, or a “pill” shape.

p Figure 3.3 The terminator symbol

It represents the beginning or end of a set of steps, and usually contains either the START or STOP
command as shown in Figure 3.4.

START

STOP

p Figure 3.4 Examples of how the terminator symbol is used

Did you know?

The END command is sometimes used instead of the STOP command.

41
How Do I Use Flowcharts and Pseudo-Code?

3.2.1.2 Data Symbol

The data symbol is a parallelogram.

p Figure 3.5 The data symbol

It represents the step of either receiving input data from outside the algorithm using the INPUT
command or producing output from within the algorithm using the OUTPUT command.

An example of each type of command is shown in Figure 3.6.

INPUT year OUTPUT result

p Figure 3.6 Examples of how the data symbol is used

3.2.1.3 Decision Symbol

The decision symbol is a diamond.

p Figure 3.7 The decision symbol

It represents a step involving a question. The outgoing arrows represent the possible outcomes to
the question and are usually labelled “Yes” and “No”. There may be two or three outgoing arrows
depending on the number of possible outcomes. Only one of these outgoing arrows should be
followed when performing the algorithm.

Note that the question used in a decision symbol may involve checking if two values are equal
or not equal. We typically use the special symbols “==” and “!=” to represent such checks. For
example, to check if the variables x and y are equal, we would ask “Is x == y?” Conversely, to
check if the variables x and y are not equal, we would ask “Is x != y?”

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 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

Some examples of the decision symbol are shown in Figure 3.8.

Is year == 2017? Is time before 7 a.m.?

Yes No Yes No

p Figure 3.8 Examples of how the decision symbol is used

3.2.1.4 Process Symbol

The process symbol is a rectangle.

p Figure 3.9 The process symbol

It represents a step involving an action or operation. This usually involves changing the value of
a variable or performing more complex actions, as shown in Figure 3.10.

year = year + 1 Mix ingredients

p Figure 3.10 Examples of how the process symbol is used

43
How Do I Use Flowcharts and Pseudo-Code?

3.2.2 Structuring Flowcharts

Flowchart symbols can be connected using flow lines or arrows to indicate the order in which
they should be followed. Flowcharts and flow lines must obey the following rules:
1. A flowchart must start with exactly one terminator symbol and may stop with one or more
terminator symbols.

START START

STOP

STOP STOP

p Figure 3.11 A flowchart must only have one start and one or more end terminator symbols.

2. Each flowchart symbol (except the terminator and decision symbols) must have exactly
one entry point and one exit point.

There are multiple possible

exits for the decision symbol.

p Figure 3.12 Each flowchart symbol must have only one entry and one exit point.

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 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

3. Flow lines should not cross one another.

p Figure 3.13 Flow lines should not cross

However, these rules are not enough. The flow lines should
also follow the sequence, selection and iteration constructs Key Terms
(which will be discussed in the following sections) to avoid
ending up with overly complicated flowcharts that are Construct
difficult to read or understand. Like symbols, each of these Algorithm structure with
constructs has exactly one entry point and one exit point. exactly one entry point and
one exit point

Sequence construct
3.2.2.1 Sequence Construct for performing
multiple instructions in a
The most straightforward way to connect multiple symbols
fixed order
or constructs is to link them into a chain with flow lines
pointed in the same direction so that there is only one entry
point and one exit point. This is called a sequence construct
and it is used to perform multiple instructions in a fixed order.

Entry point
…

First instruction

Second instruction

Third instruction

…
Exit point

p Figure 3.14 Example of a sequence construct

45
How Do I Use Flowcharts and Pseudo-Code?

3.2.2.2 Selection

Whenever a decision symbol is used, it always has exactly one incoming flow line that serves as an
entry point but may have two or more outgoing flow lines exiting from it. These outgoing flow lines
lead to different branches or sequences of symbols and
constructs. In some flowcharts, these separate sequences Key Terms
merge back into a single flow line. This forms a selection
construct with one entry point at the decision symbol Branch
and one exit point where the multiple branches merge. Sequence of instructions that
serves as one option out of two
We call this a selection construct as the person or or more choices
computer running the flowchart has to select only one of
the different branches from the decision symbol to follow. Selection construct
For instance, Figure 3.15 shows a selection construct with Construct for choosing between
two branches (i.e., a “Yes” branch and a “No” branch). two or more branches based on
a particular condition

Entry point
…

Question for selection

Yes No

Instruction(s) for “Yes” branch ch

Instruction(s) for “No” branch

…
Exit point

p Figure 3.15 Example of a selection construct

3.2.2.3 Iteration
Key Terms
Sometimes, instead of having all the branches merge
together, one or more of the branches may lead back Iterate
to the original decision symbol, forming a closed loop. Repeat
In the flowchart in Figure 3.16, there is one entry point
at the decision symbol and one exit point at the branch Iteration construct
that does not form a loop. This is called an iteration Construct for repeating
construct and it is used to repeat instructions while a instructions while a particular
particular condition is true. This construct is often used condition is true
to iterate or repeat the instructions.

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 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

Entry point
…

Instruction(s) to repeat

Condition for iteration

Yes

No

…
Exit point

p Figure 3.16 Example of an iteration construct

3.2.3 Example: Adding Five Numbers

Now that you are familiar with flowchart symbols and constructs, let us try to solve a problem
and represent its solution using a flowchart. Suppose we wish to find the sum of five numbers
but we can only add two numbers at a time. One way to specify this problem is as follows:

‚ Table 3.2 Input and output requirements for the problem of adding five numbers

Input Output

• x1: a number • The sum of x1, x2, x3, x4 and x5, calculated by
adding only two numbers at a time
• x2: a number

• x3: a number

• x4: a number

• x5: a number

Using this definition, a possible solution is as follows:

Step 1: Let result be a variable. Initialise it to 0.
Step 2: Add x1 to result and store the sum back in result.
Step 3: Add x2 to result and store the sum back in result.
Step 4: Add x3 to result and store the sum back in result.
Step 5: Add x4 to result and store the sum back in result.
Step 6: Add x5 to result and store the sum back in result.
Step 7: The final answer is read from result.

47
How Do I Use Flowcharts and Pseudo-Code?

We can represent this algorithm as a flowchart by converting Steps 1 to 6 into process symbols
and Step 7 into a data symbol for output (see Figure 3.17). The symbols can then be arranged into
a sequence construct so that they are performed in order. Terminator symbols to start and stop
the flowchart, and a data symbol to receive input are then added accordingly.

START

INPUT x1, x2, x3, x4, x5

result = 0

result = result + x1

result = result + x2

result = result + x3

result = result + x4

result = result + x5

OUTPUT result

STOP

p Figure 3.17 Solution to the problem of adding five numbers

Looking at the flowchart in Figure 3.17, we can see a pattern that repeats – many steps of the
algorithm are similar. This usually means that we can shorten the algorithm by generalising the
steps and using an iteration construct instead. To do this, instead of having all five inputs being
provided all at once, the inputs can be provided as a sequence that can be checked up to five
times for the next input. We can change how the problem is specified as shown in Table 3.3.

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 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

‚ Table 3.3 Input and output requirements for the problem of adding five numbers

Input Output

• x: a number • The sum of all x values provided, calculated by

(provided five times) adding only two numbers at a time

The solution can then be shortened to:

Step 1: Let result be a variable. Initialise it to 0.

Step 2: If there is more input, proceed to Step 3. Otherwise, proceed to Step 5.
Step 3: Get the next input x.
Step 4: Add x to result and store the answer back in result. Go back to Step 2.
Step 5: The final answer is read from result.

This can be directly translated to a flowchart by having each step converted into a symbol, as
shown in Figure 3.18.

START

result = 0

No
Is there more input?

Yes

INPUT x OUTPUT result

result = result + x STOP

p Figure 3.18 Solution to the problem of adding five numbers that uses iteration

49
How Do I Use Flowcharts and Pseudo-Code?

This solution shown in the flowchart is shorter than the previous solution as the repeated steps
have been replaced by an iteration construct. However, this flowchart does not tell us how to
check for any more input. To avoid leaving such details out, we can explicitly keep track of how
many inputs have been processed so far by using a variable named counter (see Figure 3.19).

START

result = 0

counter = 0

No
Is counter < 5?

Yes

INPUT x OUTPUT result

result = result + x STOP

counter = counter + 1

p Figure 3.19 Solution to the problem of adding five numbers that uses iteration and a counter variable

The level of detail that is needed in a flowchart depends on the amount of guidance that the
reader will need. However, as you will learn in the next chapter, computers can only understand
very simple instructions, so more guidance (such as including the additional counter variable
here) is usually needed.

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 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

Quick Check 3.2

1. The algorithm of another student’s journey to school is described as follows:
Step 1: Leave home
Step 2: Check time
Step 3: If it is before 8 a.m., take the bus
Step 4: If it is after 8 a.m., take the train
Step 5: Reach school
a) Specify the input and output requirements of the algorithm.
b) Draw a flowchart to represent the algorithm.

3.3 Trace Tables

3.3.1 Dry Runs

It is not always easy to determine what an algorithm
or flowchart does just from looking at it. This is Key Terms
especially true if we do not know the original
problem that the algorithm was meant to solve or Dry run
if the flowchart has many variables and branches. Process of running through a set of
steps manually
To figure out what an algorithm does or why it is
not producing the correct output, we can perform Test data
a dry run of the algorithm. Input data that is used to perform a
dry run
A dry run is a process where the steps of the
algorithm are followed one by one manually. If Trace table
any input is needed, some test data must also be Tabulation of the change in variables
prepared beforehand. as well as the output of an algorithm
when performing a dry run
The result of a dry run is a trace table which
records the change in variables and the output of
the algorithm during the run.

51
How Do I Use Flowcharts and Pseudo-Code?

3.3.2 Producing a Trace Table

Suppose we perform a dry run on the flowchart below for the addition of five numbers using test
data of 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50:

START

result = 0

counter = 0

No
Is counter < 5?

Yes

INPUT x OUTPUT result

result = result + x STOP

counter = counter + 1

p Figure 3.20 Solution to the problem of adding five numbers that uses iteration and a counter variable

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 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

Table 3.4 shows the completed trace table from the dry run.

‚ Table 3.4 Completed trace table from the dry run

result counter x OUTPUT

10

10

20

30

30

60

40

100

50

150

150

A trace table always has one column for every variable used in the flowchart and an additional
OUTPUT column on the right. A new row is added to the trace table each time output is produced
or if the value in a variable is changed during the dry run. The corresponding output or new
variable value is then recorded under the appropriate column.

53
How Do I Use Flowcharts and Pseudo-Code?

3.3.3 Determining an Algorithm’s Purpose

A trace table can help us determine the purpose of an algorithm or what the variables in a flowchart
mean by using some test data.

For instance, by studying the completed trace table in the previous example, we can see that:
1. The values of x follow the sequential order of the test data. Thus, we can conclude that
the purpose of x is to store the current input for processing.
2. The value of result starts from 0 and each subsequent iteration increases the value of result
by the value of x. Thus, we can conclude that the purpose of result is to store the cumulative
sum of inputs.
3. The value of counter starts from 0 and increases by 1 each time result is updated. Thus,
we can conclude that the purpose of counter is to track the number of processed inputs.
4. The output is given by the last value of result. Thus, we can conclude that the overall
purpose of the algorithm is to calculate the sum of all the inputs.

3.3.4 Correcting an Algorithm

A trace table can also help us determine why an algorithm is not working as expected or does
not give the correct output for certain test data.

For instance, suppose that the addition algorithm incorrectly initialises counter to 1 instead of 0:

START

result = 0

counter = 1

No
Is counter < 5?

Yes

INPUT x OUTPUT result

result = result + x STOP

counter = counter + 1

p Figure 3.21 Incorrect solution for the problem of adding five numbers

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 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

When we perform a dry run with test data of 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50, we get the trace table as
shown in Table 3.5.

‚ Table 3.5 Trace table using an incorrect algorithm for the problem of adding five numbers

result counter x OUTPUT

10

10

20

30

30

60

40

100

100

From the trace table, we can see that only four of the five inputs are actually used and that the
algorithm ends earlier than expected to give the wrong output of 100 instead of 150.

Recall that counter is supposed to keep track of how many inputs have been processed so far.
Thus, we can easily determine that initialising counter to 1 is incorrect since no inputs have been
processed at the start of the algorithm.

You will learn more about other methods to correct algorithm errors in Chapter 6.

55
How Do I Use Flowcharts and Pseudo-Code?

Did you know?

It is also possible to change the instruction in the decision symbol from “Is counter < 5?” to “Is
counter < 6?” in order to correct the algorithm. However, this is not a good programming practice
as counter is supposed to keep count of the number of times the loop has been repeated. Changing
the instruction causes counter to be incremented from 1 to 6 instead of from 0 to 5. This does
not follow the original meaning of counter and makes it harder to describe in plain English what
the variable is keeping track of.

Quick Check 3.3

1. The following algorithm takes in a positive whole number as input:

START

result = 1

INPUT x

No
Is x != 0?

Yes

result = result × x OUTPUT result

x=x–1 STOP

p Figure 3.22 Algorithm that takes in a positive whole number

a) Draw and complete a trace table for this algorithm using test data of 3.
b) Draw and complete a trace table for this algorithm using test data of 5.
c) Describe the purpose of this algorithm.

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 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

3.4 Pseudo-Code

Besides flowcharts, algorithms can also be represented using pseudo-code. For instance, the
pseudo-code below is another way of representing our solution to the problem of adding five
numbers:

result = 0
counter = 0
WHILE counter < 5
INPUT x
result = result + x
counter = counter + 1
ENDWHILE
OUTPUT result

p Figure 3.23 Representing the solution to the problem of adding five numbers using pseudo-code

Did you know?

There are many ways to write pseudo-code. The pseudo-code presented in this textbook is one
way of writing it. In other books, the pseudo-code may appear differently.

Note that in pseudo-code, each step is written on a

separate line, just like how each step is represented Key Term
by a separate symbol in a flowchart. However, unlike
flowcharts, there are no flow lines to indicate the order Pseudo-code
in which the steps are followed. Instead, the order is Description of an algorithm using
based on sequence, selection and iteration constructs natural language (such as English)
similar to the ones you have learnt for flowcharts. mixed with sequence, selection
and iteration constructs

3.4.1 Input/Output
You have learnt that the input and output requirements are critical factors in deriving an algorithm.
When using pseudo-code, the INPUT command is used to receive data from outside the algorithm
and the OUTPUT command is used to produce a result from within the algorithm. These statements
serve a similar purpose as the data symbol in a flowchart.

57
How Do I Use Flowcharts and Pseudo-Code?

For example, a user is prompted to enter his or her name before a greeting with the user’s name
is produced:

INPUT name
OUTPUT "Hello " + name

p Figure 3.24 Example of sequence pseudo-code

3.4.2 Sequence Constructs

It can be seen from Figure 3.24 that if no special commands are used, consecutive lines of
pseudo-code are followed as if they were already arranged in a sequence construct. For instance,
Figure 3.25 presents the same algorithm used in Figure 3.24 as a flowchart:

START

INPUT name

OUTPUT “Hello ” + name

STOP

p Figure 3.25 Example of sequence pseudo-code presented as a flowchart

3.4.3 Selection Constructs

Selection constructs are used when a choice between two or more actions has to be made based
on a condition or the answer to a question.

Similar to the decision symbol in a flowchart, the IF...THEN...ELSE...ENDIF commands

in pseudo-code are used to determine which steps are followed based on a condition or the
answer to a question. The condition or question is provided between the words IF and THEN.
If the answer is “Yes”, the first set of steps after the IF line are followed. If the answer is “No”,
the second set of steps after the ELSE line are followed. After one of these two sets of steps is
completed, the steps after the ENDIF line (if any) are followed.

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 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

For example, Figures 3.26 and 3.27 represent the same algorithm. In this case, the person or
computer following the algorithm chooses whether to output “Yes” or “No” depending on whether
text matches the special phrase “P@55w0rd”.

INPUT text
IF text == "P@55w0rd" THEN
OUTPUT "Yes"
ELSE
OUTPUT "No"
ENDIF

p Figure 3.26 Example of IF...THEN...ELSE...ENDIF pseudo-code

START

INPUT text

Is text == “P@55w0rd”?

Yes No

OUTPUT “Yes” OUTPUT “No”

STOP

p Figure 3.27 Example of IF...THEN...ELSE...ENDIF pseudo-code presented as a flowchart

In pseudo-code, certain steps are indented to show that they are part of the selection construct.

Note that the word ELSE and the second set of steps are optional. If they are left out and the
answer to the question is “No”, then the steps after the ENDIF line (if any) are followed immediately.

59
How Do I Use Flowcharts and Pseudo-Code?

Sometimes the set of steps after the ELSE line is another IF...THEN...ELSE...ENDIF command.
In such cases, the two IF...THEN...ELSE...ENDIF commands can be combined into a single
IF...THEN...ELSEIF...ELSE...ENDIF command. For instance, Figures 3.28, 3.29 and 3.30
all represent the same algorithm where the output is "Blank" if text happens to be empty.

INPUT text
IF text == "" THEN
OUTPUT "Blank"
ELSE
IF text == "P@55w0rd" THEN
OUTPUT "Yes"
ELSE
OUTPUT "No"
ENDIF
ENDIF

p Figure 3.28 Example where the set of steps after ELSE is just another
IF...THEN...ELSE...ENDIF command

INPUT text
IF text == "" THEN
OUTPUT "Blank"
ELSEIF text == "P@55w0rd" THEN
OUTPUT "Yes"
ELSE
OUTPUT "No"
ENDIF

p Figure 3.29 Example of equivalent IF...THEN...ELSEIF...ELSE...ENDIF pseudo-code

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 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

START

INPUT text

Is text == “”?

Yes No

OUTPUT “Blank”
Is text == “P@55w0rd”?

Yes No

OUTPUT “Yes” OUTPUT “No”

STOP

p Figure 3.30 Example of IF...THEN...ELSEIF...ELSE...ENDIF

pseudo-code presented as a flowchart

3.4.4 Iteration Constructs

Iteration constructs are used to repeat instructions. In pseudo-code, there are two sets of commands
that can be used to create iteration constructs:

1. WHILE...ENDWHILE
2. FOR...NEXT

3.4.4.1 WHILE...ENDWHILE

The WHILE...ENDWHILE commands are used to repeat a set of steps as long as a condition that
is provided on the same line as the word WHILE is true. The condition is checked the first time
the WHILE command is encountered and each time the set of steps is completed.

The lines between WHILE and ENDWHILE are the set of steps to repeat, and if the condition is
found to be false, the steps after the ENDWHILE line (if any) are followed instead.

61
How Do I Use Flowcharts and Pseudo-Code?

For example, Figures 3.31 and 3.32 represent the same algorithm. In this case, we wish to keep
performing the INPUT command as long as name is a blank phrase to ensure that a non-blank
name is provided. The INPUT command is thus placed between the WHILE and ENDWHILE lines.

name = ""
WHILE name == ""
INPUT name
ENDWHILE
OUTPUT "Hello " + name

p Figure 3.31 Example of WHILE...ENDWHILE pseudo-code

START

name = “”

Yes
INPUT name Is name == “”?

No

OUTPUT “Hello ” + name

STOP

p Figure 3.32 Example of WHILE...ENDWHILE pseudo-code presented as a flowchart

3.4.4.2 FOR...NEXT

The FOR...NEXT commands are used as a shortcut for repeating a set of steps using a counter
or when the number of repetitions is known beforehand. The FOR command goes through the
values in a sequence using a variable and repeats the set of steps between FOR and NEXT for
each value. After the set of steps has been repeated for each value in the sequence, the algorithm
continues with the steps that follow after the NEXT command (if any).

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 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

For example, Figures 3.33 and 3.34 represent the same algorithm. In this case, we use the variable
x to repeat an OUTPUT command while x is incremented in whole numbers from 1 to 5. Each
time the NEXT command is encountered, the person or computer following this algorithm checks
whether there is a next value for x, and if so, updates x to the next value before repeating the
OUTPUT command again. Once there are no further values for x, the OUTPUT command is no
longer repeated.

FOR x = 1 to 5
OUTPUT x
NEXT x

p Figure 3.33 Example of FOR...NEXT pseudo-code

START

x=1

x=x+1

Yes
Is x < 5? OUTPUT x

No

STOP

p Figure 3.34 Example of FOR...NEXT pseudo-code presented as a flowchart

Quick Check 3.4

1. Choose an appropriate construct and write the pseudo-code using this construct to represent an
algorithm that takes in a whole number from 1 to 7 inclusive and produces the corresponding
number in words (for example, the input 5 produces the output “five”). Specify the input and
output requirements for the problem that this algorithm solves.

2. Choose an appropriate iteration construct and write the pseudo-code to represent an algorithm
that takes in 10 numbers and outputs the average of the 10 numbers. Specify input and output
requirements for the problem that this algorithm solves and complete a trace table using the
following test data: 20, 17, 19, 65, 20, 18, 19, 66, 20 and 19.

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How Do I Use Flowcharts and Pseudo-Code?

Chapter Summary

WHILE... FOR...
IF...THEN... ENDWHILE NEXT
ELSEIF...
ELSE...ENDIF

Selection Input/Output Sequence Iteration

Constructs Constructs Constructs

PSEUDO-CODE

FLOWCHARTS AND
PSEUDO-CODE

TRACE TABLES FLOWCHARTS

Dry Runs
Symbols Structuring
Flowcharts

Producing a
Trace Table Terminator
Sequence

Data
Selection
Correcting
an Algorithm
Decision
Iteration

Process

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 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

Review Questions

1. A simple algorithm is provided below:

Step 1: Get the input value x.
Step 2: Let counter be a variable. Initialise it to 0.
Step 3: If x is 1, proceed to Step 6.
Step 4: If x is even, divide it by two and store the answer back in x. Otherwise,
multiply x by 3 and add 1, then store the answer back in x.
Step 5: Add 1 to counter and store the answer back in counter. Go back to Step 3.
Step 6: Output the value of counter.
a) Express this algorithm using a flowchart.
b) Produce a trace table for this algorithm with test data of 5.
c) Produce a trace table for this algorithm with test data of 6.
d) Express this algorithm in pseudo-code.

2. The temperature in a server room should be kept between 18 °C and 20 °C for the servers
to function optimally. This is done by a computer continually checking the temperature.
When the temperature exceeds 20 °C, the air conditioner is switched on. When the
temperature falls below 18 °C, the air conditioner is switched off. Otherwise, the air
conditioner’s state is unchanged.
Express the algorithm as a flowchart. (Note that unlike normal flowcharts, this flowchart
will not have an end terminator symbol.)

3. Table 3.6 shows the exchange rate between Singapore Dollars (SGD) and Malaysian Ringgit
(MYR) as well as between SGD and Chinese Yuan (CNY).

‚ Table 3.6 Exchange rate between SGD, MYR and CNY

SGD MYR CNY

1 3 4.66

Using pseudo-code, express an algorithm which:

• takes in the choice of either “Ringgit” for conversion from SGD to MYR or “Yuan” for
conversion from SGD to CNY;
• takes in the amount to convert in SGD; and
• returns the converted amount in either MYR or CNY as the output, depending on the
option chosen.
You may assume that the provided input will always be valid.

65
How Do I Use Flowcharts and Pseudo-Code?

4. The pseudo-code in Figure 3.35 takes in the type of co-curricular activity (“Club/Society”,
“Sport” or “Uniformed Group”) for five students, and then outputs the number of students
in each type of co-curricular activity.

1 Count = 0
2 ClubSociety_Count = 0
3 Sport_Count = 0
4 UniformedGroup_Count = 0
5
6 WHILE Count <= 5
7 INPUT Type
8 IF Type == "Club/Society" THEN
9 ClubSociety_Count = ClubSociety_Count + 1
10 Count = Count + 1
11 ELSEIF Type == "Sport" THEN
12 Sport_Count = Sport_Count + 2
13 Count = Count + 1
14 ELSEIF Type == "Uniformed Group" THEN
15 UniformedGroup_Count = UniformedGroup_Count + 1
16 Count = Count + 1
17 ELSE
18 OUTPUT "Invalid Option"
19 ENDIF
20 ENDWHILE
21
22 OUTPUT "Clubs and Societies: " + ClubSociety_Count
23 OUTPUT "Sports: " + Sport_Count
24 OUTPUT "Uniformed Groups: " + Sport_Count

p Figure 3.35 Pseudo-code with three logic errors

Locate and correct three errors in the pseudo-code. Line numbers have been provided for
your reference. You may also wish to create some test data and use trace tables to find out
where these errors are located.

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 Module 3: Abstraction and Algorithms

5. The following pseudo-code in Figure 3.36 takes in seven numbers and calculates the sum
and average of these numbers as the outputs.

Count = 0
Sum = 0

WHILE Count != 7
INPUT Num
Sum = Sum + Num
Count = Count + 1
ENDWHILE

Average = Sum / Count

OUTPUT "The sum is " + Sum
OUTPUT "The average is " + Average

p Figure 3.36 Pseudo-code to calculate the sum and average of seven numbers

Given the following test data, draw and complete a trace table. (Provide values of up to 2
decimal places where necessary.)

Test data: 7, 15, 11, 18, 5, 17, 1

67
How Do I Use Flowcharts and Pseudo-Code?

6. The following flowchart takes in a sequence of non-zero integers as input. The input ends
when a zero is detected.

START

i=0

INPUT numbers[i]

Is numbers[i] == 0? Yes

No

i=i+1 Is i < 0? Yes

No

OUTPUT numbers[i] STOP

i=i-1

p Figure 3.37 Flowchart that takes in a sequence of non-zero integers as input

a) Express the flowchart in pseudo-code.

b) Given the following test data, draw and complete a trace table. (Note that the value
of a list variable containing multiple values can be written as its individual values
separated by commas, e.g., 14, 3, 21, 32)

Test data: 20, 17, -19, 65, 0

c) State the purpose of this flowchart.

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 4 Module 4: Programming

How Do I Write Programs?

Alex helps out at his school library and uses a simple algorithm to find out which loaned
books are overdue. He finds it very tedious because there are too many loaned books.
How can Alex use a computer to make his work easier?

In the previous chapters, we learnt about how to express algorithms as flowcharts.

Well-designed flowcharts allow algorithms to be written down in a standard format
that people can follow.

However, we often want to automate the implementation of algorithms because some

algorithms can be slow, tedious or prone to errors when done manually, especially
when the number of inputs becomes very large.

When writing algorithms for computers, we need to consider that computers require
algorithms to be expressed more precisely than humans would. This chapter will introduce
the Python programming language and how we can implement algorithms using a
computer.

69
How Do I Write Programs?

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Explain how translators are used to detect syntax errors and state the difference between
interpreter and compiler translators.

• Use and justify the use of variables, constants and simple lists in different problem
contexts.

• Understand and use different data types (integers, floating-point numbers, strings,
Booleans, lists) and built-in functions in programs.

• Write and use user-defined functions.

• Understand and use sequence, selection and iteration constructs to create a program.

4.1 Flowcharts and Programs

Just as flowcharts present a set of activities and decisions for a person to understand, programs
list a set of instructions for a computer to follow. However, computers do not have the same
common sense and knowledge of natural languages (such as the English language) that humans
have, so without additional information, they can only understand a very limited set of instructions.

For instance, a flowchart meant for people to calculate the total score of a test may have the
following instruction:

Total = Sum of all test scores

p Figure 4.1 Example of a flowchart instruction

Without more information, a computer would not be able to understand how to carry out this
instruction. Some examples of additional information needed would be:
• The meaning of “test scores”: What type of data is “test scores” and how are they stored
in (or received by) the computer?
• The meaning of “all”: How many test scores are there, or how do we know when the sum
is complete?

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 Module 4: Programming

For a computer to follow the instruction, it must be decomposed and re-written into steps that
the computer can understand. For instance, if the test scores are stored in processor registers 0,
1 and 2, and we want the computer to store the sum of the test scores back in processor register
0, we can write a set of instructions as shown in Figure 4.2.

Register 0 = Register 0 + Register 1

Register 0 = Register 0 + Register 2

p Figure 4.2 Decomposing the flowchart instruction

Even though we have decomposed the instruction

into steps, it is still not in a format that a computer’s
Key Terms
processor can use directly. Since all data in a
computer is represented as bytes, we have to write Instruction set
the steps using bytes as well. Set of basic commands or
instructions that a processor can
We do this by using the processor’s instruction set, understand directly, represented in
which specifies how the instructions that a processor byte form
understands directly can be represented as bytes.
Machine code
When instructions are written in a form that can be Instructions that can run directly on
run directly on a computer’s processor, we call these a computer’s processor
instructions machine code. A set of such instructions
is called a program. Program
Set of instructions written to perform
The steps in Figure 4.2 can be re-written as: specific tasks on a computer

00000000 11001000 00000000 11010000

p Figure 4.3 Representing the decomposed instructions as bytes

71
How Do I Write Programs?

4.2 Programming Languages

Machine code is not easy for humans to read or write. Most

Key Terms
people do not write machine code manually. However, an
algorithm’s instructions must be provided in machine code
in order for them to be carried out by a computer. Programming language
Language designed for
Thankfully, we do not have to write machine code manually. humans to communicate
Instead, programs are usually written with a programming instructions to computers
language such as Python. Just as how a common language
such as English allows people from different cultures to Source code
communicate with each other, programming languages Instructions written in a
can serve as a common language between humans and programming language
computers because they are both simple enough for humans that both humans and
to write and specific enough for computers to follow. Figure computers can understand
4.4 illustrates this.

Meant for humans Meant for computers

Machine
English Python
code

p Figure 4.4 Comparing languages for humans and computers

Instructions written in a programming language are called source code, source, or even just code
for short. The following is an example of Python source code:

total = test_score_1 + test_score_2

p Figure 4.5 Example of Python source code

Source code is easy for humans to understand. For instance, you can infer from Figure 4.5 that
total is the sum of test_score_1 and test_score_2.

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 Module 4: Programming

Source code is translated into machine code by special

translator programs. However, in order to successfully
Key Terms
translate source code into machine code, the source
code must follow particular rules that dictate how Syntax
the words and symbols (such as punctuation marks) Rules that determine how the
in each instruction must be arranged. These rules are words and symbols in a valid
called syntax. instruction are arranged

When source code does not follow the rules of the Syntax error
language, it results in a syntax error. This type of mistake Result of incorrect source code
is detected by the translator program and the incorrect that does not follow the rules of
source cannot be translated into machine code. Therefore the language
syntax rules must be followed when writing source code.

Besides Python, there are a variety of other programming languages. Table 4.1 shows some
examples of source code in other programming languages such as C, Pascal, Scratch and Lisp.

‚ Table 4.1 Examples of source code in other programming languages

Programming
Source code
language

C total = test_score_1 + test_score_2;

Pascal total := test_score_1 + test_score_2;

Scratch set total to test_score_1 + test_score_2

Lisp (defvar *total* (+ *test_score_1* *test_score_2*))

In this example, the C and Pascal source codes look very similar to Python source code but
Scratch and Lisp source codes are quite different. It is sometimes useful to recognise that the same
algorithm can be represented in a variety of ways depending on the programming language used.

Did you know?

Unlike most other programming languages, the source code in Scratch is not typed out but assembled
by dragging and dropping graphical blocks. Scratch is a project of the Lifelong Kindergarten Group
at the MIT Media Lab.

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How Do I Write Programs?

4.3 Compilers and Interpreters

We have learnt that only machine code can be run directly on a computer’s processor. When
we use a programming language, the source code must be translated into machine code before
it can be run.

Source Translator Machine

code code

p Figure 4.6 A translator translates the source code into machine code

There are two ways by which source code is translated:

Key Terms
1. Compiler
A code translator program, called a compiler, reads Compiler
the source code, performs the translation once, and Code translator program
then stores the translated machine code in the that translates source
computer. When the program is run, the machine code code into machine code
that was compiled previously is reused and the completely before running
compiler is no longer needed for the program the compiled program
to function.
2. Interpreter Interpreter
A code translator program, called an interpreter, Code translator program
runs every time the program starts. The interpreter that translates source code
reads the source code while the program is running and into machine code while
either performs on-the-spot translation or determines the interpreted program
which part of its own machine code to run. In general, is running
any translated machine code is discarded after the
program is stopped and the interpreter is needed every
time the program is run.

C and Pascal are examples of programming languages that typically use a compiler. Scratch
and Python are examples of programming languages that typically use an interpreter. Lisp is an
example of a programming language where both compilers and interpreters are commonly used.

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 Module 4: Programming

Each translation method has its own advantages and disadvantages, which are summarised in
Table 4.2.

‚ Table 4.2 Comparing compilers and interpreters

Compilers Interpreters

• The resulting program runs at a • Changes to the source code take

faster speed because all the effect immediately.
translation has been done
• Interpreters usually offer an
beforehand.
Advantages

interactive mode, which

• The compiler is not needed to facilitates learning and
run the program after experimentation.
compilation is complete.

• Syntax errors are detected

before the program is even run.

• Any changes to the source code • The resulting program runs at

require recompilation before a slower speed because
taking effect. translation occurs while the
Disadvantages

program is running.
• Compilers usually do not offer
an interactive mode. • The interpreter needs to be run
every time the program is
started.

• Syntax errors may interrupt the

running of a program.

4.3.1 Using the Python Interpreter

The Python programming language that you will learn in this textbook uses an interpreter. This
interpreter can be downloaded for free online.

Note that there are two slightly incompatible versions of Python that are commonly used today,
namely Python 2 and Python 3. In this textbook, we will only use Python 3.

75
How Do I Write Programs?

There are two ways to use the Python interpreter:

Key Terms
1. Graphical user interface
The Python interpreter comes with a program
Command line interface
named IDLE with menus and syntax highlighting
Means of interacting with a
to facilitate the writing and running of Python
program such that commands
source code. IDLE is most useful if the
are given as lines of text
programmer wishes to use an “all-in-one”
program to edit, run and test his or her source
Graphical user interface
code. Many alternatives to IDLE are also available
Means of interacting with a
for download online.
program such that commands
are given using visual elements
2. Command line interface
such as windows, icons, menus
The Python interpreter can also be run using a
and mouse pointers
command line interface where commands are
given as lines of text. This interface is most useful
Syntax highlighting
for combining the use of Python with other
Displaying different parts of
programs or for automating the use of the
source code differently (such
Python interpreter.
as using different colours and
fonts) in a text editor based on
the rules of the programming
language to make reading easier

4.3.2 Graphical User Interface (IDLE)

To start IDLE on Windows, press the Start key, type “idle” and press Enter. Figure 4.7 shows what
IDLE looks like when it is initially run on Windows:

p Figure 4.7 IDLE on initial start-up

This main window that appears when IDLE starts is

called the Python Shell window or shell window for
Key Term
short. This is where the output appears and where
the input is provided via the keyboard. If there is no Interactive mode
program running, the shell window will have the Feature of Python that allows source
Python interpreter running in interactive mode so code to be entered, line by line, for
you can interact with data and try out short examples the interpreter to run immediately
of Python code quickly. and show the results

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 Module 4: Programming

Did you know?

IDLE is an example of an “integrated development environment” (IDE) that makes it easier to use
Python by providing an “all-in-one” program for editing, running and testing source code. The
name IDLE officially stands for “Integrated Development and Learning Environment”, but it is also
meant to honour Eric Idle, a member of the British comedy group Monty Python from which
Python got its name.

Python’s interactive mode is where you can enter source code, line by line, for the interpreter to
run immediately. This mode is useful for learning and experimenting with Python source code.
For instance, try entering the following line of Python source code in the shell window and
pressing Enter:

>>> print("Hello, World!")

p Figure 4.8 Entering source code in interactive mode

Note that for the interactive mode examples given in this textbook, anything that you may need
to type will be shown in bold. Any text that is not in bold is output from either your program
or the interpreter and you will not need to type them in, such as the >>> prompt displayed by
Python. In addition, you will usually need to press Enter after typing each line of code.

As Python uses an interpreter, no compilation step is needed and the source code is run
immediately. If there are no errors, you should see the phrase “Hello, World!” displayed on
the screen:

>>> print("Hello, World!")

Hello, World!

p Figure 4.9 Output in interactive mode

This is what the result looks like on Windows:

p Figure 4.10 Screenshot of output in IDLE’s shell window

77
How Do I Write Programs?

If there is an error, Python will display an error message, such as the example in Figure 4.11.

>>> Print("Hello, World!")

Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#0>", line 1, in <module>
Print("Hello, World!")
NameError: name 'Print' is not defined

p Figure 4.11 Example of an error message being displayed in interactive mode

Note that the Python programming language is case-sensitive and that “Print” (with an upper-case
“P”) is not the same as “print” (with a lower-case “p”), as shown by the error in Figure 4.11. It
is typical to encounter such errors when learning a new programming language. You will learn
more in Chapter 6 on what to do if a program does not work as intended.

Besides using the interactive mode, you can also save your Python programs as plain text files
with the .py file extension. You can write your Python programs using Notepad or any other
text editor.

To use IDLE as a text editor, go to the shell window, open the “File” menu, and select “New File”.
A new editor window should open for you to enter your Python program. To save your Python
program as a file, go to the editor window, open the “File” menu, and select “Save”. If you are
working on a school computer, your teacher will inform you of where your programs should be
saved. For this textbook, we will save our programs in a folder named C:\Examples.

The following is an example of a Python program that can be saved as a file:

# Program 4.1 hello_world.py

1 print("Hello, World!")

p Figure 4.12 “Hello, World!” program in Python

To run the program, save the file by pressing Ctrl+S, then press the F5 key while the file is open
in IDLE. The phrase “Hello, World!” will be displayed in the shell window:

p Figure 4.13 Output of hello_world.py in IDLE’s shell window

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 Module 4: Programming

Note that, unlike in interactive mode, the result for each line of source code is not automatically
displayed when running a Python program that is saved in a file. To display text on the screen
when running a Python program that is saved in a file, you must use the print() function (see
section 4.6.1 on functions).

When you save a Python program in a file, you should

also add comments to your program. Comments make the Key Term
source code easier for other people to understand but will
be ignored by the Python interpreter. In Python, comments Comment
start with the hash symbol (#) and finish when the line ends. Piece of source code that
Any text from the hash symbol until the end of the line will explains the program but
be ignored by the interpreter. For example, Figure 4.14 shows is ignored by the Python
hello_world.py with some additional comments: interpreter

# Program 4.2 hello_world_with_comments.py

1 # This is a comment at the start of a program. Usually, comments at

2 # the start of a program explain the purpose of a program or
3 # describe its expected inputs and outputs.
4
5 print("Hello, World!") # This is also a comment.

p Figure 4.14 hello_world.py with added comments

Even with the addition of comments, this program still behaves exactly like the original program,
as shown in Figure 4.15:

================= RESTART: C:/Examples/hello_world.py =================

Hello, World!
>>>
========== RESTART: C:/Examples/hello_world_with_comments.py ==========
Hello, World!
>>>

p Figure 4.15 Output in IDLE’s shell window

4.3.3 Command Line Interface

While IDLE can be convenient, a graphical user interface usually requires the use of a mouse,
making tasks difficult to automate without human intervention. A command line interface, on
the other hand, can be automated easily as commands are given using only lines of text. Use of
Python's command line interface, however, is not covered in this textbook.

The rest of this chapter covers the various types of instructions in Python that computers can use
to perform algorithms.

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How Do I Write Programs?

4.4 Variables and Constants

Unlike humans, computers are designed to store and read

values quickly and reliably. To take advantage of this, we Key Terms
will need to learn two types of Python instructions: one
for assigning values and one for reading values. Identifier
Sequence of characters that
follows certain rules and can be
used as a variable name
4.4.1 Assigning Values
To assign or keep a value in Python, we need a name Keyword (programming)
as well as a corresponding value to be assigned. The Word that has a special
format of the Python instruction for assigning values is: meaning in a programming
the name we intend to use followed by the equals sign language and cannot be used as
(=), followed by the value to be assigned. This syntax is an identifier
summarised in Figure 4.16.

Syntax 4.1 Assignment Statement

variable_name = value

p Figure 4.16 Syntax for assignment statements

Variable names (known as identifiers) must also follow certain rules:

• Can contain the upper-case and lower-case letters A through Z and the underscore (_)
• Can contain the digits 0 through 9 but not as the first character
• Cannot contain spaces or special symbols (e.g., "!", "@", "#", "$")
• Cannot be any of the reserved words (or keywords) in Figure 4.17 that have special
meanings in Python

False None True and as

assert break class continue def

del elif else except finally
for from global if import
in is lambda nonlocal not
or pass raise return try
while with yield

p Figure 4.17 Reserved words with special meanings in Python

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 Module 4: Programming

Table 4.3 shows some examples of valid and invalid identifiers.

‚ Table 4.3 Examples of valid and invalid identifiers

Valid identifiers Invalid identifiers Explanation

sum_of_scores sum-of-scores Identifiers cannot contain the hyphen

character “-”

my_class class class is a reserved word

BOX_SIZE size_correct? Identifiers cannot contain the

question mark character “?”

test_score_3 3rd_test_score The first character of an identifier

cannot be any of the digits “0” to “9”

oneword two words Identifiers cannot contain any spaces

Typically, identifiers in Python are written in lower case with words separated by underscores.
To make our source code easier to read, we should follow the same naming style.

Unlike flowcharts and pseudo-code which are meant for humans, syntax rules for Python
instructions must be followed strictly or else the computer will not be able to perform the
instruction. For example, the code in Figure 4.18 assigns the value 2017 to a variable with the
name year:

>>> year = 2017

p Figure 4.18 Example of an assignment statement

We can visualise what this does by imagining a sticky note with label “year” pasted on or attached
to the location or address where 2017 is located in memory:

Addresses Memory contents

45647424 2020

46547432 2019

year 46547440 2017

46547448 −12

46547456 2018

46547464 1965

46547472 "Hello, World!"

p Figure 4.19 Assigning 2017 to the variable year

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How Do I Write Programs?

Did you know?

Unlike variables in flowcharts and pseudo-code that act like boxes, variables in Python act like
sticky notes attached to locations in memory. For most of the tasks in this textbook, you need not
take note of this difference. However, this will be important to understand when using advanced
features of Python not covered in this textbook. In general, you should be aware that different
programming languages will have slightly different rules for how variables work.

In most versions of Python, you can get the memory address that a variable is attached to by using
the id() function, as shown in Figure 4.20:

>>> year = 2017

>>> print(year)
2017
>>> id(year)
46547440

p Figure 4.20 Example of using the id() function

Of course, the memory address that is printed out will vary from computer to computer depending
on which memory addresses are available to Python. Do not be alarmed if your computer does
not produce the same output as your friend’s!

We call the name year a variable because we can change (i.e., vary) the value that is assigned
to it while the program is running.

>>> year = 2017

>>> year = 2018
>>> year = 2019
>>> year = 2020

p Figure 4.21 Changing the value assigned to the variable year

After Python runs the source code in Figure 4.21, the

variable year is now assigned the value of 2020. The Key Term
previous values of 2017, 2018 and 2019 are no longer
associated with year. Only the last value that is assigned Variable (Python)
to a variable is kept. A name with an associated
value that can be changed
while the program is running

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 Module 4: Programming

Addresses Memory contents

year 45647424 2020

46547432 2019

46547440 2017

46547448 −12

46547456 2018

46547464 1965

46547472 "Hello, World!"

p Figure 4.22 Changing the assigned value of the variable year from 2017 to 2020

In assigning values, what comes after the equals sign is not limited to a number. It can include
calculations or even other variables. For example, the following source code creates a new value
(the sum of 1 and 2) and attaches a variable named total to its address:

>>> total = 1 + 2

p Figure 4.23 Assigning the result of a calculation to the variable total

Note that when one variable is assigned to another variable, both variables become attached to
the same address. You can imagine this as moving the sticky note for one variable onto the same
location as another variable. For instance, let us assign different values to two variables:

>>> year_1 = 2017

>>> year_2 = 1965

p Figure 4.24 Assigning values to year_1 and year_2

Addresses Memory contents

45647424 2020

46547432 2019

year_1 46547440 2017

46547448 −12

46547456 2018
year
_ 2 46547464 1965
46547472 "Hello, World!"

p Figure 4.25 Assigning values to year_1 and year_2

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How Do I Write Programs?

If we take year_1 and assign it to year_2, we can imagine the sticky note for year_2 being
moved over to the location of the sticky note for year_1, so both year_1 and year_2 now refer
to the same value. This is illustrated in Figures 4.26 and 4.27:

>>> year_2 = year_1

p Figure 4.26 Assigning values to year_1 and year_2

Addresses Memory contents

45647424 2020

46547432 2019
year
_ 2 year_1 46547440 2017
46547448 −12

46547456 2018

46547464 1965

46547472 "Hello, World!"

p Figure 4.27 year_1 and year_2 now refer to the same value

4.4.2 Reading Values

We can retrieve or “read” the value assigned to a variable by using the variable’s name. If a value
was previously assigned to a variable with the given name, Python will use the value that was
assigned in place of the variable name.

To display the value of a variable on the screen, use the print() function as follows:

>>> print(variable)

p Figure 4.28 Displaying the value assigned to a variable

For instance, in interactive mode, entering print(year) would print out the value assigned to
the variable named year:

>>> year = 2020

>>> print(year)
2020

p Figure 4.29 Displaying the value assigned to the variable year

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 Module 4: Programming

However, if the name year does not correspond to any variable that was used or defined
previously, Python will produce an error message instead:

>>> print(year)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#0>", line 1, in <module>
print(year)
NameError: name 'year' is not defined

p Figure 4.30 Displaying the value of an undefined variable

These instructions are translated by the Python interpreter into machine code. This machine
code takes care of finding where values are located in memory or if additional space in memory
is needed to store a value. The Python interpreter handles these tasks so that programmers can
focus on the algorithm.

4.4.3 Assigning and Reading Values Together

As mentioned previously, we can take the value from one variable, manipulate it, and then assign
it to another variable. For example, the variable next_year will be assigned a value of 2018 after
the source code in Figure 4.31 is run:

>>> year = 2017

>>> next_year = year + 1
>>> print(year)
2017
>>> print(next_year)
2018

p Figure 4.31 Using the value of year to assign a value to next_year

We can also take the value from a variable, manipulate it, and then assign it back to the same
variable. This is because Python will always fully calculate the value of the right-hand side before
assigning it to the variable on the left-hand side:

>>> year = 2017

>>> year = year + 1
>>> print(year)
2018

p Figure 4.32 Using the value of year to assign a new value back to year

In the second line of the source code in Figure 4.32, Python calculates the value of year + 1 using
the original value of year before assigning the final result (2018) back to year. The old value of
2017 will no longer be referred to. This technique is often used to update the value assigned to a
variable without having to create additional variables to store the interim results.

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How Do I Write Programs?

4.4.4 None Value

Sometimes we need to keep track of the fact that a value is missing or that there is no suitable
value to be assigned to a variable. For instance, some problems may have optional inputs. Since
Python will produce an error message if we try to retrieve a variable that has not been defined,
we may still wish to create the variable but assign it a value that indicates the value is missing.
For such cases, Python provides a special None value that can be used instead:

>>> optional_input = None

>>> print(optional_input)
None

p Figure 4.33 Using None to indicate a missing value

4.4.5 Constants
Programs often use one or more fixed values over and over again. For instance, let us consider
a school in which the maximum score for all tests is always 30 and the number of students in
each class is always 40. Suppose we want to find out the percentage score of one student and
the overall percentage score of a whole class. We can use the following source code to calculate
these scores:

student_percentage = score / 30 * 100

class_percentage = total_score / (40 * 30) * 100

p Figure 4.34 Example of calculations that use repeated fixed values

The above source is valid, but using the raw values of 30 and 40 in this manner has two
disadvantages:
1. It is not clear what the values 30 or 40 mean from just the source code.
2. There is no clear indication that the value of 30 in both lines of source refers to the same
thing (that is, the maximum test score). If the maximum test score changes, someone
updating the code may change one line correctly but forget about the other line.

To avoid this, we should use constants. Constants are

similar to variables in that they both have names and Key Term
assigned values. However, once the value of a constant
is set, it cannot be changed while the program is running. Constant (programming)
A name with an associated
value that usually cannot be
changed while the program
is running

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For example, we can use constants to provide more readable names for the raw values of 30
and 40:

MAX_SCORE = 30
CLASS_SIZE = 40

p Figure 4.35 Declaring constants

Using these constants, the source code becomes more readable and easier to maintain should
there be any changes required in the future:

student_percentage = score / MAX_SCORE * 100

class_percentage = total_score / (CLASS_SIZE * MAX_SCORE) * 100

p Figure 4.36 Example of calculations rewritten using constants

Some programming languages such as C have special

instructions for constants to make sure that their values cannot Key Term
be changed. However, Python does not. Whenever we need
a constant in Python, we have to use a variable instead. To Naming convention
indicate that a variable is actually a constant and that its value A set of generally accepted
should not be changed after it is set, we follow the naming rules for how identifiers or
convention of using upper-case letters for its name. names should be chosen

Note that, even though these variables are treated as

constants, Python does not prevent a programmer from changing the value stored in them
while the program is running. However, doing so would go against convention and might lead
to unexpected errors.

Did you know?

Many systems work because most people follow the same norms or “unwritten laws”. These are
called conventions. For instance, in Singapore, it is conventional to keep left on the escalator so
that there is a clear path on the right for those in a hurry.

In the same way, Python programs have a set of conventions that we should try to follow. An
example of these conventions is using upper-case letters to name constants.

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How Do I Write Programs?

Quick Check 4.4

1. For each assignment statement in Figure 4.37, identify:

a) the name of the variable that is assigned a value, and

b) the final value which is being assigned.

1 ratio = 0.75
2 greeting = "Hi!"
3 to_hit = 17 + 3

p Figure 4.37 Assignment statements

2. The source code in Figure 4.38 can be entered line by line, in the order given, using
Python’s interactive mode. For each line of source code, predict what will be displayed
on the screen (if any) or if an error will occur. Check your answers by entering the same
source code, line by line, in IDLE’s shell window and observing the results.

1 name= "Computing"
2 name name
3 Name = "Science"
4 print(name)
5 print(Name)
6 Real_Name = name
7 Real_Name
8 print(Real_Name)
9 Fake_Name =

p Figure 4.38 Source code for entry in interactive mode

3. Write a program that assigns the value of 99 to a variable named original_value,

and then assigns original_value to two variables named copy_1 and copy_2.
The program should only need three lines of source code.

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4. Identify three different values in the program in Figure 4.39 that should each be
represented by a constant. Suggest suitable names for each constant, and then modify
the program to use the constants with the names you have chosen. The modified
program should behave identically to the original program.

# Program 4.3 greetings_with_title.py

1 # Prints out a series of greetings, with title based on gender.

2 print("Hello, " + "Ms. " + "Aishah")
3 print("Hello, " + "Mr. " + "Paul")
4 print("Hello, " + "Mr. " + "Xiaoming")
5 print("Hello, " + "Ms. " + "Jessica")

p Figure 4.39 Program that uses repeated fixed values

4.5 Data Types

Data in a computer is stored as a sequence of bytes. The same sequence of bytes can represent
different types of data such as numbers or text, depending on how the sequence is interpreted.

However, we do not need to worry about how the bytes are arranged when assigning values to
or reading values from variables. Instead, Python manages the arrangement and interpretation of
the bytes in each variable. This is done by associating each value and variable with a data type.
Some built-in data types in Python are shown in Table 4.4:

‚ Table 4.4 Built-in data types

Data type Python Valid values Example

Integer int Whole numbers 1234

Floating point float Real numbers 12.34

String str Text (can include digits) "ABC123"

Boolean bool True, False True

List list Multiple values [1, 2, 3]

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4.5.1 Integers
An integer (int for short) is a whole number. To represent an int value directly in Python source,
use its literal format, that is, the digits of the int written out:

>>> 2017
2017

p Figure 4.40 Example of valid integer (int) literal

Since many algorithms involve counting and manipulating whole numbers, ints are handled
as a special data type in Python to ensure accuracy. Python ints can handle almost any whole
number, positive or negative, large or small, without losing accuracy. This is different from some
programming languages where there is a limit to the most positive or most negative integer that
can be represented by an integer type. For instance, some programming languages would not be
able to perform the following calculation of 2 to the power of 210 correctly:

>>> 2 ** 2 ** 10
1797693134862315907729305190789024733617976978942306572734300811577
3267580550096313270847732240753602112011387987139335765878976881441
6622492847430639474124377767893424865485276302219601246094119453082
9520850057688381506823424628814739131105408272371633505106845862982
39947245938479716304835356329624224137216

p Figure 4.41 Demonstration of using ints to perform a large calculation

The ** symbol here represents exponentiation. This and other mathematical operators will be
discussed in section 4.6.2.2.

4.5.2 Floating-Point Numbers

To represent values that are not whole numbers, Python Key Terms
uses the floating-point (float for short) data type.
Unlike an int, a float is not especially accurate, but Floating-point number (float)
it is usually accurate enough for most situations. We can Data type to represent real
write float literals in two formats: numbers that contain a
fractional part
1. Writing out the digits of the float with decimal
point included explicitly. If no decimal point Integer (int)
is included, Python will treat the number as an Data type representing whole
int instead. numbers (positive and negative)
Example: 12345.6789
Literal
2. Expressing the float in the form AeB or AEB to Format for representing a value
represent (A × 10B). directly in source code
Example: 6.02e23 represents 6.02 × 1023

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Figure 4.42 shows some examples of valid float literals:

>>> 2017.0
2017.0
>>> 2e3
2000.0

p Figure 4.42 Examples of valid float literals

Due to the format in which floating-point values are stored, floats are not especially accurate,
as shown in Figure 4.43:

>>> 3.0 * 0.1

0.30000000000000004

p Figure 4.43 Example of an inaccurate floating-point calculation

There is also a limit to the most positive and most negative number that can be represented
using a float. In most versions of Python, the most positive number that can be represented
is approximately 1.79 × 10308 while the most negative number that can be represented is
approximately −1.79 × 10308. Beyond this limit, the float gets converted into the special value of
infinity (represented by inf or –inf):

>>> 1.79e308
1.79e+308
>>> 1.80e308
inf
>>> -1.79e308
-1.79e+308
>>> -1.80e308
-inf

p Figure 4.44 Demonstration of float limits

4.5.3 Strings
Python uses the string (str for short) data type to represent
text. The name “string” is shorthand for the phrase “string of Key Term
characters/letters”. String literals consist of the text contents
enclosed by matching single-quotes (') or double-quotes String (str)
("). In addition, the enclosing quotes must be entered as Data type to represent text
straight quotes (like ' or ") and not curly quotes (like ’ or ”); as a sequence of characters
otherwise a syntax error will occur. or symbols

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How Do I Write Programs?

Some examples of valid str literals are provided in Figure 4.45:

>>> "Hello, World!"

'Hello, World!'
>>> '123.456'
'123.456'
>>> 'Say "Hello" with me!'
'Say "Hello" with me!'

p Figure 4.45 Examples of valid string (str) literals

Note that in Python’s interactive mode, if a str is entered directly as a literal, it is printed with
additional single-quotes around the content. To display only the content of the str without the
quotes, use the print() function instead, as shown in Figure 4.46:

>>> print("Hello, World!")

Hello, World!
>>> print('123.456')
123.456
>>> print('Say "Hello" with me!')
Say "Hello" with me!

p Figure 4.46 Using the print() function to display strs without additional single quotes

Often, strs may need to include characters that are either difficult to type out as part of a literal
or would cause a syntax error if not treated specially. To include such characters, we need to
input them using the backslash (\) key and special escape codes. Some common escape codes
for string literals are shown in Table 4.5:

‚ Table 4.5 Common escape codes

Escape code Meaning

Key Term
\\ Backslash (\)
Escape code
\' Single-quote (') Sequence of characters
used to input characters
\" Double-quote (") that are either difficult to
type out as part of a literal
\n Newline character
or would cause a syntax
\t Tab character error if not treated specially

\ Ignore end of line

Note that the escape code “\” represents a backslash that is the last character on a line of
source code. This trailing backslash means to ignore the line break and treat the following line
as if it continues on the current line.

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Figure 4.47 shows some examples of how escape codes can be used:

>>> print('Line 1\nLine 2')

The \n escape code breaks
Line 1
the string up into two lines.
Line 2
>>> print('abc\ Python ignores the line break as the first
def') line ends with a backslash.
abcdef
The single quote in “It’s” is escaped and thus
>>> print('It\'s a small world.')
does not end the string prematurely.
It's a small world.

p Figure 4.47 Examples of how escape codes are used

Programmers often need to convert strs into ints or floats and

vice versa. The process of intentionally converting a value from one Key Term
data type to another is called type casting. To do this, use the name
of the desired data type like a function. For instance, the int() Type casting
function can convert strs into ints. Figure 4.48 shows that while Process of
"123" and int("123") both appear as 123 when printed, converting a
"123" is text and cannot be used to perform calculations while value from one
int("123") is the actual number 123 and can be used to perform data type to
calculations. We can check the data type of these two values using another
the type() function, which will be described in section 4.5.6.

>>> print("123")
123
>>> print("123" + 1)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#1>", line 1, in <module>
print("123" + 1)
TypeError: Can't convert 'int' object to str implicitly
>>> print(type("123"))
<class 'str'>
>>> print(int("123"))
123
>>> print(int("123") + 1)
124
>>> print(type(int("123")))
<class 'int'>

p Figure 4.48 Using the int() function to convert a str into an int

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How Do I Write Programs?

Similarly, the str() function can convert ints and floats to strs. In the following example,
an error occurs as the “+” operator expects both the value on its left and the value on its right
to be of the same type. To fix this error, we use the str() function to convert number into a
str so that both values on the left and right are strs.

>>> number = 2017

>>> print("My number is " + number)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#1>", line 1, in <module>
print("My number is " + number)
TypeError: Can't convert 'int' object to str implicitly
>>> print("My number is " + str(number))
My number is 2017

p Figure 4.49 Using the str() function to convert an int into a str

The use of the “+” operator to join strings together will be discussed in section 4.6.2.3.

4.5.4 Booleans
Boolean (bool for short) is a special data type used by Python to represent logic-related
data. Unlike other data types, there are only two valid values that a bool variable can have
assigned to it: True or False.

>>> print(1 < 3)

True
>>> print(3 < 1)
False
>>> example_bool_1 = True
>>> example_bool_2 = False

p Figure 4.50 Example of bool variables with two valid values

In the example above, Python uses the bool values of True

and False to report whether 1 is less than 3, and vice versa. Key Term
You will learn how to manipulate bools using logic operators in
section 4.6.2.4 on Boolean operators. Boolean (bool)
Data type
representing either
True or False

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Did you know?

Booleans are named after George Boole, an English mathematician, philosopher and logician,
who introduced the use of Boolean logic, a form of algebra where values or variables are either
“true” or “false”, in 1847.

4.5.5 Lists
Programs often need to keep and manipulate multiple
values without prior knowledge of the total number Key Terms
of values. The list data type can be used to store a
sequence of values of any length. Array
Sequence where all the items
The format for list literals is a left square bracket ([), have the same size and are
followed by the items of the list (if any) separated by arranged consecutively in
commas, and ending with a right square bracket (]). The memory; informally also used
items in the list can be of any type, although mixing as a synonym for list
types in a list is not a good practice.
List (programming)
Figure 4.51 shows some examples of valid list literals, Data type for storing multiple
including an empty list. values in a sequence

>>> [1, 2, 3]
[1, 2, 3]
>>> ["Mixing types in a list is bad.", 2017, False]
['Mixing types in a list is bad.', 2017, False]
>>> [] This is an empty list.
[]

p Figure 4.51 Examples of valid list literals

A simple list is sometimes called a one-dimensional array. However, a list can only be called
an array if all the items in the list have the same size and are arranged consecutively in memory.

When we use flowcharts or pseudo-code to work with multiple values, we need to either input
the total number of values at the start, or wait for a special “end value” to be provided so that
we know when to stop accepting values. While both these methods still work in Python, lists
allow for another way to process multiple values by having a single variable represent a collection
of values.

You will learn how to manipulate items in a list using the index and slice operators in
section 4.6.2.3.

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4.5.6 Variable Types

In Python, the data type associated with a variable depends on the value currently assigned to it.
It is possible, though strongly discouraged, to reuse the same variable name by assigning different
data types to it.

Being inconsistent with the data types can lead to programming mistakes because it becomes
difficult to predict the type of the value for each variable. It is thus good programming practice
to avoid changing the data type of a variable once it has been initialised with a value.

Did you know?

You can find out the data type of any value by using the type() function. Python will then display
the data type of any value that is placed between the parentheses. For example, the following
output means that the data type of 2017 is an int:

>>> print(type(2017))
<class 'int'>

p Figure 4.52 Using the type() function to display the data type

Quick Check 4.5

1. State the data type for each of the following literals:

a) -2017
b) '"'
c) 'Computing'
d) 3.14159
e) "\""
f) "\"[]\""
g) True
h) 6.02e23
i) '\''
j) "2017"
k) "'"
l) [""]
m) 'False'

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2. For each line of source code in Figure 4.53, predict what will be displayed on the
screen (if any) or if an error will occur. Check your answers by entering the same
source code, line by line, in IDLE’s shell window and observing the results.

1 print(1e100)
2 print(103E1)
3 print(1EE1)
4 print(3.141)
5 print(3.1.3)
6 print("Hello,\
World")
7 print("Hello,\nWorld")
8 print("Hello,\tWorld")
9 print('Hello,\n\tWorld')
10 print('Hello,\t\nWorld')
11 print("\\\"")
12 print("\\\")
13 print(True)
14 print(true)
15 print(False)
16 print(false)
17 print(None)
18 print(none)
19 print([])
20 print([2, 3, 4])
21 print([[]])

p Figure 4.53 Source code for entry in interactive mode

3. For each line of source code in Figure 4.54, predict what will be displayed on the
screen (if any) or if an error will occur. Check your answers by entering the same
source code, line by line, in IDLE’s shell window and observing the results.

1 print(int("-3"))
2 print(float('-3'))
3 print(float("minus three"))
4 print(str(-3))
5 print(str(-3.0))
6 print(str(-3e3))

p Figure 4.54 Source code for entry in interactive mode

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How Do I Write Programs?

4.6 Functions and Operators

Now that we know how to assign and read values

of different data types, we can perform more Key Terms
complex tasks that involve manipulating data. Most
programming languages allow programmers to Argument
manipulate values and variables in two main ways: Additional value that can be
using functions and operators. supplied as input to a function call

Function
4.6.1 Functions Set of instructions assigned to a
name that can be used again later
Just as variables can store values such as numbers and
lists, functions can be thought of as a way of storing Function call
instructions to be used again later. Process of assigning arguments
to new variables and running the
You have already seen functions used in some previous instructions assigned to a function
examples. For example, in Figure 4.55, the print()
function takes in a str value, called an argument,
and displays it on the screen without quotes around
the content:

>>> print("Hello, World!")

Hello, World!

p Figure 4.55 Using a function

When using a function, type its name, followed by parentheses that can either be empty or
contain comma-separated arguments (as shown in Figure 4.56). When a function is used, the
Python interpreter will assign any arguments to new variables before running the instructions that
are stored in the function. This process is also known as a function call.

Syntax 4.2 Function Call

function_name()

function_name(argument_1)

function_name(argument_1, argument_2)

p Figure 4.56 Syntax for function calls

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Figure 4.57 shows some examples of function calls using the print() function.

>>> print()

This is the first argument.

>>> print(1)
1 This is the second argument.
>>> print(1, 2)
1 2

p Figure 4.57 Using the print() function

This syntax is why a set of parentheses are used

after function names to distinguish them from Key Terms
variable names.
Nested function call
In addition to the print() function, Python comes Using the return value of one
with many other built-in functions that you can functional call as an argument for
use straight away. Some functions can even return another function call
values for your program to assign or use in other
ways. For instance, the len() function accepts one Return value
argument of type list or str and returns its length Output of a function, or the value
as an int: that a function call is treated as,
after the instructions assigned to the
function are completed

>>> test_scores = [72, 68, 85]

>>> print(len(test_scores))
3
>>> number_of_scores = len(test_scores)
>>> x = number_of_scores + 1
>>> y = len(["A", "B"])
>>> z = len([])
>>> print([x, y, z])
[4, 2, 0]

p Figure 4.58 Using the len() function

The return value (or result) of one function call can be used as an argument for another function
call. This is called a nested function call.

>>> print("Length is", len("Hello, World!"))

Length is 13

p Figure 4.59 Using a nested function call

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How Do I Write Programs?

The code can get difficult to read if there are too many nested function calls. For such cases,
it is recommended to break the instruction into smaller pieces by assigning return values to
intermediate variables before performing the outermost function call. For instance, the code in
Figure 4.60 gives the same result as the nested function call in Figure 4.59.

>>> length_of_greeting = len("Hello, World!")

>>> print("Length is", length_of_greeting)
Length is 13

p Figure 4.60 Breaking an instruction into smaller pieces instead of using a nested function call

4.6.1.1 Built-In Functions

Some common built-in functions in Python and their typical arguments are described in
Table 4.6. Note that some functions such as range() will behave differently depending on
the types of arguments they receive. Each valid combination of arguments is described in a
separate row.

‚ Table 4.6 Common built-in functions

Function Argument(s) Return value Description/Examples

float() Usually an A float equal Used to convert a value into a float

int or a to the argument
>>> float(2)
str converted to a
2.0
floating-point
>>> float('2.017')
number (if
2.017
possible)

input() A str to A str containing Used to get input from the user
use as a text that the user
>>> name = input("Enter name: ")
prompt enters in response
Enter name: Samantha
to the prompt
>>> print(name)
Samantha

int() Usually a An int equal Used to convert a value into an int

float or str to the argument
>>> int(2.017)
with digits after
2
the decimal
>>> int('2017')
point cut off (if
2017
possible)
>>> int(3.9)
3
>>> int(-3.9)
-3

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‚ Table 4.6 Common built-in functions (continued)

Function Argument(s) Return value Description/Examples

len() A sequence, An int equal to Used to get the length of a sequence, such as
such as a the length of the a list or str
list or str argument
>>> test_scores = [72, 68, 85]
>>> print(len(test_scores))
3

print() Any number None Used to display output

of printable
>>> print("Hello, World!")
values
Hello, World!

range() One int A sequence of Used to make a sequence of ints for

ints starting iterating through lists; use the list()
from 0 up to but function to convert it into a list
not including the
>>> print(list(range(3)))
argument
[0, 1, 2]

range() Two ints A sequence of Used to make a sequence of ints for

ints starting iterating through lists; use the list()
from the first function to convert it into a list
argument up to
>>> print(list(range(4, 8)))
but not including
[4, 5, 6, 7]
the second
argument

range() Three ints A sequence of Used to make a sequence of ints for

ints starting iterating through lists; use the list()
from the first function to convert it into a list
argument up to
>>> print(list(range(3, 20, 4)))
but not including
[3, 7, 11, 15, 19]
the second
argument, in
increments
of the third
argument

str() Usually a A str equal to Used to convert a value into a str

number (int the argument
>>> str(2.017)
or float) converted to a
'2.017'
string (if possible)
>>> str(2017 + 2017)
'4034'
>>> str(2017) + str(2017)
'20172017'

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Did you know?

If you ever need help with a built-in function, you can use the help() function to print out its
documentation. For instance, to learn more about the len() function, enter the following in
Python’s interactive mode, taking care to enter len without the trailing parentheses:

>>> help(len)

p Figure 4.61 Example of using the help() function

Note that some built-in functions may use advanced features that are not covered in this textbook.

4.6.1.2 User-Defined Functions

Besides Python’s built-in functions, you can also write

Key Terms
your own functions. These are called user-defined
functions (UDFs).
Body (functions)
Sequence of statements in a UDF
To define a UDF, we first need to choose its name. The
name must be a valid Python identifier that follows the
Indentation
same rules described previously for variable names (see
Number of spaces at the start of
section 4.4.1). The UDF’s name should also be different
each line of source code
from any existing variable or function names. Otherwise,
the UDF will overwrite the existing value or function
User-defined function (UDF)
associated with that name.
Function provided by the user of
a programming language
For example, the program define_hello.py in Figure
4.62 defines a function named hello() that prints
out the phrase “Hello, World!”. Lines 2 and 3 form
the UDF’s body which is run whenever the UDF is called. A UDF’s body is always indented
by starting each line with a level of indentation (usually four spaces). This indentation is used
to determine the start and end of each UDF. You will see more examples of how Python uses
indentation in section 4.7.

If we run define_hello.py, nothing appears on the screen because hello() is never actually
called. In order to use a UDF, you need to call it. This process is known as a function call (see
section 4.6.1) and can only be performed after the UDF is defined.

# Program 4.4 define_hello.py

1 def hello(): Line 1 specifies the name.

2 # This code does not get run at all.
3 print('Hello, World!') Lines 2 and 3 form the body.

p Figure 4.62 Defining a UDF without calling it

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The program say_hello.py in Figure 4.63 defines the same function hello(), then calls the
hello() function three times. In this program, the indentation after line 1 indicates that lines 2
and 3 belong to the hello() UDF’s body while lines 5 to 7 do not. Also, if you place lines 5 to
7 before lines 1 to 3, running the program will produce an error.

# Program 4.5 say_hello.py

1 def hello():
2 # Say hello
3 print('Hello, World!')
4
5 hello()
6 hello()
7 hello()

p Figure 4.63 Defining and calling a UDF

When you run this program, the phrase “Hello, World!” should appear on the screen three times,
as in Figure 4.64, once for each call of hello() from lines 5 to 7:

Hello, World!
Hello, World!
Hello, World!

p Figure 4.64 Output after running say_hello.py

Line 1 of the program say_hello.py is the UDF’s

signature that specifies the UDF’s name and its parameters. Key Terms
Parameters are special variables that arguments are assigned
to when the UDF is called. In this case, hello() function Parameter
has no parameters. For a UDF to accept arguments, its Special variable in a UDF
signature must specify a parameter for every argument it that an argument is assigned
expects to receive. to when the UDF is called

For instance, the program quiz.py in Figure 4.65 has a Signature (programming)
UDF get_answer() that expects to receive two arguments First line of a UDF that
using the parameters prompt and reply. This means that specifies the UDF’s name
when the function is called (but before the function body and its parameters
is run), the first argument will be assigned to a new variable
named prompt and the second argument is assigned to a
new variable named reply.

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How Do I Write Programs?

# Program 4.6 quiz.py

1 def get_answer(prompt, reply):

2 answer = input(prompt)
3 print(reply)
This value is returned by the function
4 return answer
after the function call ends.
5
6 answer1 = get_answer('What is your name?', 'Thanks!')
7 answer2 = get_answer('What is your age?', 'Thanks again!')
8 answer3 = get_answer('What is your hobby?', 'Thank you!')
9
10 print('Your answers were...')
11 print(answer1, answer2, answer3)

p Figure 4.65 Defining a UDF that accepts arguments and returns a value

Line 4 of quiz.py also shows that a UDF can provide

a return value using the return keyword. When Key Term
Python encounters a return instruction, the function
immediately ends and the original function call is treated Return instruction
as the provided return value. If no return instruction is Instruction that ends the
encountered before the function body ends, then the function immediately and treats
default return value is None and the original function the original function call as the
call is also treated as None. An example of this is the provided return value
hello() function in Figure 4.63.

From Lines 6 to 8 of quiz.py, get_answer() is called three times and the return value of each
call is assigned to variables answer1, answer2 and answer3 respectively.

Figure 4.66 illustrates the process of how the arguments of a function call are assigned to new
variables with names given by the function’s signature and how the return value is assigned to
answer1.

def get_answer(prompt, reply):

answer = input(prompt)
print(reply)
return answer

answer1 = get_answer('What is your name?', 'Thanks!')

p Figure 4.66 How arguments are assigned to new variables during a function call

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Figure 4.67 summarises the syntax rules for a UDF that accepts either no arguments, one argument
or two arguments. This pattern can be extended to write UDFs that accept even more arguments.

Syntax 4.3 User-Defined Function

def function_name():
commands to run when function_name is called

def function_name(parameter_1):
commands to run when function_name is called (needs 1 argument)

def function_name(parameter_1, parameter_2):

commands to run when function_name is called (needs 2 arguments)

p Figure 4.67 Syntax for defining a UDF

The syntax rules for return are summarised in Figure 4.68. The return value after the return
keyword is optional. If it is provided, the return value can be of any data type. If it is omitted, the
return value is treated as None.

Syntax 4.4 return Statement

return

return return_value

p Figure 4.68 Syntax for returning from a UDF

Previously, we explained that arguments are assigned

to new variables based on the parameters given in the Key Term
function’s signature. These new variables are special
because they are valid only within the function. This is also Local variable
true for any variables that are created inside the function. Variable that is created inside
Such variables are called local variables because they can a UDF and can only be used
only be used inside the function’s body. in the UDF’s body

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For instance, the program area.py in Figure 4.69 has a UDF named area_of_circle() that,
when called, will assign its argument to a variable named radius. Inside the function, a new
variable named area is also created:

# Program 4.7 area.py

1 PI = 3.14159
2
3 def area_of_circle(radius):
4 area = PI * radius ** 2
5 # Both radius and area are valid variables here
6 return area
7
8 print(area_of_circle(2))
9 # However, radius and area are NOT valid variables here

p Figure 4.69 Defining a UDF that uses local variables

In this case, both radius and area are local variables for
area_of_circle(). This means that outside the function
Key Term
body of area_of_circle(), radius and area are not
defined. For example, commands like print(radius) and Global variable
print(area) would run correctly inside the function body Variable that is created
(e.g., line 5), but the same code would produce an error outside of a UDF and is
message outside the function body (e.g., line 9). readable from the UDF’s
body if its name is not
Notice that area_of_circle() uses the constant PI hidden by a local variable
that is defined outside of the function body. Besides local
variables, the code inside a function body also has read
access to the global variables, constants and functions that are defined outside of the function.
The different local as well as global variables and constants found in area.py are illustrated in
Figure 4.70:

Global variables
and constants
PI = 3.14159 PI

def area_of_circle(radius): Local Variables

variables Global variables
area = PI * radius ** 2 and constants and constants
# Both radius and area are valid variables here radius PI
return area area

print(area_of_circle(2))
Global variables
# However, radius and area are NOT valid variables here and constants
PI

p Figure 4.70 Local and global variables and constants in area.py

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In a typical program, constants and functions are defined once and do not change. Hence, it is
usually predictable to use global constants and call global functions such as input(), print()
or other UDFs inside a function body.

Variables are different from constants and functions as they can change while a program is running.
A function that depends on global variables may produce completely different behaviour each
time it is called. To avoid this, UDFs should request for all the inputs that they need as arguments
instead of using global variables. For instance, the program add_function.py in Figure 4.71
shows two ways of writing a function to add two numbers. In general, the good_example()
approach is better than the bad_example() approach as all the inputs that can affect the return
value are clearly specified in the function’s signature and the function body does not use any
global variables.

# Program 4.8 add_function.py

1 def good_example(num1, num2): # num1 and num2 are local

2 return num1 + num2 # OK
3
4 def bad_example(): # num1 and num2 are global
5 return num1 + num2 # Don't do this!
6
7 num1 = 19
8 num2 = 65
9 print(good_example(20, 17))
10 print(bad_example())

p Figure 4.71 Defining a UDF that uses local variables

For add_function.py, the variable names num1 and num2 are used in two different contexts:

1. On lines 1 and 2, they are local variables for the good_example() function.
2. On lines 5, 7 and 8, they are global variables.

While they have the same names, it is important to understand that the local variables named
num1 and num2 on lines 1 and 2 are completely separate variables from the global variables
named num1 and num2 on lines 5, 7 and 8.

When good_example() is called on line 9, two new local variables are created and given the
names num1 and num2 just before the function body on line 2 is run. This temporarily hides the
global variables that are also named num1 and num2 and prevents them from being accessed
inside the body of good_example().

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How Do I Write Programs?

However, both global variables are merely hidden and not lost. After the call to good_example()
ends, the local versions of num1 and num2 are removed and the global variables that are named
num1 and num2 become accessible again with the same values that were assigned to them
previously.

Figure 4.72 illustrates the local and global variables in add_function.py and how having a
local variable can hide access to global variables with the same name.

Local Variables
variables Global variables
def good_example(num1, num2): radius
num1 num1 (hidden)
return num1 + num2 area
num2 num2 (hidden)

def bad_example(): Local Variables

variables Global variables
return num1 + num2 radius num1
area num2
num1 = 19
num2 = 65 Global variables
print(good_example(20, 17)) num1
print(bad_example()) num2

p Figure 4.72 Local and global variables and constants in add_function.py

Notice how the global variables named num1 and num2 are hidden for good_example() but are
not hidden for bad_example().

UDFs have several advantages:

• Code that is repeated in different locations of the program can be put in UDFs. The
repeated code can then be replaced with shorter function calls.

• The solution to each sub-problem can be placed in a separate UDF using the modular
method of decomposition (see Chapter 2). Each UDF will be smaller than the main program
and thus can be more easily understood.

• When working in a team, different programmers can be given responsibility for different
UDFs so they can all work concurrently.

• Each UDF can be tested separately and more thoroughly with different inputs compared
to a single large program with no UDFs.

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4.6.2 Operators
You have already seen operators used in many of our previous examples. For instance, the
addition operator (+) takes two values, one to the left and one to the right, then returns the sum
of the two values.

>>> 1 + 2
3

p Figure 4.73 Using the addition operator

Similarly, whenever we assign a value to a variable, we are actually using the assignment operator
(=), which takes the value calculated on the right and stores it in the variable on the left:

>>> year = 2017

p Figure 4.74 Using the assignment operator

Most of the operators we will learn about take in exactly

two values, one to the left and one to the right. These are Key Terms
called binary operators.
Binary operator
Operators and functions are similar in that they take in Operator that takes in exactly
values, manipulate them, and usually return a value. two values
While functions have names and use a standard calling
syntax, operators usually look like symbols and the syntax Operator
for using them varies. However, because they are short Symbol for performing
and quick to type, operators are ideal for representing instructions like a function but
instructions that are frequently used. using a different syntax

4.6.2.1 Multi-Type Operators

Some operators work with values of almost any type in Python. For instance, it makes sense to
ask whether two variables have same or different values, regardless of their data types. Python
can make such comparisons using the equivalence and non-equivalence operators.

‚ Table 4.7 Relational operators that work with multiple data types

Operator Name Description Examples

== Equivalence Returns the bool value True if >>> 2017 == 2017

the two values are equivalent True
and False if they are not >>> 2017 == 2018
False

!= Non- Returns the bool value False >>> 2017 != 2017

equivalence if the two values are equivalent False
and True if they are not >>> 2017 != 2018
True

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How Do I Write Programs?

Did you know?

Note that the single equals sign is for assignment and double equals sign, or equivalence, is for
testing whether two values are equal. The two operators are not the same. For instance, the equals
sign (=) does not have a return value while the equivalence operator (==) always has a bool return
value of either True or False.

The non-equivalence operator is a combination of the exclamation mark and equals sign. To better
understand why it is written this way, read the exclamation mark as “not”. In some programming
languages, the exclamation mark is often used to represent the logical NOT operation.

When using the equivalence and non-equivalence operators, the two values must usually be the
same in both content and data type to be considered equivalent.

>>> '1' == "1"

True
>>> 1 == "1"
False
>>> 1 != [1]
True

p Figure 4.75 Using the equivalence and non-equivalence operators

However, numbers are treated a little differently. If an int and a float are compared with each
other, the int is converted to a float before the comparison is made. If the conversion fails, the
two values are treated as non-equivalent. Furthermore, since floats are not particularly accurate,
testing for equivalence or non-equivalence using floats may give surprising results as seen in
Figure 4.76. To avoid such issues, if values can be easily represented using ints instead of floats
(such as by storing prices in cents instead of dollars), it is generally a good practice to do so.

>>> 3.0 * 0.1 == 0.3

False
>>> 1e16 + 1 == 1e16
True

p Figure 4.76 Using the equivalence operator with floats may give unexpected results

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 Module 4: Programming

Another operator that works with almost any data type is the assignment operator.

‚ Table 4.8 Assignment operator that works with multiple data types

Operator Name Description Examples

= Assignment Calculates the value on the right >>> year = 2017

and assigns it to a variable on >>> print(year)
the left 2017

4.6.2.2 Mathematical Operators

Mathematical operators are commonly used to operate on int and float data types. The most
familiar of these operators are those we use for performing calculations or arithmetic.

‚ Table 4.9 Arithmetic operators that work with int and float data types

Operator Name Description Examples

+ Addition Returns the sum of two values >>> 2017 + 1e3

3017.0

- Subtraction Returns the difference of >>> 2017 – 1e3

two values 1017.0

* Multiplication Returns the product of >>> 2017 * 1e3

two values 2017000.0

/ Division Returns the value on the left >>> 2017 / 1e3

divided by the value on 2.017
the right

// Floor division Returns the value on the left >>> 2017 // 1e3
divided by the value on the 2.0
right, rounded down to the
nearest integer

(Note that the data type of the

result may not necessarily be
an int.)

% Modulus Returns the remainder when >>> 2017 % 1e3

(remainder) the value on the left is divided 17.0
by the value on the right

** Exponentiation Returns the value on the left >>> 2 ** 1e3

(power) raised to the power of the 1.07150860719e+301
value on the right

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How Do I Write Programs?

Note that, because float values are not as accurate as int values, any mathematical operation
that mixes the two types will force the calculation to use the one with lower accuracy and
thus produce a float result. For instance, all the examples in
Table 4.9 return float values because 1e3 is a float value. Key Term
The division operator (/) is an exception to this rule as the division Floor division
of whole numbers often does not result in a whole number. In Division operation that
Python, we can divide an int with another int and get back a rounds down to the
float. If we want to perform a division that rounds down to the nearest integer
nearest integer, we would use floor division (//) instead.

>>> 2017 / 1000

2.017
>>> 2017 // 1000
2

p Figure 4.77 Using the floor division operator

While the result of floor division is always a whole number, if any of the values used in the
calculation is a float, then the result will still be a float. In such cases, you can safely use type
casting to convert the result to an int if needed.

>>> 2017 // 1000.0

2.0
>>> int(2017 // 1000.0)
2

p Figure 4.78 The floor division operator may return a float value

A common programming task is to use the value in a variable for a calculation and then assign the
result back into the variable. For convenience, Python provides additional assignment operators
to help save some typing when performing this task.

‚ Table 4.10 Assignment operators that work with int and float data types

Operator Example Equivalent

+= x += a x = x + a

-= x -= a x = x - a

*= x *= a x = x * a

/= x /= a x = x / a

//= x //= a x = x // a

%= x %= a x = x % a

**= x **= a x = x ** a

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 Module 4: Programming

Since numbers are naturally ordered, ints and floats can also be used with the following
comparison operators (also known as relational operators) that return a bool depending on
whether the value on the left is larger, smaller or equal to the value on the right:

‚ Table 4.11 Relational operators that work with int and float data types

Operator Name Description Examples

< Less than Returns the bool value True >>> 2017 < 2017
if the value on the left is less False
than the value on the right >>> 2017 < 2018
and False if it is not True
>>> 2017 < 20.17
False

<= Less than or Returns the bool value True >>> 2017 <= 2017
equal to if the value on the left is less True
than or equal to the value on >>> 2017 <= 2018
the right and False if it is not True
>>> 2017 <= 20.17
False

> Greater than Returns the bool value True >>> 2017 > 2017
if the value on the left is False
greater than the value on the >>> 2018 > 2017
right and False if it is not True
>>> 2017 > 20.17
True

>= Greater than or Returns the bool value True >>> 2017 >= 2017
equal to if the value on the left is True
greater than or equal to the >>> 2018 >= 2017
value on the right and False True
if it is not >>> 2017 >= 20.17
True

4.6.2.3 String and List Operators

Just as int and float are similar in that they represent numbers,
str and list are similar in that they represent a sequence Key Term
of values. However, an important difference between the two
types is that a list can contain items of any and different types Sequence
but a str can only contain characters. Examples of characters Any data type for
include the upper-case and lower-case letters from A to Z, the storing multiple values
digits 0 to 9, as well as punctuation symbols such as commas in order; usually a
and exclamation points. You will learn more about characters list, str or range
in Chapter 5.

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When solving problems, we often need to join two sequences

together (called concatenation) or repeat the contents of a Key Term
sequence multiple times. To perform these tasks, Python reuses
some of the mathematical operators you have just learnt. Concatenation
Joining two sequences to
make a longer sequence

‚ Table 4.12 Mathematical operators that work with str and list data types

Operator Name Description Examples

+ Concatenation Joins the >>> print("Computing" + "2017")

sequence on Computing2017
the right onto
the end of the
sequence on
the left

* Repetition Repeats the >>> print("Computing" * 3)

contents of ComputingComputingComputing
a sequence >>> print(3 * "2017")
a number of 201720172017
times

Note that the addition (+) and multiplication (*) operators are exceptions. In general, strs and
lists do not work with mathematical operators. For instance, trying to subtract one str from
another str results in an error:

>>> "computer" - "er"

Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#0>", line 1, in <module>
"computer" - "er"
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for -: 'str' and 'str'

p Figure 4.79 Not all arithmetic operators work with str and list

In the previous example, Python outputs that the subtraction operator (–) does not
know what to do with values of the provided data type str (that is, it cannot support the
task given).

To perform more complex operations such as accessing or rearranging the values stored inside
strs and lists, we will need to use the index operator and the slice operator.

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We use index operator in the form

the
sequence_name[i], where i is an int value. This Key Terms
int value is called the index. Taking the first value in
a sequence as having a position number of 0, the index Index
operator will return the value with the same position An int value for the position
number as the index. of a value in a sequence

For example, in Figures 4.80 and 4.81, using the index Index operator
operator with an index of 5 on the str subject_name Operator for returning a value
will return the value of t, which holds the position number in a sequence
of 5 in the str.

>>> subject_name = "Computing"

>>> print(subject_name[5])
t

p Figure 4.80 Using the index operator

subject_name[5]

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

na m e 'C' 'o' 'm' 'p' 'u' 't' 'i' 'n' 'g'

subject_

p Figure 4.81 Using the index operator

If we want to extract a subset of values from a str

or list (instead of just a single value), we can use Key Term
the slice operator. We use this operator in the form
sequence_name[a:b], where a and b are int values Slice operator
indicating the start and stop indices respectively. Operator for returning a sequence
This extracts the sequence of values or characters (not a value) by extracting values
positioned from the start index up to but not including from a sequence
the stop index.

>>> subject_name = "Computing"

>>> print(subject_name[3:6])
put

p Figure 4.82 Using the slice operator

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How Do I Write Programs?

subject_name[3:6]

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

subject_
na m e 'C' 'o' 'm' 'p' 'u' 't' 'i' 'n' 'g'

p Figure 4.83 Using the slice operator

If the start index is left out, it is treated as 0. If the stop index is left out, it is treated as the length
of the str or list. Leaving out the stop index usually has the same meaning as making sure all
remaining values of the str or list are included in the return value.

Although not often used, the slice operator can also accept an optional third int value in the
form sequence_name[a:b:c], where a and b are the start and stop indices while c is called
the step. This extracts the sequence of values or characters positioned from the start index up to
but not including the stop index in increments of the step.

>>> print("Computing"[2:8:2])
mui

p Figure 4.84 Using the slice operator with a step

subject_name[2:8:2]

+2 +2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

subject_
na m e 'C' 'o' 'm' 'p' 'u' 't' 'i' 'n' 'g'

p Figure 4.85 Using the slice operator with a step

As before, if the start index is left out, it is treated as 0. If the stop index is left out, it is treated as
the length of the str or list. If the step is left out, it is treated as 1.

>>> print("Computing"[:8:2])
Cmui
>>> print("Computing"[2::2])
muig
>>> print("Computing"[2:8:])
mputin

p Figure 4.86 Using the slice operator with the start index, stop index or step left out

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 Module 4: Programming

‚ Table 4.13 Index and slice operator syntax

Operator Name Description Examples

[i] Index Returns the value in >>> print("Computing"[0])

the i-th position of C
the sequence >>> print("Computing"[3])
p
>>> print("Computing"[-1])
g

[a:b] Slice Returns a sequence >>> print("Computing"[3:6])

of values starting put
from the value at >>> print("Computing"[:7])
index a up to but not Computi
including the value at >>> print("Computing"[3:])
index b; a is treated as puting
0 if omitted and b is
treated as the length
of the sequence if
omitted

[a:b:c] Slice Returns a sequence >>> print("Computing"[2:8:2])

with step of values starting mui
from the value at >>> print("Computing"[:8:2])
index a up to but not Cmui
including the value at >>> print("Computing"[2::2])
index b, in increments muig
of c; a is treated as 0 >>> print("Computing"[2:8:])
if omitted, b is treated mputin
as the length of the
sequence if omitted
and c is treated as 1 if
omitted.

By using the index operator on the left-hand side of an assignment, we can also change the value
that is stored in a list at a particular index.

>>> scores = [85.0, 88.1, 72.9, 63.4]

>>> scores[2] = 50.0
>>> print(scores)
[85.0, 88.1, 50.0, 63.4]

p Figure 4.87 Changing a value in a list using the index operator

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However, trying to change the characters in a str will result in an error. This is because str is
an immutable type, meaning that once a str is created, its contents cannot be changed. For
instance, suppose we wish to change the first character of “Computing” to a K so that the string
becomes “Komputing”:

>>> subject_name = "Computing"

>>> subject_name[0] = 'K'
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment

p Figure 4.88 Failing to change a character in a str

Unlike the example in Figure 4.87 where we could successfully

change the contents of a list, for the example in Figure 4.88, Key Term
Python outputs that strs are not capable of (does not support)
changing their contents. Immutable
Cannot be changed
The best we can do is to create a new str by concatenating pieces once created
from the original str:

>>> subject_name = "Computing"

>>> subject_name = 'K' + subject_name[1:]
>>> print(subject_name)
Komputing

p Figure 4.89 Creating a new str to change the first letter of subject_name

The second line in Figure 4.89 creates a new str value of “Komputing” and assigns it back to
subject_name. The previous str value of “Computing” is no longer referred to. Note that a new
str has been created. This is not the same as changing characters in an existing str.

Another common task in solving problems is accessing the last value in a str or list. This can
be done with some simple index calculation by using the len() function, as in Figure 4.90.

>>> subject_name = "Computing"

>>> letter = subject_name[len(subject_name)-1]
>>> print(letter)
g

p Figure 4.90 Accessing the last value by using the len() function

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If the index for an index operator is negative, Python treats it as a position counting from the
opposite end of the sequence, treating the last value as position −1, the second-to-last value
as position −2, and so on. This provides us with a shorter way to access the last value in a str
or list.

>>> subject_name = "Computing"

>>> letter = subject_name[-1]
>>> print(letter)
g

p Figure 4.91 Accessing the last value by using a negative index

Negative indices also work with the slice operator:

>>> subject_name = "Computing"

>>> letters = subject_name[4:-2]
>>> print(letters)
uti

p Figure 4.92 Using a negative index with the slice operator

Finally, Python also provides a membership operator to test if a value is included in a str or
list. Unlike the other operators you have learnt so far, the membership operator looks like a
word (in) instead of a symbol, but it otherwise behaves the same way as other binary operators.
The membership operator returns a True result if the value on the left exists in the str or list
on the right, otherwise the result is False.

‚ Table 4.14 Membership operator

Operator Name Description Examples

in Membership Returns the bool value >>> "C" in "Computing"

True if the value on True
the left can be found >>> "c" in "Computing"
inside the sequence on False
the right and False if it
cannot be found

>>> 15 in [11, 13, 15, 17, 19]

True
>>> 16 in [11, 13, 15, 17, 19]
False

p Figure 4.93 Using the membership operator

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4.6.2.4 Boolean Operators

Many operators in Python inform you of their results by returning a bool. Table 4.15 shows the
logical operators used for making decisions using this information.

‚ Table 4.15 Logical operators

Operator Name Description Examples

>>> not True
not Negation Takes a bool and
False
returns its opposite
>>> not False
value
True

and Conjunction Returns the bool value >>> True and True
True if both values True
are True and False >>> True and False
if either one or both False
values are False

or Disjunction Returns the bool value >>> True or True

True if either one or True
both values are True >>> True or False
and False if both True
values are False

These operators allow multiple pieces of information to be combined to make a conclusion

or decision. For instance, we can use these operators to decide whether we can leave home
based on the weather outside. Suppose is_raining is a bool that represents whether or not
it is currently raining, and have_umbrella is a bool that represents whether or not there is an
umbrella available. The decision to leave home may then be written as a logic statement:

>>> leave_home = (not is_raining) or (is_raining and have_umbrella)

p Figure 4.94 General logic statement to decide whether we can leave home based
on the weather outside and whether an umbrella is available

This statement translates very naturally into English as “we can leave home if it is not raining or
if it is raining and we have an umbrella”. Suppose it is raining and there is no umbrella available.
In this case, is_raining is True and have_umbrella is False:

>>> is_raining = True

>>> have_umbrella = False
>>> leave_home = (not is_raining) or (is_raining and have_umbrella)
>>> print(leave_home)
False

p Figure 4.95 Specific example of using a logic statement

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Python gives a result of False for leave_home, which leads us to the conclusion that we cannot
leave home yet. This is consistent with our English translation of the statement.

Quick Check 4.6

1. For each line of source code in Figure 4.96, predict what will be displayed on the
screen (if any) or if an error will occur. Check your answers by entering the same
source code, line by line, in IDLE’s shell window and observing the results.

1 print(len(range(3)))
2 print(len(3))
3 phrase = "Hello, World!"
4 print(len(phrase))
5 print(len([phrase]))
6 print(list(range(7)))
7 print(list(range(len("2017"))))
8 x = len(range(-2, 3))
9 print(x, x)

p Figure 4.96 Source code for entry in interactive mode

2. Write a Python program that asks the user to input a str phrase and outputs the
number of characters in the str that was entered.

3. For each line of source code in Figure 4.97, predict what will be displayed on the
screen (if any) or if an error will occur. Check your answers by entering the same
source code, line by line, in IDLE’s shell window and observing the results.

1 x = 2

2 x **= 3
3 x / 10
4 print(x)
5 print(1 + 1 <= "2")
6 print(3 * "2")
7 quotient = 55 // 7
8 remainder = 55 % 7
9 print(quotient * 7 + remainder == 55)
10 print(remainder + quotient * 7)
11 print((remainder + quotient) * 7)
12 55 = x
13 2.0 ** 3 == x
14 print(-55 // 10)

p Figure 4.97 Source code for entry in interactive mode

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How Do I Write Programs?

4. Write a UDF with the function name area_of_triangle that takes in the base
and height of a triangle as input and gives the triangle's area as its return value.

5. Suggest what should be written in the box in the program in Figure 4.98 so that it
correctly outputs whether the number of characters in phrase is a multiple of 3.

phrase = input("Enter phrase: ")
print( )

p Figure 4.98 Program template

6. Suggest what should be written in the box in the program in Figure 4.99 so that it
outputs True when both the following conditions are met (and False if either is
not met):
• The first character of name is the same as its last character.
• name does not contain a space character.

name = input("Enter name: ")

print( )

p Figure 4.99 Program template

7. For each line of source code in Figure 4.100, predict what will be displayed on the
screen (if any) or if an error will occur. Check your answers by entering the same
source code, line by line, in IDLE’s shell window and observing the results.

1 data = [7, 9, 3, 5]
2 print(data[3:])
3 print(data[:1])
4 print(data + [2])
5 print(data + 2)
6 print(data[-3:-2])
7 print(data[len(data)- 1])
8 print(data[len(data)])
9 print(['A', 'B', 'C'][1])
10 ['F', 'G'][0] = 'A'
11 "FG"[0] = 'A'

p Figure 4.100 Source code for entry in interactive mode

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 Module 4: Programming

8. For each line of source code in Figure 4.101, predict what will be displayed on the
screen (if any) or if an error will occur. Check your answers by entering the same
source code, line by line, in IDLE’s shell window and observing the results.

1 x = 5
2 print(x > -5 and x < 5)
3 print(x >= -5 and x <= 5)
4 print(x > -5 or x < 5)
5 print(not not True)
6 print(not True and False)
7 print(not (True and False))

p Figure 4.101 Source code for entry in interactive mode

9. The following program uses UDFs to a prompt for a message, then prints out the
message in a box made up of a repeated symbol:

1 SYMBOL = '*'
2
3 def print_border(length):
4 border = SYMBOL * length
5 print(border)
6
7 def print_box(message):
8 left_side = SYMBOL + ' '
9 right_side = ' ' + SYMBOL
10 middle_line = left_side + message + right_side
11 print_border(len(middle_line))
12 print(middle_line)
13 print_border(len(middle_line))
14
15 message = input("Enter a message: ")
16 print()
17 print_box(message)

p Figure 4.102 Program that prints out a message in a box

For each of the following appearances of variables and constants in the program,
identify whether the variable or constant being used is local or global:
a) SYMBOL on line 4
b) length on line 4

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How Do I Write Programs?

c) border on line 5
d) SYMBOL on line 8
e) left_side on line 10
f) message on line 10
g) right_side on line 10
h) middle_line on line 12
i) message on line 17

4.7 Control Flow Statements

So far, we have covered all the basic Python commands for storing, reading and manipulating
values of different data types. With these tools, we can use Python to perform some interesting
tasks. For instance, use a text editor (or Python’s built-in IDLE editor) to enter the program in
Figure 4.103 into a file and save it as message_box.py:

# Program 4.9 message_box.py

1 message = input("Enter a message: ")

2 print()
3 print("*" * (len(message) + 4))
4 print("* " + message + " *")
5 print("*" * (len(message) + 4))

p Figure 4.103 Program for printing a message box

If you are using Python’s built-in IDLE editor, press the F5 key while the file is open. The F5 key
is used to run the Python file that is currently open.

When the program runs, it should prompt you to enter a message. Type in a short message and
press Enter. The program will then print out your message in a box made of asterisks:

Enter a message: Hello, World!

*****************
* Hello, World! *
*****************

p Figure 4.104 Result of running message_box.py

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 Module 4: Programming

The Python commands we have learnt so far only allow us to

use sequence constructs that arrange instructions in a fixed Key Term
order. We still have not learnt how to produce selection and
iteration constructs similar to those used in Chapter 3. Control flow statement
Programming instruction
Recall that the decision symbols and flow lines of a flowchart that changes the order in
allow instructions to be skipped or repeated as necessary. which other instructions
The rest of this section will focus on how to similarly skip or are run
repeat instructions in Python using control flow statements.

4.7.1 if-elif-else Statements

The most basic way to determine which flowchart instructions are followed is by using a decision
symbol to split the program flow into two:

START

INPUT text

Is text == “P@55w0rd“?
Yes No

OUTPUT “Yes“ OUTPUT “No“

STOP

p Figure 4.105 Password checker flowchart

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How Do I Write Programs?

The flowchart in Figure 4.105 will output “Yes” if the input text is the same as the special phrase
“P@55w0rd”, otherwise it will output “No”. We can get the same result using the if-else
statement in Python:

# Program 4.10 password.py

1 text = input("Enter text: ")

2 if text == "P@55w0rd":
3 print("Yes")
4 else:
5 print("No")

p Figure 4.106 Using the if-else statement

If a program is like an essay, a statement is like a sentence.

The if-else statement in password.py is an example of a Key Terms
compound statement that can contain multiple statements.
You can run the program to confirm that it follows the Compound statement
flowchart in Figure 4.105. Statement that can contain
multiple statements as its
Note that some of the lines in the program password.py components
are indented. Python uses indentation (the number of spaces
at the start of each line) to determine which lines of code Statement
belong to the same branch. Besides being a good programming Element of source
practice, in Python it is a requirement to indent lines of code that represents a
code correctly. complete instruction in a
programming language
In this textbook, we will use four spaces to represent each
level of indentation. This is the recommended and typical
amount of indentation used in Python.

Suppose that now we want to perform more commands in each branch of password.py and
for the program to output “Goodbye” just before it ends (whether or not the input text matches
the password).

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 Module 4: Programming

The amended flowchart and Python source may look like this:

START

INPUT text

Is text == “P@55w0rd“?

Yes No

OUTPUT “Yes“ OUTPUT “No“

OUTPUT “Correct OUTPUT “Wrong

Password“ Password“

OUTPUT “Goodbye“

STOP

p Figure 4.107 Password checker flowchart amended to include “Goodbye” output

# Program 4.11 password_2.py

1 text = input("Enter text: ")

2 if text == "P@55w0rd":
3 print("Yes")
4 print("Correct Password")
5 else:
6 print("No")
7 print("Wrong Password")
8 print("Goodbye")

p Figure 4.108 Password checker program amended to include “Goodbye” output

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How Do I Write Programs?

In Figure 4.108, we see that the line that outputs “Goodbye” is not indented. This is how Python
knows that this line is not part of the if-else statement and that it should be run after the
if-else statement is completed, no matter which branch was previously followed.

It is also possible to nest an if-else statement inside another if-else statement. For instance,
we might want to provide a separate error message if the text entered is blank. One possible
solution would be for the flowchart and Python source to look like this:

START

INPUT text

Yes
Is text == “”?

No

OUTPUT “Blank Input

Is text == “P@55w0rd”?
Not Allowed”

Yes No

OUTPUT “Yes” OUTPUT “No”

OUTPUT “Correct OUTPUT “Wrong

Password” Password”

OUTPUT “Goodbye”

STOP

p Figure 4.109 Password checker with detection of blank input added

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 Module 4: Programming

# Program 4.12 password_3.py

1 text = input("Enter text: ")

2 if text == "":
3 print("Blank Input Not Allowed")
4 else:
5 if text == "P@55w0rd":
6 print("Yes")
7 print("Correct Password")
8 else:
9 print("No")
10 print("Wrong Password")
11 print("Goodbye")

p Figure 4.110 Password checker program with detection of blank input added

Note that the if-else statements from line 5 to line 10 are indented by one additional level
compared to the rest of the program. Hence, line 5 and line 8 have one level of indentation, while
lines 6, 7, 9 and 10 have two levels of indentation. In Python, it is important to indicate which
branch each line of code belongs to.

Nested if-else statements are common. However, excessive indentation can make the code
difficult to read. To avoid this, Python provides a way to combine nested if-else statements
into a single statement so that there is no need to increase the level of indentation. For example,
password_3.py can be re-written as:

# Program 4.13 password_3_elif.py

1 text = input("Enter text: ")

2 if text == "":
3 print("Blank Input Not Allowed")
4 elif text == "P@55w0rd":
5 print("Yes")
6 print("Correct Password")
7 else:
8 print("No")
9 print("Wrong Password")
10 print("Goodbye")

p Figure 4.111 Password checker with additional indentation avoided by using elif

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How Do I Write Programs?

The elif keyword in line 4 of password_3_elif.py replaces the else and if in lines 4 and 5
of the original password_3.py and avoids additional indentation of the remaining code. When
reading the source code, treat elif as an abbreviation for “else if”. Besides these cosmetic
changes, this program otherwise behaves exactly the same as the original password_3.py.

Some algorithms do not require any instructions to be followed for the else portion of an
if-else statement. The else keyword should then be omitted entirely. For instance, the following
program tries to censor the word “Evil” if it is entered as part of a name:

START

INPUT name

Is “Evil” in name?

Yes

No

name = “*** CENSORED ***”

OUTPUT “You are” +

name

STOP

p Figure 4.112 Name censor flowchart

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 Module 4: Programming

In Figure 4.113, name has its contents replaced by a censorship notice if “Evil” is found in the
name entered by the user. Otherwise, the program continues normally by outputting the name
with no modification to its contents.

# Program 4.14 censor.py

1 name = input("Enter name: ")

2 if "Evil" in name:
3 name = "*** CENSORED ***"
4 print("You are " + name)

p Figure 4.113 Name censor program

The syntax rules in Figure 4.114 summarise how the words and indentation for an
if-elif-else statement can be arranged:

Syntax 4.5 if-elif-else Statement

if condition:
commands when condition is True

if condition:
commands when condition is True
else:
commands when condition is False

if condition_1:
commands when condition_1 is True
elif condition_2:
commands when condition_1 is False and condition_2 is True
else:
commands when condition_1 is False and condition_2 is False

p Figure 4.114 Summary of if-elif-else statement

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How Do I Write Programs?

4.7.2 while Loops

Flowcharts can be made to repeat commands multiple times by using flow lines that return to a
previous decision symbol.

In Figure 4.115, the algorithm will keep asking for a new value of name as long as name
remains blank.

START

name = “”

Yes
INPUT name Is name == “”?

No

OUTPUT “Hello” +
name

STOP

p Figure 4.115 Personal greeting flowchart

We can achieve a similar effect in Python using the while statement:

# Program 4.15 greeting.py

1 name = ""
2 while name == "":
3 name = input("Enter name: ")
4 print("Hello " + name)

p Figure 4.116 Personal greeting program

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 Module 4: Programming

Once name is correctly entered, the program proceeds to run

line 4 and name is printed with the greeting “Hello”. Since the Key Term
flowchart for repeated commands will always have a loop, the
while statement is also called a while loop. Loop
Set of instructions
Like the if-elif-else statement, Python uses indentation to or commands that
determine which lines of code belong to the while statement. are repeated until a
In the case of greeting.py, only line 3 belongs to the while condition is met
statement and it is run repeatedly as long as nothing is entered
into name (in other words, as long as name == "" is True).

Note that, exactly like the flowchart, Python checks the condition after the while keyword
at least once while the program is running and every time after the commands in the loop are
complete. This means that if we set name to anything other than an empty string, Python will
skip the contents of the loop.

# Program 4.16 greeting_skiploop.py

1 name = "Computing"
2 while name == "":
3 name = input("Enter name: ")
4 print("Hello " + name)

==================== RESTART: C:/Examples/greeting.py ====================

Enter name: Nadiah
Hello Nadiah
>>>
================ RESTART: C:/Examples/greeting_skiploop.py ================
Hello Computing
>>>

p Figure 4.117 Demonstration that while condition is always checked at least once

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How Do I Write Programs?

Additional lines with the same indentation belong to the same while loop. For instance, the
flowchart and program in Figures 4.118 and 4.119 go through (or iterate) the contents of a list
and output each item on a separate line.

START

items = [1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32]

index = 0

index = index + 1

Yes
Is index < length of items? OUTPUT items[index]

No

STOP

p Figure 4.118 Flowchart for printing a list

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 Module 4: Programming

# Program 4.17 printlist_while.py

1 items = [1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32]

2 index = 0
3 while index < len(items):
4 print(items[index])
5 index = index + 1

p Figure 4.119 Program for printing a list

The syntax for while statements is summarised in Figure 4.120.

Syntax 4.6 while Statement

while condition:
commands to repeat while condition is True

p Figure 4.120 Syntax for while statement

Note that, by itself, the while loop cannot represent some

of the more complex flowcharts we have encountered. Key Term
This is because Python is a structured programming
language that does not allow programs to jump from one Structured programming
command to another easily like you can using flow lines in language
a flowchart. Instead, Python programs are encouraged to Programming language
use the same sequence, selection and iteration constructs that either encourages
that we learnt in Chapter 3. or is limited to the use of
sequence, selection and
Nonetheless, sometimes an algorithm requires the program iteration constructs that have
to go back to the start of the loop or to exit the loop early. exactly one entry point and
For such cases, Python provides the continue and break one exit point
keywords.

The continue keyword causes Python to skip the remaining commands in the loop and go straight
to deciding whether the loop should run again by testing the condition after the while keyword.
For example, suppose we have a loop that (by default) outputs “C is for word” for every word in
a list. However, if a word does not start with C, we can decide that the default behaviour does
not apply and that the program should advance to the next word instead.

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How Do I Write Programs?

The flowchart and source code in Figures 4.121 and 4.122 demonstrate how such an algorithm
can be implemented using the continue keyword:

START

words = ["Code", "Computing",

"Future", "Cow", "Thinking"]

index = 0

Is index < length of words?

Yes

No
Is first letter of
index = index + 1
words[index] “C”?

No Yes

OUTPUT “C is for” +
index = index + 1
words[index]

STOP

p Figure 4.121 Flowchart demonstrating continue

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 Module 4: Programming

# Program 4.18 firstletter_continue.py

1 words = ["Code", "Computing", "Future", "Cow", "Thinking"]

2 index = 0
3 while index < len(words):
4 if words[index][0] != 'C':
5 index = index + 1
6 continue
7 print("C is for " + words[index])
8 index = index + 1

============== RESTART: C:/Examples/firstletter_continue.py ==============

C is for Code
C is for Computing
C is for Cow
>>>

p Figure 4.122 Demonstration of using continue keyword to skip iterations

The break keyword, on the other hand, causes Python to immediately skip the remaining
commands and exit the loop completely. For example, suppose we once again have a loop that
(by default) outputs “C is for word” for every word in a list. However, this time we want the loop
to end once a word that does not start with C is detected.

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How Do I Write Programs?

The flowchart and source code in Figures 4.123 and 4.124 demonstrate how such an algorithm
can be implemented using the break keyword:

START

words = ["Code", "Computing",

"Future", "Cow", "Thinking"]

index = 0

Is index < length of words?

No
Yes

Is first letter of
words[index] “C”?
No

Yes

OUTPUT “C is for” + index = index + 1

words[index]

STOP

p Figure 4.123 Flowchart demonstrating break

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 Module 4: Programming

# Program 4.19 firstletter_break.py

1 words = ["Code", "Computing", "Future", "Cow", "Thinking"]

2 index = 0
3 while index < len(words):
4 if words[index][0] != 'C':
5 break
6 print("C is for " + words[index])
7 index = index + 1

================ RESTART: C:/Examples/firstletter_break.py ================

C is for Code
C is for Computing
>>>

p Figure 4.124 Demonstration of using break keyword to end a loop early

The program in Figure 4.125 demonstrates how the continue and break keywords work by
playing a simple “Simon Says” game.

# Program 4.20 simonsays.py

1 # Constants
2 MAGIC_WORDS = "Simon says "
3 QUIT_COMMAND = "Quit"
4
5 print("Enter \"" + QUIT_COMMAND + "\" to end game.")
6 while True:
7 command = input("Enter command: ")
8 if command == QUIT_COMMAND:
9 break
10 elif command[:len(MAGIC_WORDS)] != MAGIC_WORDS:
11 print("We ignore the command")
12 continue
13 print("We " + command[len(MAGIC_WORDS):])
14 print("Thanks for playing!")

p Figure 4.125 Program for playing Simon Says

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How Do I Write Programs?

In this game, the computer will repeat what the user enters as long as the input starts with the
words “Simon says”. This is the default behaviour that is repeated using a while loop that seems
to repeat forever as its condition is always True (line 9). However, if the input matches the special
word “Quit”, the loop ends immediately using the break keyword and the game ends with the
thank-you message. On the other hand, if the input does not start with “Simon says”, the default
behaviour is skipped and we proceed to ask for the next input instead. Try playing the game a
few times and see if the new keywords behave the way you expect them to.

4.7.3 for-in Loops

Previously, we saw an example of iterating through the items of a list by using an index variable:

# Program 4.21 printlist_while.py

1 items = [1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32]

2 index = 0
3 while index < len(items):
4 print(items[index])
5 index = index + 1

p Figure 4.126 Iterating through a list using a counter

Iterating through the items of a sequence is such a common task that Python provides a shortcut for
doing so: the for-in statement. When we use the for-in statement, each item in the sequence
is assigned to a variable automatically before the loop is run. For instance, we can simplify the
code shown in Figure 4.126 to become the code in Figure 4.127:

# Program 4.22 printlist_for.py

1 items = [1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32]

2 for item in items:
3 print(item)

p Figure 4.127 Iterating through a list without a counter using a for-in loop

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 Module 4: Programming

Note that this new code no longer has an int counter (index). Instead it has a variable item
that is assigned a new item from the list each time the loop repeats.

The syntax for for-in statements is shown in Figure 4.128:

Syntax 4.7 for-in Statement

for name in sequence:

commands to repeat for each item in the sequence

p Figure 4.128 Syntax for for-in statement

The for-in loop also works with the range() function that you learnt earlier. As with lists, the
loop is run for each item in the range. By using the length of a list as the argument for range(),
we have an efficient way to iterate through a list with a counter variable.

# Program 4.23 printlist_range.py

1 items = [1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32]

2 for index in range(len(items)):
3 print(items[index])

p Figure 4.129 Iterating through a list with a counter using a for-in loop and range()

Notice that there is no longer a need to manually increase index by 1 as the for-in loop will
automatically update index with the next item in the provided sequence.

The continue and break keywords work with for-in loops as well.

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How Do I Write Programs?

Quick Check 4.7

1. Write a program that lets the user input a list of strs by asking for each item of the
list in order. Receiving an empty str from the user would indicate the end of the
list. The program would then output the list on the screen.

‚ Table 4.16 Input and output requirements for the list input problem

Input Output

• A sequence of non-empty • Printed list of all input

strs, in order, ending with an strs arranged in the
empty str correct order

2. Write a program that lets the user input a password. To make sure that the password
has been entered correctly, the program should ask for it twice. If the two entered
passwords are different, the program should output “Invalid” and repeat the input
process all over again. The program should output “Valid” and end when the two
entered passwords match.

‚ Table 4.17 Input and output requirements for the password input problem

Input Output

• password: password entered • “Invalid” whenever password

by user and password_again do
not match, repeated as many
• password_again:
times as needed; “Valid” when
password entered again by user
the two inputs match

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 Module 4: Programming

Chapter Summary

RELATIONSHIP COMPILERS AND PROGRAMMING

TO FLOWCHARTS INTERPRETERS LANGUAGES

PROGRAMS

Variables
Functions PYTHON
and Constants

Built-In User-Defined
Functions Functions

Data Types Control Flow Operators

int Multi-Type
Operators

if-elif-else
float
Mathematical
Operators
while for-in
str

String and List

Operators
bool

Boolean
list Operators

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How Do I Write Programs?

Review Questions

1. Let us revisit the situation at the beginning of this chapter where Alex is responsible for
finding out which loaned books are overdue in his school library

a) Alex studies the problem and decides to use int values with the digits arranged as
YYYYMMDD to represent day DD, month MM and year YYYY. Table 4.18 shows some
examples of how dates would be represented in Alex’s program.

‚ Table 4.18 Representation of dates in Alex’s program

Date int value

1 January 2017 20170101

22 October 2017 20171022

11 November 2017 20171111

1 January 2018 20180101

Explain why Alex’s method of representation will simplify his program later when he
needs to compare dates.

b) The input and output requirements for Alex’s problem are provided in Table 4.19. Write
a program that processes the provided inputs and correctly prints out the titles of all
the overdue books. In your program, write and use a UDF that takes in the due date
of a book and today’s date as input arguments, then returns True if the due date has
passed and False otherwise. Assume that the input data will always be valid.

‚ Table 4.19 Input and output requirements for the problem of overdue books using lists

Input Output

• today: int representation of • Titles of all loaned books with

today’s date due dates earlier than today
• titles: titles of loaned
book (via text file)

• duedates: corresponding
int representation of due dates
(via text file)

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 Module 4: Programming

A program template (Figure 4.130) is provided as follows:

# Program 4.24 overdue_template.py

1 # This program outputs the titles of all overdue books.

2
3 # Input
4 today = int(input("Enter today's date in YYYYMMDD: "))
5 titles = [
6 # The following data is copied from the given text file.
7 "How to Solve a Mystery", "Vacant Memories",
8 "The Cybersnake Chronicles", "Music History",
9 "Like Tears in Rain", "Out of the Abyss"
10 ]
11 duedates = [
12 # The following data is copied from the given text file.
13 20170727, 20170704, 20170711, 20170630, 20170703, 20170707
14 ]
15
16 # Process and Output
17 ...Fill in this section...

p Figure 4.130 Program template

2. Write a program to extract the hour, minute and second values (as ints) from a time
string that is provided in the format “HH:MM:SS”. Assume that the input data will always
be valid.

‚ Table 4.20 Input and output requirements for the problem of reading a time string

Input Output

• time_str: time string in the • Hour value, minute value and

format “HH:MM:SS”, where second value, each on a separate
the hour value must be from 0 line in the above order
to 23 inclusive, minute value
must be from 0 to 59 inclusive,
and second value must be from
0 to 59 inclusive

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How Do I Write Programs?

3. Write a program to calculate the number of seconds between a start time and an end
time, which are both provided in the format “HH:MM:SS”. Assume that the input data will
always be valid, the end time is after the start time, and both times occur on the same day.

‚ Table 4.21 Input and output requirements for the time interval problem

Input Output

• start_time: start time in the format • Number of seconds

“HH:MM:SS”, where the hour value must between the start
be from 0 to 23 inclusive, minute value time and end time
must be from 0 to 59 inclusive, and
second value must be from 0 to 59 inclusive

• end_time: end time in the format

“HH:MM:SS”, where the hour value must
be from 0 to 23 inclusive, minute value
must be from 0 to 59 inclusive, and
second value must be from 0 to 59 inclusive

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 5 Module 4: Programming

How Can Programs Be

Used to Solve Problems?
Siti is a school librarian. She has been asked to develop a program to manage the loan
records and check the availability of books at the library. Can you help her figure out
how she can do this?

In the previous chapters, we learnt how to specify the required inputs and outputs for
a problem, how to develop a possible solution in the form of an algorithm, and how to
implement such algorithms using a computer by writing programs in Python.

For some problems and programs, it may not be easy to specify the inputs and outputs
or the correct algorithm to use. Hence, it can be useful to follow a more structured
approach.

In this chapter, you will learn the stages in developing a program, some built-in functions
for manipulating numbers and strings, as well as a catalogue of common problems
and solutions.

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How Can Programs Be Used to Solve Problems?

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Understand and describe the stages in developing a program:
– Gather requirements
– Plan solutions
– Write code
– Test and refine code
– Deploy code

• Understand, use and justify the use of built-in mathematical and string functions
in programs.

• Produce a programming solution for a given problem to:

– Find the minimum/maximum value in a list
– Find the average of a list of numeric values
– Search for an item in a list and report the result of the search
– Find check digits
– Find the length of a string of characters
– Extract required characters from a string of characters

5.1 Stages in Developing a Program

In general, there are five stages in developing a program.

Gather Plan Write Test and Deploy

requirements solutions code refine code code

p Figure 5.1 Stages in developing a program

5.1.1 Gather Requirements

The goal of this initial stage is to determine the nature of the problem, why a program is needed
and what the program is expected to do. If this stage is not performed properly, it is likely that
any program that is developed will not actually solve the problem. Some of the tasks that can be
done during this stage:
• Interviewing the intended audience of the program to understand the nature of the problem
or their expectations
• Specifying the complete set of inputs that is necessary for the problem and how the inputs
can be supplied to the program being developed
• Specifying the complete set of outputs that is necessary for the problem and the format
for the output

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 Module 4: Programming

Consider the situation in which Siti is required to develop a program to manage the loan records
and check the availability of books at the school library. She interviews the librarians in her school
to understand why a program is needed and what the program is expected to do. They give the
following responses:
• “When someone asks me if a book is available, I have to go check the bookshelf. This can
take a long time. It would be faster if I could find out the answer from the computer.”
• “This is a very small library so no two books have the same title.”
• “We only have one computer connected to a keyboard and screen. The computer has a
list of book titles and their availability in separate text files.”

p Figure 5.2 Siti interviewing a librarian

From the information that she has gathered, Siti concludes that the program would need the
following inputs and output shown in Table 5.1. She has also given each input a descriptive name
to work with.

‚ Table 5.1 Input and output requirements for the book availability problem

Input Output

• titles: list of book titles (via text file) • Whether the book in
search is available
• availability: list of availability of
each corresponding book in titles
(via text file)

• search: title of book to check availability

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How Can Programs Be Used to Solve Problems?

5.1.2 Plan Solutions

After gathering and refining the required inputs and outputs of the program, the next stage is
where the skills of decomposition, pattern recognition and generalisation are used to plan and
lay out a solution. The goal of this stage is to consider the options available before any code is
written, and to choose an algorithm based on the resources available (such as manpower and
time). Some of the tasks that can be done at this stage:
• Manually solving different simplified examples of the problem and generalising the steps
needed to produce the required output
• Trying different ways to break down the problem into smaller parts such that the intended
output of each part gets closer and closer to what is needed to solve the problem
• Comparing the problem (or its smaller parts) to other problems that have been solved
before and identifying which algorithms can be used
• Estimating the amount of effort needed to write the code or the time needed to complete
the algorithm before making a definite choice
• Writing possible algorithms using either flowcharts or pseudo-code

Siti notices that she can decompose the problem into three distinct tasks of obtaining input,
searching through the list of book titles and, finally, generating output of whether the requested
book is available. She illustrates this using a simple flowchart shown in Figure 5.3:

START

INPUT titles, availability

and search

Find search in titles and store its

corresponding availability in result

OUTPUT result

STOP

p Figure 5.3 Planned solution to Siti’s problem

She notices that the task of searching for the book title is similar to the task of iterating through
the items in a list (see Figure 4.118 in Chapter 4). From there, she can adapt the algorithm that
she already knows to complete this new task.

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 Module 4: Programming

START

INPUT titles, and

availability from text file

INPUT search from

keyboard

index = 0

Is index < length of titles?

Yes

Yes
Is titles[index] == search?

result = availability[index]
No
No

index = index + 1

OUTPUT result to screen

STOP

p Figure 5.4 Expanding the planned solution to Siti’s problem

Siti decides that this planned solution is feasible and moves on to the next stage.

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How Can Programs Be Used to Solve Problems?

5.1.3 Write Code

In traditional program development, the code for the final program is not actually written until
the first two stages of gathering requirements and planning solutions have been completed. This
minimises the possibility of producing code based on incomplete requirements or inefficient
algorithms that would eventually need to be discarded. The goal of this stage is to write code that
performs the algorithm as planned in the previous stage as efficiently as possible.

Did you know?

Some non-traditional approaches to program development do not have five distinct stages. For
instance, in “agile” software development, code may be continuously written and refined while
the gathering of requirements is still taking place.

One possible way for Siti to write her code would be:

# Program 5.1 availability_draft.py

1 # Input
2 titles = [
3 # The following data is copied from the given text file.
4 "How to Solve a Mystery", "Vacant Memories",
5 "The Cybersnake Chronicles", "Music History",
6 "Like Tears in Rain", "Out of the Abyss"
7 ]
8 availability = [
9 # The following data is copied from the given text file.
10 "Not Available", "Available", "Available", "Not Available",
11 "Not Available", "Available"
12 ]
13 search = input("Enter title of book to check: ")
14
15 # Process
16 index = 0
17 while index < len(titles):
18 if titles[index] == search:
19 result = availability[index]
20 index = index + 1
21
22 # Output
23 print(result)

p Figure 5.5 Draft of code to solve Siti’s problem

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 Module 4: Programming

5.1.4 Test and Refine Code

After the initial code is written, the resulting program is likely
to require further refinement. Some possible reasons for this: Key Terms
• The programmer may have made mistakes in
Test case
translating the planned algorithm into code or may
A set of inputs and the
have forgotten to consider exceptional cases where
corresponding set of
the input would need to be treated specially. For
expected outputs for a
example, the programmer may have made a syntax
particular program used to
error or forgotten to check for invalid input. These
verify whether the program
are relatively minor errors that usually would not
works as intended
require a major rewriting of code as simply correcting
the syntax error or adding an if statement would
Testing
usually be sufficient to correct the program.
Process by which defects in
• The solution-planning stage may not have been a program can be detected
performed properly, resulting in an unsuitable or
incomplete algorithm. Depending on how serious the
mismatch is, it may be possible to keep most of the written code and simply make
refinements. Otherwise, it may be necessary to discard the written code and redo the
evaluation of algorithms.
• The requirement-gathering stage may have been incomplete, resulting in code that does
not actually solve the problem. Depending on how serious the mismatch is, it may or may
not be possible to reuse most of the written code.

Testing is the process by which these and other imperfections are uncovered. This is done by
running the code through one or more test cases to evaluate whether the written code adequately
satisfies the gathered requirements and is ready to be used. A test case usually consists of a set
of inputs and the corresponding set of expected outputs. By feeding these inputs into a program
and comparing its actual output with the expected output, we can evaluate whether the program
is working as intended.

The effectiveness of testing depends entirely on how comprehensive and well-designed the test
cases are. The process of designing good test cases is discussed further in Chapter 6.

Did you know?

Testing is so important in making sure code is written correctly that, instead of five distinct stages,
some programmers use an alternative approach to program development – test cases are written
first and code is written incrementally to pass each test. This alternative process is known as
Test-Driven Development (TDD).

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How Can Programs Be Used to Solve Problems?

Siti has developed a number of test cases to make sure that her code is functioning as intended.
She runs the program through the test cases one by one, comparing the program’s output with
the expected output:

‚ Table 5.2 Book availability problem – Test Case 1

 Input Expected Output 

• titles: provided in program Available

• availability: provided in program
• search: "Vacant Memories"

Running availability_draft.py  Result

Enter title of book to check: Vacant Memories Passed

Available

‚ Table 5.3 Book availability problem – Test Case 2

 Input Expected Output 

• titles: provided in program Not Available

• availability: provided in program
• search: "Music History"

Running availability_draft.py  Result

Enter title of book to check: Music History Passed

Not Available

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So far, the output of Siti’s program has matched the expected output, so the program seems to be
functioning as intended. However, she decides to include a test case that searches for the name
of a book which is not in the library collection.

‚ Table 5.4 Book availability problem – Test Case 3

 Input Expected Output 

• titles: provided in program Book Not Found

• availability: provided in program
• search: "Resilience"

Running availability_draft.py  Result

Enter title of book to check: Resilience Failed

Traceback (most recent call last):
File "C:/Examples/availability_draft.py", line 23, in <module>
print(result)
NameError: name 'result' is not defined

Now, Siti notices an imperfection in her program. When the user enters the name of a book that
does not exist in the library, her program generates an error instead of producing the expected
output “Book Not Found”.

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How Can Programs Be Used to Solve Problems?

Siti studies her program carefully and realises that she did not consider this special case. Fortunately,
she can resolve this by initialising the value of result to “Book Not Found”. Her refined code
is shown in Figure 5.6:

# Program 5.2 availability_refined.py

1 # Input
2 titles = [
3 # The following data is copied from the given text file.
4 "How to Solve a Mystery", "Vacant Memories",
5 "The Cybersnake Chronicles", "Music History",
6 "Like Tears in Rain", "Out of the Abyss"
7 ]
8 availability = [
9 # The following data is copied from the given text file.
10 "Not Available", "Available", "Available", "Not Available",
11 "Not Available", "Available"
12 ]
13 search = input("Enter title of book to check: ")
14
15 # Process
16 result = "Book Not Found"
17 index = 0
18 while index < len(titles):
19 if titles[index] == search:
20 result = availability[index]
21 index = index + 1
22
23 # Output
24 print(result)

p Figure 5.6 Refined draft of code to solve Siti’s problem

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 Module 4: Programming

With this modification, her program passes Test Case 3:

‚ Table 5.5 Book availability problem – Test Case 3 (modified program)

 Input Expected Output 

• titles: from titles.txt Book Not Found

• availability: from
availability.txt
• search: "Resilience"

Running availability_refined.py  Result

Enter title of book to check: Resilience Passed

Book Not Found

5.1.5 Deploy Code

With the code tested and refined, this is the stage where the program is actually “rolled out” and
used by its intended audience. Some of the tasks that can be performed under this stage:
• Training users to use the program
• Transitioning from an old program or system to the new program
• Evaluating the effectiveness of the program in solving the problem and considering any
changes that might increase its usability or effectiveness

Siti deploys her code by installing Python in the library’s computer and copying the program
over. She organises a training session to teach the librarians how to use the program and gathers
their feedback after the first day of use. She receives the following comments:
• “Your program makes it much easier to check if a book is available. Thank you!”
• “Copying data from text files into the program is very tiresome. Can this be automated?”
• “The program is good, but can it be faster?”
• “Some book titles take very long to type. However, it’s still faster than checking
the bookshelves!”

It seems that while Siti’s program meets the requirements, it can still be improved in terms of
usability and speed. To make some of these improvements, however, she may need to perform
more complex processing of numbers and strings. The next section introduces some of the more
common built-in functions that Python already provides for such tasks.

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How Can Programs Be Used to Solve Problems?

5.2 Mathematical Functions

5.2.1 Built-In Mathematical Functions

Computers are essentially powerful calculators, so it is not surprising that Python provides a wide
variety of built-in functions to perform various mathematical operations. Table 5.6 summarises
the most common mathematical functions in Python.

‚ Table 5.6 Summary of built-in mathematical functions

Function Argument Returns Examples

abs() A number (int An int or a >>> abs(2017)

or float) float equal to the 2017
absolute value of the >>> abs(-2017)
argument 2017

max() Multiple The maximum value >>> max(2, -1, 7)

numbers (int out of the given 7
or float) arguments

max() A list of The maximum value >>> max([2, -1, 7])

numbers (int out of the values in 7
or float) the given list

min() Multiple The minimum value >>> min(2, -1, 7)

numbers (int out of the given -1
or float) arguments

min() A list of The minimum value >>> min([2, -1, 7])

numbers (int out of the values in -1
or float) the given list

pow() Two numbers A float equal to the >>> pow(2017, 2)

(each of which first argument raised 4068289
can be int to the power of the >>> pow(2, 2.017)
or float) second argument 4.047412804107715

round() A float An int equal to the >>> round(2.017)

argument rounded to 2
the nearest integer >>> round(-2.017)
-2

round() A float and A float equal to >>> round(2.017, 2)

an int the first argument 2.02
rounded to the >>> round(-2.017, 2)
number of decimal −2.02
places indicated by
the second argument

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5.2.2 Using the math Module

While convenient, Python does not make its entire collection of mathematical functions available
by default. This is because not every program needs these additional functions, and making them
available all the time has two disadvantages:
1. Loading functions and making them available takes up time and computer memory.
2. It becomes harder to choose names for variables and functions as the names chosen may
overwrite or clash with the ones provided by Python.

For these reasons, Python provides some of its built-in

functions through modules. A module is a collection of Key Term
variables and functions that need to be loaded before they
can be used. Module
Collection of variables
Some of the less commonly used mathematical functions and functions that need to
are provided using a module named math. To load the be loaded before they can
math module so that its functions are available, we use an be used
import statement:

Syntax 5.1 import Statement

import name_of_module

p Figure 5.7 Syntax for import statement

After importing the math module, the following functions will become available:

‚ Table 5.7 Summary of mathematical functions in the math module

Function Argument Returns Examples

math.ceil() Usually a An int equal >>> math.ceil(2.017)

float to the smallest 3
integer greater >>> math.ceil(-2.017)
than or -2
equal to the
argument

math.floor() Usually a An int >>> math.floor(2.017)

float equal to the 2
largest integer >>> math.floor(-2.017)
smaller than −3
or equal to the
argument

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How Can Programs Be Used to Solve Problems?

‚ Table 5.7 Summary of mathematical functions in the math module (continued)

Function Argument Returns Examples

math.sqrt() A number A float equal >>> math.sqrt(2017)

(int or float) to the square 44.91102314577124
root of the
argument

math.trunc() Usually a An int >>> math.trunc(2.017)

float equal to the 2
argument with >>> math.trunc(−2.017)
digits after the −2
decimal point
cut off (i.e.,
truncated)

Using any of these functions without importing the math module will result in an error. In
the example below, Python does not understand what the name “math” means as it does not
correspond to an existing variable or loaded module:

>>> math.ceil(20.17)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#0>", line 1, in <module>
math.ceil(20.17)
NameError: name 'math' is not defined

p Figure 5.8 Using the math module before it is imported will result in an error

To start using a module’s contents, we need to import it once each time we start a Python session
in interactive mode or create a Python program:

>>> import math

>>> math.ceil(20.17)
21

p Figure 5.9 The math module can be used after it is imported

Did you know?

The period (.) in math.ceil() actually has the meaning of searching inside the value on its
left and looking for a function with the name given on its right. As you will see later, besides
searching inside modules, this operator is also used to access functions that are stored inside str
values (called methods).

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5.2.3 Rounding Functions

A number of functions such as math.ceil(), math.floor(), round() and math.trunc() are
similar in that they can convert floats to ints. This conversion is performed by rounding floats
such that the resulting ints are close in value to the original floats. However, each function uses
a different rounding method. Understanding the difference between these functions is important,
because using the correct function can greatly reduce the number of steps needed for a solution.

For round(), the argument is always rounded to the nearest whole number. However, an argument
that is exactly halfway between two integers (such as 0.5) may be rounded either up or down.
Figure 5.10 demonstrates how round() can appear to give unpredictable results – notice that
0.5 is rounded down while 1.5 is rounded up.

‚ Table 5.8 Behaviour of the round() function for numbers around zero

x round(x) Explanation

−1.5 −2 Unpredictable since −1.5 is halfway between −2 and −1

−1.0 −1 Exact

−0.75 −1 Rounded down since −0.75 is nearer to −1 than 0

−0.5 0 Unpredictable since −0.5 is halfway between −1 and 0

−0.25 0 Rounded up since −0.25 is nearer to 0 than −1

0.0 0 Exact

0.25 0 Rounded down since 0.25 is nearer to 0 than 1

0.5 0 Unpredictable since 0.5 is halfway between 0 and 1

0.75 1 Rounded up since 0.75 is nearer to 1 than 0

1.0 1 Exact

1.5 2 Unpredictable since 1.5 is halfway between 1 and 2

>>> round(-1.0)
-1
>>> round(0.5)
0
>>> round(0.75)
1
>>> round(1.5)
2

p Figure 5.10 Using the round() function

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How Can Programs Be Used to Solve Problems?

Did you know?

The round() function only appears to give unpredictable results. In reality, round() will always
return the even integer if its argument is exactly halfway between two integers. For example,
round(0.5) will return 0 and round(1.5) will return 2.

On the other hand, math.ceil() always rounds up. Take note that this means a negative
non-integer argument will end up becoming less negative.

‚ Table 5.9 Behaviour of the math.ceil() function for numbers around zero

x math.ceil(x) Explanation

−1.0 −1 Exact

−0.75 0 Rounded up

−0.5 0 Rounded up

−0.25 0 Rounded up

0.0 0 Exact

0.25 1 Rounded up

0.5 1 Rounded up

0.75 1 Rounded up

1.0 1 Exact

>>> import math

>>> math.ceil(-1.0)
-1
>>> math.ceil(0.5)
1
>>> math.ceil(0.75)
1

p Figure 5.11 Using the math.ceil() function

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 Module 4: Programming

Conversely, math.floor() always rounds down. Take note that this means a negative
non-integer argument will end up becoming more negative.

‚ Table 5.10 Behaviour of the math.floor() function for numbers around zero

x math.floor(x) Explanation

-1.0 -1 Exact

-0.75 -1 Rounded down

-0.5 -1 Rounded down

-0.25 -1 Rounded down

0.0 0 Exact

0.25 0 Rounded down

0.5 0 Rounded down

0.75 0 Rounded down

1.0 1 Exact

>>> import math

>>> math.floor(-1.0)
-1
>>> math.floor(0.5)
0
>>> math.floor(0.75)
0

p Figure 5.12 Using the math.floor() function

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How Can Programs Be Used to Solve Problems?

Finally, math.trunc() always rounds towards zero. This is equivalent to dropping the digits of
the argument after the decimal point (i.e., truncating the argument).

‚ Table 5.11 Behaviour of the math.trunc() function for numbers around zero

x math.trunc(x) Explanation

-1.0 -1 Exact

-0.75 0 Rounded up towards 0

-0.5 0 Rounded up towards 0

-0.25 0 Rounded up towards 0

0.0 0 Exact

0.25 0 Rounded down towards 0

0.5 0 Rounded down towards 0

0.75 0 Rounded down towards 0

1.0 1 Exact

>>> import math

>>> math.trunc(-1.0)
-1
>>> math.trunc(-0.75)
0
>>> math.trunc(0.75)
0
>>> math.trunc(1.0)
1

p Figure 5.13 Using the math.trunc() function

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5.2.4 Using the random Module for randint()

Many computer games often require the computer to make a random choice or to generate a
random number. To do this, Python provides a module named random. For example, to generate
a random integer, we will use the randint() function. After importing the random module, the
random.randint() function will become available.

‚ Table 5.12 The random.randint() function in the random module

Function Argument Returns Examples

random.randint() Two ints A random >>> random.randint(2, 7)

(the first integer 6
argument between >>> random.randint(2, 7)
should be the two 3
less than arguments >>> random.randint(2, 7)
or equal (inclusive) 2
to the
second
argument)

Quick Check 5.2

1. For each value of x below, predict the result of the respective rounding functions.
Check your answers by printing the actual return values in Python.

‚ Table 5.13 Results of various rounding functions

x −20.17 −19.65 −0.1 0.0 0.1 19.65 20.17

math.ceil(x)

math.floor(x)

round(x)

math.trunc(x)

2. When two six-sided dice are rolled, the resulting sum can range from 2 to 12 (inclusive).
Write a program to simulate rolling two six-sided dice 1000 times and output how
often the resulting sum is 2, 3, 4 and so on up to 12.

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How Can Programs Be Used to Solve Problems?

The output of your program should look similar to the following:

2: 29
3: 59
4: 110
5: 102
6: 146
7: 160
8: 122
9: 90
10: 85
11: 72
12: 25

p Figure 5.14 Sample output for dice simulation

5.3 String Functions

5.3.1 Built-In String Functions

As computers are essentially calculators, everything in a computer must be represented using
numbers. This is true even for strs. Each symbol or letter in a str is generally called a character
and is represented in the computer by a number.
Key Term
The numbers that represent common characters such as upper-case
and lower-case letters come from a standard called the American
Character
Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), which has been
A unit of information
in use since the 1960s. Using ASCII, only 128 distinct characters
for strs, usually a
(256 for Extended ASCII) can be represented. Table 5.14 shows
symbol, letter or digit
some ASCII characters and the numbers used to represent them.

‚ Table 5.14 Some ASCII characters and the numbers used to represent them

Number Character Number Character Number Character

32 (space) 64 @ 96 `

33 ! 65 A 97 a

34 " 66 B 98 b

35 # 67 C 99 c

36 $ 68 D 100 d

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‚ Table 5.14 Some ASCII characters and the numbers used to represent them (continued)

Number Character Number Character Number Character

37 % 69 E 101 e

38 & 70 F 102 f

39 ’ 71 G 103 g

40 ( 72 H 104 h

41 ) 73 I 105 i

42 * 74 J 106 j

43 + 75 K 107 k

44 , 76 L 108 l

45 - 77 M 109 m

46 . 78 N 110 n

47 / 79 O 111 o

48 0 80 P 112 p

49 1 81 Q 113 q

50 2 82 R 114 r

51 3 83 S 115 s

52 4 84 T 116 t

53 5 85 U 117 u

54 6 86 V 118 v

55 7 87 W 119 w

56 8 88 X 120 x

57 9 89 Y 121 y

58 : 90 Z 122 z

59 ; 91 [ 123 {

60 < 92 \ 124 |

61 = 93 ] 125 }

62 > 94 ^ 126 ~

63 ? 95 _

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How Can Programs Be Used to Solve Problems?

To convert between characters and the numbers that represent them, Python provides the following
two built-in functions:

‚ Table 5.15 Built-in string functions

Function Argument Returns Examples

chr() An int A str of length 1 containing >>> chr(65)

the character that the 'A'
argument represents

ord() A str (must be An int that represents the >>> ord('A')

of length 1) argument 65

To represent characters in other written languages such as Tamil and Mandarin, Python uses an
expanded standard called Unicode. Like ASCII, the Unicode standard uses numbers to represent
characters. The Unicode standard is compatible with ASCII as the first 128 numbers represent
the same characters in both ASCII and Unicode. However, unlike ASCII, up to 1,114,112 distinct
characters can be represented in Unicode. Some examples using non-English characters are
shown in Figure 5.15:

>>> ord('அ')
2949
>>> chr(2949)
'அ'
>>> ord('中')
20013
>>> chr(20013)
'中'

p Figure 5.15 Using the chr() and the ord() functions

5.3.2 Built-In String Methods

Python provides some additional string functions through
methods. A method is a function that is associated with a value. Key Term
To use a method, type a value that is associated with the method,
followed by a period (.), followed by the name of the method, Method
and followed by zero or more comma-separated arguments Function that is
enclosed within parentheses (see Figure 5.16). Just like in calling associated with a value
functions, arguments are assigned to new variables so that the
original variables will not be affected.

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 Module 4: Programming

Syntax 5.2 Method Call

value.name_of_method()

value.name_of_method(argument_1)

value.name_of_method(argument_1, argument_2)

p Figure 5.16 Syntax for method calls

Table 5.16 shows some common string functions that can be used as methods.

‚ Table 5.16 Built-in string methods

Method Argument Returns Examples

str.isalnum() None A bool that >>> 'CS2017'.isalnum()

indicates True
whether every >>> 'CS 2017'.isalnum()
character in False
the str is >>> '2017'.isalnum()
alphanumeric True
(either a letter
or a digit)

str.isalpha() None A bool that >>> 'Computing'.isalpha()

indicates True
whether every >>> 'Com pu ting'.isalpha()
character in the False
str is a letter

str.isdigit() None A bool that >>> 'Computing'.isdigit()

indicates False
whether every >>> '2017'.isdigit()
character in the True
str is a digit

str.isspace() None A bool that >>> ' '.isspace()

indicates True
whether every >>> ''.isspace()
character in the False
str is a space

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How Can Programs Be Used to Solve Problems?

‚ Table 5.16 Built-in string methods (continued)

Method Argument Returns Examples

str.islower() None A bool that >>> 'computing'.islower()

indicates True
whether every >>> 'com pu ting'.islower()
letter in the True
str is lower >>> 'Computing'.islower()
case and there False
is at least one >>> '2017'.islower()
letter False

str.isupper() None A bool that >>> 'COMPUTING'.isupper()

indicates True
whether every >>> 'COM PU TING'.isupper()
letter in the True
str is upper >>> 'Computing'.isupper()
case and there False
is at least one >>> '2017'.isupper()
letter False

str.lower() None A str >>> 'Computing'.lower()

containing 'computing'
every character >>> 'Com pu ting'.lower()
of the original 'com pu ting'
str converted
to lower case

str.upper() None A str >>> 'Computing'.upper()

containing 'COMPUTING'
every character >>> 'Com pu ting'.upper()
of the original 'COM PU TING'
str converted
to upper case

str.endswith() A str A bool that >>> 'CS2017'.endswith('CS')

indicates False
whether the >>> 'CS2017'.endswith('17')
str ends True
with the given
argument

str.startswith() A str A bool that >>> 'CS2017'.startswith('CS')

indicates True
whether the >>> 'CS2017'.startswith('17')
str starts False
with the given
argument

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 Module 4: Programming

‚ Table 5.16 Built-in string methods (continued)

Method Argument Returns Examples

str.find() A str A int index where >>> 'banana'.find('na')

the given argument 2
first appears in the >>> 'banana'.find('cs')
str; -1 if not found -1

str.find() A str A int index where >>> 'banana'.find('na', 1)

and an the first argument 2
int first appears in >>> 'banana'.find('na', 3)
the str starting 4
from the second >>> 'banana'.find('na', 5)
argument index; -1 -1
if not found

str.find() A str, A int index where >>> 'SCSC'.find('CS', 0, 3)

an int the first argument 1
and an first appears in >>> 'SCSC'.find('CS', 1, 3)
int the str starting 1
from the second >>> 'SCSC'.find('CS', 0, 2)
argument index up -1
to but not including
the third argument
index; -1 if not
found

str.split() None A list of strs >>> 'Hi, World!'.split()

that are separated ['Hi,', 'World!']
by one or more >>> 'C S'.split()
spaces in the ['C', 'S']
original str

str.split() A str A list of strs >>> 'Hi, World'.split(',')

that are separated ['Hi', ' World!']
by the argument in >>> 'C S'.split(' ')
the original str ['C', '', 'S']

str.format() Any A new str with >>> '{} 2017'.format('CS')

number each field (such as 'CS 2017'
of values ‘{}’ or ‘{0}’) in >>> '{0} {1}'.format(6, 5)
the str replaced '6 5'
by a corresponding >>> '{1} {0}'.format(6, 5)
argument '5 6'

(see section 5.3.3 on formatting

strings)

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How Can Programs Be Used to Solve Problems?

5.3.3 Formatting Strings

In Python, we often use type casting and the concatenation operator to produce strs or output
that follow a desired format. For instance, we can report the values assigned to variables named
student and year together using short descriptive text like this:

>>> student = "Bala"

>>> year = 2017
>>> print("student is " + student + ", year is " + str(year) + ".")
student is Bala, year is 2017.

p Figure 5.17 Using type casting and the concatenation operator to format strs

However, Python can also produce the same output using the str.format() method. Using
the str.format() avoids concatenating strs manually and results in code that is easier to read.

>>> student = "Bala"

>>> year = 2017
>>> print("student is {}, year is {}.".format(student, year))
student is Bala, year is 2017.

p Figure 5.18 Using the str.format() method to format strs

Notice that the output of str.format() replaces each set of

curly braces {} in the original str with one of the provided Key Term
arguments. Each set of curly braces in the original str is called
a replacement field, or just field for short. By default, fields are Replacement field
replaced with arguments in order from left to right. For instance, Placeholder denoted
in Figure 5.18, the first {} is replaced with the first argument by a set of curly braces
student while the second {} is replaced with the second that will be replaced
argument year. with an argument using
the str.format()
To change the order of arguments used to replace each field, we method
can specify an index for each field as follows:

>>> student = "Bala"

>>> year = 2017
>>> print("year is {1}, student is {0}.".format(student, year))
year is 2017, student is Bala.

p Figure 5.19 Specifying an index for each field

Just like indices for lists and strs, indices for arguments start from 0 and not 1. Hence,
the field of {0} specifies an index of 0 and is replaced by the first argument student. The
field of {1} specifies an index of 1 and is replaced by the second argument year.

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 Module 4: Programming

"year is {1}, student is {0}.".format(student, year)

argument 0 argument 1

p Figure 5.20 Arguments are matched to fields based on index

Note that multiple fields may specify the same index and that it is not compulsory for all arguments
to be included in the output.

>>> student = "Bala"

>>> year = 2017
>>> print("{0}, {0}, {0}".format(student, year))
Bala, Bala, Bala
>>> print("{1}, {0}, {1}".format(student, year))
2017, Bala, 2017

p Figure 5.21 Examples of using fields with specified indices

Also note that fields with specified indices and fields without specified indices cannot be
used together.

>>> print("{}, {1}, {0}".format(student, year))

Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#4>", line 1, in <module>
print("{}, {1}, {0}".format(student, year))
ValueError: cannot switch from automatic field numbering to manual field
specification

p Figure 5.22 Fields with and without specified indices cannot be used together

To “escape” the curly braces so that they are not treated as a field, use double braces so that it
looks like “{{“ or ”}}”. The str.format() method will convert the double curly braces back
into single curly braces and will not treat the curly braces as a field.

>>> student = "Bala"

>>> year = 2017
>>> print("student is {}, ignore {{}}, year is {}".format(student, year))
student is Bala, ignore {}, year is 2017

p Figure 5.23 Using double curly braces to prevent them from being treated as a field

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How Can Programs Be Used to Solve Problems?

In summary, the syntax for a replacement field is as follows:

Syntax 5.3 Replacement field

{}

{index}

p Figure 5.24 Syntax for replacement fields

Did you know?

The str.format() method and replacement fields can also perform more complex tasks such
as lengthening strs to a specified width and restricting the number of decimal places used when
converting a float to a str. Use of the str.format() method to perform such tasks will not
be covered in this textbook.

Quick Check 5.3

1. Fill in the blank in the program below so that it correctly outputs whether the first
character of name is an upper-case letter.

name = input("Enter name: ")

print( )

p Figure 5.25 Program template

2. Complete the program below by filling in the blank with one or more lines of code so
that it correctly outputs whether title contains upper-case letters and spaces only
(i.e., no lower-case letters, symbols or digits).

title = input("Enter title: ")

p Figure 5.26 Program template

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 Module 4: Programming

5.4 Common Problems and Solutions

It is useful to have a catalogue or “toolbox” of common solutions which can be adapted to solve
problems that cannot be solved easily by a built-in function. Through pattern recognition and
generalisation, we can identify a previously used solution that can be applied to a new or seemingly
unfamiliar problem. In this section, we will look at some common problems and their solutions.

5.4.1 Finding the Minimum Value in a List

Sometimes we need to find the minimum value in a list of values. Suppose we have a list of heights
of a class of students. Finding the height of the shortest student is thus equivalent to finding the
minimum value in this list.

A common extension to this problem is to find out where this minimum value is located in the
list. Suppose the list of heights is for a class of students and that the heights are arranged in order
of registration number. Finding the registration number of the shortest student in the class is thus
equivalent to determining the index of the minimum value in the list.

Depending on the situation, we may also need to check if a minimum value even exists. Suppose
the list of heights is for students who sign up for a basketball game. If it turns out that no students
sign up for the game, the list of heights would be empty and no minimum value would exist. The
solution would need to be able to handle this case as well.

We can generalise these problems as shown in Table 5.17:

‚ Table 5.17 Input and output requirements for the minimum value problem

Input Output

• values: list to find • minimum_value: smallest value in

smallest value from values; None if values is empty
(already provided)
• minimum_index: index of
minimum_value in values; None if
values is empty

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How Can Programs Be Used to Solve Problems?

A solution to this problem is as follows:

# Program 5.3 minimum.py

1 # Input
2 values = [16, 64, 4, 128, 8, 2, 1, 32]
3
4 # Process
5 if len(values) > 0:
6 minimum_value = values[0]
7 minimum_index = 0
8 for index in range(len(values)):
9 if values[index] < minimum_value:
10 minimum_value = values[index]
11 minimum_index = index
12 else:
13 minimum_value = None
14 minimum_index = None
15
16 # Output
17 print(minimum_value)
18 print(minimum_index)

p Figure 5.27 Finding the minimum value in a list and its index

The solution starts by checking whether values has at least one value (line 5). If not, we conclude
that values is empty and simply set the outputs to None (lines 13 and 14).

Otherwise, we decompose the problem using an incremental approach. We start by considering

this sub-problem: what is the minimum value if values contains one value only? The solution to
this sub-problem is straightforward: minimum_value is equal to the first value in values and
minimum_index is equal to 0 (lines 6 and 7).

We then gradually extend this sub-problem by considering the rest of the values in values,
one by one (line 8). The solution is extended accordingly by checking if the new value being
considered is less than minimum_value (line 9). If so, we update minimum_value and minimum_
index with this new value (lines 10 and 11). This ensures that minimum_value and minimum_index
are always keeping track of the minimum value encountered so far.

When the loop ends, we would have considered all the values in values and thus can conclude
that the resulting minimum_value and minimum_index are correct for the entire list.

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 Module 4: Programming

On the other hand, if it is not necessary to find the index of the minimum value, we can simplify
the program by removing the variables index and minimum_index completely.

# Program 5.4 minimum_without_index.py

1 # Input
2 values = [16, 64, 4, 128, 8, 2, 1, 32]
3
4 # Process
5 if len(values) > 0:
6 minimum_value = values[0]
7 for value in values:
8 if value < minimum_value:
9 minimum_value = value
10 else:
11 minimum_value = None
12
13 # Output
14 print(minimum_value)

p Figure 5.28 Finding the minimum value of a list (no index)

Python also provides a built-in min() function that can further simplify the solution if finding
the index is not necessary:

# Program 5.5 minimum_using_function.py

1 # Input
2 values = [16, 64, 4, 128, 8, 2, 1, 32]
3
4 # Process
5 if len(values) > 0:
6 minimum_value = min(values)
7 else:
8 minimum_value = None
9
10 # Output
11 print(minimum_value)

p Figure 5.29 Finding the minimum value of a list using the built-in min() function

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How Can Programs Be Used to Solve Problems?

Even though this solution is much simpler than the previous ones, it is still useful to understand
the algorithm in Figure 5.27 as the min() function does not provide the index of the minimum
value and cannot be customised for more complex situations, such as finding the second or
third smallest value in a list.

5.4.2 Finding the Maximum Value in a List

Besides finding the minimum value, we can also find the maximum value in a list. The
corresponding general problem is as follows:

‚ Table 5.18 Input and output requirements for the maximum value problem

Input Output

• values: list to find biggest • maximum_value: biggest value in

value from (already provided) values; None if values is empty

• maximum_index: index of
maximum_value in values; None
if values is empty

By using pattern recognition, we can easily modify the program in Figure 5.27 so that it finds the
maximum value in a list instead:

# Program 5.6 maximum.py

1 # Input
2 values = [16, 64, 4, 128, 8, 2, 1, 32]
3
4 # Process
5 if len(values) > 0:
6 maximum_value = values[0]
7 maximum_index = 0
8 for index in range(len(values)):
9 if values[index] > maximum_value:
10 maximum_value = values[index]
11 maximum_index = index
12 else:
13 maximum_value = None
14 maximum_index = None
15
16 # Output
17 print(maximum_value)
18 print(maximum_index)

p Figure 5.30 Finding the maximum value in a list and its index

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 Module 4: Programming

The resulting program is largely the same, except that the greater-than operator (>) is used
on line 9 instead of the less-than operator (<), and the output variables are renamed to
maximum_value and maximum_index.

Just as with the previous problem, if it is not necessary to find the index of the maximum value,
we can simplify the program by removing the variables index and maximum_index completely.

# Program 5.7 maximum_without_index.py

1 # Input
2 values = [16, 64, 4, 128, 8, 2, 1, 32]
3
4 # Process
5 if len(values) > 0:
6 maximum_value = values[0]
7 for value in values:
8 if value > maximum_value:
9 maximum_value = value
10 else:
11 maximum_value = None
12
13 # Output
14 print(maximum_value)

p Figure 5.31 Finding the maximum value in a list (no index)

Similarly, Python provides a built-in max() function that can further simplify the solution if finding
the index is not necessary:

# Program 5.8 maximum_using_function.py

1 # Input
2 values = [16, 64, 4, 128, 8, 2, 1, 32]
3
4 # Process
5 if len(values) > 0:
6 maximum_value = max(values)
7 else:
8 maximum_value = None
9
10 # Output
11 print(maximum_value)

p Figure 5.32 Finding the maximum value in a list using the built-in max() function

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How Can Programs Be Used to Solve Problems?

5.4.3 Finding the Average Value in a List

Many problems require us to find the average value in a list. Suppose we have a list of scores
for a class test. Finding the average score for the class is thus equivalent to finding the average
value in this list.

Depending on the situation, we may also need to check if an average value even exists. Suppose
the list of scores is for an optional test. If it turns out that no students choose to take the test, the
list of scores would be empty and no average value would exist.

The general problem to the situation above can be described as follows:

‚ Table 5.19 Input and output requirements for the average problem

Input Output

• values: list to calculate the • average: average value in

average value from (already provided) values; None if values is empty

A solution to this problem is as follows:

# Program 5.9 average.py

1 # Input
2 values = [16, 64, 4, 128, 8, 2, 1, 32]
3
4 # Process
5 if len(values) > 0:
6 sum_values = 0
7 for value in values:
8 sum_values += value
9 average = sum_values / len(values)
10 else:
11 average = None
12
13 # Output
14 print(average)

p Figure 5.33 Finding the average value in a list

The solution starts by checking whether values has at least one value (line 5). If not, we conclude
that values is empty and simply set the output to None (line 14).

Otherwise, we calculate the sum of the values in values using a for-in loop (lines 7 to 8) and
divide this sum by the length of values to obtain the required average (line 15).

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 Module 4: Programming

Python also provides a built-in sum() function that simplifies the task of calculating the sum of
the values in values without the need for a loop:

# Program 5.10 average_using_sum.py

1 # Input
2 values = [16, 64, 4, 128, 8, 2, 1, 32]
3
4 # Process
5 if len(values) > 0:
6 sum_values = sum(values)
7 average = sum_values / len(values)
8 else:
9 average = None
10
11 # Output
12 print(average)

p Figure 5.34 Finding the average value in a list using the built-in sum() function

While both the programs in Figures 5.33 and 5.34 are correct, the program in Figure 5.34 is
preferred as it is simpler.

5.4.4 Searching for a Value in a List

As we have learnt in section 4.6.2.3, the in operator can tell us whether a value is in a list, but
it does not tell us where the value is located. Hence, the in operator is insufficient for problems
that require us to search for a value in a list and retrieve its index. Suppose we have a list of
students’ names such that the index of each value is the corresponding student’s registration
number. Finding the registration number of a particular student is thus equivalent to searching
for the student’s name in this list and retrieving its index.

Depending on the situation, the search may not be able to find the value. Suppose the name that
we input for searching is misspelled. The program would not be able to find this name in the list
and must be able to handle this situation as well.

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How Can Programs Be Used to Solve Problems?

We can generalise this problem as follows:

‚ Table 5.20 Input and output requirements for the searching problem

Input Output

• values: list to search • search_index: index of search

from (already provided) in values; None if not found or
values is empty
• search: value to search for
(already provided)

A solution to this problem is as follows:

# Program 5.11 search.py

1 # Input
2 values = ["Alex", "Bala", "Siti", "Zee"]
3 search = input("Enter name: ")
4
5 # Process
6 search_index = None
7 for index in range(len(values)):
8 if values[index] == search:
9 search_index = index
10 break
11
12 # Output
13 print(search_index)

p Figure 5.35 Searching for an item in a list

The solution first initialises the output search_index to None (line 6). This ensures that if no
match is found or if values is empty, search_index correctly remains as None.

Using an incremental approach, we then check each value in the list in order (line 7) to see if a
match can be found (line 8). Once a match is found, we set search_index as the index of the
matching value and stop the search immediately using a break command (lines 9 to 10).

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 Module 4: Programming

5.4.5 Finding Check Digits

A check digit is usually an additional digit or letter added to
the end of a sequence of digits that is intended to be read Key Term
by or entered into a computer manually. The check digit is
mathematically related to the original sequence of digits so Check digit
that simple input errors, such as accidentally swapping two Digit or letter that is
digits or wrongly entering a digit, would break this mathematical added to a sequence of
relationship and hence be detected. If the check digit is a letter, digits to detect errors in
it would usually need to be converted to a number so that it can manual input
be used in the algorithm to check the sequence.

After the digits have been manually entered, the computer will calculate whether the expected
mathematical relationship is true. If the relationship is still true, it is likely that the numbers were
entered correctly. Otherwise, the computer can ask for the numbers to be re-entered and checked
again.

For instance, most products sold in shops are labelled with a barcode that also contains a number.
This number is also known as a product code, which is used to identify the product being
purchased. A product code is obtained when the barcode is decoded by a barcode reader or
when the number is entered manually at the cashier. The last digit of this product code is actually
a check digit that helps to prevent errors in the decoding or entry process.

One popular standard for check digits that are used in product barcodes is the Universal Product
Code (UPC-A) standard. Figure 5.36 shows an example of a 12-digit UPC-A product code. The
12th digit is the check digit.

The last digit here is

the check digit
0 12345 67890 5
p Figure 5.36 Example of a UPC-A barcode

To calculate the check digit, the first 11 digits need to be processed using the following algorithm:
1. Add the digits in the odd-numbered positions (i.e., 1st, 3rd … 11th).
2. Multiply the result by three.
3. Add the digits in the even-numbered positions (i.e., 2nd, 4th … 10th) to the result.
4. If the last digit of the result is 0, the check digit should be 0. Otherwise, subtract the last
digit of the result from 10. The check digit should be the same as the resulting answer.

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How Can Programs Be Used to Solve Problems?

The program in Figure 5.37 demonstrates how to calculate the check digit from the first 11 digits
of a UPC-A code. There are also many other possible check digit algorithms.

# Program 5.12 upc.py

1 # This program calculates the check digit of a Universal Product Code

2 # (UPC-A) based on the first 11 digits of the code.
3
4 # Input
5 upc = input("Enter first 11 digits of UPC-A: ")
6
7 # Process
8 odd_sum = 0
9 even_sum = 0
10 for index in range(11):
11 digit = int(upc[index])
12 if (index + 1) % 2 == 0:
13 even_sum += digit
14 else:
15 odd_sum += digit
16 check_digit = (odd_sum * 3 + even_sum) % 10
17 if check_digit != 0:
18 check_digit = 10 - check_digit
19
20 # Output
21 print(check_digit)

p Figure 5.37 Finding the check digit of a Universal Product Code

5.4.6 Extracting Required Characters from a String

Many string problems require extracting a subset of the characters in a string. If the required subset
is based solely on the characters’ positions in the string, the slice and slice with a step operators
will usually be sufficient. For instance, my_string[4:6] easily extracts the 5th and 6th characters
of the string named my_string. (Recall the use of the slice operator in section 4.6.2.3.)

However, more complex string problems will usually need string functions or methods such as
those found in section 5.3 to determine whether each character should be extracted. For instance,
extracting all the letters and numbers from a string is equivalent to extracting all the characters
for which the str.isalnum() method returns True.

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We can specify such problems as follows:

‚ Table 5.21 Input and output requirements for the extracting problem

Input Output

• original: str to extract characters from • extract: the

(already provided) extracted characters

• test(): function or method to determine

whether character should be extracted (chosen
or written by programmer)

A solution for this problem, using the str.isalnum() method as an example input for test(),
is as follows:

# Program 5.13 extract.py

1 # Input
2 original = input("Enter a string of characters: ")
3
4 # Process
5 extract = ""
6 for character in original:
7 # In this example, str.isalnum() is used for test()
8 if character.isalnum():
9 extract += character
10
11 # Output
12 print(extract)

p Figure 5.38 Extracting required characters from a string

The solution starts by initialising the output variable extract to an empty string (line 5). Using
an incremental approach, we then consider the characters of the original string, one by one and
in order (line 6), to see if each character meets our requirements for extraction (line 8). Each
character that meets our requirements is appended to our output (line 9).

When the loop ends, we would have considered all the characters in the original string and thus
can conclude that extract has all the characters that meet our requirements.

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How Can Programs Be Used to Solve Problems?

Chapter Summary

Finding Extracting Required

Check Digits Characters from a String

Minimum Value Maximum Value Average Value Searching for a

in a List in a List in a List Value in a List

COMMON PROBLEMS
AND SOLUTIONS

STAGES IN DEVELOPING PROGRAMS TO

A PROGRAM SOLVE PROBLEMS

Gather
Requirements ADDITIONAL BUILT-IN
FUNCTIONS

Plan Solutions

Mathematical String
Functions Functions
Write Code

math String
Module Methods
Test and
Refine Code
Rounding
Functions
Formatting
Strings
Deploy
Code random
Module

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 Module 4: Programming

Review Questions

1. Siti has developed a program for checking the availability of library books. Based on the
feedback she has received, Siti revisits the solution-planning stage and comes up with a
new algorithm that she thinks would be faster, shown in Figure 5.39 below.

START

INPUT titles, and

availability from text file

INPUT search from

keyboard

index = 0

Is index < length of titles?

index = index + 1
Yes

No No
Is titles[index] = search?

Yes

OUTPUT availability[index] OUTPUT “Book Not

to screen Found” to screen

STOP

p Figure 5.39 New solution for Siti’s problem

a) Explain why this new solution may be faster than the solution in
availability_refined.py shown in Figure 5.6.
b) Write a program that corresponds to Siti’s new algorithm. You may wish to use
availability_refined.py as a starting point.

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How Can Programs Be Used to Solve Problems?

2. Write a program that lets the user input a list of ints by asking for each item of the
list in order. Receiving an empty input from the user would indicate the end of the
list. The program would then output the smallest int in the list, followed by a
space, followed by the second smallest int in the list. However, if the list has fewer
than two items, it should output the word “None” instead.

Assume that the input data will always be valid and none of the ints are repeated.

Two test cases for how the program should behave with different inputs are as follows:

Enter item, blank to end: 19

Enter item, blank to end: 65
Enter item, blank to end: -20
Enter item, blank to end: 17
Enter item, blank to end:
-20 17

p Figure 5.40 Sample run – Test Case 1

Enter item, blank to end: -19

Enter item, blank to end:
None

p Figure 5.41 Sample run – Test Case 2

3. Write a program that lets the user input a list of floats by first asking for the number of
items in the list, then asking for each item of the list in order. The program would then
output the average of only the positive floats in the list, rounded to two decimal places.
However, if the list has no positive floats, it should output the word “None” instead.

Assume that the input data will always be valid.

Two test cases for how the program should behave with different inputs are as follows:

Enter length: 4
Enter item: 20.17
Enter item: -19.65
Enter item: 201.8
Enter item: 2.020
74.66

p Figure 5.42 Sample run – Test Case 1

Enter length: 0
None

p Figure 5.43 Sample run – Test Case 2

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 6 Module 4: Programming

How Do I Ensure
That a Program Works
as Intended?
Bala has written a program to automate the process of shortening common phrases
into acronyms. However, it does not seem to be working properly. He decides to ask
Siti for help. How should Siti go about helping Bala to fix his program and ensure that
it always functions as expected?

In the previous chapter, we learnt that testing and refining code is one of the five stages
in developing a program. In this chapter, we will learn about the process of testing and
refining code to identify and fix errors in greater detail, whether these errors are caused
by invalid input from the user or mistakes made by the programmer.

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How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Identify and justify the use of data validation techniques.

• Validate input data for acceptance by performing:

– Length check
– Range check
– Presence check
– Format check

• Design appropriate test cases to cover normal, error and boundary conditions, and
specify what is being tested for each test case.

• Understand and describe types of program errors and explain why they occur:
– Syntax errors
− Run-time errors
− Logic errors

• Understand and apply debugging techniques to isolate/identify and debug

program errors:
– Using intermittent print statements
– Walking through a program
– Testing program in small chunks or by parts

6.1 Validating Input Data

6.1.1 Why Validation is Needed

For a problem to be solved, its inputs, outputs and processes need to be defined clearly. While
the programmer often has control over the processes used and outputs produced by the code,
the supplied inputs can come from many possible sources, and the programmer often has no
control over what is supplied. This means that the supplied inputs may not actually meet the
requirements for valid or acceptable input data as defined by the problem.

For example, consider the program we used in section 5.4.3 to find the average value in a list
of numbers.

‚ Table 6.1 Input and output requirements for the problem of calculating the
average value in a list of numbers

Input Output

• values: list to calculate • average: average value in values;

average from (already provided) None if values is empty

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 Module 4: Programming

# Program 6.1 average_using_sum.py

1 # Input
2 values = [16, 64, 4, 128, 8, 2, 1, 32]
3
4 # Process
5 if len(values) > 0:
6 sum_values = sum(values)
7 average = sum_values / len(values)
8 else:
9 average = None
10
11 # Output
12 print(average)

p Figure 6.1 Finding the average value in a list of numbers

However, what would happen if values was initialised as a list of strs instead?

# Program 6.2 average_with_invalid_input.py

1 # Input
2 values = ["16", "64", "4", "128", "8", "2", "1", "32"]
3
4 # Process
5 if len(values) > 0:
6 sum_values = sum(values)
7 average = sum_values / len(values)
8 else:
9 average = None
10
11 # Output
12 print(average)

p Figure 6.2 Attempting to find the average value in a list of strs

========= RESTART: C:/Examples/average_with_invalid_input.py =========

Traceback (most recent call last):
File "average_with_invalid_input.py", line 6, in <module>
sum_values = sum(values)
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'str'

p Figure 6.3 Error caused by invalid input data (highlighted in the program)

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How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

Here, Python outputs an error message that the addition

operator (+) used by the sum() function is unable to work
Key Term
with values that are of different data types (i.e., int and str).
This is because values should contain only numeric values. Data validation
While this error is due to invalid input provided by the user, Process of ensuring that
we can prevent the program from behaving in an unexpected the input data supplied to
manner by performing data validation before the data a system satisfies a set of
is processed. This ensures that the input data is sensible, rules such that it is sensible,
complete and within acceptable boundaries. complete and within
acceptable boundaries.

6.1.2 Common Data Validation Techniques

When performing data validation on data that is entered by the user, we should use a loop and
keep asking for the data to be re-entered until valid data is entered or the maximum number of
tries is exceeded.

The following sections will cover the four common checks that are performed in data validation:
1. Length check
2. Range check
3. Presence check
4. Format check

6.1.2.1 Length Check

Recall that the number of items in a list or number of
characters in a str is called its length. The length of the inputs Key Term
for a problem often needs to meet certain requirements in order
to be valid. This is known as a length check. Length check
Process of ensuring that
For example, consider the input to a word-guessing game where input data is not too
all guesses must have a length of 3. short or too long

‚ Table 6.2 Example of problem requiring a length check

Input Output

• guess: str with a length of • "Correct" or "Wrong", depending on whether

3 (required and provided as the guess matches a secret str of length 3
many times as needed until (program ends after correct guess)
program ends)

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For the input to be valid, every guess must have a length of 3 exactly. The program below
performs this length check using the len() function on line 16.

# Program 6.3 game_with_length_check.py

1 import random # For random.randint()

2
3 # List of possible secret words
4 WORDS = ["add", "bug", "cat", "dog", "eye", "for", "sky", "zip"]
5
6 # Choose a random secret word
7 random_index = random.randint(0, len(WORDS) - 1)
8 secret_word = WORDS[random_index]
9
10 # Outer loop to keep repeating until secret word is guessed
11 while True:
12
13 # Input and input validation
14 while True:
15 guess = input("Enter guess of length 3: ")
16 if len(guess) == 3:
17 break
18 print("Data validation failed!")
19 print("Guess must have length of 3")
20
21 # Process and output
22 if guess == secret_word:
23 print("Correct")
24 break # Exit outer main loop here
25 print("Wrong")

p Figure 6.4 Example of program that performs a length check

Note that this program uses two infinite while loops. To make the player keep guessing until a
correct guess is made, the program enters an outer while loop on line 11 that keeps repeating
until the correct word is guessed and a break statement is used to exit the outer loop on line 24.
To make the player re-enter guess until it passes input validation, the program enters an inner
while loop on line 14 that keeps repeating until the length check on line 16 is passed and a
break statement is used to exit the loop on line 17.

In general, length checks make use of the len() function and are needed to ensure that list
or str input data is not too short or too long.

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How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

6.1.2.2 Range Check

Another common requirement is to limit the input

to a particular range of values. This is known as a
Key Term
range check. For example, consider the problem of
converting rounded percentage scores to O-Level Range check
grades based on Table 6.3. Process of ensuring that input data is
within the required range of values

‚ Table 6.3 Converting rounded percentage scores to grade points

Rounded percentage score Grade

75–100 A1

70–74 A2

65–69 B3

60–64 B4

55–59 C5

50–54 C6

45–49 D7

40–44 E8

Less than 40 F9

The inputs and outputs for this problem are specified below:

‚ Table 6.4 Example of problem requiring a range check

Input Output

• score: rounded percentage score, • Correct O-Level grade for given

should be a whole number rounded percentage score
between 0 and 100 inclusive

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In this problem, the input is a rounded percentage and must be a whole number between 0 and
100. The following program shows how this range check might be performed:

# Program 6.4 grade_with_range_check.py

1 # Input and input validation

2 score = None By using None to represent an invalid
score, this loop keeps repeating as
3 while score == None:
long as score is invalid.
4 score = int(input("Enter score: "))
5 if score < 0 or score > 100:
6 print("Data validation failed!")
7 print("Your score should be between 0 to 100 inclusive")
8 score = None
9 If input validation fails, we set
10 # Process score to None so the program

11 if score >= 75: tries again by repeating the loop.

12 grade = "A1" Once the program exits the loop

13 elif score >= 70: and reaches this point, we can
14 grade = "A2" be certain that score is valid.
15 elif score >= 65:
16 grade = "B3"
17 elif score >= 60:
18 grade = "B4"
19 elif score >= 55:
20 grade = "C5"
21 elif score >= 50:
22 grade = "C6"
23 elif score >= 45:
24 grade = "D7"
25 elif score >= 40:
26 grade = "E8"
27 else:
28 grade = "F9"
29
30 # Output
31 print(grade)

p Figure 6.5 Example of program that performs a range check

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How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

Like the previous example, this program keeps trying if data validation fails by asking the user to
re-enter the score. In general, range checks make use of these operators:
• less than (<)
• less than or equal to (<=)
• greater than (>)
• greater than or equal to (>=)

They are needed to ensure that int or float input data is within the required range of values.

6.1.2.3 Presence Check

For some problems, portions of the input are required (or mandatory) while other parts may be
optional. If it is possible to leave out any optional inputs, the program should perform a presence
check to ensure that all the required inputs are provided.

For instance, let us look again at the word-guessing game where all guesses must have a length of 3.

‚ Table 6.5 Example of problem requiring a presence check

Input Output

• guess: str with a length of • "Correct" or "Wrong", depending on whether

3 (required and provided as the guess matches a secret str of length 3
many times as needed until (program ends after correct guess)
program ends)

In this example, the input guess is required and must not be

left blank. Key Term

The program in Figure 6.6 shows how a presence check for Presence check
guess might be performed by checking whether the given input Process of ensuring that
for guess is blank on line 16. all the required inputs
are provided
In general, presence checks use special functions or compare
inputs to values such as None or an empty string ("") to ensure
that all required inputs are provided.

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# Program 6.5 game_with_presence_check.py

1 import random # For random.randint()

2
3 # List of possible secret words
4 WORDS = ['add', 'bug', 'cat', 'dog', 'eye', 'for', 'sky', 'zip']
5
6 # Choose a random secret word
7 random_index = random.randint(0, len(WORDS) - 1)
8 secret_word = WORDS[random_index]
9
10 # Main loop to keep repeating until secret word is guessed
11 while True:
12
13 # Input and input validation
14 while True:
15 guess = input("Enter guess of length 3: ")
16 if guess != '':
17 break
18 print("Data validation failed!")
19 print("Guess is required and must not be left blank")
20
21 # Process and output
22 if guess == secret_word:
23 print('Correct')
24 break # Exit main loop here
25 print('Wrong')

p Figure 6.6 Example of program that performs a presence check

6.1.2.4 Format Check

Sometimes a problem requires the input to satisfy additional complex requirements such as
following a particular pattern. This is known as a format check.

For instance, consider a program that prints an appropriate greeting for a given time of day.

‚ Table 6.6 Example of problem requiring format check

Input Output

• time: time in the • An appropriate greeting for the given time; "Good
24-hour clock in Morning" from 05:00 to 11:59, "Good Afternoon" from
HH:MM format 12:00 to 17:59, "Good Evening" from 18:00 to 21:59,
and "Good Night" from 22:00 to 04:59

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How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

In this problem, the input must follow the HH:MM format.

This means that the user must key in exactly two digits Key Term
followed by a colon and another two digits.
Format check
The program in Figure 6.7 shows how this format check Process of ensuring that input
might be performed. data matches a required
arrangement or pattern

# Program 6.6 greeting_with_format_check.py

1 # Input and input validation

2 while True:
3 time = input("Enter time: ") str.isdigit() method
4 if len(time) == 5: returns True if every
5 hours = time[:2] character in the str is a digit.
6 minutes = time[-2:]
7 if time[2] == ":" and hours.isdigit() and minutes.isdigit():
8 break
9 print("Data validation failed!")
10 print("Time should be in HH:MM format")
11
12 # Process
13 hours = int(hours)
14 if hours < 5:
15 greeting = "Good Night"
16 elif hours < 12:
17 greeting = "Good Morning"
18 elif hours < 18:
19 greeting = "Good Afternoon"
20 elif hours < 22:
21 greeting = "Good Evening"
22 else:
23 greeting = "Good Night"
24
25 # Output
26 print(greeting)

p Figure 6.7 Example of program that performs a format check

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 Module 4: Programming

Depending on the problem to be solved, more complex format checks, such as requiring that the
input string uses a particular data format, may also be needed.

Did you know?

Performing format checks is a very common task in programming. However, the code for format
checks can get very long. For instance, the following code is one possible way to check whether
every letter in a str named sleep is ‘z’ using an output bool named is_valid:

is_valid = True
for letter in sleep:
if letter != 'z':
is_valid = False
break
print(is_valid) # Outputs True only if every letter in sleep is 'z'

p Figure 6.8 Format check for whether every letter in sleep is ‘z’

To make the code for format checks shorter to write and read, programmers can use a specialised
“regular expression language” that is designed for this purpose. For instance, the following code
performs the same check as above but is much shorter:

import re
is_valid = bool(re.fullmatch("z*", sleep))
print(is_valid) # Outputs True only if every letter in sleep is 'z'

p Figure 6.9 Equivalent format check using the regular expression "z*"

You can find out more about regular expressions and how to use Python’s re module (short for
regular expressions) in this website:

https://docs.python.org/3/library/re.html

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How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

Quick Check 6.1

1. State whether each of the following extracts of input entry and validation code is
performing a length check, range check, presence check or format check:
a) Extract 1:

while True:
s = input("Enter s: ")
if len(s) == 2 and s[0] in "ABCDEF" and s[1].isdigit():
break
print("Data validation failed!")
...

p Figure 6.10 Extract 1

b) Extract 2:

while True:
first = input("Enter first name: ")
middle = input("Enter middle name (optional): ")
last = input("Enter last name: ")
if first == "" or last == "":
print("Data validation failed!")
else:
break
...

p Figure 6.11 Extract 2

c) Extract 3:

p = float(input("Enter p:"))
while p < 0.0 or p > 1.0:
print("Data validation failed!")
p = float(input("Enter p:"))
...

p Figure 6.12 Extract 3

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 Module 4: Programming

d) Extract 4:

n = int(input("Enter n:"))
while True:
integers = []
while True:
input_text = input("Enter integer, blank to end: ")
if input_text == "":
break
integers += [int(input_text)]
if len(integers) == n:
break
print("Data validation failed!")
...

p Figure 6.13 Extract 4

2. Write the input entry and validation code for a program that needs to accept a postal
code. If the input entered via the keyboard is invalid, your input validation code should
keep trying by asking for the input to be entered again. The specification for the problem’s
input is provided below. (The specification for the output is not needed to solve
this problem.)

‚ Table 6.7 Input and output requirements for a problem that uses a postal code for input

Input Output

• postal_code: a str containing exactly six digits (not needed)

with no other characters

6.2 Designing Test Cases

After data validation, we can be sure that all the inputs provided fulfil the requirements and do
not have errors. However, there may still be errors and imperfections within our code. To detect
these defects, it is necessary to perform testing using well-designed test cases that cover a wide
variety of conditions.

Designing good test cases is important because it is usually impossible to test every possible
input combination. We should focus on situations where errors are most likely to occur.

Before learning about designing test cases, we need to understand the types of program errors
that are possible and which types can be detected by test cases.

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How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

6.2.1 Types of Program Errors

There are three main types of program errors:
Key Terms
1. Syntax errors
2. Run-time errors Crash
Sudden stop of a
3. Logic errors
program due to an error

Note that the three types of program errors are not mutually
Hang
exclusive. In other words, some run-time errors may also be
Unresponsiveness of a
considered logic errors.
program due to an error

‚ Table 6.8 Description of program error types

Question Syntax errors Run-time errors Logic errors

What are Errors that are due Errors that are detected Errors that usually
they? to incorrect source while a program is do not cause the
code that does not running, usually causing program to crash or
follow the rules of the program to crash or hang immediately;
the language hang instead the program
does not give the
expected output

When When the compiler While the program is While the program
are they or interpreter tries to being run is being run
detected? translate the source
code to machine
code

What causes Spelling mistakes Incorrect use of Use of an incorrect

them? or the incorrect commands, input data or incomplete
sequence of symbols that has not been properly algorithm
in source code validated or conditions
occurring outside of the
program’s control (such as
running out of memory)

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 Module 4: Programming

6.2.1.1 Syntax Errors

Syntax errors are usually the easiest to detect as they are “caught” at the initial code translation
stage. It is usually not necessary to design test cases to find syntax errors.

Let us look again at the program we used previously to find the average value in a list of numbers
(see section 6.1.1). In the program in Figure 6.14, we introduced a syntax error on line 5 by using
the assignment operator (=) instead of the equivalence operator (==).

# Program 6.7 syntax_error.py

1 # Input
2 values = []
3 while True:
4 input_str = input("Enter integer, blank to end: ")
5 if input_str = "":
6 break
7 values += [int(input_str)]
8
9 # Process
10 if len(values) > 0:
11 sum_values = sum(values)
12 average = sum_values / len(values)
13 else:
14 average = None
15
16 # Output
17 print(average)

p Figure 6.14 A syntax error is introduced on line 5 (highlighted)

================ RESTART: C:/Examples/syntax_error.py ================

File "syntax_error.py", line 5
if input_str = "":
^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax

p Figure 6.15 The program gives an error message that specifies the location of the error

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How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

By fixing this syntax error, the program is able to run successfully.

# Program 6.8 syntax_error_fixed.py

1 # Input
2 values = []
3 while True:
4 input_str = input("Enter integer, blank to end: ")
5 if input_str == "":
6 break
7 values += [int(input_str)]
8
9 # Process
10 if len(values) > 0:
11 sum_values = sum(values)
12 average = sum_values / len(values)
13 else:
14 average = None
15
16 # Output
17 print(average)

p Figure 6.16 The syntax error on line 5 is fixed by using the correct operator (highlighted)

============= RESTART: C:/Examples/syntax_error_fixed.py =============

Enter integer, blank to end: 2
Enter integer, blank to end: 0
Enter integer, blank to end: 1
Enter integer, blank to end: 7
Enter integer, blank to end:
2.5

p Figure 6.17 The program now runs successfully

6.2.1.2 Run-Time Errors

A run-time error refers to an error that occurs while a

program is running. Key Term

For example, in Program 6.8, when the input is “seven” Run-time error
instead of the digit “7”, a run-time error occurs. This run-time Error that occurs while the
error is caused by the input data that has not been properly program is running
validated by a format check to ensure that it is a valid integer
(i.e., numeric digits only with a possible minus sign in front).

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 Module 4: Programming

The program gives an error message as shown below.

============= RESTART: C:/Examples/syntax_error_fixed.py =============

Enter integer, blank to end: 2
Enter integer, blank to end: 0
Enter integer, blank to end: 1
Enter integer, blank to end: seven
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "syntax_error_fixed.py", line 7, in <module>
values += [int(input_str)]
ValueError: invalid literal for int() with base 10: 'seven'

p Figure 6.18 Example of a run-time error in Python

Did you know?

In compiled languages such as C or Java, since source code is fully translated to machine code
before the program runs, it is not possible for a syntax error to cause a run-time error.

In interpreted languages such as Python, however, since source code is translated to machine code
while the program is running, syntax errors can also be considered as run-time errors.

In Program 6.9, we have removed any checks for an empty list before calculating the average.
When we run this program and immediately enter a blank, the program crashes with a division
by zero error. This is another example of a run-time error.

# Program 6.9 runtime_error.py

1 # Input
2 values = []
3 while True:
4 input_str = input("Enter integer, blank to end: ")
5 if input_str == "":
6 break
7 values += [int(input_str)]
8
9 # Process
10 sum_values = sum(values)
11 average = sum_values / len(values)
12
13 # Output
14 print(average)

p Figure 6.19 The checks for an empty list are removed

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How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

================== RESTART: C:/Examples/runtime_error.py ==================

Enter integer, blank to end:
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "C:/Examples/runtime_error.py", line 11, in <module>
average = sum_values / len(values)
ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

p Figure 6.20 Example of another run-time error in Python

6.2.1.3 Logic Errors

While run-time errors are usually obvious when they occur, logic
Key Term
errors may be “hidden” and may not show any obvious sign that
something is amiss. In such cases, the only way to detect the
logic error is by running a test case and observing that the actual Logic error
output of the program is different from the expected output. Error that causes the
output of a program to
For example, in Program 6.10, we have introduced a logic error be different from what
on line 16 by using an incorrect formula that multiplies (instead is expected
of dividing) sum_values by the number of items in values to
calculate the average.

# Program 6.10 logic_error.py

1 # Input
2 values = []
3 while True:
4 input_str = input("Enter integer, blank to end: ")
5 if input_str == "":
6 break
7 values += [int(input_str)]
8
9 # Process
10 if len(values) > 0:
11 sum_values = sum(values)
12 average = sum_values * len(values)
13 else:
14 average = None
15
16 # Output
17 print(average)

p Figure 6.21 Example of a logic error

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 Module 4: Programming

=================== RESTART: C:/Examples/logic_error.py ===================

Enter integer, blank to end: 2
Enter integer, blank to end: 0
Enter integer, blank to end: 1
Enter integer, blank to end: 7
Enter integer, blank to end:
40

p Figure 6.22 Output for example of a logic error

While the program appears to finish running with no errors, the output value of 40 is different
from the expected output of 2.5 based on the input data of 2, 0, 1 and 7. Such unexpected or
incorrect output is the most obvious sign that a program contains “hidden” logic errors.

Sometimes, logic errors may be obvious when the program crashes with a run-time error. However,
the resulting run-time error may not occur immediately on the line of code containing the logic
error. Such cases are tricky because the programmer would usually need to “work backwards”
from the location of the crash to find out where the logic error is actually located. This is because
the crash would usually be caused by a variable with an invalid value assigned to it by a previous
line of code. This value could in turn be derived from another variable with an incorrect value
assigned by a previous line of code, and so on.

For instance, in the program below, a run-time error occurs on line 11 because the contents of
values are invalid for summing. However, this is actually caused by a logic error introduced on
line 7, where strs are being inserted into values instead of ints.

# Program 6.11 logic_error_2.py

1 # Input
2 values = []
3 while True:
4 input_str = input("Enter integer, blank to end: ")
5 if input_str == "":
6 break Run-time error on line 11 is
actually caused by missing type
7 values += [input_str]
conversion on line 7.
8
9 # Process
10 if len(values) > 0:
11 sum_values = sum(values)
12 average = sum_values / len(values)
13 else:
14 average = None
15
16 # Output
17 print(average)

p Figure 6.23 Run-time error occurs on line 11 but is caused by logic error on line 7

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How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

================== RESTART: C:/Examples/logic_error_2.py ==================

Enter integer, blank to end: 2
Enter integer, blank to end: 0
Enter integer, blank to end: 1
Enter integer, blank to end: 7
Enter integer, blank to end:
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "C:/Examples/logic_error_2.py", line 11, in <module>
sum_values = sum(values)
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'str'

p Figure 6.24 The program alerts the run-time error but not the logic error

To detect run-time errors and logic errors like the ones described in these examples, it is important
to run the programs that we write through multiple test cases. The test cases should cover three
types of conditions:
1. Normal conditions
2. Boundary conditions
3. Error conditions

6.2.2 Conditions for Test Cases

To study the three types of conditions, let us consider the problem of converting a phrase into
an acronym. An acronym is an abbreviation formed from the first letter of each word. Acronyms
must usually be pronounceable, but for our problem, we simply want to combine the first letter
of each word into a capitalised abbreviation regardless of whether the result is pronounceable.

The input and output requirements for this problem are specified in Table 6.9.

‚ Table 6.9 Input and output requirements for the problem of converting a phrase into an acronym

Input Output

• input_text: phrase to be used for generating the • Capitalised acronym

acronym, should contain only letters and spaces of given phrase

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 Module 4: Programming

6.2.2.1 Normal Conditions

First, design test cases to make sure that the program to

be tested works as intended under normal conditions –
Key Term
situations where the input data is what we would expect
to be provided with during normal use of the program. Normal conditions
In general, under normal conditions, at least one test (programming)
case should be designed for each type of expected Situations where input data
input. In this case, only one type of input is expected follows what is expected during
(a str), so we will design a test case accordingly: normal use of the program

‚ Table 6.10 Test Case 1 for acronym generation problem

 Input Expected Output 

• input_text: "Computer Science" CS

However, we also want to be sure that the test cases for normal conditions accurately represent
the variety of inputs that we are expecting. To test this, we shall design an additional test case so
that words that start with both upper-case and lower-case letters are represented.

‚ Table 6.11 Test Case 2 for acronym generation problem

 Input Expected Output 

• input_text: "Man on earth" MOE

Test cases for normal conditions are the most straightforward and will usually be the first test
cases to be written and passed successfully.

6.2.2.2 Boundary Conditions

Next, design test cases to make sure that the program

works as intended under boundary conditions – Key Term
situations where the input data is at the limit of what
the program is designed for, or where special handling Boundary conditions
of the input data is required. The limits of a program are (programming)
usually in terms of quantity (for int and float inputs) and/ Situations where input data is at
or length (for list and str inputs). On the other hand, the limit of what the program is
special handling is usually needed when the problem designed to cope with or where
definition specifies that certain values are to be treated special handling is required
as exceptions (such as using −1 to represent missing data
in a survey).

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How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

For the acronym generation problem, there is no defined maximum length for the input phrase,
so it is not possible to design a test case that would be at the upper limit of what the program can
handle. However, we do want the program to work as intended even with the minimum length
of input possible, that is, an empty str. In this case, we can choose the correct output to also
be an empty str, as shown in Test Case 3.

‚ Table 6.12 Test Case 3 for acronym generation problem

 Input Expected Output 

• input_text: "" (blank output)

Did you know?

In the acronym generation problem, we could also have chosen the expected output to be an error.
If you are unsure whether a set of inputs should generate an error or output something unusual, it
is likely that you have encountered a boundary condition where the inputs are at the limit of what
is considered normal. Usually, either option of generating an error or producing unusual output
(such as an empty string) would be acceptable. However, depending on the situation, one option
may be preferable to the other. For instance, if the output for the acronym generation problem
will in turn be used as a required input for another problem, it might be better to generate an error
instead so that a blank acronym is never produced.

Under normal conditions, we would expect the input phrase to be a sequence of words with
a single space in between. However, the program must also be able to run in the special case
where additional spaces are provided before and after words. Let us design an additional test
case to cover such situations.

‚ Table 6.13 Test Case 4 for acronym generation problem

 Input Expected Output 

• input_text: CS
" Computer Science "

For Test Case 4, the expected output for “ Computer Science ” is exactly the same as the
expected output for “Computer Science” (with no additional spaces).

Determining the boundary conditions for a problem and the expected output for each case can
be tedious as well as difficult. However, this process is necessary to ensure that the program
behaves as intended regardless of the input supplied.

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6.2.2.3 Error Conditions

Finally, it is important to design test cases to make sure that

the program behaves as expected under error conditions – Key Term
situations where the input data would normally be rejected
by the program. Error conditions
(programming)
For the acronym generation problem, it is clearly stated that Situations where input
the input phrase should contain only letters and spaces. Based data would normally be
on this definition, any input that contains punctuation symbols rejected by the program
or digits should generate an error. The following two test cases
cover these situations:

‚ Table 6.14 Test Case 5 for acronym generation problem

 Input Expected Output 

• input_text: "Lead, Care, Data validation failed!
Inspire" Input text should only
contain letters and spaces

‚ Table 6.15 Test Case 6 for acronym generation problem

 Input Expected Output 

• input_text: "Computing 2017" Data validation failed!
Input text should only
contain letters and spaces

Test cases for error conditions are necessary because programs that fail to reject invalid input may
end up performing unintended or even harmful actions. For instance, a large number of security
flaws in programs today are caused by the improper handling of error conditions. A typical
example in some programming languages would be forgetting to check whether the input data
supplied by a user can fit into the memory space allocated to store the data. A program that tries
to store this invalid data anyway will end up overwriting subsequent areas of memory and allow
potential attackers to insert their own instructions into the program.

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How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

Figure 6.25 shows the analogy of a car to illustrate the three types of conditions that test cases
should cover.

Normal condition Boundary condition Error condition

p Figure 6.25 Analogy of normal, boundary and error conditions

Under normal conditions, the car has all four wheels on the ground. We expect the car to function
perfectly under these conditions.

Under boundary conditions, the car may be balancing on two wheels. The car may or may not
function correctly under these conditions, and depending on the problem context, the car may
or may not be required to function under such conditions.

Under error conditions, the car has all four wheels up in the air. A well-designed car would fail
to function in such a situation, and if possible, prevent any harmful actions from being taken by
the driver.

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Quick Check 6.2

1. A student wants to solve the following problem:

‚ Table 6.16 Input and output requirements for the problem of drawing a square

Input Output

• n: number of “*” characters • a text-based square made

needed for each side of the out of “*” characters with
square, should be an integer n “*” characters on each side,
between 1 and 20 inclusive square should be filled in with
“*” characters with no other
characters inside

The following are two test cases under normal conditions for this problem. (Note that
although the expected outputs may appear rectangular, they can be considered as
squares as they have the same number of characters on each side.)

‚ Table 6.17 Test Case 1 for square drawing problem

 Input Expected Output 

• n: 5 *****
*****
*****
*****
*****

‚ Table 6.18 Test Case 2 for square drawing problem

 Input Expected Output 

• n: 10 **********
**********
**********
**********
**********
**********
**********
**********
**********
**********

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How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

a) Design another test case that covers normal conditions for this problem.
b) Design two test cases that cover the boundary conditions for this problem. For each
test case, explain why it covers a boundary condition.
c) Design two test cases that cover the error conditions for this problem. For each test
case, explain why it covers an error condition. (You may choose your own expected
error message.)

Questions 2 and 3 involve programs meant to solve the following diamond drawing
problem:

‚ Table 6.19 Input and output requirements for the problem of drawing a diamond

Input Output

• n: height of diamond in • a text-based symmetrical

number of lines and also diamond made out of “*”
number of “*” characters and “ ” (space) characters with
needed for the widest part a height of n lines and width of
of the diamond, should be an n “*” characters for the widest
odd integer between 1 and part of the diamond, diamond
19 inclusive should be filled in with “*”
characters with no other
characters inside

The following is a test case under normal conditions for this problem:

‚ Table 6.20 Test case for diamond drawing problem

 Input Expected Output 

• n: 5 *
***
*****
***
*

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2. The program below for the diamond drawing problem has three syntax errors.
a) Identify where the syntax errors are.
b) Rewrite the program to fix these syntax errors.

# Program 6.12 diamond_with_syntax_errors.py

1 # Input and input validation
2 while True:
3 input_text = input("Enter n: ")
4 if input_text.isdigit()
5 n = int(input_text)
6 if n >= 1 and n <= 19 and n % 2 == 1:
7 break
8 else:
9 print("Data validation failed!")
10 print("n should be odd and between 1 and 19 inclusive")
11 else:
12 print("Data validation failed!')
13 print("n should be a positive integer")
14
15 # Process and output
16 for index in range(n // 2):
17 print(' ' * (n // 2 - index) + '*' * (2 * index + 1))
18 for index in range(n // 2 + 1):
19 print(' ' * index + '*' * (n - index * 2)))

p Figure 6.26 Program for diamond drawing problem with syntax errors

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How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

3. The program below for the diamond drawing problem crashes with a run-time error on
line 25 when it runs on the given test case shown in Table 6.21.

# Program 6.13 diamond_crash.py

1 # Input and input validation

2 while True:
3 n_str = input("Enter n: ")
4 if not n_str.isdigit():
5 print("Data validation failed!")
6 print("n should be a positive integer")
7 continue
8 n = int(n_str)
9 if n < 1 or n > 19 or n % 2 == 0:
10 print("Data validation failed!")
11 print("n should be odd and between 1 and 19 inclusive")
12 continue
13 break
14
15 # Process and output
16 stars = []
17 index = 1
18 while index < n:
19 stars += [" " * ((n - index) // 2) + "*" * index]
20 index += 2
21
22 for index in range(n // 2):
23 print(stars[index])
24 for index in range(n // 2 + 1):
25 print(stars[-index - 1])

p Figure 6.27 Program on diamond drawing problem as test case

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 Module 4: Programming

‚ Table 6.21 Running diamond_crash.py on test case

 Input Expected Output 

• n: 5 *
***
*****
***
*

Running diamond _ crash.py on test case  Result

Enter n: 5 Failed

*
***
***
*

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "diamond_crash.py", line 25, in <module>
print(stars[-index - 1])
IndexError: list index out of range

Fix this error by changing only one line and explain whether line 25 should be the line
of code to change.

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How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

6.3 Debugging Program Errors

6.3.1 Bugs and Debugging

The purpose of designing test cases is to detect when a program
does not behave as intended by the programmer. When this Key Terms
happens, the program is said to have a bug. The process of fixing
the program so that it behaves as intended is called debugging. Bug
Defect in a program that
To demonstrate how debugging is performed, let us work on a causes it to behave in an
draft program to solve the acronym generation problem. Since unintended manner
words usually have a space before them, we can use the general
algorithm for extracting characters from a string (see section Debugging
5.4.6). Process of identifying
and removing defects
from a program

Did you know?

Figure 6.28 shows a journal entry dated 9 September 1947 by users of an early electronic computer
called the “Mark II”. They had discovered a moth trapped in part of the computer, causing it to
malfunction. This dead moth is often considered the first actual computer “bug” to be found.

p Figure 6.28 A moth trapped in a computer was the first actual computer “bug”

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 Module 4: Programming

In this case, we use the condition that extracts only characters that follow a space.

# Program 6.14 acronym_draft.py

1 # Input
2 input_text = input("Enter the input text: ")
3
4 # Process
5 acronym = ""
6 for index in range(len(input_text)):
7 if input_text[index - 1].isspace():
8 acronym += input_text[index]
9
10 # Output
11 print(acronym)

p Figure 6.29 Draft program to solve the acronym generation problem

However, when we try to run the program on Test Case 1, we find that its output is different from
what is expected.

‚ Table 6.22 Running acronym_draft.py on Test Case 1

 Input Expected Output 

• input_text: "Computer Science" CS

Running acronym_draft.py on Test Case 1  Result

Enter the input text: Computer Science Failed

This is a sign that there is a bug. Let us look at some common debugging techniques to fix it.

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How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

6.3.2 Common Debugging Techniques

6.3.2.1 Using Intermittent print Statements

One simple yet effective debugging technique is to keep track of how variables change as the
program runs using the print() function. By adding a print statement that outputs the value
of important variables inside a loop, we are able to get valuable information of how the variables
change over time, just like what we were able to do with trace tables for flowcharts. For instance,
the program below has been modified with the addition of line 9, which prints out the values of
index and acronym each time the loop repeats.

# Program 6.15 acronym_draft_with_debugging.py

1 # Input
2 input_text = input("Enter the input text: ")
3
4 # Process
5 acronym = ""
6 for index in range(len(input_text)):
7 if input_text[index - 1].isspace():
8 acronym += input_text[index]
9 print("Debug: when index=" + str(index) + ", acronym=" + acronym)
10
11 # Output
12 print(acronym)
13

p Figure 6.30 Draft program with addition of print statement on line 10 (highlighted)

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 Module 4: Programming

Running this new program on Test Case 1 reveals how these two variables change over time as
characters are extracted from input_text to form the acronym.

‚ Table 6.23 Running acronym_draft_with_debugging.py on Test Case 1

 Input Expected Output 

• input_text: "Computer Science" CS

Running acronym_draft_with_debugging.py on Test Case 1  Result

Enter the input text: Computer Science Failed

Debug: when index=0, acronym=
Debug: when index=1, acronym=
Debug: when index=2, acronym=
Debug: when index=3, acronym=
Debug: when index=4, acronym=
Debug: when index=5, acronym=
Debug: when index=6, acronym=
Debug: when index=7, acronym=
Debug: when index=8, acronym=
Debug: when index=9, acronym=S
Debug: when index=10, acronym=S
Debug: when index=11, acronym=S
Debug: when index=12, acronym=S
Debug: when index=13, acronym=S
Debug: when index=14, acronym=S
Debug: when index=15, acronym=S
S

Note that in this example, all the output starting with “Debug” appears together. In more complex
situations, however, different amounts of processing may occur between lines of debugging output,
which is why this technique is called using “intermittent” print statements.

From the debugging output, we can see that the first letter of “Science” is correctly extracted into
acronym when index reaches 9. However, the first letter of “Computer” is not.

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How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

Look again at line 7 in Program 6.15. When index is 0, the program is actually testing whether
input_text[-1](i.e., the last letter of input_text) is a space before deciding not to include
input_text[0] in the acronym. This is not the intended behaviour and is caused by the fact
that there is no “previous character” for the first character of a string.

Let us try to fix this bug by checking for this special case on line 7.

# Program 6.16 acronym_draft_with_debugging_2.py

1 # Input
2 input_text = input("Enter the input text: ")
3
4 # Process
5 acronym = ""
6 for index in range(len(input_text)):
7 if input_text[index - 1].isspace() or index == 0:
8 acronym += input_text[index]
9 print("Debug: when index=" + str(index) + ", acronym=" + acronym)
10
11 # Output
12 print(acronym)

p Figure 6.31 Draft program with first character bug fixed by adding the highlighted code on line 7

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 Module 4: Programming

Running this amended program on Test Case 1 now produces the expected output (if we ignore
the lines of debugging output that start with “Debug”).

‚ Table 6.24 Running acronym_draft_with_debugging_2.py on Test Case 1

 Input Expected Output 

• input_text: "Computer Science" CS

Running acronym_draft_with_debugging_2.py on Test Case 1  Result

Enter the input text: Computer Science Passed

Debug: when index=0, acronym=C
Debug: when index=1, acronym=C
Debug: when index=2, acronym=C
Debug: when index=3, acronym=C
Debug: when index=4, acronym=C
Debug: when index=5, acronym=C
Debug: when index=6, acronym=C
Debug: when index=7, acronym=C
Debug: when index=8, acronym=C
Debug: when index=9, acronym=CS
Debug: when index=10, acronym=CS
Debug: when index=11, acronym=CS
Debug: when index=12, acronym=CS
Debug: when index=13, acronym=CS
Debug: when index=14, acronym=CS
Debug: when index=15, acronym=CS
CS

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How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

However, when we run the program on Test Case 2, once again we receive an unexpected output.

‚ Table 6.25 Running acronym_draft_with_debugging_2.py on Test Case 2

 Input Expected Output 

• input_text: "Man on earth" MOE

Running acronym_draft_with_debugging_2.py on Test Case 2  Result

Enter the input text: Man on earth Failed

Debug: when index=0, acronym=M
Debug: when index=1, acronym=M
Debug: when index=2, acronym=M
Debug: when index=3, acronym=M
Debug: when index=4, acronym=Mo
Debug: when index=5, acronym=Mo
Debug: when index=6, acronym=Mo
Debug: when index=7, acronym=Moe
Debug: when index=8, acronym=Moe
Debug: when index=9, acronym=Moe
Debug: when index=10, acronym=Moe
Debug: when index=11, acronym=Moe
Moe

Fortunately, the cause of this bug is quite clear: we did not convert the output to upper case.
The program below fixes this by adding line 10 to convert the output to upper case when the
program has exited the loop.

# Program 6.17 acronym_draft_with_debugging_3.py

1 # Input
2 input_text = input("Enter the input text: ")
3
4 # Process
5 acronym = ""
6 for index in range(len(input_text)):
7 if input_text[index - 1].isspace() or index == 0:
8 acronym += input_text[index]
9 print("Debug: when index=" + str(index) + ", acronym=" + acronym)
10 acronym = acronym.upper()
11
12 # Output
13 print(acronym)

p Figure 6.32 Draft program with letter case bug fixed by adding the highlighted code on line 10

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 Module 4: Programming

Running the amended program on Test Case 2 now generates the expected output (if we ignore
the lines of debugging output that start with “Debug”).

‚ Table 6.26 Running acronym_draft_with_debugging_3.py on Test Case 2

 Input Expected Output 

• input_text: "Man on earth" MOE

Running acronym_draft_with_debugging_3.py on Test Case 2  Result

Enter the input text: Man on earth Passed

Debug: when index=0, acronym=M
Debug: when index=1, acronym=M
Debug: when index=2, acronym=M
Debug: when index=3, acronym=M
Debug: when index=4, acronym=Mo
Debug: when index=5, acronym=Mo
Debug: when index=6, acronym=Mo
Debug: when index=7, acronym=Moe
Debug: when index=8, acronym=Moe
Debug: when index=9, acronym=Moe
Debug: when index=10, acronym=Moe
Debug: when index=11, acronym=Moe
MOE

6.3.2.2 Testing the Program in Chunks or Parts

Let us continue running our program on the test cases we designed. The program behaves as
intended for Test Case 3 under the boundary conditions of having an empty str as input.

‚ Table 6.27 Running acronym_draft_with_debugging_3.py on Test Case 3

 Input Expected Output 

• input_text: "" (blank output)

Running acronym_draft_with_debugging_3.py on Test Case 3  Result

Enter the input text: Passed

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How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

However, running the program on Test Case 4 produces something unexpected.

‚ Table 6.28 Running acronym_draft_with_debugging_3.py on Test Case 4

 Input Expected Output 

• input_text: " Computer Science " CS

Running acronym_draft_with_debugging_3.py on Test Case 4  Result

Enter the input text: Computer Science Failed

Debug: when index=0, acronym=
Debug: when index=1, acronym=
Debug: when index=2, acronym= C
Debug: when index=3, acronym= C
Debug: when index=4, acronym= C
Debug: when index=5, acronym= C
Debug: when index=6, acronym= C
Debug: when index=7, acronym= C
Debug: when index=8, acronym= C
Debug: when index=9, acronym= C
Debug: when index=10, acronym= C
Debug: when index=11, acronym= C
Debug: when index=12, acronym= C S
Debug: when index=13, acronym= C S
Debug: when index=14, acronym= C S
Debug: when index=15, acronym= C S
Debug: when index=16, acronym= C S
Debug: when index=17, acronym= C S
Debug: when index=18, acronym= C S
Debug: when index=19, acronym= C S
Debug: when index=20, acronym= C S
C S

From the output, it looks like the acronym has some extra spaces that should not be there. To
investigate the cause of this bug, we shall decompose the program into smaller parts and test the
parts one at a time. This allows us to narrow down the possible locations of any bugs and reduce
the amount of code that we need to study at any one time.

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 Module 4: Programming

To test only one part of a program at a time, we can temporarily disable lines of code by inserting
a hash symbol (#) at the start of these lines. This process is called commenting out code since
it works by temporarily turning the code into comments. (Recall in section 4.3.2 on adding
comments to your program.)

Another method to break a program into smaller parts so that each part can be tested separately
is by putting each part in its own function. Since functions allow the same instructions to be
performed using different arguments, this makes it easy to test each part of the program repeatedly
using different inputs. For instance, Figure 6.33 shows how the tasks of getting input and testing if
a character should be included in the acronym can be broken out into two user-defined functions
named get_text() and should_include() respectively.

# Program 6.18 acronym_draft_with_functions.py

1 # Gets input text from the user

2 def get_text():
3 return input("Enter the input text: ")
4
5 # Returns whether text[i] should be included in the acronym
6 def should_include(text, i):
7 return text[i - 1].isspace() or i == 0
8
9 # Input
10 input_text = get_text()
11
12 # Process
13 acronym = ""
14 for index in range(len(input_text)):
15 if should_include(input_text, index):
16 acronym += input_text[index]
17 acronym = acronym.upper()
18
19 # Output
20 print(acronym)

p Figure 6.33 Breaking a program into smaller parts using functions

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How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

This modified program's overall behaviour is unchanged, so it still fails Test Case 4 by producing
output with some extra spaces that should not be there. We can proceed to narrow down where
the bug is located by decomposing the program line by line.

‚ Table 6.29 Decomposition of acronym_draft_with_debugging_3.py

Line(s) What the code does

1−8 Defines get_text() and should_include()

9−11 Uses get_text() to get input phrase from keyboard

12−13 Initialises acronym to empty str

14 Iterates through every character of input phrase

15 Uses should_include() to test if the current character of input

phrase should be part of acronym

16 Adds the current character to acronym (if test succeeds)

17−18 Converts acronym to upper case

19–20 Displays acronym on screen

Since the letters “C” and “S” were extracted correctly, this implies that the following processes
are all working:
• Using get_text() to get input from the keyboard (lines 9–11)
• Iterating through the input characters (line 14)
• Adding characters to the acronym (line 16)
• Displaying the acronym on the screen (lines 19–20)

Hence, we can deduce that the error is located in should_include() as part of the code that
tests if the current character should be part of the acronym (line 15). We can also eliminate the
possibility that the error is located at the code converting the acronym to upper case (lines 17–18)
as it is not relevant in this case.

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 Module 4: Programming

To confirm the location of the bug, we can run mini test cases. All the lines except for the function
definitions are disabled by turning them into comments. At the end of the program, we then call
should_include() repeatedly with different combinations of input arguments to determine if
the function is working as expected.

# Program 6.19 acronym_draft_with_mini_tests.py

1 # Gets input text from the user

2 def get_text():
3 return input("Enter the input text: ")
4
5 # Returns whether text[i] should be included in the acronym
6 def should_include(text, i):
7 return text[i - 1].isspace() or i == 0
8
9 # # Input
10 # input_text = get_text()
11 #
12 # # Process
13 # acronym = ""
14 # for index in range(len(input_text)):
15 # if should_include(input_text, index):
16 # acronym += input_text[index]
17 # acronym = acronym.upper()
18 #
19 # # Output
20 # print(acronym)
21
22 input_text = " Computer Science "
23 print(should_include(input_text, 0) # Expected: False
24 print(should_include(input_text, 1) # Expected: False
25 print(should_include(input_text, 2) # Expected: True

p Figure 6.34 Testing a function with different input arguments to confirm location of bug

In this case, the expected outputs for the three calls to should_include() are False, False
and True. When text is " Computer Science " and i is either 0 or 1, we expect should_
include() to return False since both text[0] and text[1] are spaces and spaces should not
appear in acronyms. On the other hand, when i is 2 we expect should_include() to return
True since text[2] is precisely the first letter of the word "Computer".

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How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

However, when we run the program, we do not get the expected outputs.

‚ Table 6.30 Running acronym_draft_with_mini_tests.py on mini test cases

 Input Expected Output 

Mini Test Case 1 False
• text: " Computer Science " False
• i: 0 True
Mini Test Case 2
• text: " Computer Science "
• i: 1
Mini Test Case 3
• text: " Computer Science "
• i: 2

Running acronym_draft_with_mini_tests.py on mini test case  Result

True
True Failed
True

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 Module 4: Programming

This result tells us that the bug is definitely in should_include(). To fix this bug, we will add
an additional condition – the character being tested must not be a space.

# Program 6.20 acronym_draft_fixed.py

1 # Gets input text from the user

2 def get_text():
3 return input("Enter the input text: ")
4
5 # Returns whether text[i] should be included in the acronym
6 def should_include(text, i):
7 return (text[i - 1].isspace() or i == 0) and not text[i].isspace()
8
9 # Input
10 input_text = get_text()
11
12 # Process
13 acronym = ""
14 for index in range(len(input_text)):
15 if should_include(input_text, index):
16 acronym += input_text[index]
17 acronym = acronym.upper()
18
19 # Output
20 print(acronym)

p Figure 6.35 Draft program with unwanted spaces bug fixed by adding the highlighted code

This modified program now passes Test Case 4.

‚ Table 6.31 Running acronym_draft_fixed.py on Test Case 4

 Input Expected Output 

• input_text: " Computer Science " CS

Running acronym_draft_fixed.py on Test Case 4  Result

Enter the input text: Computer Science Passed

CS

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How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

However, our program still does not pass Test Case 5 and Test Case 6 because it does not perform
any data validation. To fix this, a format check is added to the program to ensure that the input
phrase contains letters and spaces only, as shown in Figure 6.36.

# Program 6.21 acronym_final.py

1 # Gets input text from the user

2 def get_text():
3 while True:
4 input_text = input("Enter the input text: ")
5 input_is_valid = True
6 for c in input_text:
7 if not (c.isalpha() or c.isspace()):
8 print("Data validation failed!")
9 print("Input text should only contain " +
10 "letters and spaces")
11 input_is_valid = False
12 break
13 if input_is_valid:
14 return input_text
15
16 # Returns whether text[i] should be included in the acronym
17 def should_include(text, i):
18 return (text[i - 1].isspace() or i == 0) and not text[i].isspace()
19
20 # Input
21 input_text = get_text()
22
23 # Process
24 acronym = ""
25 for index in range(len(input_text)):
26 if should_include(input_text, index):
27 acronym += input_text[index]
28 acronym = acronym.upper()
29
30 # Output
31 print(acronym)

p Figure 6.36 Format check (highlighted) added to the program

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This final version of the program, Program 6.21, passes Test Case 5 and Test Case 6.

‚ Table 6.32 Running acronym_final.py on Test Case 5

 Input Expected Output 

• input_text: "Lead, Care, Inspire" Data validation failed!
Input text should only
contain letters and spaces

Running acronym_final.py on Test Case 5  Result

Enter the input text: Lead, Care, Inspire Passed

Data validation failed!
Input text should only contain letters and spaces
Enter the input text:

‚ Table 6.33 Running acronym_final.py on Test Case 6

 Input Expected Output 

• input_text: "Computing 2017" Data validation failed!
Input text should only
contain letters and spaces

Running acronym_final.py on Test Case 6  Result

Enter the input text: Computing 2017 Passed

Data validation failed!
Input text should only contain letters and spaces
Enter the input text:

Since Program 6.21 passes all the test cases we have designed, we can confirm that it works as
intended in solving the acronym generation problem.

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How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

Quick Check 6.3

1. A new program has been written to solve the acronym generation problem. State
whether it passes or fails each of the six test cases we have designed for the acronym
generation problem.

# Program 6.22 acronym_alternative.py

1 # Input
2 input_text = input("Enter the input text: ")
3
4 # Process
5 acronym = ""
6 previous_char = ' '
7 for char in input_text:
8 if previous_char.isspace() and not char.isspace():
9 acronym += char.upper()
10 previous_char = char
11
12 # Output
13 print(acronym)

p Figure 6.37 New program for the acronym generation problem

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 Module 4: Programming

Chapter Summary

Normal Conditions Syntax Errors

Boundary Conditions Run-Time Errors

Error Conditions Logic Errors

DESIGNING TEST CASES TYPES OF PROGRAM ERRORS

TESTING AND DEBUGGING

VALIDATING INPUT DATA DEBUGGING TECHNIQUES

Length Check

Using Intermittent
Range Check print Statements

Presence Check Testing the Program

in Chunks or Parts

Format Check

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How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

Review Questions

1. A program is needed to solve the following word reversal problem:

‚ Table 6.34 Input and output requirements for the word reversal problem

Input Output

• input_text: phrase to • Given phrase with the order of the letters

reverse, should contain only of each word reversed but the words
letters and spaces themselves still in order, separated by one
space between words

The draft program in Figure 6.38 is written for this purpose.

a) The main algorithm for the program consists of three parts. Read through the code and
state what each of the following parts of the program are intended to do:
i) Line 5
ii) Lines 7 to 11
iii) Lines 13 to 16

b) When this program is run on the following test case, the actual output does not match the
expected output:

‚ Table 6.35 Running word_reversal_draft.py on a test case

 Input Expected Output 

• input_text: "Meetings on etiquette" sgniteeM no etteuqite

Running word_reversal_draft.py on test case  Result

Enter input text: Meetings on etiquette Failed

Msgnitee on eetteuqit

i) State the kind of condition (normal, boundary or error) covered by this test case.
ii) State whether the program has a syntax error or a logic error and explain why.
iii) Find out where the error is located by disabling lines of code and testing the program
in chunks or parts. State the line on which the error is located and explain why the line
is incorrect.
iv) Rewrite the program to fix the error so that it passes the test case.

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 Module 4: Programming

# Program 6.23 word_reversal_draft.py

1 # Input
2 input_text = input("Enter input text: ")
3
4 # Process
5 word_list = input_text.split()
6
7 for i in range(len(word_list)):
8 current_word = ""
9 for letter_index in range(len(word_list[i])):
10 current_word += word_list[i][-letter_index]
11 word_list[i] = current_word
12
13 result = ""
14 for word in word_list:
15 result += word + " "
16 result = result[:-1]
17
18 # Output
19 print(result)

p Figure 6.38 Draft program for the word reversal problem

2. The program in Figure 6.39 accepts a string of alphabetical letters only and outputs the string
with its upper-case letters converted to lower-case and vice versa. For example, if the input
were "comPUting", then the output would be "COMpuTING".

The program uses three user-defined functions, is_letters_only(),

convert_letter() and convert_str() to perform this task.

a) The is_letters_only() function is supposed to return True if its parameter is

made up of alphabetical letters only. Write down the expected return value for each of
the following test cases:
i) is_letters_only('hello')
ii) is_letters_only('Hello World')
iii) is_letters_only('HelloWorld')
iv) is_letters_only('Hello, World!')

b) Using an empty string as input is a boundary condition for the is_letters_only()

function. Boundary conditions can be difficult to handle as there may be multiple options
for expected behavior.
i) Suggest one possible argument for why the return value for is_letters_
only('') should be True.
ii) Suggest one possible argument for why the return value for is_letters_
only('') should be False.

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How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

iii) Suppose an empty string should be treated as valid input for this program. Choose an
appropriate return value for is_letters_only('') and fill in the function body
for is_letters_only() accordingly. (To test your code, temporarily comment
out the main program and run test cases.)

# Program 6.24 opposite_case_unfinished.py

1 # Returns True if s has alphabetical letters only
2 def is_letters_only(s):
3 # TODO: See part (b)
4
5 # Converts single letter to opposite case
6 def convert_letter(l):
7 if l.islower():
8 return l.upper()
9 return l.lower()
10
11 # Converts string of letters to opposite case
12 def convert_string(s):
13 result = ''
14 for c in s:
15 result = convert_letter(c)
16 return result
17
18 while True:
19 s = input('Enter string: ')
20 if is_letters_only(s):
21 break
22 print('String must have alphabetical letters only')
23
24 print(convert_string(s))

p Figure 6.39 Draft program for the opposite case problem

c) Even with is_letters_only() correctly filled in, there is a bug in the program that
causes its output to be different from what is expected. For example, if the input were
"comPUting", the program will output "G" instead of the expected "COMpuTING".
i) Explain why a bug in convert_letter() can affect convert_string().
ii) Find the bug in convert_string() and suggest how it can be fixed.

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 7 Module 1: Data and Information

How Can I Be a Safe and

Responsible Computer User?
Siti has just finished typing a book report on her computer in the library. She checks
her email and leaves the computer for a moment to shelve some books. When she
returns, however, she notices that someone has used her computer without permission.
A program is sending mass emails from her email account and her report can no longer
be opened. This worries Siti as the report is due very soon.

Alex learns about Siti’s situation and wants to help. He manages to find one of his old
book reports. Should he offer to let Siti submit his book report as her own?

In the previous chapters, we learnt how to give computers instructions by writing

programs. With the growing speed, number and connectedness of computers today,
it has become easier than ever to control one or more computers using programs and
perform tasks which were previously thought to be too tedious or slow to accomplish.

Most programs are useful to us. However, not all programs perform tasks that are
desirable or beneficial to society. For instance, in this situation, Siti is the victim of a
program that used her email account without her permission and damaged her files.
When we write programs, we should anticipate and guard against the possibility that
these programs may be used in a harmful manner.

In this chapter, we will learn about data corruption and loss, unauthorised access to
data, threats to the privacy and security of data, as well as the concept of intellectual
property. We will also learn about the social and economic impact of computers in
various fields and explore ethical issues related to the use of computers.

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How Can I Be a Safe and Responsible Computer User?

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Understand how data can be kept safe from accidental damage due to data corruption
or human errors, malicious actions such as unauthorised viewing, deleting, copying and
corrupting or malware.

• Understand the effects of threats to privacy and security of data from spam, spyware,
cookies, phishing, pharming and unauthorised access, as well as defensive measures
employed such as the use of appropriate hardware and software.

• Describe ethical issues that relate to the use of computers, public and private networks,
freeware, shareware and open courseware; and the sharing of information.

• Compare the positive and negative social and economic impacts of technology in
education, communication (e.g., via mobile apps and social media), finance, medicine/
healthcare, transportation and entertainment; and explain plagiarism and software piracy.

7.1 Data Corruption and Loss

After Siti returned from shelving some books, she found

that her book report could no longer be opened. Like Siti,
Key Terms
many of us store important information in our computers.
Unfortunately, just as information written on a piece of Data corruption
paper can be torn up or misplaced, information stored When data is made unusable
in computers can also be damaged or lost. by errors or alterations

Data corruption occurs when computer data is made Data loss

unusable by errors or alterations. This kind of damage When data is destroyed and
can happen during the reading, writing or transmission cannot be recovered
of data. If the corrupted data cannot be recovered or
replaced, this also results in data loss.

7.1.1 Effects of Data Corruption and Loss

The effects of data corruption can vary depending on the amount of corrupted data and the type
of data that is represented.

If the corrupted data is not needed to read other data, then only the corrupted data itself is lost.
This situation is more likely if the amount of corrupted data is small. This is similar to having
smudged cells in a printed table of data – only the smudged data is lost.

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 Module 1: Data and Information

p Figure 7.1 Only the data in the smudged cells is lost

On the other hand, if the corrupted data is related to other data in the computer, then both the
corrupted data and its related data may be lost. This is because the corrupted data may contain
information that is required to read or interpret the related data. This situation is more likely if the
amount of corrupted data is large. This is similar to having smudged headers in a printed table of
data. While the cells of the table are still readable, it is not possible to interpret what the contents
mean, so the data stored in the table is meaningless and effectively lost.

p Figure 7.2 Data in the entire table is effectively lost due to the smudged header

In Siti’s case, she is probably unable to open her book report because one or more bytes in the
file that are required to read the rest of the file have been corrupted. Figure 7.3 shows a typical
error message that a user may get when trying to open a corrupted file in a word processor.

p Figure 7.3 Example of data corruption error message

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How Can I Be a Safe and Responsible Computer User?

7.1.2 Causes of and Ways to Prevent Data Corruption and Loss

Data corruption and loss may be caused by human
error, power or hardware failures, or malicious software, Key Terms
as shown in Table 7.1. Note that in all cases, making
regular backups of data will help to prevent the loss of Backup
data in the event of data corruption. Copy of data that is made in case
the original is damaged or lost

Uninterruptible power
supply (UPS)
Device that provides enough
emergency power for a
computer to properly shut down
in case of a power failure

‚ Table 7.1 Causes of and ways to prevent data corruption and loss

Cause Explanation Preventive measures

Human error • Storage devices may be • Make regular backups

accidentally damaged of data.
during transport.
• Use adequate protection
• Multiple users working on when transporting storage
the same file may devices.
accidentally overwrite each
• Set up rules when
other’s data.
collaborating with multiple
users to prevent them from
writing to the same file at the
same time.

Power failure • If the power supply to a • Make regular backups

computer fails, data that of data.
is in the process of being
• Set up a backup power
written to a storage device
supply or uninterruptible
may become corrupted and
power supply (UPS) so
data that is stored in
storage devices can
volatile memory but not yet
complete any write
written to a storage device
operations in case of a
will be lost.
power failure.

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 Module 1: Data and Information

‚ Table 7.1 Causes of and ways to prevent data corruption and loss (continued)

Cause Explanation Preventive measures

Hardware • All magnetic, optical and • Make regular backups

failure or solid-state storage devices of data.
damage can fail, either due to
• Check storage devices
overuse, manufacturing
regularly and replace them
defects or age.
immediately when signs of
failure are detected.

Malicious • Some malicious software • Make regular backups

software or (see section 7.3) may of data.
viruses purposely damage and
• Avoid opening email/chat
corrupt data as a way of
attachments or files from
attacking the computer.
unknown sources.
• Install and configure a
firewall (see section 7.2.2.2)
to prevent them from
spreading through
the network.

• Install anti-virus and

anti-spyware software
(see section 7.3.2.1), as well
as perform regular scans
and updates.

Quick Check 7.1

1. State three ways by which data can become corrupted.

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How Can I Be a Safe and Responsible Computer User?

7.2 Unauthorised Access

Besides losing her book report, Siti was also upset that
someone had used her computer and email account without Key Terms
her permission. Like Siti, most people want to have control
over how others access their data or property, such as online Authentication
accounts and personal information. For instance, most people Process of verifying the
would not want to share their passwords with others but would identity of a user
not mind sharing less private details such as their birthdates.
Authentication factor
Unauthorised access occurs whenever data owned by Category of evidence that
someone is used by someone else, such as an intruder or is used for authentication:
even a member of the public, without permission. Besides data something the user knows
loss, this can lead to many other undesirable consequences. or owns, or something
For instance, passwords or bank account information can that is measured from a
be used by an intruder to impersonate the owner’s identity, physical part of the user
steal his or her money, and commit fraud. An intruder can
also publicise private information that can lead to unwanted Unauthorised access
attention or bullying. Situation where data
owned by someone is
Unauthorised access can occur due to one or more of the used by someone else
following reasons: without permission

1. Poor authentication
2. Poor access control or authorisation
3. Poor understanding of privacy policies

These reasons are described further in the following sections.

7.2.1 Authentication
Authentication is the process of verifying the identity of a user. Authentication usually
requires the user to prove his or her identity by providing evidence from one or more of the
following categories:
1. Something the user knows, such as a password
2. Something the user owns, such as a mobile phone
3. Something unique that is measured from a physical part of the user, such as a thumbprint

Each category of evidence that is used for authentication is called an authentication factor.

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 Module 1: Data and Information

7.2.1.1 Passwords

The most common authentication method is to ask for a secret password or phrase that is known
only to the user. Most computer users are probably familiar with the process of entering a password
to use a computer or online account. Such passwords are usually entered together with a user
name that identifies who the user is claiming to be.

Unfortunately, passwords can be a poor form of authentication if they are chosen poorly or not
well-kept as a secret. Avoid using birthdates and surnames as passwords as they can be easily
guessed by an intruder. Instead, use hard-to-guess passwords that are a mixture of lower-case
letters, upper-case letters, numbers and symbols.

Avoid re-using passwords or leaving them unchanged for a long time as doing so makes it easier
for an intruder to guess the password. Instead, use unique passwords for each computer or online
account and update them at least once every 90 days.

7.2.1.2 Security Tokens (Two-Factor Authentication)

More stringent authentication systems often require evidence from more than one authentication
factor. For instance, banks typically issue a device called a security token to users who wish to
access their bank accounts online.

p Figure 7.4 A security token

To access his or her bank account online, the user has to

confirm his or her identity by providing a secret password
Key Terms
or personal identification number (PIN), followed by a
one-time password (OTP) generated from the security Security token
token or a mobile phone that the user owns. This kind Device that is used
of authentication that uses evidence from both something specifically for authentication
the user knows and something the user owns is called purposes
two-factor authentication.
Two-factor authentication
Type of authentication that
uses evidence from both
something the user knows
and something the user owns

245
How Can I Be a Safe and Responsible Computer User?

Did you know?

An OTP is usually a string of seemingly random numeric or alphanumeric characters. For security
reasons, an OTP is usually valid only for a short period of time, after which a new one has to be
requested. This reduces the possibility that the OTP is obtained by an intruder between the time
it is generated and when it is accepted by the bank.

OTPs may either be generated by the bank and sent securely to the user’s device, or generated
directly on the device using a secret algorithm that only the bank knows.

Two-factor authentication has become increasingly important in banking as large amounts of

money may be at risk as a result of authenticating a user wrongly. In Singapore, most banks require
two-factor authentication for their online banking services.

Two-factor authentication is stronger than using only a password as it is much more difficult for
an intruder to both guess a password and steal the user’s security token. This is why it is important
to keep the security token in a secure location at all times and to report a missing security token
as soon as possible.

However, if an OTP is sent wirelessly to the user’s mobile phone, it may be intercepted and used by
an intruder during the transmission process. Alternatively, if the secret algorithm used to generate
OTPs is poorly chosen or accidentally revealed, an intruder may find out how to generate OTPs
without needing the security token at all. Unfortunately, there is not much that a user can do to
prevent such intrusion attempts.

7.2.1.3 Biometrics

Biometrics is a type of authentication that is based on the

measurement of human physical characteristics. For example, Key Terms
biometrics is used to identify a user by fingerprint or voice.
Other common characteristics used in biometrics include the Biometrics
face, iris, retina, and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Type of authentication
based on the
Compared to passwords, the use of biometric identification measurement of human
is more secure as the physical characteristics measured physical characteristics
are typically unique to the individual and cannot be easily
replicated. Thus, biometrics can help guard against attempts Identity theft
to establish fraudulent identities and prevent identity theft. Impersonation of another
person to steal personal
details such as name
and identity number for
fraudulent purposes

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 Module 1: Data and Information

Figure 7.5 shows some of the common human physical characteristics used in biometrics.

Voice Iris

DNA

Fingerprint

p Figure 7.5 Human physical characteristics used in biometrics

7.2.2 Access Control or Authorisation

Once a user is authenticated, the ability of a computer
to control the access of data and resources by that user Key Terms
is called access control or authorisation. Computers
provide access control through a variety of means, which Access control
are described in the following sections. (or authorisation)
Ability of a computer to control
a user’s access to data and
resources
7.2.2.1 File Permissions

Most operating systems have settings to control the ability Permissions

of users to view or make changes to specific files or Settings to control the ability of
folders. These settings are called permissions. users to view or make changes
to the contents of a file or folder

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How Can I Be a Safe and Responsible Computer User?

Figure 7.6 shows an example of a file permissions dialogue box in the Windows and Mac
operating systems.

p Figure 7.6 Viewing file permissions in the Windows (left) and Mac operating systems (right)

For example, in a computer lab, students in a group may

wish to set the permissions for a group assignment file
Key Terms
such that only members of the group can access the file.
Students from other groups would thus be unable to access Administrator
the file. Similarly, a teacher may set the permissions for a Special user who can override
presentation file so that students may only read but not the permissions for almost any
modify the file. This lets students view the presentation file or folder
without accidentally changing its contents.
Administrator rights
Typically, users can only change the permissions for any Ability of a user to perform
files or folders that they own. However, most operating tasks related to authentication
systems allow for a special user called an administrator and authorisation, such as
to override the permissions for almost any file or folder. creating and removing user
A normal user may also be given special administrator accounts, resetting passwords
rights that allow him or her to override the permissions for and overriding file permissions
certain files or folders, just like an administrator.

Did you know?

Besides being able to override file permissions, an administrator is usually able to perform other
tasks related to authentication and authorisation, such as creating and removing user accounts
or resetting passwords.

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 Module 1: Data and Information

Unfortunately, managing permissions and administrative rights can be a complex task and it is
possible to unintentionally grant access to a file or administrative rights to an unauthorised user.
Such a user can then make use of such mistakes to gain unauthorised access to data and resources.
In addition, authentication for the administrator must be especially strong, as an intruder that
successfully claims to be the administrator can bypass file permissions entirely.

File permissions also do not prevent an intruder with physical access to a storage device from
accessing files or folders directly without going through the operating system. To prevent such
unauthorised access, it is necessary to use encryption (see section 7.2.2.3).

File permissions can be used as access control for both computers that are connected to a network
as well as computers that are not connected to a network but are shared by multiple users.

7.2.2.2 Firewalls

Computers that are connected to a network are naturally more

susceptible to intrusion as unauthorised access can occur even Key Terms
without the physical presence of an intruder. Hence, computers
connected to a network usually require another layer of access Firewall
control called a firewall. Just as how a fireproof barrier prevents Device or computer
fire from spreading and destroying valuable property, a firewall program that prevents
prevents harmful content from passing through it to reach other unauthorised access to or
computers connected to the network. from a private network

A firewall can be either a device or a computer program. It Traffic

works by monitoring each piece of data that is transmitted Transmission of data over
through a network. Then the data would be either blocked a network
or allowed to pass through based on a set of rules configured
by an administrator.

Firewall
Outside the network

Computer in a network

p Figure 7.7 A firewall protects a network from external threats

When properly configured, a firewall can protect the computers within a network from unauthorised
access. For instance, a firewall can be configured to block the transmission of data (known as
traffic) between any unauthorised senders and/or receivers, especially requests for data coming
from anonymous users on the Internet. This prevents intruders from gaining access to the computers
within a network.

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How Can I Be a Safe and Responsible Computer User?

As a firewall can also block traffic based on the type of

application that is transmitting the data, it can also stop
Key Terms
certain harmful programs from sending copies of themselves
to other computers through the network. Application
Software designed for users
Conversely, however, configuring a firewall correctly to perform specific tasks
can be a complex task and a misconfigured firewall may
unintentionally allow an intruder to gain access to computers Encryption
on the network. Process of encoding a
message so that a secret
In general, a properly configured firewall allows for a private key is needed to decode
network, or intranet, to be set up such that any external traffic the data
is blocked and only authenticated and authorised users are
able to access it. Since the users on a private network are Intranet
generally trusted and expected to keep information found on Private network that only
the network secret, there are usually fewer concerns about authorised users within an
unauthorised access when sharing data on a private network. organisation can access

Conversely, a public network such as the Internet allows

anyone to connect to it and share data. Since a public network has few or no restrictions, users
need to be wary of possible security and privacy risks when accessing it (see section 7.2.3).

7.2.2.3 Encryption

Encryption is the process of encoding data so that a secret key is required to read the data. Like
passwords, the secret key is usually provided as a sequence of bytes. Before the encrypted data
is decoded using the secret key, it appears as random, meaningless data.

Encryption is often used to protect data from unauthorised access by allowing only authorised
users to have the secret key. It can also be used in combination with file permissions so that an
unauthorised user who is able to bypass file permissions would still be unable to use the accessed
data without knowing the secret key.

A website uses encryption if its address starts with “https://” and a padlock icon appears next to
its address on a web browser.

p Figure 7.8 A secure website is indicated by an address that starts with “https://” and a padlock icon

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 Module 1: Data and Information

7.2.3 Understanding of Privacy Policies

In the previous sections, we have discussed how unauthorised
access can occur when an intruder interacts directly with the Key Terms
user who owns the data or the user’s computer. However,
unauthorised access can also occur indirectly due to the Privacy
actions of third-party users or services. For instance, a user Ability to keep specific
alters file permissions to let a classmate access some private data or resources from
files. The classmate in turn shares those files with others being known by others
without the original user’s knowledge. In another example, an
online journaling service lets an advertising company access Privacy policy
a user’s private entries without the user’s knowledge. In these Rules and practices
cases, the problem is not caused by poor authentication or followed by an organisation
authorisation. Instead, it is a result of incorrect assumptions regarding the collection,
made by the owner of the data or improper behaviour by protection and use of
another authorised party. personal or private data
provided by users
The ability to keep specific data or resources from being
known by others is called privacy. In many countries,
organisations are required by law to publish or make available a privacy policy about the rules
and practices they follow regarding the collection, protection and use of personal or private data
provided by users. For instance, in Singapore, organisations are required by the Personal Data
Protection Act (PDPA) to make their privacy policies available upon request.

Unfortunately, even as an increasing number of users share personal information such as photos
and location data using online services, many of them are still unfamiliar with the relevant
privacy policies or how such sharing habits may indirectly result in unauthorised access. A poor
understanding of the privacy policies of these services can often result in unauthorised access.

7.2.3.1 Social Networking Sites

Social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and TikTok are popular because
of their wide reach and convenience. They allow users to share photographs and information
quickly with their families and friends. They can also be used to help promote businesses or raise
awareness of particular campaigns or causes.

However, social networking sites can also pose many privacy concerns because most users do not
read or consider the repercussions of the privacy policies used by these sites regarding personal
information such as status updates, notes, photographs and location data. For instance, the privacy
policies for many social networking sites do not guarantee that the personal data they collect will
never be exposed to unauthorised users and may even require that some personal data be shared
with advertisers in order to use their sites. In this way, personal data can potentially be harvested
for spam and other threats to privacy (see section 7.3) that users did not authorise directly.

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How Can I Be a Safe and Responsible Computer User?

Users of social networking sites should be aware that once any data is digitised and uploaded to
a public network such as the Internet, it can potentially remain there forever. This is because the
digital data is easily copied and may be republished in ways that are no longer under the control
of the original uploader.

Many users are also unaware that the privacy policies for some social networking sites do not
guarantee that their personal data will be deleted from the site completely or immediately even
after they close their account or remove the personal data from their account.

Personal data is sensitive and should not be shared publicly. Some companies may decide not to
hire candidates after reviewing the information and photographs posted on their social networking
accounts, even if this information was posted while they were still students in school.

Some good measures to prevent unauthorised access when using social networking sites:
• Read and fully understand the privacy policy of the social networking site.
• Set your sharing settings to “private” so that only people you know in real life can read
your posts.
• Think twice before posting any personal photographs or information that you may feel
uncomfortable sharing.
• Accept friend requests wisely. Make sure you know everyone in your friends list.

Table 7.2 summarises some ways to prevent unauthorised access.

‚ Table 7.2 Ways to prevent unauthorised access

Category Type Preventive measures

Passwords • Keep passwords secret and safe.

• Avoid obvious password choices such as

birthdates and surnames.

• Use passwords that are a mixture of

lower-case letters, upper-case letters,
numbers and symbols.

• Avoid re-using passwords and use

Authentication unique passwords for each computer or
online account.

• Update passwords regularly – at least

once every 90 days.

Security • Keep the security token stored in a secure

tokens location at all times.

• Report a missing security token as soon

as possible.

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 Module 1: Data and Information

‚ Table 7.2 Ways to prevent unauthorised access (continued)

Category Type Preventive measures

Biometrics • Choose an appropriate biometric

Authentication measurement that is difficult to replicate
(e.g., fingerprint).

File • Take care not to accidentally grant file access

permissions or administrative rights to unauthorised
users.

• Make authentication for the administrator

especially strong (such as by using two-factor
authentication) to avoid having an intruder
successfully claim to be the administrator
and bypass file permissions entirely.

• Use file permissions in combination with

encryption.

Access Firewalls • Configure the firewall properly to block

Control or traffic between any unauthorised senders
Authorisation and/or receivers.

• Configure the firewall to block traffic from

certain well-known harmful programs.

Encryption • Keep secret keys private and safe.

• Use encryption in combination with file

permissions.

• Verify that a website’s address starts with

“https://” and a padlock icon appears next
to its address on a web browser before
sending confidential customer data such as
credit card information.

Social • Read and fully understand the privacy policy

networking of the social networking site.
sites • Set your sharing settings to “private” so that
only people you know in real life can read
Understanding your posts.
of Privacy
Policies • Think twice before posting any personal
photographs or information that you may feel
uncomfortable sharing.

• Accept friend requests wisely. Make sure

you know everyone in your friends list.

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How Can I Be a Safe and Responsible Computer User?

Quick Check 7.2

1. Search online to find out more about how biometric systems are used in schools to
track student attendance. State three advantages of using biometric systems over paper
attendance sheets.

2. Describe three measures that an e-commerce website can take to protect customer
data from unauthorised access.

3. Some websites use a feature called a CAPTCHA to perform authentication. Search

online and explain briefly what a CAPTCHA tries to authenticate and how it works.

p Figure 7.9 Example of a CAPTCHA

7.3 Threats to Privacy and Security

Recall the situation at the beginning of this

chapter. After Siti returned to her computer, Key Terms
she noticed that a program was sending mass
emails using her account. The act of sending Malicious software (or malware)
unwelcome mass emails to others is called Software that is intentionally used to
spamming. damage, disrupt or gain unauthorised
access to a computer system
Spamming is one of many threats to privacy
and security. Such threats usually involve Spamming
malicious software (also known as malware) Mass distribution of unwanted messages
that is downloaded or installed on the affected or advertising to email addresses which
computer. are collected from sources such as public
mailing lists, social networking sites,
company websites and personal blogs

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7.3.1 Types of Privacy and Security Threats

Table 7.3 shows some common types of privacy and security threats.

‚ Table 7.3 Common types of privacy and security threats

Term Description

Cookie • A small file used by websites to store personal information on a user’s

web browser

• Although usually not malicious in nature, cookies are sometimes

misused to collect personal information about users

Pharming • The interception of requests sent from a computer to a legitimate website

and redirection to a fake website to steal personal data or credit card
details

• The stolen data can then be used for unauthorised access to even more
of the victim's data

• More difficult to detect than phishing as the fake website uses the same
address as the real website

Phishing • The use of emails and fake websites that appear to be from reputable
companies in order to steal personal information such as passwords and
credit card numbers from users

• The stolen data can then be used for unauthorised access to even more
of the victim's data

Spamming • The mass distribution of unwanted messages or advertising to email

addresses which are collected from sources such as public mailing lists,
social networking sites, company websites and personal blogs

Spyware • A hidden program that secretly collects personal information about

its users and transmits this information to attackers without the users’
knowledge

• The collected data can then be used for unauthorised access to even
more of the victim's data

Trojan horse • A computer program that pretends to be a harmless file or useful

application

• Once a Trojan horse is run, it does something harmful such as giving

intruders unauthorised access to the computer instead

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‚ Table 7.3 Common types of privacy and security threats (continued)

Term Description

Unauthorised • The use of data owned by someone by someone else, such as an

access intruder, without permission (see section 7.2)

• May arise as a result of other privacy and security threats that bypass
authentication and authorisation by exploiting software bugs or tricking
the user into performing harmful actions

• Unauthorised access to passwords or private information can lead to

identity theft, stolen money or public embarrassment

Virus • A computer program that attaches itself to a normally harmless program

and modifies it

• When the modified program is run by a user, the virus attaches copies of
itself to any other programs it can find, thus “infecting” them

Worm • A computer program that runs automatically and attempts to spread by

sending copies of itself to other computers

• Unlike a virus, a worm does not need to attach itself to an existing

program

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7.3.2 Defensive Measures Against Privacy and Security Threats

The loss of privacy and/or security can be highly damaging, thus it is best to take preventive
measures to avoid becoming a victim.

7.3.2.1 Install Anti-Virus and Anti-Spyware Programs

Viruses, worms, spyware and Trojan horses are all examples

of malware that need to run on a user’s computer in Key Terms
order to perform their respective attacks. Anti-virus and
anti-spyware programs can be used to: Anti-spyware
Software to detect, remove
• detect when malware is about to be run and stop it
and stop spyware and other
from running;
malware from running
• detect malware that is already running and try to
stop it; or Anti-virus
Software to detect, remove
• scan the user’s storage and email to detect and
and stop viruses and other
remove malware; if a program has been infected by
malware from running
a virus, it may also try to restore the original program.

Operating system
While powerful, most anti-virus and anti-spyware programs
Software designed to
rely on a list of signatures, or unique evidence, for each
support a computer’s basic
known version of malware. This list needs to be updated
functions
regularly to ensure that the protection provided by these
programs continues to be effective against new malware.
Signature (malware)
For convenience, most anti-virus and anti-spyware programs
Unique evidence that is used
can update this list automatically through the Internet.
to detect a known version of
some malicious software
Some especially devious Trojan horses may appear to be
anti-virus and anti-spyware programs. To be safe, only anti-
virus and anti-spyware programs provided by reputable
companies or websites, or as part of the computer’s operating system should be trusted.

7.3.2.2 Update Software Regularly

Viruses, spyware and Trojan horses typically require human interaction to start running, but
worms can run automatically. They typically do this by exploiting bugs or unintended behaviour
in otherwise legitimate programs that are already running on the computers. For instance, a
flawed web browser may have a bug that allows websites to run malicious programs without the
user’s knowledge.

To avoid such situations, it is important to update software regularly so that bugs that were
discovered since the last update can be fixed. This is especially important for software that is
used to interact with public networks such as the Internet, as data from public networks is more
likely to be malicious and designed to take advantage of known bugs.

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7.3.2.3 Identify Phishing

Phishing is the use of emails and fake websites that appear to be from reputable companies in
order to steal personal information such as passwords and credit card numbers from users. Such
emails should be ignored and deleted. Figure 7.10 shows an example of a phishing email that
appears to be from an online game website.

p Figure 7.10 Example of a phishing email

Some tell-tale signs to identify phishing emails:

• The email claims to be from a company or bank and asks for personal data or confidential
information. Most companies or banks will never ask for such information via email. When
in doubt, call the company or bank to verify.
• The email uses a generic greeting such as “Dear Customer” or “Dear User”. This is a sign
that the email was sent automatically and not by a person.
• The email has inaccurate logos or grammatical and spelling errors that suggest it is not
from a legitimate source.
• The email seems to come from a fake sender or from an address or contact that does
not match the supposed source of the email. Fake senders usually use email accounts from
free providers such as Gmail and Yahoo or from sites made up of random letters or common
misspellings of legitimate sites.
• The email contains hyperlinks with destinations that do not match what the hyperlink
text says or are otherwise unexpected. To check the actual destination of a hyperlink, place
your mouse cursor over the hyperlink and its destination will usually appear either as a
pop-up or on the status bar.
• The tone of the email or chat is excessively urgent or threatening. Phishers often use such
scare tactics to make victims act before they can think through their actions properly.
Alternatively, the email may promise an offer that seems too good to be true. This is to
tempt victims into revealing their personal information.

Did you know?

Phishing is a play on the word “fishing”. The idea is that bait is thrown out with the hope that
while most fish might ignore the bait, some will be tempted into biting. Similarly, phishing emails
are sent to many recipients in the hope that some recipients will eventually fall for the scam and
give away their personal data.

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7.3.2.4 Identify Pharming

Pharming is a more serious form of phishing. In pharming, the attacker will attempt to intercept
requests sent from a computer to a legitimate website and redirect the user to a fake website to
steal personal data or credit card details.

Computer affected
by pharming Real bank website

Bank’s web server

Fake bank website

User is redirected to a fake

website despite keying in the
real address of the bank Attacker’s web server

p Figure 7.11 Pharming is an attempt to redirect website traffic to a fake website

For example, when victims of pharming enter the web address of their bank into a web browser,
they would be presented with a website that appears to be genuine but is actually provided by
the attacker’s web server. When they try to log in to the fake website, their user names, passwords
and account details would be recorded by the attacker, who can then use these details to access
the victims’ bank account on the bank’s actual website.

For pharming to be successful, the attacker must either have malware running on the victim’s
computer or have taken control of a network device such as a router or server. This can occur
as the software that runs on such devices is also susceptible to bugs.

Unlike phishing, it can be difficult to spot pharming attacks as everything seems to be normal
while the attack is taking place. Nevertheless, there are some measures that can be taken to
protect against pharming:
• Ensure that encryption (see section 7.2.2.3) is used when submitting credit card or other
sensitive information via the Internet. Clicking on the padlock icon that appears beside
the address bar usually displays more information to verify that the recipient is legitimate
and that encryption is working correctly.
• Regularly check bank, debit/credit card and other statements to ensure all transactions
are legitimate.
• Regularly update web browsers and the software running on network hardware so that all
known bugs are fixed.
• Make sure that two-factor authentication (see section 7.2.1.2) is enabled for all bank
transactions. This ensures that even if an attacker is able to access the bank account, no
unauthorised transactions can take place as the attacker would not be able to provide the
required OTP.

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7.3.2.5 Manage Spam

Most Internet users with email accounts should be familiar with the large number of unwanted
emails that may be received daily, also known as spam. Due to the ease with which emails can
be sent, it is almost impossible to avoid spam entirely. Nonetheless, there are some measures
that can be taken to reduce the impact of spam on email accounts:
• Avoid giving your email address to unfamiliar contacts or untrusted websites. If it really
is necessary to provide one, some sites can help generate a temporary email address that
will automatically expire after a short period of time. Alternatively, set up and use a
secondary email address that is dedicated to unimportant emails.
• Read and understand the privacy policy (see section 7.2.3) of any website, trusted or
untrusted, that requests an email address before providing it. Some websites, even those run
by reputable companies, share email addresses with advertisers who may be guilty of
spamming. The way such websites claim to use email addresses is usually communicated
in full via the privacy policy.
• Look out for options to turn off email updates or participation in mailing lists when signing
up for or changing the settings of an online account. Many sites leave such options turned
on by default and additional effort is needed to turn them off.
• Most email services have a filter feature that allow users to block specific senders or to
only allow emails from specific senders through. Some filtering systems also have advanced
spam detection algorithms that can be trained by having the user identify examples of
spam that the filter is not yet able to detect. This lets the filter become more effective in
detecting spam over time.

7.3.2.6 Manage Cookies

Cookies are small pieces of data stored by the web browser when a user visits a website. Each
time a user visits a website that uses cookies, the web browser checks whether it has a relevant
cookie and if so, it sends the information contained in that cookie back to the website. The website
is thus aware that the user has visited before and, in some cases, will customise what appears on
the page for the user. On the other hand, if no relevant cookie is found, the website may request
for a new cookie to be created.

In general, cookies are not malicious and are needed to keep track of authentication information
for identifying which user is currently logged in. However, they can also be used to keep track
of user movements and preferences within the website, such as which pages were most recently
visited by the user or how the user wants the site to be presented. Even worse, advertising
companies with advertisements on multiple websites can also use cookies to keep track of users
as they move from one website to another.

For users who want to keep their movement on the Internet private, the use of cookies in this
manner is undesirable. Thankfully, most web browsers have settings that allow users to manually
delete or prevent cookies from being created by untrusted websites. These settings can also be
configured to disable cookies or allow only selected websites to use cookies.

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To fully determine what information is being tracked by a website’s cookies and how that
information will be used, it is necessary to read and understand the website’s privacy policy (see
section 7.2.3).

Quick Check 7.3

1. You receive an unexpected email that advertises a free program. The advertisement
has links to download the program or to learn more about the product. The program
seems useful but you need more information. What should you do?
A Click on the link to download and run the program to try it out.
B Click on the link to learn more about the product.
C Close the email and search online for more information.
D Reply to the email and ask for more information.

2. Attackers may use spyware to monitor what you do on your computer. Which one of
the following is not likely to be a sign that your computer is affected by spyware?
A The light next to your computer’s camera cannot be turned off.
B Your computer’s network is disabled and there is no Internet access.
C Your computer seems to function more slowly than usual when it is online.
D Your web browser automatically visits an unfamiliar website at regular intervals.

3. State whether each of the following is a measure that can be taken to avoid spam:
a) Set up an email filter to block out unwanted emails.
b) Change web browsers regularly.
c) Use the same email address for schoolwork and online games.
d) Configure social networking accounts to keep email address information private.
e) Provide email addresses to a website only after checking its privacy policy to ensure
that personal information will not be shared.
f) Open email attachments as soon as possible.

4. A movie company uses the mobile phone numbers and email addresses of its
customers to send electronic tickets and to promote upcoming movies. As a result
of unauthorised access, an attacker manages to access the company’s collection of
mobile phone numbers and email addresses and releases this data to the public.
Suggest how such an incident may negatively affect the company and its customers.

5. Siti receives an email message from a stranger claiming that she has won a cash prize
from a lucky draw. The stranger wants to know her bank account details in order to
transfer the prize money to her. Suggest briefly what Siti should do.

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7.4 Intellectual Property

In the situation at the beginning of the chapter, Alex was considering whether he should let Siti
submit one of his old book reports as her own. Unfortunately, since the book report is meant to
represent each student’s individual work, it would be dishonest for Siti to claim Alex’s work as
her own.

Creative works such as Alex’s book report, songs or computer programs take effort to create and
are valuable as they benefit their owners. The owner of a song, for instance, can benefit from
feeling entertained by listening to the song. This is similar to how physical property such as a
chair or a house requires materials to produce and also benefit their owners. However, unlike
physical property, some works are creations of the mind and can exist purely as data with no
physical form. Such creative works are called intellectual property.

The owner of physical property such as a chair or a house can easily use locks or chains to prevent
the property from being stolen or used by others without permission. However, it is not as easy
to do the same for intellectual property such as music or
computer programs. For instance, while it is easy to copy
Key Terms
music files or programs from one computer to another, doing
so may be illegal if the owner of this intellectual property
Copyright
disallows it. The legal right of owners to control the use and
The legal right of owners
distribution of their intellectual property is called copyright.
to control the use and
In particular, copyright protects programmers against theft,
distribution of their
misuse and unauthorised copying of their software.
intellectual property

However, some owners may intentionally want to give away

Intellectual property
their intellectual property or to openly declare that they
Creations of the mind that
have granted permission for use of the intellectual property
have value but can exist
under certain conditions. An official description of activities
purely as data with no
that are authorised or forbidden by the owner of intellectual
physical form
property is called a licence. While it is possible to write
a licence from scratch, most intellectual property owners
Licence
typically re-use existing licences. A wide range of licences
Official description of
with different levels of restrictiveness are available. A licence
activities that are authorised
can also refer to the authorisation that is granted by the
or forbidden by the owner
owner of the intellectual property after a fee is paid or certain
of intellectual property
conditions satisfied.

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7.4.1 Types of Software Licences

It is important to understand the different types of software licences in order to avoid infringing
copyright laws.

7.4.1.1 Public Domain

While it is not technically a licence, public domain
software refers to software where the legal protections that Key Terms
are typically granted to intellectual property have either
expired, been surrendered or are simply inapplicable. Free and open-source
For instance, the first-ever program for running a web software (FOSS)
server was released in 1990 under the public domain. Software where users are
Some authors purposely release software under the public given freedom to change,
domain to benefit the public, while others are simply so copy, study and share the
old that the legal protections of copyright have expired. software and its source code

Public domain software is not protected by copyright and Public domain software
anyone can legally copy, modify and distribute public Software where the legal
domain software. Public domain software also need not protections that are typically
always come with source code, although most do. granted to intellectual
property have either expired,
been surrendered or are
simply inapplicable
7.4.1.2 Free and Open-Source
Free and open-source software (FOSS) refers to software
where users are given freedom to change, copy, study and share the software. The “free” in
“free software” refers to the freedom to use and not the price. Like public domain software,
anyone can legally copy, modify and distribute FOSS. However, unlike public domain software,
the software is still protected under copyright and the copyright owners may use this protection
to require that the software must always be distributed with source code, that attribution to the
original authors must always be provided or that any modifications must use a similar licence if
they are also distributed.

Did you know?

There are many FOSS licences created by various institutions with varying levels of restrictiveness,
such as the Apache License, the Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) License, the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT) License, the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), and the
GNU General Public License (GPL). Knowledge of these licences and the differences between
them is not covered in this textbook.

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Besides software, other kinds of copyrighted works such as books, photographs and music can
be licensed in a similar manner using Creative Commons (CC) licences. Note, however, that
while CC licences are similar to FOSS licences in granting users the freedom to copy, modify
and distribute copyrighted works, CC licences are not designed for software and should not be
used for this purpose. On the other hand, CC licences are suitable for licensing content that is
delivered using software. For instance, higher-education course materials such as videos and notes
created by universities and distributed for free on the Internet, also known as open courseware,
often use CC licences.

The Linux operating system is an example of FOSS licensed under the GPL, in which the source
code is freely available for modification. The Python interpreter used in Chapter 4 of this textbook
is also distributed under an FOSS license.

7.4.1.3 Proprietary Software

Proprietary software usually refers to commercial software for which most of the legal protections
under copyright are retained. In other words, unlike FOSS, it is usually not legal to copy, modify
or distribute proprietary software. The terms and conditions for which the proprietary software
may or may not be used under copyright protection law are usually communicated to users
through an End User License Agreement (EULA) contract
that the user must accept to use the software. In addition to
these restrictions, the source code for proprietary software Key Terms
is usually kept secret.
Freeware
While these restrictions may seem severe compared to Proprietary software that is
FOSS licences, it is important to remember that software is available for use at no cost
a form of intellectual property and it is the right of the owner
to be compensated (usually by selling licences) for use of Open courseware
the property. Higher-education course
materials such as videos
The Windows operating system is an example of proprietary and notes created by
software where unauthorised copying is illegal and the universities and distributed
majority of source code is kept secret. for free on the Internet

Proprietary software
7.4.1.4 Freeware and Shareware Commercial software
for which most of the
Freeware is similar to proprietary software except that it is legal protections under
available for use at no cost. Some freeware are so-called copyright are retained
“lite” versions of proprietary software, which allow users
to try a limited version of the software while promoting the Shareware
full version. Similarly, shareware is demonstration software Demonstration software
that is distributed for free but for a specific evaluation period that is distributed for free
only. After the evaluation period, the program expires and but for a specific evaluation
the user can no longer access the program unless the user period only
pays a registration fee.

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Like proprietary software, the source code for freeware and shareware is usually kept secret and
modifying the software is usually illegal. However, unlike proprietary software, it may be legal to
copy and distribute freeware and shareware. Adobe Reader and Skype are examples of freeware,
while Camtasia Studio and WinRAR are examples of shareware.

7.4.2 Software Piracy

The crime of copying, distributing and/or using proprietary
software illegally is called software piracy. Despite being Key Terms
illegal, software piracy is still prevalent and can take place
in many forms. For instance, in 2015, a private school in Copyright infringement
Singapore and its director were fined $38,000 for running Use or distribution of
proprietary training programs without a licence. Installing copyrighted work without
multiple copies of proprietary software without purchasing the permission of the
additional licences or sharing proprietary software with copyright owner
unlicensed users is considered software piracy and can
result in similar legal repercussions. Software piracy causes Crack
significant loss of revenue for the owners of intellectual Program that modifies
property, which in turn leads to higher prices for legitimate proprietary software so that
buyers. the software cannot detect
that it is being used illegally
Some users may unintentionally install pirated software
without realising it. However, the distribution and installation Software piracy
of pirated software usually involves some unusual steps that Crime of copying,
should warn the user that something illegal is taking place. For distributing and/or using
instance, some software pirates may distribute the installation proprietary software
files through illegitimate websites or use programs called in a manner that is not
cracks to modify the proprietary software so that the software permitted by its licence
cannot detect that it is being used illegally. Pirated software for
mobile phones may require users to perform complex steps
to modify their phone before installation or to bypass the built-in software store for installation.

If you suspect that you have unintentionally installed pirated software on your computer or device,
have a teacher or parent help you check whether the software you have installed is legal. In most
cases, pirated software can be replaced with an alternative open-source program that uses a less
restrictive licence and can be downloaded legally for free.

7.4.3 Copyright Infringement

Software piracy is an example of copyright infringement, which is the use or distribution of
copyrighted work without the permission of the copyright owner. While software piracy is specific
to software, copyright infringement can occur for any copyrighted materials, such as text or pictures
that are on the Internet, and it is equivalent to theft.

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In particular, users may even copy, modify or distribute copyrighted materials from the Internet
without realising that they have committed copyright infringement. Such infringement is illegal
even if the act of copying is unintentional. Students using materials from the Internet for schoolwork
should adhere to the following guidelines to avoid committing copyright infringement:

1. Check and follow the website’s terms and conditions.

Many websites state the terms and conditions for using the site’s content, such as
whether copying, downloading or hyperlinking to any materials is permitted. In some
cases, the content may be under a licence, such as a CC licence, where such permissions
are explicitly granted or denied. Otherwise, if no notice is present, it may be necessary
to write to the copyright owners and seek written permission for use of the materials.

2. Limit reproduction of a copyrighted work to 10% (for educational purposes only).

For the special case of using copyrighted materials for research, study or other educational
purposes, students may reproduce no more than 10% of the electronic edition of a work.
The reproduced work should not be modified and must be properly cited to avoid plagiarism
(see section 7.4.4).

3. Consider using public domain material instead.

Like public domain software, some works are released to the public domain on purpose
or are so old that their copyrights have expired. Note that although these materials can
be copied without the need to seek permission, it is still necessary to acknowledge or cite
the authors appropriately to avoid plagiarism (see section 7.4.4).

7.4.4 Plagiarism
Related to copyright infringement is plagiarism. Plagiarism is the
act of passing off someone else’s original work as your own. In Key Term
other words, it is the act of claiming to be the author of a piece of
work without providing proper credit or attribution to the actual Plagiarism
author. Unlike copyright infringement, plagiarism may not always Passing off someone
be illegal, but it is nevertheless an act of dishonesty and is usually else’s original work
a punishable offence when detected in schoolwork. as one’s own

For example, in the situation at the beginning of this chapter,

suppose Siti agrees to use one of Alex’s old book reports as her own. Even if Alex gives Siti
permission to do this, it is still plagiarism as the book report is meant to represent a student’s
individual work and Siti is falsely claiming to be the author of Alex’s book report. This is not an
example of copyright infringement, however, as the author Alex explicitly gave Siti permission
to copy the work.

On the other hand, some cases of copyright infringement are also cases of plagiarism. For example,
a student who copies more than 10% of copyrighted text and pictures from a website without the
owner’s permission and submits the copied materials in a school assignment without acknowledging
the actual author is committing both copyright infringement and plagiarism. Such acts are illegal
and dishonest.

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Did you know? Key Term

Published books and articles that use materials from other Citation
authors acknowledge and provide credit to these authors using Statement to
statements known as citations. Citations can also be used for acknowledge and
schoolwork to avoid plagiarism and give proper credit to the provide credit to
original authors of any reproduced work. There are multiple the author(s) of
standards for writing citations that differ by the relevant fields of reproduced materials
study and preferred conventions. Knowledge of these citation in published books
standards will not be covered in this textbook. and articles

Quick Check 7.4

1. For each of the following scenarios, state whether the person described is guilty of
copyright infringement, plagiarism, both or neither.

a) Alice takes her friend’s artwork and submits it for a contest as her own artwork
without her friend’s permission.
b) Bob installs a computer game on two different computers even though the licence
he purchased allows for one installation only.
c) Cindy purchases an educational licence for a spreadsheet program and installs the
program on her home laptop for school projects.
d) Dan downloads some public domain source code and submits it as his own for a
homework assignment.

7.5 Impact of Technology on Everyday Life

So far in this chapter, we have learnt about the effects of data corruption and loss, the various
threats to privacy and security of data, as well as the legal and ethical issues surrounding intellectual
property. These topics have risen to prominence in recent years due to the rapid rate at which
technology has influenced our daily lives.

At this point, it is useful to look at the bigger picture and evaluate the overall impact of technology.
Since the World Wide Web’s invention in 1989 and the widespread availability of smart phones,
technology has completely changed the way we work, live and play.

Recently, with advancements in computing power and means of collecting data, computer scientists
have also developed algorithms that are successful in automating complex tasks such as classifying
images, making shopping recommendations and even generating works of art.

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Such algorithms and methods that allow a computer

to perform complex tasks without constant human Key Term
guidance and improve its performance as more data is
collected form the basis of artificial intelligence (AI). Artificial intelligence (AI)
The emergence of AI will change our lives even further Ability of a computer to
as companies and governments find new ways to collect perform complex tasks without
data and automate processes that were previously done constant human guidance and
manually. These changes are also likely to bring about improve its performance as
their own set of legal and ethical concerns. more data is collected

Table 7.4 provides a brief overview of the social and

economic impact of technology on various areas of life, as well as related ethical issues.

‚ Table 7.4 Impact of technology on various areas of life

Area Impact/Issues

Communication Social impact

• On the positive side, the Internet has enabled diverse cultures to

interact and share ideas with each other. Social networking sites have
also allowed users to remain connected with friends, family and
colleagues even over long distances. AI has also made it possible for
anyone to automatically transcribe and translate speech into different
languages with remarkable speed and accuracy.

• On the negative side, some people use the Internet to reinforce their
existing opinions or to spread rumours and misinformation. This is
worsened by the use of AI by some news and social networking sites
to promote content that the reader is likely to be interested in, since
most sites promote content based on how much they are able to elicit
responses and not by their level of accuracy.

Economic impact

• The rise of smart phones has led to an increased focus on mobile

devices and mobile applications in the computing industry.

• The rise of social media has led to the increased use of social media for
marketing purposes and has helped businesses to better understand
buying habits and consumer needs by analysing social media posts.

• Improvements in communications technology have also reduced

business costs through the use of cheap and effective video
conferencing calls in place of face-to-face meetings.

Ethical issues

• Should some kinds of false information on the Internet be blocked or

would this be taking censorship too far?

• Is it right to collect and analyse social media posts in ways that the
original authors may not have intended?

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‚ Table 7.4 Impact of technology on various areas of life (continued)

Area Impact/Issues

Education Social impact

• On the positive side, technology has provided better videos,

simulations and collaboration tools for lessons to be more engaging
and relevant to students, both inside and outside the classroom. The
open sharing of information on the Internet has made education
accessible to all, even learners from disadvantaged backgrounds. AI
has also made it possible to provide personalised learning and testing
for thousands of students without the need for excessive manual effort.

• On the negative side, technology has made it more challenging

for educators as students’ attention spans are getting shorter due to the
technology and social media that they are used to today.

Economic impact

• The rise of open courseware has led to a large number of for-profit and
non-profit organisations that offer customised lessons on a variety of
topics for self-study online.

• Many educational institutions have also invested heavily in the

materials and infrastructure needed to conduct lessons over
the Internet.

• Some traditional educators find that they need to retrain and pick up
new skills to better utilise these new technologies for education.

Ethical issues

• Should students be allowed to use mobile phones in school?

• Can education technology ever be more effective than a good teacher?

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‚ Table 7.4 Impact of technology on various areas of life (continued)

Area Impact/Issues

Finance Social impact

• On the positive side, the rise of financial technology has enabled

consumers to spend, borrow, invest and save money through low-cost
and easy-to-use mobile and web applications. There is no longer a
need to perform such transactions in person. Individuals have also
become better-educated on how to make smart financial decisions
using information that is freely available on the Internet. In retail,
many consumers also enjoy the convenience of making payments via
biometric authentication (e.g., face or fingerprint recognition) that is
only possible with the use of AI.

• On the negative side, threats to the privacy and security of data as

well as the ease of obtaining false information on the Internet has
made some people more vulnerable to financial scams and other
get-rich-quick schemes.

Economic impact

• Financial technology is currently an area of growth in the financial

industry. Numerous companies have been started to make financial
services more efficient for both individuals and businesses. These
companies typically use technology and software to reduce the time,
cost and effort needed for payments, investments, fundraising, trading,
and/or data analytics for both businesses and individuals.

• With the evolution of technology, the time needed to perform a

financial trade has decreased from seconds down to mere
microseconds. This has led to the rise of algorithmic trading, which is
the study and refinement of algorithms to make trading decisions
at speeds not possible by a normal human being.

• Many banks also use AI to analyse transaction data and automatically

identify unusual spending patterns or money transfers. This helps them
to automatically detect and prevent instances of financial fraud without
the need for manual intervention.

Ethical issues
• Should financial technology be limited to protect more
vulnerable users?

• Is it safe or acceptable to have financial markets controlled by secret

algorithms instead of humans?

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‚ Table 7.4 Impact of technology on various areas of life (continued)

Area Impact/Issues

Healthcare Social impact

• On the positive side, technology has enabled telemedicine, which

is the use of video conferencing and other technology, for doctors
to provide medical consultations and diagnoses over the Internet or
applications in mobile devices. This gives patients who are located in
remote places or have limited mobility better access to healthcare. By
analysing medical data, AI can automatically identify warning signs
of possible health problems and provide doctors with more accurate
diagnoses.

• On the negative side, some patients find the use of robots and other
technology in healthcare impersonal and mistrust the ability of
machines to provide proper healthcare. Other patients may misuse
information from the Internet and make potentially dangerous
decisions based on incorrect diagnoses. Patients may also be
uncomfortable with the collection of medical data necessary to
improve the performance of healthcare-related AI.

Economic impact

• Technology has created new areas of growth in the healthcare industry,

such as the provision of telemedicine solutions to existing healthcare
businesses. In particular, many of these solutions provide a way for
patients to securely transfer potentially sensitive medical information
over the Internet.

• There is also an increased focus in automating healthcare processes

through the use of robots to dispense medicine and other more menial
tasks. This may in turn cause such jobs to disappear from the
job market.

• The rise of 3D-printing technology has also opened up new

opportunities in the building and customisation of prosthetic limbs,
hearing aids and dental fixtures.

Ethical issues

• Is it acceptable for robots to replace humans in providing certain kinds

of healthcare?

• Is it acceptable to transfer private medical information over

the Internet?

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‚ Table 7.4 Impact of technology on various areas of life (continued)

Area Impact/Issues

Transportation Social impact

• On the positive side, transport has become less stressful and more
predictable for travellers due to the availability of detailed maps as
well as real-time information on bus frequencies, traffic congestion
levels and street-level photographs of neighbourhoods around the
world. All this information is also available at low cost through popular
mobile devices. Location data from such mobile devices may also be
collected by AI to improve the accuracy and relevance of any map or
traffic data that is displayed.

• On the negative side, some people are uncomfortable with how

pictures and information about themselves or their home may be used
by mapping companies without their permission in order to build more
accurate maps for travellers. This is especially true with regards to the
collection of location data from mobile devices as this data can reveal
personal details such as home and work addresses that users may wish
to keep private.

Economic impact

• The rise of self-driving vehicles with the use of AI to recognise and

adapt to road conditions is likely to open new areas of growth in the
travel industry. Singapore is one of the first countries where self-driving
cars are being tested, and if successful, the technology will likely
revolutionise the motor industry.

• There are also multiple new companies that offer on-demand rides via
mobile applications. These developments have led to sweeping
changes in the taxi service industry as well as employment
opportunities for taxi drivers.

• Mapping technology is also another area of growth with an increased

focus on making 3D maps and geospatial data more accessible and
useful to travellers.

Ethical issues

• Is it acceptable for mapping companies to drive through

neighbourhoods and take pictures to put them online?

• Is the sharing of personal transport preferences worth the conveniences

offered by AI?

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‚ Table 7.4 Impact of technology on various areas of life (continued)

Area Impact/Issues

Entertainment Social impact

• On the positive side, technology has enabled more exciting and

engaging forms of entertainment. Many computer games have active
online communities and mobile games have even managed to bring
participants together in the real world through in-game incentives
to meet or team up. AI has also made it possible to provide more
accurate recommendations for consumers based on collected data of
their previous choices of entertainment.

• On the negative side, some people may be addicted to computer

games or social networking sites. There is an increasing concern that
such technology is causing people to become deficient in real-life
social skills or abandon their responsibilities. AI has also made it
possible for anyone to create doctored images and videos that appear
remarkably convincing to the average viewer. While such images and
videos have been used mostly for entertainment, they can also be used
to cause public alarm or spread damaging falsehoods.

Economic impact

• Games, animation and media are areas of strong growth in the

entertainment industry with new opportunities being opened up by
the rise of high-quality virtual reality, augmented reality and
motion-tracking technology.

• Many businesses are also using monitoring technology and

strategies from game design to provide rewards and incentives for
work-related achievements.

Ethical issues

• Is it right for game companies to make money off addicted players?

• Is it right for businesses to use technology to monitor employees

more extensively?

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Chapter Summary

Install Anti-Virus Update Software Identify Pharming

and Anti-Spyware Regularly
Programs

Identify Phishing Manage Cookies Manage Spam

Effects
Ways Cookie Spyware
to Prevent
Causes and
Preventive Ways
Pharming Trojan Horse

DATA THREATS TO
CORRUPTION PRIVACY AND Phishing Virus
AND LOSS SECURITY

Spamming Worm
SAFE AND RESPONSIBLE
COMPUTER USE Types
Authentication

IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY Access Control

or Authorisation
ON EVERYDAY LIFE UNAUTHORISED
ACCESS

Understanding
Communication of Privacy Policies

INTELLECTUAL
Education PROPERTY Plagiarism

Finance

Types of Software Copyright

Healthcare Software Licences Piracy Infringement

Transportation

Public Free and Proprietary Freeware and

Entertainment Domain Open-Source Software Shareware

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Review Questions

1. Recently, the customers of a bank received an email with “Transaction Advice” as the
subject. The email contained a hyperlink to a fake website which looked like the bank’s
real website. Some customers did not pay attention to the address of the hyperlink and
tried to log in as usual. As a result, their personal information was stolen.
a) Explain the difference between phishing and pharming.
b) State whether phishing or pharming occurred in this case.
c) Describe two ways how the bank customers could have avoided getting their personal
data stolen.

2. For each of the following threats, identify and explain whether unauthorised access is
likely to occur. For each threat where unauthorised access is likely to occur, suggest one
preventive measure that can be taken.
a) Cookies
b) Spam
c) Trojan horses
d) Viruses

3. Across the world, the music, television and film industries have been hit hard by acts
of piracy.
a) Describe two economic effects on the music and film industries if piracy is not curbed.
b) Siti enjoys watching a television series that is only available on an online video site.
After some research, she realises that she can download the television series onto her
computer hard drive so that she can watch the videos without going online. Explain
whether doing so is considered to be copyright infringement.
c) Alex finds a photograph of a wall mural on a website. He notices that the photograph
was labelled with the icon shown in Figure 7.12.

CC
p Figure 7.12 Icon used in a photograph’s label

Search online and explain what this icon represents.

d) Describe a situation where music can be downloaded legally without copyright
infringement.

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How Can I Be a Safe and Responsible Computer User?

4. A company conducts a digital art competition where individual members of the public
are invited to upload their original artworks via a website. The uploaded artworks are
automatically stored on the website’s server.
a) Suggest two things that the company should do to prevent the uploaded artworks from
being lost due to sudden hardware or power failure.
b) After submissions are closed, the competition’s judges are surprised to discover that the
artworks submitted by two different members of the public are identical. Identify the
act of dishonesty that is likely to have taken place.
c) After choosing an artwork to win the competition, the judges are surprised again when
it is revealed that the chosen artwork was generated using a public domain artificial
intelligence (AI) program. Its creator reveals that the chosen artwork is actually the
automated result of combining content extracted from a public domain photograph
with textures extracted from a copyrighted painting. More precisely, the resulting
artwork depicts the same objects as in the photograph but is formed using colours and
textures copied from the painting. Figure 7.13 shows the chosen artwork and the two
source images that were used to generate it.

Public domain
photograph

Chosen
artwork
Copyrighted
painting

p Figure 7.13 Chosen artwork and its two source images

The artwork’s creator also submitted his artwork without asking permission from the
painting’s copyright owner. However, he claims that he did nothing wrong because his
artwork only uses a small portion of the original painting.

State whether you think the artwork’s creator should win the competition and explain
your reasoning.

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 8 Module 1: Data and Information

How are Number Systems

Applied in Real Life?
Siti is a member of her school’s Infocomm Club. She was asked by her teacher to modify
her school’s website to give it a new look.

Siti notices that many colours are used in the website. She wonders how each colour
is represented by the computer and what may be some common ways of expressing
this information.

When we work with computers, we often need to express numbers in different ways.
This chapter will introduce the binary, denary and hexadecimal number systems. You
will learn about the purpose of each number system, the situations in which they are
used and how to convert numbers from one system to another.

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How are Number Systems Applied in Real Life?

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Represent positive whole numbers in binary form.

• Convert positive whole numbers from one number system to another – binary, denary
and hexadecimal; and describe the technique used.

• Describe situations in which the number systems are used such as ASCII codes, IP
(Internet Protocol) and Media Access Control (MAC) addresses, and RGB codes.

8.1 The Denary Number System

The number system that we are most familiar with and typically use is called the denary number
system. It is also known as the decimal number system and is made up of 10 distinct digits.

‚ Table 8.1 Digits of the denary number system

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

As the denary number system has 10 digits, it can also be called a base-10 system.
This is how we count using the denary number system:

0
1
2

When the biggest digit, 9, is reached,

9 we add a digit 1 on the left and reset
10 the original digit to 0.
11
12

19 When the digit on the right reaches 9 again,

20 we increase the digit on the left by 1 and
21 reset the digit on the right to 0.

When both digits reach 9, we add a digit 1

99
on the left and reset the two digits on the
100
right to 0.
101

p Figure 8.1 Counting in the denary number system

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The position of a digit in a denary number determines its

place value, which is represented by 10N. The place value
Key Term
starts from 100 for the rightmost digit, with the power (N)
increasing by 1 for each subsequent digit on the left, as Denary number system (or
shown in Figure 8.2. This means that the place value of decimal number system)
each digit in the denary number system is 10 times the Number system that is made
place value of the digit on its immediate right. up of 10 unique digits

1289

Place value Place value

= 103 Place value Place value = 100
= 102 = 101

p Figure 8.2 Place values of a denary number

For example, 1289 represents 1 thousand, 2 hundreds, 8 tens and 9 ones.

‚ Table 8.2 1289 in the denary number system

hundred ten
thousands hundreds tens ones
Place thousands thousands
value
105 104 103 102 101 100

Denary
1 2 8 9
digit

Figure 8.3 shows how the value of 1289 can be calculated as the sum of each digit multiplied
by its place value:

(1 × 103) + (2 × 102) + (8 × 101) + (9 × 100) = 1289

p Figure 8.3 Calculating the value of a denary number

Note that 1289 does not have any digits to the left of the
digit in the thousands place. The missing digits in the ten
Key Term
thousands place and higher are thus implied to be 0. These
implied digits are usually left out for denary numbers, but Leading zero
may sometimes be included, as leading zeros, when an Zero digit (0) that is to the left
exact number of digits is needed. For instance, 1289 may of the first non-zero digit in
be written as 001289 to use exactly six digits in the denary a number
number system. This may be useful to make numbers printed
in a column appear neater or easier to read.

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How are Number Systems Applied in Real Life?

Figure 8.4 shows that 001289 still has a value of 1289 even with the leading zeros included:

(0 × 105) + (0 × 104) + (1 × 103) + (2 × 102) + (8 × 101) + (9 × 100) = 1289

p Figure 8.4 Calculating the value of a denary number with leading zeros

Denary numbers with many digits can also be difficult to read. To make interpreting such numbers
easier, denary numbers larger than 999 are often shown with a separator (either a space or
comma) after every group of three denary digits, starting from the right. For instance, the number
1234567890 can also be written as 1,234,567,890 or 1 234 567 890.

8.2 The Binary Number System

As computers store data using bits or binary digits, they

cannot use the denary number system with its 10 distinct
Key Term
digits directly. Instead, they use the binary number system
that is made up of two distinct digits, 0 and 1, in order to Binary number system
store numbers. Number system that is made
up of two unique digits

‚ Table 8.3 Digits of the binary number system

0 1

As the binary number system has two digits, it can also be called a base-2 system.

This is how we count using the binary number system:

0 When the biggest digit, 1, is reached, we

1 add a digit 1 on the left and reset the
10 original digit to 0.
11
When both digits reach 1, we add a digit 1
100
on the left and reset the two digits on the
101
right to 0.
110
111
When all the digits reach 1, we add
1000
a digit 1 on the left and reset the
1001
digits on right to 0.
1010
1011

p Figure 8.5 Counting in the binary number system

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The position of a digit in a binary number determines its place value, which is represented by
N
2 . The place value starts from 20 for the rightmost digit, with the power (N) increasing by 1 for
each subsequent digit on the left, as shown in Figure 8.6. This means that the place value of each
digit in the binary number system is two times the place value of the digit on its immediate right.

1101

Place value Place value

= 23 Place value Place value = 20
= 22 = 21

p Figure 8.6 Place values of a binary number

To distinguish binary numbers from denary numbers, the binary numbers are appended the
number 2 as a subscript, like this: 11012. Alternatively, the binary number may be prefixed with
the characters “0b”, like this: 0b1101.

Just like in denary numbers, leading zeros do not affect the value of binary numbers but may still
be shown when an exact number of digits is needed. This is common when using binary numbers
in computer systems as each byte is defined to have exactly eight binary digits. Leading zeros are
often needed so that all eight binary digits of each byte are shown.

For readability, large binary numbers may also be shown with a separator (usually a space) between
groups of four digits, starting from the right. For instance, the binary number 100101102 can also
be written as 1001 01102.

Did you know?

Another acceptable way to write binary numbers is to enclose the binary digits in parentheses, like
this: (1101)2. This format is less ambiguous in situations where normal digits and subscript digits
may appear similar in handwriting.

8.2.1 Converting from Binary to Denary

To convert a binary number to its denary equivalent, we add up the product of each digit and its
place value. Let us use the binary number 11 10012 as an example.

‚ Table 8.4 11 10012 in the binary number system

256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Place
value
28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

Binary
1 1 1 0 0 1
digit

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How are Number Systems Applied in Real Life?

(1 × 25) + (1 × 24) + (1 × 23) + (0 × 22) + (0 × 21) + (1 × 20)

= 32 + 16 + 8 + 0 + 0 + 1 = 57

p Figure 8.7 Converting 11 10012 to denary

Hence, the denary equivalent of 11 10012 is 57.

8.2.2 Converting from Denary to Binary

There are two methods of converting denary numbers to binary numbers. Let us use the denary
number 135 as an example.

8.2.2.1 Method 1: Division by 2

In this method, we divide the denary number repeatedly by 2. The remainders of each division
are then used to derive the binary number. The general algorithm is as follows:
Step 1: Draw a table with three columns – one column for denary numbers, one column for
the quotients and one column for the remainders.
Step 2: Fill in the denary number in the first row.
Step 3: Divide the denary number by 2 and fill in its quotient and remainder in the
same row.
Step 4: If the quotient is 0, proceed to Step 5. Otherwise, copy the quotient to the denary
number column of the next row and repeat Step 3.
Step 5: The equivalent binary number is the remainder column read from the bottom up.

Using 135 as an example:

1. Draw a table with three columns – one column for denary numbers, one column for quotients
and one column for remainders. Then fill in the denary number that we wish to convert,
135, in the first row.

‚ Table 8.5 Steps 1 and 2 in the division by 2 method

Denary Quotient Remainder

135

2. Divide the denary number 135 by 2 and fill in its quotient and remainder in the same
row. In this case, 135 divided by 2 gives a quotient of 67 and a remainder of 1. As the
quotient 67 is non-zero, copy 67 to the denary number column of the next row and repeat
Step 3 of the algorithm.

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 Module 1: Data and Information

‚ Table 8.6 First iteration of Steps 3 and 4 in the division by 2 method

Denary Quotient Remainder

135 67 1

67

3. Divide the denary number 67 by 2 and fill in its quotient and remainder in the same row. In
this case, 67 divided by 2 gives a quotient of 33 and a remainder of 1. As the quotient
33 is non-zero, copy 33 to the denary number column of the next row and repeat Step 3
of the algorithm.

‚ Table 8.7 Second iteration of Steps 3 and 4 in the division by 2 method

Denary Quotient Remainder

135 67 1

67 33 1

33

4. This sequence is repeated until the last iteration, when the denary number reaches 1. In this
case, 1 divided by 2 gives a quotient of 0 and a remainder of 1. As the quotient is 0, we
proceed to Step 5 of the algorithm.

‚ Table 8.8 Last iteration of Steps 3 and 4 in the division by 2 method

Denary Quotient Remainder

135 67 1

67 33 1

33 16 1

Direction to
16 8 0
read the digits

8 4 0

4 2 0

2 1 0

1 0 1

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How are Number Systems Applied in Real Life?

5. The converted binary number is the remainder column read from the bottom up. Hence,
the binary equivalent of 135 is 1000 01112.

8.2.2.2 Method 2: Sum of Place Values

In this method, we put 1s under the place values, starting from the left, so that the total adds up
to the value that we want to convert. The general algorithm is as follows:
Step 1: Write out the place value of each position in a binary number.
Step 2: Find the highest place value that is equal to or less than the denary number.
Step 3: Fill in the binary digit 1 below this place value.
Step 4: Subtract this place value from the denary number. If the result is 0, proceed to
Step 5. Otherwise, repeat Step 2.
Step 5: Fill in the binary digit 0 below any remaining place values.
Step 6: The equivalent binary number is formed by the row of binary digits below the
place values.

Using 135 as an example:

1. Write out the place value of each position in a binary number, as well as the denary number
we wish to convert, 135.

‚ Table 8.9 Step 1 in the sum of place values method

256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 Denary

Place
value
28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 135

Binary
digit

2. Find the highest place value that is equal to or less than the denary number 135. In this
case, 27 (128) is the highest place value that is less than 135, so we place a 1 under 27, as
shown in Table 8.10.
3. Subtract the place value 128 from 135, which gives us 7, as shown in Table 8.10. As the
result is non-zero, we repeat Step 2 of the algorithm with the number 7.

‚ Table 8.10 First iteration of Steps 2 to 4 in the sum of place values method

256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 Denary

Place
value
28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 135
7
Binary
1
digit

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 Module 1: Data and Information

4. Find the highest place value that is equal to or less than the denary number 7. In this case,
22 (4) is the highest place value that is less than 7, so we place a 1 under 22, as shown in
Table 8.11.
5. Subtract the place value 4 from 7, which gives us 3, as in Table 8.11. As the result is
non-zero, we repeat Step 2 of the algorithm with the number 3.

‚ Table 8.11 Second iteration of Steps 2 to 4 in the sum of place values method

256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 Denary

Place
value
28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 135
7
Binary 3
1 1
digit

6. Following the same method, we place 1s under 21 and 20. As the result is now 0, we
continue with Step 5 of the algorithm.

‚ Table 8.12 Last iteration of Steps 2 to 4 in the sum of place values method

256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 Denary

Place
value
28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 135
7
3
Binary
1 1 1 1 1
digit
0

7. Fill in 0s under the remaining place values, as shown in Table 8.13.

‚ Table 8.13 Steps 5 and 6 in the sum of place values method

256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Place
value
28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

Binary
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
digit

Hence, the binary equivalent of 135 is 1000 01112.

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How are Number Systems Applied in Real Life?

Quick Check 8.2

1. Convert the following denary numbers to binary using both the division by 2 and sum
of place values methods:
a) 54
b) 89
c) 100

2. Convert the denary numbers 7, 8, 9 and 10 to their binary equivalents.

3. Convert the following binary numbers to denary:

a) 1 00112
b) 110 00002
c) 1000 01102

8.3 The Hexadecimal Number System

Another number system that is often used when working with

computers is the hexadecimal number system that is made up of
Key Term
16 different distinct digits – the digits 0 to 9 and the letters A to F.
Hexadecimal
In this system, the letters A to F are also called “digits” and number system
behave just like the digits 0 to 9. Both upper‑case “A” to “F” and Number system that
lower‑case “a” to “f” can be used as digits in this manner such is made up of 16
that the hexadecimal digit “A” is the equivalent to the hexadecimal unique digits
digit “a” and so on.

‚ Table 8.14 Digits of the hexadecimal number system

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

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 Module 1: Data and Information

As the hexadecimal number system has 16 digits, it can also be called a base-16 system.

This is how we count using the hexadecimal number system:

0
1
2

When the biggest digit, F, is reached, we

F add a digit 1 on the left and reset the
10 original digit to 0.
11
12

1F When the digit on the right reaches F again,

20 we increase the digit on the left by 1 and
21 reset the digit on the right to 0.

When both digits reach F, we add a digit 1

FF
on the left and reset the two digits on the
100
right to 0.
101

p Figure 8.8 Counting in the hexadecimal number system

Note that this method of counting also tells us that the digits A to F are equivalent to the denary
values of 10 to 15 respectively, as shown in Table 8.15.

‚ Table 8.15 Denary equivalents of the hexadecimal digits

Hexadecimal
digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Denary
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
equivalent

Hexadecimal
digit 8 9 A B C D E F

Denary
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
equivalent

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How are Number Systems Applied in Real Life?

The position of a digit in a hexadecimal number determines its place value, which is represented
by 16N. The place value starts from 160 for the rightmost digit, with the power (N) increasing by
1 for each subsequent digit on the left, as shown in Figure 8.9. This means that the place value
of each digit in the hexadecimal number system is 16 times the place value of the digit on its
immediate right.

1C6A

Place value Place value

= 163 Place value Place value = 160
= 162 = 161

p Figure 8.9 Place values of a hexadecimal number

To distinguish hexadecimal numbers from binary and denary numbers, hexadecimal numbers are
appended the number 16 as a subscript, like this: 1C6A16. Alternatively, the hexadecimal number
may be prefixed with the characters “0x”, like this: 0x1C6A.

Did you know?

As with binary numbers, another acceptable way to write hexadecimal numbers is to enclose the
hexadecimal digits in parentheses, like this: (1C6A)16.

Just like denary and binary numbers, leading zeros do not affect the value of hexadecimal numbers
but may still be shown when an exact number of digits is needed. This is common when using
hexadecimal numbers in computer systems as each byte needs at most two hexadecimal digits
to be shown in full. Leading zeros are often needed so that each byte can be expressed using
exactly two hexadecimal digits.

For readability, hexadecimal numbers with more than three digits may also be shown with a
separator (usually a space) between groups of two or four digits, starting from the right. For
instance, the hexadecimal number 1C6A16 can also be written as 1C 6A16.

Did you know?

An easy way to convert values between different number systems is to use the Calculator program
in your computer. In Windows, you can find this program under the Accessories folder of the
Start Menu. In Mac, you can find this program in the Applications folder. For either version, set
the calculator to Programmer mode by clicking on the “View” menu and selecting “Programmer”
to perform conversions between different number systems.

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8.3.1 Converting from Hexadecimal to Binary

To convert a hexadecimal number to binary, we break up the number into its individual
hexadecimal digits and, using Table 8.16 as a reference, replace each hexadecimal digit with its
four-digit binary equivalent.

‚ Table 8.16 Hexadecimal digits and their four-digit binary equivalents

Hexadecimal
digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Binary
0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111
equivalent

Hexadecimal
digit 8 9 A B C D E F

Binary
1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111
equivalent

For example, let us convert 3C16 to binary.

1. Break up 3C16 into the individual hexadecimal digits 3 and C.
2. From Table 8.17, we can see that the four-digit binary equivalents of 3 and C are 0011 and
1100 respectively.

‚ Table 8.17 Converting 3C16 to binary

Hexadecimal
digit 3 C

Binary
0011 1100
equivalent

3. Hence, as shown in Table 8.17, the binary equivalent of 3C16 is 0011 11002, which is the
same as 11 11002 if the leading zeros are omitted.

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How are Number Systems Applied in Real Life?

Next, let us convert CF 0716 to binary.

‚ Table 8.18 Converting CF 0716 to binary

Hexadecimal
digit C F 0 7

Binary
1100 1111 0000 0111
equivalent

As shown in Table 8.18, the binary equivalent of CF 0716 is 1100 1111 0000 01112.

8.3.2 Converting from Binary to Hexadecimal

To convert a binary number to its hexadecimal equivalent, we split the number into groups of
four binary digits, starting from the right. If we are left with a group that does not have the full set
of four binary digits, we add leading zeros to that group until it is a full set of four binary digits.
Using Table 8.16 as a reference, we then convert each four-digit group into its corresponding
hexadecimal digit.

For example, let us convert 10 1000 0110 10112 to hexadecimal.

1. Starting from the right, we split the number into four-digit groups, as shown in Table 8.19.

‚ Table 8.19 Split the binary number into groups of four digits, starting from the right

10 1000 0110 1011

2. Since the leftmost group only contains two digits, we add two leading zeros to its left to
form a full set of four digits, as shown in Table 8.20.

‚ Table 8.20 Add leading zeros to the first group from the left if it does not have four digits

0010 1000 0110 1011

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3. Using Table 8.16, we then convert each group of four binary digits into a hexadecimal
digit, as shown in Table 8.21.

‚ Table 8.21 Converting each group of four binary digits into a hexadecimal digit

Binary digit 0010 1000 0110 1011

Hexadecimal
digit 2 8 6 B

4. Hence, the hexadecimal equivalent of 10 1000 0110 10112 is 28 6B16.

8.3.3 Converting from Hexadecimal to Denary

To convert a hexadecimal number to its denary equivalent:
1. Convert each hexadecimal digit to its equivalent denary number.
2. Multiply each denary number by its place value.
3. Sum the product of each denary number and its place value.

Let us convert C7F16 to denary.

1. From Table 8.15, the denary equivalents of C, 7 and F are 12, 7 and 15 respectively.

‚ Table 8.22 C7F16 in the hexadecimal number system

65536 4096 256 16 1

Place value
164 163 162 161 160

Hexadecimal digit C 7 F

Denary equivalent 12 7 15

2. Multiply the denary equivalent of each digit with its place value as shown in Figure 8.10
and sum up the products.

(12 × 162) + (7 × 161) + (15 × 160) = 3072 + 112 + 15 = 3199

p Figure 8.10 Converting C7F16 to denary

3. Hence, the denary equivalent of C7F16 is 3199.

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How are Number Systems Applied in Real Life?

8.3.4 Converting from Denary to Hexadecimal

There are two methods of converting denary numbers to hexadecimal numbers. Let us use the
denary number 1899 as an example.

8.3.4.1 Method 1: Division by 16

In this method, we divide the denary number repeatedly by 16. The remainders of each division
are then used to derive the hexadecimal number. The general algorithm is as follows:
Step 1: Draw a table with three columns – one column for denary numbers, one column for
quotients and one column for remainders.
Step 2: Fill in the denary number in the first row.
Step 3: Divide the denary number by 16 and fill in its quotient and remainder in the
same row.
Step 4: If the quotient is 0, proceed to Step 5. Otherwise, copy the quotient to the denary
number column of the next row and repeat Step 3.
Step 5: Convert the numbers in the remainder column to hexadecimal digits.
Step 6: The converted hexadecimal number is the remainder column read from the
bottom up.

Using 1899 as an example:

1. Draw a table with three columns – one column for denary numbers, one column for
quotients and one column for remainders. Then fill in the denary number that we wish to
convert, 1899, in the first row.

‚ Table 8.23 Steps 1 and 2 in the division by 16 method

Denary Quotient Remainder

1899

2. Divide the denary number 1899 by 16 and fill in its quotient and remainder in the same
row. In this case, 1899 divided by 16 gives a quotient of 118 and a remainder of 11. As
the quotient 118 is non-zero, copy 118 to the denary number column of the next row and
repeat Step 3 of the algorithm.

‚ Table 8.24 First iteration of Steps 3 and 4 in the division by 16 method

Denary Quotient Remainder

1899 118 11

118

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3. Divide the denary number 118 by 16 and fill in its quotient and remainder in the same
row. In this case, 118 divided by 16 gives a quotient of 7 and a remainder of 6. As the
quotient 7 is non-zero, copy 7 to the denary number column of the next row and repeat
Step 3 of the algorithm.

‚ Table 8.25 Second iteration of Steps 3 and 4 in the division by 16 method

Denary Quotient Remainder

1899 118 11

118 7 6

4. Divide the denary number 7 by 16 and fill in the quotient and remainder in the same row.
In this case, 7 divided by 16 gives a quotient of 0 and a remainder of 7. As the quotient is
0, we will proceed to Step 5 of the algorithm.

‚ Table 8.26 Last iteration of Steps 3 and 4 in the division by 16 method

Denary Quotient Remainder

1899 118 11

118 7 6

7 0 7

5. Convert the numbers in the remainder column to hexadecimal digits.

‚ Table 8.27 Steps 5 and 6 in the division by 16 method

Denary Quotient Remainder

1899 118 11 = B16

Direction to
118 7 6 = 616 read the digits

7 0 7 = 716

6. The converted hexadecimal number is the remainder column read from the bottom up.
Hence, the hexadecimal equivalent of 1899 is 76B16.

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How are Number Systems Applied in Real Life?

8.3.4.2 Method 2: Sum of Place Values

In this method, we put hexadecimal digits under the place values, starting from the left, so that
the total adds up to the value that we want to convert. This method is similar to the method used
in section 8.2.2.2 to convert from denary to binary. However, it is significantly more complex as
there are more digits to work with in the hexadecimal number system compared to the binary
number system.

The general algorithm is as follows:

Step 1: Write out the place value of each position in a hexadecimal number.
Step 2: Find the highest place value that is equal to or less than the denary number.
Step 3: Fill in the largest hexadecimal digit below this place value such that its product with
this place value is equal to or less than the denary number.
Step 4: Subtract this product from the denary number. If the result is 0, proceed to Step 5.
Otherwise, repeat Step 2.
Step 5: Fill in the hexadecimal digit 0 below any remaining place values.
Step 6: The converted hexadecimal number is formed by the row of hexadecimal digits
below the place values.

Using 1899 as an example:

1. Write out the place value of each position in a hexadecimal number, as well as the denary
number we wish to convert, 1899.

‚ Table 8.28 Step 1 in the sum of place values method

65536 4096 256 16 1 Denary

Place value
164 163 162 161 160 1899

Hexadecimal
digit

2. Find the highest place value that is equal to or less than the denary number 1899. In this
case, 162 (256) is the highest place value that is less than 1899. Hence, under the 162
column, we fill in the largest hexadecimal digit such that its product with 162 is equal to
or less than 1899. Since 716 × 162 = 7 × 256 = 1792 (which is less than 1899) and
816 × 162 = 8 × 256 = 2048 (which exceeds 1899), the largest hexadecimal digit needed
here is 716, as shown in Table 8.29.

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3. Subtract the product 1792 from 1899, which gives us 107, as shown in Table 8.29. As the
result is non-zero, we repeat Step 2 of the algorithm with the number 107.

‚ Table 8.29 First iteration of Steps 2 to 4 in the sum of place values method

65536 4096 256 16 1 Denary

Place value
164 163 162 161 160 1899
107
Hexadecimal
7
digit

4. Find the highest place value that is equal to or less than the denary number 107. In this
case, 161 (16) is the highest place value that is less than 107. Hence, under the 161 column, we
fill in the largest hexadecimal digit such that its product with 161 is equal to or smaller
than 107. Since 616 × 161 = 6 × 16 = 96 (which is less than 107) but 716 × 161 = 7 × 16 = 112
(which exceeds 107), the largest hexadecimal digit needed here is 616, as shown in
Table 8.30.

5. Subtract the product 96 from 107, which gives us 11, also shown in Table 8.30. As the
result is non-zero, we repeat Step 2 of the algorithm with the number 11.

‚ Table 8.30 Second iteration of Steps 2 to 4 in the sum of place values method

65536 4096 256 16 1 Denary

Place value
164 163 162 161 160 1899
107
Hexadecimal 11
7 6
digit

6. Find the highest place value that is equal to or less than the denary number 11. In this case,
160 (or 1) is the highest place value that is less than 11. Hence, under the 160 column, we
fill in the largest hexadecimal digit such that its product with 160 is equal to or smaller
than 11. Since B16 × 160 = 11 × 1 = 11 (which is equal to 11) but C16 × 160 = 12 × 1 = 12
(which exceeds 11), the largest hexadecimal digit needed here is B16, as shown in
Table 8.31.

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How are Number Systems Applied in Real Life?

7. Subtract the product 11 from 11, which gives us 0, also shown in Table 8.31. As the result
is 0, we proceed to Step 5 of the algorithm.

‚ Table 8.31 Last iteration of Steps 2 to 4 in the sum of place values method

65536 4096 256 16 1 Denary

Place value
164 163 162 161 160 1899
107
Hexadecimal 11
7 6 B
digit 0

8. Fill in 0s under the remaining place values. In this case, all the place values after the first
non-zero hexadecimal digit are already filled.

Hence, the hexadecimal equivalent of 1899 is 76B16.

Quick Check 8.3

1. Write down the hexadecimal and binary equivalents of the denary values from 32
to 47.

2. Convert the following hexadecimal numbers to binary:

a) 4916
b) AB616
c) DA 4716

3. Convert the following hexadecimal numbers to denary:

a) 9D16
b) BB616
c) AD 9016

4. Convert the following denary numbers to hexadecimal:

a) 1000
b) 3789
c) 4220

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8.4 Applications of Binary and Hexadecimal

Number Systems
There are three applications which use the binary and hexadecimal number systems:
1. RGB colour codes
2. Network addresses
3. ASCII and Unicode

8.4.1 RGB Colour Codes

RGB is an abbreviation of the colours red, green and blue. They are primary colours because a
wide range of colours can be formed by adding different intensities of red, green and blue light
together. For instance, red and green lights of equal intensity can be combined (such as by shining
both lights on a screen) to produce yellow. This allows us to represent a wide range of colours
by varying the intensities of the red, green and blue components.

This representation of colour is perfect for computers as we can use numbers to control the
intensity of each component. Each intensity value is stored in a single byte, which contains
eight bits. Hence, each value can only vary from 0000 00002 to 1111 11112. This corresponds to
0016 to FF16 and 0 to 255 in hexadecimal and denary respectively.

If all three colour intensities are 0, the resulting colour is black. If all three colour intensities are
at their maximum (FF16), the resulting colour is white. Table 8.32 shows some common colours
and the corresponding intensities of their red, green and blue components.

‚ Table 8.32 Intensities of the red, green and blue components of some common colours

Red Green Blue

Colour
component component component

Black 0016 0016 0016

Red FF16 0016 0016

Orange FF16 8016 0016

Yellow FF16 FF16 0016

Green 0016 FF16 0016

Cyan 0016 FF16 FF16

Blue 0016 0016 FF16

Purple 8016 0016 8016

White FF16 FF16 FF16

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How are Number Systems Applied in Real Life?

An RGB colour code is displayed in the form of #RRGGBB, where RR, GG and BB are two-digit
hexadecimal numbers that represent the red (R), green (G) and blue (B) components of the colour.
Note that the six hexadecimal digits do not represent a single number but instead represent three
separate numbers with two hexadecimal digits each.

RGB colour codes are used to represent colours in websites, which are typically written using the
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) and the Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) language.

Did you know?

While the Python language that you have learnt is specialised for describing instructions that a
computer performs, the HTML and CSS languages are specialised for describing documents that
are transmitted online. This textbook will not cover the HTML and CSS languages other than how
they use RGB colour codes to represent colours.

For instance, at the beginning of this chapter, Siti finds that the background of her school’s
website has an RGB colour code of #FF8000. This RGB colour code represents a colour with
a red component intensity of FF16 = 255, a green component intensity of 8016 = 128 and a blue
component intensity of 0016 = 0, which results in a shade of orange.

If Siti wishes to change this background colour to cyan, she first has to find out what the red, green
and blue component intensities of cyan are, and convert these values to two-digit hexadecimal
numbers. From Table 8.32, we see that cyan has a red component intensity of 0 = 0016, a green
component intensity of 255 = FF16 and a blue component intensity of 255 = FF16. Hence, the
RGB colour code for cyan is #00FFFF. Siti can use this colour code in the website’s HTML and
CSS codes to change the background colour to cyan. Table 8.33 shows some common colours
and their corresponding RGB colour codes.

‚ Table 8.33 RGB colour codes of some common colours

Colour RGB colour code

Black #000000

Red #FF0000

Orange #FF8000

Yellow #FFFF00

Green #00FF00

Cyan #00FFFF

Blue #0000FF

Purple #800080

White #FFFFFF

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8.4.2 Network Addresses

For computers to successfully communicate or exchange data over
a computer network, they must be able to locate each other so Key Terms
that transmitted data can be directed to the correct destination.
This can be done by giving each computer a unique name in the Internet Protocol (IP)
form of a sequence of bytes called a network address. address
Sequence of bytes
This is similar to how mailing addresses are used to locate that is used to identify
buildings or apartments for postal mail. For instance, mail can a computer or device
be successfully delivered to any location with a mailing address as on the Internet
the mailing address can be used to locate the correct destination.
On the other hand, mail cannot be delivered to a location that Network address
does not have a mailing address as there would be no way to Unique name or
locate the destination. sequence of bytes that
is used to identify a
The Internet is an example of a computer network, and just like computer or device in
how buildings and apartments have mailing addresses, each a network
computer on the Internet has an Internet Protocol (IP) address
that serves as its network address.

“IP” refers to a standard system of rules used by computers on the Internet to communicate
with one another. There are two versions of IP used today, namely IP version 4 (IPv4) and IP
version 6 (IPv6).

8.4.2.1 IPv4 Addresses

In IPv4, an IP address is made up of 4 bytes, or 32 bits. It is usually shown as a sequence of four

denary numbers, one for each byte of the address, separated by dots. Since the value of a byte
can only vary from 0 to 255, none of the four denary numbers in an IPv4 address can be less than
0 or more than 255. An example of a valid IPv4 address is 10.133.16.165, as shown in Figure 8.11.

IPv4 address
(denary)
10.133.16.165
(0000 1010)2 (1000 0101)2 (0001 0000)2 (1010 0101)2

0000 1010 1000 0101 0001 0000 1010 0101

4 bytes = 32 bits
(binary)

p Figure 8.11 Example of an IPv4 address

An IPv4 address contains 32 bits, so the maximum number of possible IPv4 addresses is 232, or
approximately 4.3 billion. However, with the rapid growth of the Internet in the 1980s and 1990s,
it became obvious that this number of possible IPv4 addresses would not be enough.

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How are Number Systems Applied in Real Life?

8.4.2.2 IPv6 Addresses

To provide a long-term solution to the shortage of IPv4 addresses, IP version 6 (IPv6) was introduced
in 1998, and expanded the size of IP addresses from 4 bytes (32 bits) to 16 bytes (128 bits). This
meant that the maximum number of IP addresses was increased to 2128 (approximately 3.4 × 1038),
which is large enough to overcome the problem of insufficient IP addresses for the foreseeable
future. Almost all computers connected to the Internet have an IPv4 address, and many use the
IPv6 address system as well.

Due to the increased length of IPv6 addresses, however, the old format of expressing IPv4
addresses was no longer suitable, as having 16 denary numbers separated by dots would take
up a maximum of 16 × 3 = 48 digits, which is too long.

As a result, a new format of showing IPv6 addresses using hexadecimal digits was developed.
In this new format, the 128 bits of an IPv6 address are divided into eight groups of 16 bits. Each
group of 16 bits can vary between 0000 0000 0000 00002 to 1111 1111 1111 11112, which is 000016
to FFFF16 in hexadecimal. As we can see, each group of 16 bits requires only four hexadecimal
digits. Therefore, an IPv6 address expressed in this format would only take up at most 8 × 4 =
32 digits (including leading zeros).

An example of a full IPv6 address is 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0020:0017:0bad:c0de, shown in Figure

8.12. (Note that, by convention, IPv6 addresses use lower-case instead of upper-case letters.)

IPv6 address 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0020:0017:0bad:c0de

(hexadecimal)
(0010 0000 0000 0001)2 (0000 1101 1011 1000)2 (0000 0000 0000 0000)2
(0000 0000 0000 0000)2 (0000 0000 0010 0000)2 (0000 0000 0001 0111)2
(0000 1011 1010 1101)2 (1100 0000 1101 1110)2

0010 0000 0000 0001 0000 1101 1011 1000 0000 0000 0000 0000
0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0010 0000 0000 0000 0001 0111
0000 1011 1010 1101 1100 0000 1101 1110

16 bytes = 128 bits

(binary)

p Figure 8.12 Example of an IPv6 address

To make this format more compact, the leading zeros can be omitted. For instance, the IPv6
address in Figure 8.12 can also be written as 2001:db8:0:0:20:17:bad:c0de.

To be even more compact, a section of consecutive zeros can also be replaced with two colon
characters. For instance, the IPv6 address in Figure 8.12 can be written with the third and fourth
sections omitted as 2001:db8::20:17:bad:c0de.

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These methods of shortening IPv6 addresses are illustrated in Figure 8.13.

IPv6 address 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0020:0017:0bad:c0de

(leading zeros
in red)

IPv6 address 2001:db8:0:0:20:17:bad:c0de

(leading zeros
omitted)

Consecutive zeros
IPv6 address
(consecutive
zeros replaced) 2001:db8::20:17:bad:c0de
p Figure 8.13 Shortening an IPv6 address

However, no more than one such section of consecutive zeros can be replaced with double
colons. For instance, 2001:db8:0:0:1:0:0:1 can be written as 2001:db8::1:0:0:1 or 2001:db8:0:0:1::1,
but not 2001:db8::1::1. Figure 8.14 illustrates this.

IPv6 address (only

one set of consecutive 2001:db8::1:0:0:1
zeros replaced)

IPv6 address 2001:db8:0:0:1:0:0:1

IPv6 address (only

one set of consecutive 2001:db8:0:0:1::1
zeros replaced)

Invalid IPv6
address
2001:db8::1::1

More than one set of

consecutive zeros replaced

p Figure 8.14 Only one section of consecutive zeros can be replaced in an IPv6 address

Did you know?

IP versions 0, 1, 2, 3 and 5 were experimental and not meant to be widely used. This is why only
IP versions 4 and 6 are in use today.

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How are Number Systems Applied in Real Life?

8.4.2.3 MAC Addresses

As the IP address (in both IPv4 and IPv6) of a computer or

device may change each time it connects to the Internet, it Key Term
is not considered permanent. If a more permanent way to
locate or identify a particular computer or device is needed, Media Access Control
then its Media Access Control (MAC) address (also called (MAC) address
hardware address or physical address) should be used instead. Sequence of bytes (usually
In some ways, an IP address is like a mailing address while permanent in nature) that is
a MAC address is like a thumbprint. used to identify a particular
network interface controller
For instance, a person who travels frequently may have
a constantly changing mailing address, but his or her
thumbprint does not change. Similarly, a computer may have a different IP address each time it
connects to the Internet, but its MAC address is unlikely to change each time it connects.

Unlike IP addresses, which are used to direct transmitted data over the Internet, MAC addresses
are only used to direct data between devices in a local area network (LAN). MAC addresses are
not usually transmitted in full over the Internet. You will learn more about the difference between
the Internet and a LAN in Chapter 11.

A MAC address is made up of 6 bytes, or 48 bits. It is usually shown as a sequence of six

hexadecimal numbers, one for each byte of the address, separated by hyphens or colons. Hence,
a typical MAC address uses exactly two hexadecimal digits for each byte (with a leading zero if
needed) so that its format is NN-NN-NN-DD-DD-DD (or NN:NN:NN:DD:DD:DD), where NN-
NN-NN (or NN:NN:NN) is the manufacturer’s identity number and DD-DD-DD (or DD:DD:DD)
is the device’s serial number. An example of a valid MAC address is 20:17:0B:AD:C0:DE, as shown
in Figure 8.15.

Manufacturer’s Device’s serial

identity number number

MAC address
(hexadecimal) 20:17:0B:AD:C0:DE

(0010 0000)2 (0001 0111)2 (0000 1011)2 (1010 1101)2 (1100 0000)2 (1101 1110)2

0010 0000 0001 0111 0000 1011 1010 1101 1100 0000 1101 1110

6 bytes = 48 bits
(binary)

p Figure 8.15 Example of a MAC address

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Did you know?

To be precise, the MAC address only identifies the computer’s network interface controller (NIC)
and not the whole computer. Furthermore, while they are usually considered permanent, it is
actually possible to change or fake the MAC address of some NICs. You will learn more about
NICs in Chapter 11.

On Windows, you can view your computer’s IPv4 address, IPv6 address (if any) and MAC address
by opening Network and Internet Settings and clicking on the “View your network properties” link.

1 3

2
Example of
MAC address

Example of
IPv4 address
Example of
IPv6 address

p Figure 8.16 Viewing your computer’s IPv4, IPv6 and MAC addresses on Windows

On Mac, you can open the Network panel under System Preferences and click on the “Advanced…”
button. Your computer’s IPv4 address and IPv6 address (if any) can be found on the “TCP/IP” tab,
while your computer’s MAC address can found on the “Hardware” tab.

8.4.3 ASCII and Unicode

As explained in section 5.3.1, the ASCII standard defines how numbers are used to represent
common characters that can be typed using a keyboard, such as upper-case and lower-case
letters. Using ASCII, only 128 distinct characters can be represented because ASCII codes are
defined to be exactly seven bits long. This means that the value of ASCII codes can only vary
from 000 00002 to 111 11112, which is the same as 0016 to 7F16 or 0 to 127.

The first 32 ASCII codes (0 to 31) represent non-printing characters that are not written symbols
or the space character. These codes are instead used to control devices or to represent special
input such as typing the Backspace and Esc keys on the keyboard. The last ASCII code 127 is also
used to represent the special input of typing the Delete key on the keyboard.

Hexadecimal digits are often used to express ASCII codes as only two hexadecimal digits are
needed to express any ASCII code. This is more compact than using three denary digits or seven
binary digits.

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How are Number Systems Applied in Real Life?

Table 8.34 shows how the ASCII codes from 32 to 127 may be expressed using the denary
(base-10), binary (base-2) and hexadecimal (base-16) number systems along with the corresponding
characters being represented.

‚ Table 8.34 ASCII codes converted to binary and hexadecimal numbers

and their corresponding characters

Base-10 Base-2 Base-16 Character Base-10 Base-2 Base-16 Character

32 010 0000 20 (space) 55 011 0111 37 7

33 010 0001 21 ! 56 011 1000 38 8

34 010 0010 22 ” 57 011 1001 39 9

35 010 0011 23 # 58 011 1010 3A :

36 010 0100 24 $ 59 011 1011 3B ;

37 010 0101 25 % 60 011 1100 3C <

38 010 0110 26 & 61 011 1101 3D =

39 010 0111 27 ’ 62 011 1110 3E >

40 010 1000 28 ( 63 011 1111 3F ?

41 010 1001 29 ) 64 100 0000 40 @

42 010 1010 2A * 65 100 0001 41 A

43 010 1011 2B + 66 100 0010 42 B

44 010 1100 2C , 67 100 0011 43 C

45 010 1101 2D - 68 100 0100 44 D

46 010 1110 2E . 69 100 0101 45 E

47 010 1111 2F / 70 100 0110 46 F

48 011 0000 30 0 71 100 0111 47 G

49 011 0001 31 1 72 100 1000 48 H

50 011 0010 32 2 73 100 1001 49 I

51 011 0011 33 3 74 100 1010 4A J

52 011 0100 34 4 75 100 1011 4B K

53 011 0101 35 5 76 100 1100 4C L

54 011 0110 36 6 77 100 1101 4D M

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‚ Table 8.34 ASCII codes converted to binary and hexadecimal numbers

and their corresponding characters (continued)

Base-10 Base-2 Base-16 Character Base-10 Base-2 Base-16 Character

78 100 1110 4E N 103 110 0111 67 g

79 100 1111 4F O 104 110 1000 68 h

80 101 0000 50 P 105 110 1001 69 i

81 101 0001 51 Q 106 110 1010 6A j

82 101 0010 52 R 107 110 1011 6B k

83 101 0011 53 S 108 110 1100 6C l

84 101 0100 54 T 109 110 1101 6D m

85 101 0101 55 U 110 110 1110 6E n

86 101 0110 56 V 111 110 1111 6F o

87 101 0111 57 W 112 111 0000 70 p

88 101 1000 58 X 113 111 0001 71 q

89 101 1001 59 Y 114 111 0010 72 r

90 101 1010 5A Z 115 111 0011 73 s

91 101 1011 5B [ 116 111 0100 74 t

92 101 1100 5C \ 117 111 0101 75 u

93 101 1101 5D ] 118 111 0110 76 v

94 101 1110 5E ^ 119 111 0111 77 w

95 101 1111 5F _ 120 111 1000 78 x

96 110 0000 60 ` 121 111 1001 79 y

97 110 0001 61 a 122 111 1010 7A z

98 110 0010 62 b 123 111 1011 7B {

99 110 0011 63 c 124 111 1100 7C |

100 110 0100 64 d 125 111 1101 7D }

101 110 0101 65 e 126 111 1110 7E ~

102 110 0110 66 f 127 111 1111 7F (delete)

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How are Number Systems Applied in Real Life?

Recall that, besides ASCII, an expanded standard called Unicode is used to represent characters in
languages other than English such as Tamil and Mandarin. Like ASCII, the Unicode standard uses
numbers to represent characters. However, while ASCII codes are defined to be exactly seven bits
long, Unicode is not as restrictive. In Unicode, the number of bits used to represent each character
can vary from 8 to 32 bits depending on the encoding scheme used. This flexibility means that
Unicode can be used to represent over a million unique characters from many different written
languages all over the world, which makes it a preferred choice for use over the ASCII standard.

Did you know?

The largest number that can be used to represent a character in Unicode is 1,114,111, which is
1 0000 1111 1111 1111 11112 and requires 21 binary digits. This means that if Unicode values are
stored directly as binary numbers, each character would take up 21 bits. Doing so would be wasteful,
however, as not all Unicode characters are used equally often. The designers of Unicode realised
that it would be more efficient to use fewer bits for frequently used characters at the expense of
using more bits for rarely used characters. This explains why the number of bits used to represent
a Unicode character can vary between 8 and 32.

Quick Check 8.4

1. Write down a possible RGB colour code for the colour magenta.
(Hint: Magenta can be formed by adding red light to blue light at maximum intensity.)

2. Write a program that accepts a string as input and outputs “Valid” if the input string is
a valid IPv4 address (i.e., four denary numbers between 0 and 255 separated by dots),
or “Invalid” if the input string is not a valid IPv4 address.

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Chapter Summary

ASCII and Network RGB

Unicode Addresses Colour Codes

APPLICATIONS OF
NUMBER SYSTEMS

THE DENARY NUMBER THE HEXADECIMAL

NUMBER SYSTEM SYSTEMS NUMBER SYSTEM

Converting from
THE BINARY Hexadecimal to Binary
NUMBER SYSTEM

Converting from Binary

to Hexadecimal

Converting from Converting from

Binary to Denary Denary to Binary

Converting from
Hexadecimal to Denary

Method 1: Method 2:
Division by 2 Sum of Place Values
Converting from
Denary to Hexadecimal

Method 1: Method 2:
Division by 16 Sum of Place Values

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How are Number Systems Applied in Real Life?

Review Questions

1. Why is the hexadecimal number system preferred over the binary number system in
representing large numbers?

2. Convert the following hexadecimal numbers to binary:

a) A16
b) FF16
c) 10B16

3. Convert the following binary numbers to hexadecimal:

a) 11012
b) 10012
c) 1012
d) 1110 11012
e) 101 01012
f) 1 0110 1100 11012

4. a) Convert the denary number 108 to an eight-bit binary number.

b) Convert the denary number 108 to hexadecimal.
c) State two common uses of the hexadecimal number system.

5. A lift system in a building uses an eight-bit register shown in Figure 8.17. The first four bits
indicate whether any of the four sensors has picked up a fault (denoted by the value 1) in
any of the subsystems. The last four bits indicate the lift number. There are 15 lifts in
the building.

8 4 2 1 Place values

Lift
number

Display Motor
sensor sensor
Lighting Ventilator
sensor sensor

p Figure 8.17 The eight-bit register used in a lift system

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For example, the register shown in Figure 8.18 indicates that there are faults in the lighting
and motor subsystems for lift number 3.

0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1

p Figure 8.18 Register indicating that lift number 3 has faults in the lighting and motor subsystems

a) What is indicated by the register shown in Figure 8.19?

1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1

p Figure 8.19 Reading on eight-bit register

b) What is indicated by the register shown in Figure 8.20?

0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1

p Figure 8.20 Reading on eight-bit register

c) What would be the reading indicated by the register if there are faults in the display
and lighting subsystems for lift number 14? Give your answer as a binary number.

6. In a factory, there are 127 electrical points that provide power to various machinery. An
eight-bit register is used to represent the state of each electrical point. The first bit indicates
the operational state of the electrical point – a value of 1 means that it is operational and a
value of 0 means that it is faulty. The next seven bits indicate the electrical point number.

For example, the eight-bit register shown in Figure 8.21 indicates that electrical point
number 41 is operational.

64 32 16 8 4 2 1 Place values

1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1

p Figure 8.21 Register indicating that electrical point number 41 is operational

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How are Number Systems Applied in Real Life?

a) What is indicated by the register shown in Figure 8.22?

64 32 16 8 4 2 1 Place values

1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0

p Figure 8.22 Reading on eight-bit register

b) What would the register show if electrical point number 36 is faulty? Give your answer
as an eight-bit binary number.

c) Convert the number indicated by the register shown in Figure 8.23 to hexadecimal.

1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0

p Figure 8.23 Reading on eight-bit register

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 9 Module 2: Systems and Communications

How Do Logic Circuits

Make Decisions?
Every day, we make decisions based on the information that is available to us. Suppose
Siti needs to decide between taking the bus or walking to school. Her decision would
depend on the weather and timing. If it is raining or she is late, Siti would choose to
take the bus to avoid getting drenched or to reach the school faster. Otherwise, she
would choose to walk to school instead.

We have already learnt how to write algorithms that output the result of decisions that
depend on one or more inputs. In this case, the output of whether Siti decides to take
the bus or to walk depends on two inputs: whether it is raining and whether she is late.

Like Siti, computers and other electrical systems use inputs to make decisions. However,
while Siti makes these decisions using her brain, computers and electrical systems make
these decisions using electrical circuits called logic gates. For instance, an automatic
lighting system may use logic gates to decide if the lights in a room should be switched
on based on whether the sun is shining and whether anyone is in the room. In computers,
the logic gates in their processors make the decisions based on the given inputs.

In this chapter, you will learn how logic gates make use of Boolean logic, the five different
types of logic gates and how logic circuits can be constructed from logic gates. You
will also learn about some applications of logic circuits.

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How Do Logic Circuits Make Decisions?

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Recognise a logic gate from its truth table and evaluate Boolean statements by means
of truth tables.

• Construct the truth tables for given logic circuits (maximum three inputs).

• Design and construct simple logic circuits using AND, OR, NOT, NAND and
NOR gates.

9.1 Boolean Logic

In section 4.5.4, we learnt that Boolean values have only two possible values: True and False.
The study of Boolean values, called Boolean logic, was developed by the English mathematician
George Boole in 1847.

Boolean values are often used to determine the status of a system or a logical condition in an
algorithm. For example, the following algorithm produces an output of either “Pass” or “Fail”
based on whether the input mark is less than 50. The logical condition of whether “mark < 50”
in the decision symbol can be expressed using a Boolean value and must be either True or False
at any one time.

START

INPUT mark

Is mark < 50?

Yes No

OUTPUT “Fail“ OUTPUT “Pass“

STOP

p Figure 9.1 An algorithm consisting of a logical condition

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Besides True and False, Boolean values can be represented in other ways as shown in Table 9.1.

‚ Table 9.1 Ways of representing the two Boolean values

0 1

False True

Off On

Low High

No Yes

Boolean logic is very important as the data in a computer is stored as bits (binary digits) which
have a value of either 0 or 1. From Table 9.1, we see that 0 and 1 also correspond to the Boolean
values of False and True respectively. Hence, the data in a computer can be represented using
Boolean values, and common operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
are actually performed by the computer’s processor using Boolean logic.

The inputs and outputs of simple problems and decisions can each be represented using a single bit
or Boolean value as they are usually binary in nature. This means that there are only two possible
options for each input and output. For instance, in the example at the beginning of the chapter,
the input of whether it is raining can only be either True or False, with no other possible options.
Similarly, the output of Siti’s choice can only be either taking the bus or walking, with no other
possible options. For this chapter, we will consider all inputs and outputs to be binary in nature.

9.2 Truth Tables

We use a truth table to show the resulting output for every

possible combination of inputs. Tables 9.2 to 9.4 show the
Key Term
truth tables for logic gates with one, two and three inputs
respectively. Notice that there is only one output column Truth table
in the truth tables. This is because we will be using these Table that shows the resulting
tables for logic gates that have only one output. output for every possible
combination of inputs

‚ Table 9.2 Truth table for logic gate with one input

Input A Output

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‚ Table 9.3 Truth table for logic gate with two inputs

Input A Input B Output

0 0

0 1

1 0

1 1

‚ Table 9.4 Truth table for logic gate with three inputs

Input A Input B Input C Output

0 0 0

0 0 1

0 1 0

0 1 1

1 0 0

1 0 1

1 1 0

1 1 1

To construct a truth table, we need to:

n
1. Determine the number of rows in the truth table, which is equal to 2 , where n refers to
the number of inputs.
2
For example, if there are two inputs, the truth table will have 2 = 4 rows.
3
If there are three inputs, the truth table will have 2 = 8 rows.
2. Fill in the input columns in ascending order using the binary number system.
For example, in a three-input system, the inputs start from 000 in the first row, followed
by 001 in the second, 010 in the third and so on, up to 111 in the last row.

The output is determined by the type of logic gate, as described in the next section.

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9.3 Logic Gates

A logic gate is an electrical circuit that performs logical

operations based on one or more inputs and produces
Key Terms
a single output. (Recall the use of logical operators in
section 4.6.2.4.) Logic gate
An electrical circuit that
In this section, you will learn about the five basic types of performs logical operations
logic gates (OR, AND, NOT, NOR and NAND) as well as based on one or more inputs
their functions and applications. and produces a single output

Logical operation
An operation that acts on
9.3.1 OR Gate binary inputs to produce an
The OR gate has two inputs and one output. The logic output according to the laws
symbol and Boolean statement representing the OR gate of Boolean logic
are shown in Table 9.5. Boolean statements are also known
as logic statements.

‚ Table 9.5 The OR gate

Type Symbol Boolean statement

A
OR Q Q = A OR B
B

The OR gate performs the OR operation, which gives an output of 1 when at least one of its
inputs is 1. The truth table in Table 9.6 illustrates this.

‚ Table 9.6 Truth table of the OR gate

Input A Input B Output Q

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

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How Do Logic Circuits Make Decisions?

9.3.2 AND Gate

The AND gate has two inputs and one output. The logic symbol and Boolean statement
representing the AND gate are shown in Table 9.7.

‚ Table 9.7 The AND gate

Type Symbol Boolean statement

A
AND Q Q = A AND B
B

The AND gate performs the AND operation, which gives an output of 1 only when both inputs
are 1. The truth table in Table 9.8 illustrates this.

‚ Table 9.8 Truth table of the AND gate

Input A Input B Output Q

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

9.3.3 NOT Gate

The NOT gate has only one input and one output. The logic symbol and Boolean statement
representing the NOT gate are shown in Table 9.9.

‚ Table 9.9 The NOT gate

Type Symbol Boolean statement

NOT A Q Q = NOT A

The small circle at the output of the NOT gate symbol represents an inversion.

The NOT gate performs the NOT operation, which inverts the input to its opposite state. Thus,
it is also known as the inverter gate.

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The truth table in Table 9.10 illustrates this.

‚ Table 9.10 Truth table of the NOT gate

Input A Output Q

0 1

1 0

9.3.4 NOR Gate

The NOR gate has two inputs and one output. The logic symbol and Boolean statement
representing the NOR gate are shown in Table 9.11.

‚ Table 9.11 The NOR gate

Type Symbol Boolean statement

A
NOR Q Q = NOT (A OR B)
B

The NOR gate performs the NOR operation, which gives an output of 0 when at least one of its
inputs is 1. The truth table in Table 9.12 illustrates this.

‚ Table 9.12 Truth table of the NOR gate

Input A Input B Output Q

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 0

An OR gate followed by a NOT gate is equivalent to a NOR gate.

A A
Q Q
B B

p Figure 9.2 An OR gate followed by a NOT gate is equivalent to a NOR gate

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How Do Logic Circuits Make Decisions?

9.3.5 NAND Gate

The NAND gate has two inputs and one output. The logic symbol and Boolean statement
representing the NAND gate are shown in Table 9.13.

‚ Table 9.13 The NAND gate

Type Symbol Boolean statement

A
NAND Q Q = NOT (A AND B)
B

The NAND gate performs the NAND operation, which gives an output of 0 only when both
inputs are 1. The truth table in Table 9.14 illustrates this.

‚ Table 9.14 Truth table of the NAND gate

Input A Input B Output Q

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

An AND gate followed by a NOT gate is equivalent to a NAND gate.

A A
Q Q
B B

p Figure 9.3 An AND gate followed by a NOT gate is equivalent to a NAND gate

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Quick Check 9.3

1. State whether each of the statements below is true or false.

a) An OR gate returns an output of 1 when either input is 1.
b) An AND gate returns an output of 1 only when both its inputs are 1.
c) A NOT gate returns an output of 1 when its input is 1.

2. When using a NOR gate, which of the following conditions will return an output of 1?
A Both inputs are 0
B Both inputs are 1
C Either input is 1
D None of the above

3. When using a NAND gate, which of the following conditions will return an output
of 0?
A Both inputs are 0
B Both inputs are 1
C Either input is 0
D None of the above

9.4 Logic Circuit Diagrams

Logic gates are basic building blocks of logic circuits. A

logic circuit can consist of only one logic gate but we can
Key Terms
build more complex and useful logic circuits by connecting
two or more logic gates together. A logic circuit diagram Logic circuit
shows how these logic gates are connected together. It is A circuit that consists
formed by using symbols to represent logic gates and lines of only one logic gate
to represent the wires connecting the inputs and outputs of or multiple logic gates
different logic gates together. connected together

Logic circuit diagram

Visual representation using
9.4.1 Intermediate Inputs symbols to show how the
Within a logic circuit, it is common for the output of a logic component logic gates are
gate to be also the input of another logic gate. In Figure connected together in a
9.4, the output of the first OR gate is also one of the inputs logic circuit
of the second OR gate. In this textbook, we will call these
“intermediate inputs”.

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How Do Logic Circuits Make Decisions?

The logic circuit in Figure 9.4 has three inputs (A, B and C), one intermediate input (D) and one
output (Q).

intermediate
input

inputs
A D
output
B Q

p Figure 9.4 Logic circuit with an intermediate input

9.4.2 Constructing Truth Tables from Logic Circuit Diagrams

To generate a truth table from a logic circuit diagram, follow these steps:
1. Determine the total number of columns and rows in the truth table.
Number of columns = total number of inputs, intermediate inputs and output
n
Number of rows = 2 , where n is the number of inputs.
2. Draw the truth table and fill in all the input combinations.
3. Work out the intermediate inputs.
4. Work out the final output.

Consider the logic circuit in Figure 9.5. Let us use the steps above to generate its truth table.

A D
output
B Q

p Figure 9.5 A logic circuit diagram

Step 1: Determine the total number of columns and rows in the truth table.
Since there are three inputs (A, B and C), one output (Q) and one intermediate
input (D):
Number of columns = total number of inputs, intermediate inputs and output = 5
3
Number of rows = 2 = 8

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Step 2: Draw the truth table and fill in all the input combinations.

‚ Table 9.15 Filling in all the input combinations in the truth table

Intermediate
Input A Input B Input C Output Q
Input D

0 0 0

0 0 1

0 1 0

0 1 1

1 0 0

1 0 1

1 1 0

1 1 1

Step 3: Work out the intermediate input.

Work out the intermediate input D using A and B.

‚ Table 9.16 Filling in the column for intermediate input D

Intermediate
Input A Input B Input C Output Q
Input D

0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0

0 1 1 0

1 0 0 0

1 0 1 0

1 1 0 1

1 1 1 1

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How Do Logic Circuits Make Decisions?

Step 4: Work out the final output.

Work out the final output Q using C and D.

‚ Table 9.17 Filling in the column for the final output Q

Intermediate
Input A Input B Input C Output Q
Input D

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 1

0 1 0 0 0

0 1 1 0 1

1 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 1

1 1 0 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

Quick Check 9.4

1. Consider the logic circuit below.

A D
B Q

C E

p Figure 9.6 A logic circuit

a) State the number of inputs.

b) State the number of outputs.

9.5 Boolean Statements

In the previous section, you learnt that a logic gate can be represented by a Boolean statement. Like
a logic gate, a logic circuit can also be represented by a Boolean statement. Boolean statements
are useful in two ways:
1. They can be evaluated using truth tables to determine the output of a logic circuit.
2. They can determine the arrangement of the logic gates in a logic circuit.

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9.5.1 Order of Operations

To evaluate a Boolean statement, the order of operations must always be followed.

In mathematics, you would have learnt about order of operations in evaluating algebraic equations.
For instance, in 1 + 2 × 3, the multiplication operation is evaluated before the addition operation
to give the result of 7. A similar order applies when evaluating Boolean statements. The order of
operations for Boolean statements is summarised in Table 9.18.

‚ Table 9.18 Order of operations for Boolean statements

Order Logical operation

1 Parentheses

2 NOT

3 AND

4 OR

9.5.2 Constructing Truth Tables from Boolean Statements

Consider the Boolean statement below:
Q = (A AND B) OR (A AND C)

We can evaluate it by expressing all combinations of its inputs and output using a truth table.

Step 1: Determine the total number of columns and rows in the truth table.
Since there are three inputs (A, B and C), one output (Q) and two intermediate inputs
((A AND B) and (A AND C)):
Number of columns = total number of inputs, intermediate inputs and output = 6
3
Number of rows = 2 = 8
Using the order of operations, the parts of the Boolean statement in parentheses are to
be evaluated first, followed by the part with the OR operation. This means that “A AND
B” as well as “A AND C” are evaluated first, from left to right, since they are contained
within parentheses. They form the two intermediate inputs, D and E.

Order 1 Order 2

Q = (A AND B) OR (A AND C)
Order 3

p Figure 9.7 Evaluating a Boolean statement following the order of operations

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How Do Logic Circuits Make Decisions?

Step 2: Draw the truth table and fill in all the input combinations.

‚ Table 9.19 Filling in the input combinations

Intermediate Intermediate
Input Input Input Output
Input D Input E
A B C Q
(A AND B) (A AND C)

0 0 0

0 0 1

0 1 0

0 1 1

1 0 0

1 0 1

1 1 0

1 1 1

Step 3: Work out the intermediate inputs.

To work out the intermediate input D, use A and B.
To work out the intermediate input E, use A and C.

‚ Table 9.20 Filling in the intermediate inputs D and E

Intermediate Intermediate
Input Input Input Output
Input D Input E
A B C Q
(A AND B) (A AND C)

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 0

0 1 1 0 0

1 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 1

1 1 0 1 0

1 1 1 1 1

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Step 4: Work out the final output.

Work out the final output Q using D and E.

‚ Table 9.21 Filling in the final output Q

Intermediate Intermediate
Input Input Input Output
Input D Input E
A B C Q
(A AND B) (A AND C)

0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 1 1

1 1 0 1 0 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

9.5.3 Constructing Boolean Statements from Truth Tables

In the previous section, we learnt how to construct a truth table from a Boolean statement. In
many situations, it is also useful to do the reverse, which is to construct a Boolean statement
from a truth table.

The Boolean statement can be formed by creating an AND term for each input combination with
a final output of 1, and then ORing all the AND terms together.

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How Do Logic Circuits Make Decisions?

We will illustrate this using the truth table in Table 9.22.

‚ Table 9.22 Truth table used to derive the Boolean statement

Input A Input B Input C Output Q

0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0

0 1 1 1

1 0 0 0

1 0 1 0

1 1 0 1

1 1 1 0

Step 1: Determine the combinations which result in an output of 1.

From the truth table in Table 9.22, we can see that there are two combinations which
result in output Q = 1:
• A = 0, B = 1 and C = 1
• A = 1, B = 1 and C = 0

Step 2: Create an AND term for each combination that results in an output of 1.
Since these conditions need to be all present for output
Q to be 1, we should AND them together. Note that
NOT A is used to represent A = 0. This is because when Key Term
A = 0, NOT A will give 1.
Sum-of-Product (SOP)
• ((NOT A) AND B) AND C
Boolean statement
• (A AND B) AND (NOT C) where the AND terms
are ORed together
Step 3: OR the AND terms together.
Since either of these two input combinations will result
in an output of 1, we should join the partial Boolean statements together using OR. Thus
we obtain the final Boolean statement below:
Q = (((NOT A) AND B) AND C) OR ((A AND B) AND (NOT C))
This form of representation where the AND terms are ORed together is known as
Sum-of-Product (SOP).

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9.5.4 Constructing Logic Circuit Diagrams from Boolean Statements

To determine how logic circuits look like, we should use the order of operations to evaluate the
Boolean statements.

Let us draw the logic circuit diagram represented by this Boolean statement:
Q = (A AND B) OR C

Recall that in Table 9.18, the AND operation is evaluated before the OR operation. This means
that the logic gate representing “A AND B” should be drawn first. The output of “A AND B” is
then connected as an input to an OR gate with input C.

Step 1: Draw an AND gate with inputs A and B.

A
B

p Figure 9.8 Drawing the AND gate first

Step 2: Connect the output of “A AND B” as an input to an OR gate.

A A AND B
B

p Figure 9.9 Connecting the output of the AND gate to the OR gate

Step 3: Connect C to the other input of the OR gate.

A A AND B
B Q
C

p Figure 9.10 Complete logic circuit diagram of Q = (A AND B) OR C

9.5.5 Constructing Boolean Statements from Logic Circuit Diagrams

In the previous section, we learnt to draw logic circuit diagrams from Boolean statements. In this
section, we will learn how to do the reverse, which is to derive the Boolean statement from a
logic circuit diagram.

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How Do Logic Circuits Make Decisions?

Example 1:
Let us work out the Boolean statement of the logic circuit diagram shown in Figure 9.11.

A D
B Q

p Figure 9.11 Deriving the Boolean statement from a logic circuit diagram

To work out the Boolean statement of a logic circuit diagram, we can work backwards from its
final output.

Step 1: Work out the Boolean statement involving the final output.
An OR gate with inputs D and C is connected to the final output Q.

A D
B Q

p Figure 9.12 Working backwards from the final output

Hence, the Boolean statement for this OR gate is:

Q = D OR C
Note that D is an intermediate input.

Step 2: Work out the Boolean statement involving the intermediate input.
Notice that the intermediate input D is also the output D of an OR gate with inputs A
and B.

A D
B Q

p Figure 9.13 Working backwards from the intermediate input D

Hence, the Boolean statement for this OR gate is:

D = A OR B

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Step 3: Combine the Boolean statements.

Substituting the Boolean statement from Step 2 into the statement from Step 1 will give
us the Boolean statement which represents the logic circuit diagram:
Q = (A OR B) OR C

Example 2:
Let us now work out the Boolean statement of the logic circuit diagram in Figure 9.14.

A D

B
E
C

p Figure 9.14 Deriving the Boolean statement from a logic circuit diagram

Again, we start by working backwards from the final output.

Step 1: Work out the Boolean statement involving the final output.
An OR gate with inputs D and E is connected to the final output Z.

A D

B
E
C

p Figure 9.15 Working backwards from the final output Z

Hence, we can work out the Boolean statement for this OR gate as:
Z = D OR E
Note that D and E are intermediate inputs.

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How Do Logic Circuits Make Decisions?

Step 2: Work out the Boolean statements involving the intermediate inputs.
Notice that the intermediate input D is also the output D of a NOT gate with input A.

A D

B
E
C

p Figure 9.16 Working backwards from the intermediate input D

Hence, the Boolean statement for this NOT gate is:

D = NOT A
Next, notice that the intermediate input E is also the output E of an AND gate with inputs
B and C.

A D

B
E
C

p Figure 9.17 Working backwards from the intermediate input E

Hence, the Boolean statement for this AND gate is:

E = B AND C

Step 3: Combine the Boolean statements.

Substituting the Boolean statements from Step 2 into the statement from Step 1 will give
us the Boolean statement which represents the logic circuit diagram:
Z = (NOT A) OR (B AND C)

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Quick Check 9.5

1. Refer to the Boolean statement below.

Q = ((NOT A) OR B) AND C

a) Draw the truth table by evaluating the statement.

b) Draw the logic circuit diagram that represents the statement.

9.6 Applications of Logic Circuits

Computing devices and electrical appliances perform logic decisions using logic circuits. This
section introduces three applications of logic circuits that are used to make logic decisions.

9.6.1 Motion-Sensing Lights

In toilets or offices installed with motion-sensing lights, the logic circuit is designed to make a
logic decision of when to switch on the lights depending on the input conditions.

One example of a logic circuit used to operate motion-sensing lights is found in Figure 9.18.

Motion sensor
Motion = 1
No motion = 0 A
Light bulb
On = 1
Light sensor Q
Off = 0
Bright = 1 B C
Dark = 0

p Figure 9.18 Logic circuit for motion-sensing light

The corresponding Boolean statement for this logic circuit is Q = A AND (NOT B).

‚ Table 9.23 Truth table for Q = A AND (NOT B)

Input A Input B Intermediate Input C Output Q

0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0

1 0 1 1

1 1 0 0

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How Do Logic Circuits Make Decisions?

The motion-sensing light is switched on when both of its input conditions are fulfilled – its
surroundings are dark, and motion is detected within the toilet or office area. At all other times,
the light is switched off. This ensures that the light is not switched on when no one is around,
helping to reduce electricity consumption.

When the logic circuit is used to control a motion-sensing light, inputs A and B are provided by
a motion sensor and a light sensor respectively, and output Q is connected to a light bulb. Table
9.24 shows how the truth table should be interpreted for this circuit.

‚ Table 9.24 Truth table for the logic circuit of a motion-sensing light

Intermediate
Input A Input B Output Q
Input C

0 (no motion) 0 (dark) 1 0 (light off)

0 (no motion) 1 (bright) 0 0 (light off)

1 (motion) 0 (dark) 1 1 (light on)

1 (motion) 1 (bright) 0 0 (light off)

9.6.2 Car Door Lock

A car door can be unlocked either manually with a key or by receiving an unlock signal via a
remote control sensor. The key switch provides an input of 1 when the key is turned. The remote
control switch provides an input of 1 when the unlock signal is detected.

We can then work out that there are two types of inputs (the key switch and remote control
2
sensor), resulting in 2 = 4 possible outputs for the lock.

Let us work out the truth table for the car door lock. If we connect inputs A and B to a key switch
and remote control sensor respectively, and the output Q to the lock, we can create the truth
table shown in Table 9.25.

‚ Table 9.25 Truth table for the car door lock

Input A Input B Output Q

0 (key absent) 0 (signal absent) 1 (locked)

0 (key absent) 1 (signal present) 0 (unlocked)

1 (key turned) 0 (signal absent) 0 (unlocked)

1 (key turned) 1 (signal present) 0 (unlocked)

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The Boolean statement for this car door lock is:

Q = NOT (A OR B)

This is equivalent to using a NOR gate.

Hence, the logic circuit for this car door lock can be designed as follows:

Key switch
Key absent = 0 A
Key present = 1 Lock
Locked = 1
Remote control sensor Q Unlocked = 0
Signal absent = 0 B
Signal present = 1

p Figure 9.19 Logic circuit for car door lock

9.6.3 Two-Way Switches

Two-way switches allow a single light to be switched on or off from two different locations easily.
Two-way switches are often used at the opposite ends of corridors or staircases to control a light
that is located between the switches.

In Figure 9.20, the light Q at the centre of a long corridor is controlled by switches A and B at
both ends of the corridor. Each switch has two states: 0 for “off” and 1 for “on”. Light Q also has
two states: 0 for “off” and 1 for “on”. Light Q will be on only when both switches A and B are
off or on concurrently. However, if only one switch is on and the other is off, light Q will be off.

Q
A B

p Figure 9.20 Light Q is controlled by switches A and B, which are placed at both ends of the corridor

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How Do Logic Circuits Make Decisions?

If we connect the inputs of the logic circuit to switches A and B and the output to light Q, we
can create the truth table shown in Table 9.26.

‚ Table 9.26 Truth table for the two-way switches

Input A Input B Output Q

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

To derive the Boolean statement from a truth table, recall the following two steps:
1. Create an AND term for each input combination that results in an output of 1.
2. OR the AND terms together.

The Boolean statement for this two-way switch will be:

Q = (A AND B) OR ((NOT A) AND (NOT B))

Hence, the logic circuit for the two-way switches can be designed as follows:

A
B

p Figure 9.21 Logic circuit for the two-way switches

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 Module 2: Systems and Communications

Chapter Summary

Motion-Sensing Car Door Two-Way

Lights Lock Switches

TRUTH TABLES APPLICATIONS LOGIC CIRCUITS

LOGIC CIRCUITS
AND DECISIONS

EVALUATING BOOLEAN STATEMENTS LOGIC GATES

Order of Operations OR
Constructing
Truth Tables from
Boolean Statements
AND
Constructing
Boolean Statements
from Truth Tables
Constructing Logic NOT
Circuit Diagrams from
Boolean Statements
Constructing Boolean
Statements from Logic NOR
Circuit Diagrams

NAND

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How Do Logic Circuits Make Decisions?

Review Questions

1. Draw the truth tables for the following Boolean statements.

a) Q = A OR (B AND C)
b) X = (NOT A) AND (NOT B)
c) Y = A AND (NOT B)
d) Z = (A OR B) AND (C OR D)

2. For the statement:

If A is True then Q is True
else if B is True then Q is True

determine its:
a) Boolean statement; and
b) truth table.

3. Draw the truth table for the logic circuit shown below.

B
Q

p Figure 9.22 Logic circuit

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 10 Module 1: Data and Information

How are Spreadsheets

Used to Process and
Analyse Data?
To celebrate the end of their examinations, Alex, Bala, Siti and their classmates decide
to hold a party. After considering a number of options and their respective costs, they
agree on a potluck party. Each person in the class would contribute one dish and also
a small amount of money to pay for other party items. The students also agree to invite
their family members to the party.

Alex, Bala, Siti and their classmates have to decide on the type of party to organise,
manage the costs of various party items and track the contributions made by attendees
to the party. These tasks may be difficult as there is a large amount of data that needs
to be collected, processed and analysed.

In the previous chapters, you learnt how computer programs can be written to help solve
such problems. A spreadsheet is a type of program that is useful for solving problems
that involve a large amount of data.

In this chapter, you will learn about the basics of using spreadsheets as well as how
they can be used to analyse data in various statistical contexts. You will also learn how
spreadsheets can be used to search for the best answer to meet a particular goal and
highlight details in a large set of data.

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How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Tabulate data under appropriate column headings (i.e., data field names) and data types
(e.g., numeric, text and date).

• Use mathematical operators, functions and what-if data analysis (goal seeking) to prepare
spreadsheets and solve real-world problems such as:
– Find the total of a list of numbers, average of a list of numbers, minimum/maximum
of a list of numbers, square root of a number, simple interest and remainder after
division of numbers
– Round values
– Randomise values
– Convert data from one type to another (e.g., getting integer values from
decimal values)
– Count the number of data items

• Understand and use conditional statements (simple and nested): COUNTIF and IF with
relational and Boolean operators such as AND, NOT and OR.

• Use functions effectively to look up data in rows or columns (horizontal and vertical
table lookups) in a list or table for data processing.

• Use absolute and relative cell addressing.

10.1 Understanding Spreadsheets

A spreadsheet is an electronic worksheet used to manage

and manipulate data arranged in columns and rows. Key Terms

Columns are labelled with letters and rows with numbers. Cell
The rectangular space located in a particular column and Space for data in a
row is called a cell. particular column and row
of a spreadsheet

Spreadsheet
Electronic worksheet used
to manage and manipulate
data arranged in columns
and rows

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 Module 1: Data and Information

Figure 10.1 shows a typical spreadsheet with a grid of cells that starts from column A and row 1
at the top-left corner and extends rightwards and downwards.

Column

Cell
Spreadsheet extends rightwards...

G H I J K ...
Row
...and downwards

13
14
15
16
17
18
..

p Figure 10.1 A spreadsheet starts from cell A1 at the top-left corner

and extends rightwards and downwards

10.1.1 Cell and Range Addresses

We often need to refer to the location of a cell or range of
cells in a spreadsheet. For a single cell, we use its cell address, Key Term
which is the cell’s column name (one or more letters) followed
immediately by its row number. Cell address
Location name for a cell
For instance, each cell in Figure 10.2 displays its cell address. formed by its column
name and row number

p Figure 10.2 Cells and their cell addresses

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How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

When we want to refer to a rectangular range of cells, we

use a range address instead. A range address is the top-left
Key Term
cell’s address followed by a colon (:) and the bottom-right
cell’s address. Range address
Location name for a
Figure 10.3 shows the different range addresses for various rectangular range of cells
selections of cells in a spreadsheet. For instance, “A1:C3” is formed by the top-left cell’s
the range address for a 3-by-3 range of cells in the top-left address, a colon (:) and the
corner of a spreadsheet. bottom-right cell’s address

E2:G2
A1:C3

B5:B9
F8:F8
(or just F8)

p Figure 10.3 Range addresses

10.1.2 Data Types

In Python, each value has a data type such
as bool, float, int or str. In spreadsheets,
cells also have data types.

Figure 10.4 shows the built-in data types

available in a typical spreadsheet application.
To set the data type of a particular cell,
right‑click on it and select “Format Cells…”
from the context menu.

p Figure 10.4 Built-in data types in a typical

spreadsheet application

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 Module 1: Data and Information

Some common data types are described in Table 10.1.

‚ Table 10.1 Common data types

Data type Description Examples

General Used for data with no specific type 2017

Typically used if the type of data cannot be 19.65

known ahead of time Hello, World!

Number Used for numbers 2017

The number of decimal places to display and the 19.65

type of digit separator (if any) can be specified -0.05
Most spreadsheet applications do not distinguish
between integers and floating-point numbers

Currency Used for money $20.17

Typically displayed with a currency symbol and $2017.00

two decimal places; the type of currency symbol $0.17
can be specified (the default is the dollar sign ($))

Date Used for dates 1-Jan-17

Can be displayed and entered in a variety of 1/1/2017

styles depending on the spreadsheet application 2017-01-01

Time Used for times and durations 0:20

Can be displayed and entered in a variety of 20:17:00

styles depending on the spreadsheet application 10:00 AM

10:00:00 AM

Percentage Used for rates, ratios and proportions 5%

Typically displayed and entered as a number with 20.17%

a “%” appended; treated as the number divided 0.05%
by 100 when used in calculations, e.g., 5% * 20
will calculate 0.05 * 20, which is equal to 1

Text Used for textual information Hello, World!

Typically displays exactly what is entered 20-12

To force a cell to treat an input as text, start it

with an apostrophe ('), e.g., '20-12

Logical Used for Boolean data TRUE

value FALSE
Must be either TRUE or FALSE

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How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

Most spreadsheet programs can automatically detect and change the data type of a cell based
on what is entered. For instance, entering “$2017” into a cell with a General data type will
automatically change it to use a Currency data type instead. However, the detected data type
may not always be what is intended by the user.

For instance, a user may want to enter “1-1” into a cell as Text, but if the cell initially has a
General data type, it will automatically be converted to use a Date data type instead. This can
be avoided by setting the cell to use a Text data type beforehand, or by entering an apostrophe
in front of the data like this: '1-1. Thus, it is a good practice to always set the data type of cells
to the most appropriate option before entering any values. You will learn how to do this as part
of data collection in section 10.2.1.

Did you know?

Some spreadsheet applications such as Microsoft Excel do not consider Currency and Date as
data types. Instead, they are treated as number formats that determine how a cell is displayed, but
not how it is actually stored. The difference between data types and number formats in Microsoft
Excel is not covered in this textbook.

10.1.3 Formulas and Automatic Recalculation

In Python, calculations are performed by providing the
computer with step-by-step instructions. In spreadsheets,
Key Terms
however, calculations are performed by telling the computer
how cell values are related to each other. This is done by Constant (spreadsheet)
entering a formula into a cell instead of a constant. In Non-calculated value that
spreadsheets, a formula is the result of entering an equals is entered directly into a
sign (=) followed by an expression that can contain functions, cell and does not change
operators as well as values from other cells.
Formula
To reveal the cells which have formulas, press the Ctrl key Performs calculations on
followed by the grave accent (`) key, i.e., Ctrl+`. The grave the data in a spreadsheet;
accent key is usually located to the left of the digit 1 on the may contain functions,
keyboard. Instead of showing the calculated result, cells with operators as well as cell
formulas will now show an equals sign followed by the cell’s and range references
formula. To show the calculated values once more, press
Ctrl+` again.

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 Module 1: Data and Information

For example, in Figure 10.5, cell A1 has a constant with a value of 2017 while cell A2 has a
formula that calculates the sum of 2000 and 17. Cell A3, on the other hand, has a constant with a
text value of “2000+17” and does not have a formula. This is because the expression “2000+17”
was entered in cell A3 without an equals sign in front.

Constant (number)
Formula
Ctrl ` Constant (text)

p Figure 10.5 Example of formulas and constants

To describe how cell values are related to each other, formulas

use cell references, which specify the column and row of Key Term
another cell. There are two types of cell references: relative
cell references and absolute cell references. Cell reference
Description of a cell
that can be used in a
spreadsheet formula

10.1.3.1 Relative Cell References

To make a relative cell reference, use a cell address or range address directly in a formula. For
instance, in Figure 10.6, cell A5 uses relative cell references to calculate the product of the values
in cells A1, A2 and A3.

Ctrl `

Cell A5 uses relative cell references Copy, then paste

to calculate the product of the
values in cells A1, A2 and A3. When cell A5 is copied to cell B5, the cell references
in the formula automatically change to B1, B2 and B3.

p Figure 10.6 Using relative cell references

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How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

An important feature of relative cell references is that when a formula from one cell is copied
to another cell, all the relative cell references in the copied formula are changed so that they
maintain the same relative positions to the new cell.

In Figure 10.6, when cell A5 is copied to cell B5, the resulting formula in cell B5 automatically
has its relative cell references change from A1, A2 and A3 to B1, B2 and B3 respectively. This
allows repetitive calculations or relationships between cell values to be set up quickly by copying
the formula from one cell to multiple cells.

Suppose Bala is helping to manage the costs for the party described at the beginning of this chapter
using the spreadsheet shown in Figure 10.7. In row 2, the unit cost of balloons is $0.80 (cell D2),
so the total cost for balloons is $0.80 (cell D2) × 3 (cell B2) = $2.40.

Bala notices that the formula to calculate the total cost for subsequent rows follows the same
pattern of multiplying the quantity in column B by the unit cost in column D. Hence, instead of
entering the formula for rows 3 to 10 manually, he enters the formula “=B2*D2” into cell E2 and
copies it into cells E3 to E9.

Copy, then paste

Ctrl `

p Figure 10.7 Using relative cell references to calculate the total cost of party items

In Figure 10.7, the two relative cell references of B2 and D2 are automatically changed to B3 and
D3 for row 3, B4 and D4 for row 4, B5 and D5 for row 5, and so on for the subsequent rows.
Note that this occurs automatically to all relative cell references in the copied formula.

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 Module 1: Data and Information

Did you know?

An alternative to copying and pasting formulas manually is to use the “fill” feature of a spreadsheet.
Select the cell you wish to copy from. Notice the square on the bottom-right corner of the cell.
This is called the fill handle. Drag this square to cover the adjacent cells that you wish to paste
the formula into.

Fill handle

+
Ctrl `

p Figure 10.8 Dragging the fill handle (indicated by the small square) to copy C2 into C3:C9

10.1.3.2 Absolute Cell References

Absolute cell references are used when we do not want the cell references in formulas to change
when copied to other cells. To make an absolute cell reference, type a dollar sign ($) before the
column letter or row number that should not change. This indicates that the particular column
letter or row number will not be automatically changed when the formula is copied into other
cells. For instance, in Figure 10.9, “$A$1” is an absolute cell reference that means the cell reference
to cell A1 does not change even when the formula is copied to another cell.

Ctrl `

Cell A5 uses absolute cell Copy, then paste

references to calculate the product
of the values in cells A1, A2 and A3. When cell A5 is copied to cell B5, the cell
references in the formula remain unchanged.

p Figure 10.9 Using absolute cell references

345
How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

Suppose Alex is helping to track the contributions made by the attendees for the class party
using the spreadsheet shown in Figure 10.10. The amount each attendee needs to contribute is
$12.00 (cell C1).

p Figure 10.10 Spreadsheet to track contributions from class party attendees

The number of additional family members attending for Aisha is 1 (cell B4), so the total contribution
by Aisha and her family is 2 (cell B4 + 1) × $12.00 (cell C1) = $24.00.

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 Module 1: Data and Information

Without absolute cell references, Alex may enter the formula “=(B4+1)*C1” into cell C4. However,
Figure 10.11 shows that copying this formula into cells C5 to C17 will result in “=(B5+1)*C2”
for row 5, “=(B6+1)*C3” for row 6, “=(B7+1)*C4” for row 7, and so on. This is incorrect as the
formulas in these cells should only refer to the cell C1.

Copy, then paste

Cell references to
C1 are incorrectly
changed after pasting

p Figure 10.11 The cell reference to C1 should not change when copied to C5:C17

To prevent the row number 1 from changing in the cell reference “C1”, Alex should use the
absolute cell reference “C$1” instead. The dollar sign in front of “1” indicates that it will not be
automatically changed when the formula is copied into other cells. Hence, Alex can enter the
formula “=(B4+1)*C$1” into cell C4 before copying the formula into cells C5 to C17, as shown
in Figure 10.12. This results in the correct formulas “=(B5+1)*C$1” for row 5, “=(B6+1)*C$1”
for row 6, “=(B7+1)*C$1” for row 7, and so on. Note that since the column letter C should not
change as well, he can also use “$C$1”.

347
How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

Copy, then paste

Cell references to
C$1 correctly remain
as C$1 after pasting

p Figure 10.12 Using C$1 prevents the cell reference’s row number
from being changed when copied to other cells

You can think of the dollar sign as a pin or lock that prevents the column letter or row number
in the cell reference from being changed when copied to other cells.

Help! We are pinned down!

C 6 $C$6

S 20 S$20

E 17 $E17

A 5 A5

But we are free to change!

p Figure 10.13 The dollar sign acts like a pin to prevent the column
letter or row number from being changed

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 Module 1: Data and Information

Did you know?

While editing a cell reference, you can press F4 to cycle through all the possible relative and
absolute versions of the cell reference. For instance, pressing F4 while editing the formula “=C2”
will cycle through “=$C$2”, “=C$2”, “=$C2” and back to “=C2” again.

10.1.3.3 Range References

Cell references only refer to one cell at a time. However, some

functions may refer to a rectangular range of cells. To do this, Key Term
we use a range reference instead, which is the cell reference
for the top-left cell in the range followed by a colon (:) and the Range reference
cell reference for the bottom-right cell in the range. Description of multiple
cells that can be used in
Like cell references, there are also relative and absolute range a spreadsheet formula
references. For instance “A1:C3” is a relative range reference
while “$A$1:$C$3” is an absolute range reference.

10.1.3.4 Automatic Recalculation

The advantage of using cell and range references is that the spreadsheet can automatically
recalculate the formulas in all affected cells if any referenced cells are updated.

For instance, in Bala’s situation in Figure 10.14, updating the unit cost for balloons (cell D2) from
$0.80 to $0.50 will automatically recalculate the total cost for balloons (cell E2), which would
change from $2.40 to $1.50. This occurs because the spreadsheet already understands the
relationship between cells D2 and E2.

After updating the …the subtotal in

unit price in D2 from E2 is automatically
$0.80 to $0.50… recalculated

p Figure 10.14 Changing D2 causes E2 to be automatically recalculated

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How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

Similarly, in Alex’s situation in Figure 10.15, updating the amount each attendee needs to contribute
(cell C1) from $12.00 to $10.00 will automatically recalculate all the cells from C4 to C17 using
the new amount. Once again, this is because the spreadsheet already understands how cell C1
is related to the calculations in range C4:C17.

After updating the

contribution per attendee in
C1 from $12.00 to $10.00…

…the amounts in
C4:C17 are automatically
recalculated

p Figure 10.15 Changing C1 causes C4:C17 to be automatically recalculated

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 Module 1: Data and Information

Quick Check 10.1

1. The spreadsheet in Figure 10.16 produces different multiplication tables.

p Figure 10.16 Multiplication table spreadsheet

When Ctrl+` is pressed, the spreadsheet looks like this:

p Figure 10.17 Multiplication table with formulas shown

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How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

a) State the data type of cell C1.

b) Suggest a common data type that is appropriate for cell A3.
c) Suggest how the equals sign may be entered as text in the range D4:D15.
d) Identify the cell(s) which use(s) absolute cell references.
e) Identify the cell(s) which would be recalculated if cell A4 is changed.
f) Identify the cell(s) which would be recalculated if cell C1 is changed.

2. The spreadsheet in Figure 10.18 calculates speeds in units of m/s.

p Figure 10.18 Spreadsheet to calculate speeds

Suggest a formula for cell C2 that can be copied to range C3:C6 in order to complete
the spreadsheet correctly.

10.2 Data Management

While the class party described at the beginning of this chapter involves only a small amount
of data, more complex tasks such as managing the accounts of a company require the handling
of vast amounts of data. Hence, it is important to manage this data effectively to make good
decisions. To do this, we need clear and efficient processes to collect, analyse and store data for
repeated use. This series of processes is called the data life cycle.

There are four stages in the data life cycle:

1. Data collection
2. Data processing
3. Data analysis
4. Data distribution

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 Module 1: Data and Information

10.2.1 Data Collection

Data can come from various sources and may be collected automatically by a computer or manually
by performing interviews, making observations, conducting surveys, and so on. A spreadsheet
can be used to collate and organise the collected data into columns and rows.

10.2.1.1 Organising Data by Columns

Typically, the different columns of a spreadsheet represent different

types of data. Each column stores only one type of data. For Key Terms
instance, in Figure 10.19, one column is used for classmates’ names
while another column is used for the number of family members Column heading (or
attending. field name)
Description of data
Columns are also called fields. To identify and describe the data stored in a particular
stored in each column or field, there should always be a row of column or field
column headings or field names at the top of the spreadsheet.
Field (spreadsheet)
Figure 10.19 shows how an empty spreadsheet is prepared for Column of data in
data collection by providing appropriate column headings in the a spreadsheet
first row to describe the data that will be entered in that column.

Column headings

Data type should be

Data type should
set to “Number” with
be set to “Text”
0 decimal places

p Figure 10.19 Empty spreadsheet with proper column headings and data type settings

Since each column or field should only store one type of data, it is also a good practice to set the
data type of each column to the most appropriate option before any data is entered. For instance,
in Figure 10.19, the data type for the “Name” column should be set to “Text” while the data type
for the “Additional family members” column should be set to “Number” with zero decimal places.

353
How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

10.2.1.2 Organising Data by Rows

In a spreadsheet, each row typically represents a set of related

data. For instance, in Figure 10.20, each row describes a Key Term
classmate’s name and the associated number of family
members that classmate is bringing to the party. Record
Set of related data that
Each row is also called a record and represents a set of related describes a person or thing;
data that can be divided into fields. usually refers to a row of
data in a spreadsheet

Example of a record

p Figure 10.20 A row of related data from multiple fields is called a record

10.2.2 Data Processing

In this stage, the collected data is checked for accuracy. This is because raw data is usually imperfect
and must be processed to ensure that the analysis done later will produce results that make sense.

Raw data may be imperfect due to input errors, missing data and/or contradictory data. For
instance, suppose the data for the class party is collected using paper forms before being entered
into a spreadsheet. Input errors may occur if a student’s name is misspelled, missing data may
occur if a required question is left blank and contradictory data may occur if two mutually
exclusive responses are both indicated (e.g., a student cannot claim to be both a vegetarian and a
non-vegetarian at the same time).

The data processing stage is similar to the process of input validation in programming and a
spreadsheet application typically has built-in functions that can help in data processing tasks.
You will learn about these functions in section 10.3.

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 Module 1: Data and Information

10.2.3 Data Analysis

In this stage, the processed data is studied to answer questions and to make decisions.

For example, the price of party items may be summed up to determine if there are enough
contributions to cover the total cost, or the mean score for a test may be calculated to decide
whether class performance has improved. Spreadsheets typically have built-in functions to
perform such data analysis. You will learn about these functions in section 10.3.

10.2.4 Data Distribution

After data is analysed, the results need to be distributed and shared with the relevant parties. It
is important to document the data’s distribution policy as well as its copyright and intellectual
property status. This information may be recorded in the rows above the column header of a
spreadsheet.

Quick Check 10.2

1. The spreadsheet template in Figure 10.21 is prepared for the data collection of purchases
made for the class party.

p Figure 10.21 Spreadsheet template for data collection of purchases for the class party

a) State the number of fields present in this spreadsheet.

b) Suggest a common data type that is appropriate for range A2:A10.
c) Suggest a common data type that is appropriate for range B2:B10.

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How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

10.3 Functions

Just like functions in Python, spreadsheet functions are predefined formulas used to perform
particular operations. Each function takes in zero or more inputs (arguments) and returns one
output (return value). Most spreadsheet applications have various categories of built-in functions.
In Microsoft Excel, these categories are found under the Formulas tab, as shown in Figure 10.22.

p Figure 10.22 Categories of built-in functions in a spreadsheet application

Functions can only be used in formulas. When using a function, type its name, followed by zero
or more comma-separated arguments enclosed within parentheses.

For more details on each function, open its function arguments window by selecting the appropriate
category under the Formulas tab and clicking on the function’s name as shown in Figures 10.23
and 10.24. You will learn about some of the most common functions in the following sections.

p Figure 10.23 Selecting the SUM() function from the “Math & Trig” category

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 Module 1: Data and Information

p Figure 10.24 Function arguments window for the SUM() function

10.3.1 Logical Functions

In section 10.1.2, we learnt that cells can contain logical values which are similar to Boolean
values in Python. Besides using the explicit values of TRUE and FALSE, logical values can also
be formed using the relational operators in Table 10.2 to compare two values. (Note that while
most of these operators are the same as those in Python, the equivalence and non-equivalence
operators are not.)

‚ Table 10.2 Relational operators

Operator Meaning

< Less than

<= Less than or equal to

> Greater than

>= Greater than or equal to

= Equal to (equivalence)

<> Not equal to (non-equivalence)

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How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

In Python, we typically use the conjunction (and), disjunction (or) and negation (not) operators
to combine Boolean values and make decisions using if-else statements. In spreadsheets,
however, we use logical functions instead, as described in Table 10.3.

‚ Table 10.3 Common logical functions

Function Syntax Description

IF() =IF(logical_test, Returns value_if_true (i.e.,

value_if_true, the second argument) when
value_if_false) logical_test
is TRUE and
value_if_false
(i.e., the third argument) when
logical_test is FALSE

AND() =AND(logical1, logical2, …) Returns TRUE when all of

• Only the argument logical1 is the given logical values
compulsory. The arguments from (logical1, logical2, etc.)
logical2 onwards are optional. or values in the given range/
cell references are TRUE;
• logical1, logical2, etc. can otherwise, returns FALSE
be either logical values or range/
cell references.

OR() =OR(logical1, logical2, …) Returns TRUE when any

• Only the argument logical1 of the given logical values
is compulsory. The arguments (logical1, logical2, etc.) or
from logical2 onwards values in the given range/cell
are optional. references is TRUE; otherwise,
returns FALSE
• logical1, logical2, etc. can
be either logical values or range/
cell references.

NOT() =NOT(logical) Returns TRUE when logical

is FALSE and FALSE when
logical is TRUE

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 Module 1: Data and Information

Figure 10.25 shows a spreadsheet that tracks the attendees for the class party. Suppose Bala
would like to fill column C with information that indicates whether each classmate is bringing
more than three additional family members. To do this, he could enter “=B2>3” into C2 and copy
this formula into C3:C15.

Copy, then paste

p Figure 10.25 Using relational operators to produce logical values

In this case, using the greater than (>) relational operator produces a logical value that is either
TRUE or FALSE. Now, suppose Bala wishes for the column to use “Yes” and “No” instead of
“TRUE” and “FALSE”. He could use the IF() function to accomplish this, as shown in Figure 10.26.

These text values of “Yes”

and “No” are obtained using
the IF() function

Ctrl `

p Figure 10.26 Using IF() to return different values based on a condition

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How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

As explained in Table 10.3, the IF() function returns the second argument if the first argument
is TRUE. Otherwise, it returns the third argument instead.

Table 10.4 shows some examples of how IF(), AND(), OR() and NOT() may be used to determine
and display different information about each classmate. In each of these examples, note that the
formula quoted is for the student in row 2 only (i.e., Aisha) and should be copied into rows 3 to
15 to show the same information for all classmates.

‚ Table 10.4 Examples of using IF(), AND(), OR() and NOT()

Information
Example Formula for row 2
to display

1 Whether =IF(AND(B2>=2, B2<=4), "Yes", "No")

each
This formula returns “Yes” when the number of additional
classmate
family members attending is both greater than or equal to
has between
2 and less than or equal to 4. Otherwise, it returns “No”.
2 to 4 (both
inclusive)
additional
family
members
attending
Result must
be either
“Yes” or
“No” only

2 Whether Option A
each =IF(OR(B2<2, B2>4), "Yes", "No")
classmate
This formula returns “Yes” when the number of additional
has less
family members attending is either less than 2 or greater
than 2 or
than 4.
more than
Otherwise, it returns “No”.
4 additional
family
Option B
members
=IF(AND(B2>=2, B2<=4), "No", "Yes")
attending
Alternatively, since the information to display is exactly the
Result must
opposite of Example 1, we could also swap the responses
be either
of “Yes” and “No” from the formula given in Example 1.
“Yes” or
“No” only
Option C
=IF(NOT(AND(B2>=2, B2<=4)), "Yes", "No")

We could also use the NOT() function to negate the

condition in the formula for Example 1.

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‚ Table 10.4 Examples of using IF(), AND(), OR() and NOT() (continued)

Information
Example Formula for row 2
to display

3 Whether each =IF(B2<3, "Less than 3", IF(B2=3,

classmate has "Equal to 3", "More than 3"))
less than, equal This formula uses a nested IF() function.
to or more than If the number of additional family members
3 additional attending is less than 3, the formula returns “Less
family members than 3”. Otherwise, it performs another test for
attending whether the number is equal to 3. If so, it returns
Result must be “Equal to 3”. Otherwise, it returns “More than
either “Less than 3”.
3”, “Equal to 3” (Besides this formula, there are multiple alternative
or “More options to achieve the same result.)
than 3”

10.3.2 Text Functions

Spreadsheets have many text functions to manipulate and customise text. Table 10.5 shows some
common functions for finding the length of some text or extracting a subset of characters from
some text.

‚ Table 10.5 Common text functions

Function Syntax Description

LEN() =LEN(text) Returns the number of characters in

Example: the text value text
=LEN("Computing")

This would return 9.

MID() =MID(text, start_num, Returns num_chars characters

num_chars) starting from position start_num of
Example: the text value text
=MID("Computing", 3, 4) (Note that, unlike Python, the
This would return “mput”. position of the first character is 1,
not 0.)

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‚ Table 10.5 Common text functions (continued)

Function Syntax Description

LEFT() =LEFT(text, num_chars) Returns the first num_chars

• num_chars is an characters of the text value text
optional argument If num_chars is left out, the function
Example: returns only the first character of
text
=LEFT("Computing", 5)

This would return “Compu”.

RIGHT() =RIGHT(text, num_chars) Returns the last num_chars

• num_chars is an characters of the text value text
optional argument If num_chars is left out, the function
Example: returns only the last character of
text
=RIGHT("Computing", 5)

This would return “uting”.

10.3.3 Date Function

Table 10.6 shows the TODAY() function which returns the current date.

‚ Table 10.6 Date function

Function Syntax Description

TODAY() =TODAY() Returns the current date

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10.3.4 Lookup Functions

In spreadsheets, we often need to find the row in which a
particular value is located. Suppose we have a class register list Key Terms
with registration numbers in the first column, birthdays in the
second column and student names in the third column, as shown Lookup table
in Figure 10.27. If we want to know the name of the student with Array or data structure
registration number 10, we would perform the following steps: that is searched through
in order to find a
Step 1: Search vertically down the first column of class
particular value
register list A1:C15 (called the lookup table) for the
registration number 10. The value to look for is
Lookup value
called the lookup value. (In this case, the lookup
Value to search for in
value is 10.)
order to find a particular
Step 2: If the lookup value is found, output the matching row or column
row’s third-column value. The column number is
the column to output. (In this case, the column
number is 3.)

Otherwise, if no matching row is found, output an error.

Column Column Column

1 2 3

Lookup table (A1:C15)

Column
number (3)

Lookup value (10)

p Figure 10.27 The lookup value of 10 and column number of 3 are used to find the value “Mei Ling”

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How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

Spreadsheets typically provide a VLOOKUP() function to perform these steps if you provide a
lookup value, a lookup table and a column number. For spreadsheets that use rows for fields
and columns for records, the HLOOKUP() function can be used instead. Note that VLOOKUP()
performs a vertical search while HLOOKUP() performs a horizontal search. These functions are
described in Table 10.7.

‚ Table 10.7 Lookup functions

Function Syntax Description

HLOOKUP() =HLOOKUP(lookup_value, Looks for lookup_value in the

table_array, first row of table_array and
row_index_num, returns the value in row
range_lookup) row_index_num of the
• range_lookup is an matching column.
optional argument and can If range_lookup is TRUE,
be either TRUE or FALSE the function performs an
approximate match.
If range_lookup is FALSE, the
function performs an exact match.
If range_lookup is left out,
the function performs an
approximate match.

VLOOKUP() =VLOOKUP(lookup_value, Looks for lookup_value in the

table_array, first column of table_array and
col_index_num, returns the value in column
range_lookup) col_index_num of the
• range_lookup is an matching row.
optional argument and can If range_lookup is TRUE, the
be either TRUE or FALSE function performs an approximate
match.
If range_lookup is FALSE, the
function performs an exact match.
If range_lookup is left out,
the function performs an
approximate match.

Note that the last argument to both HLOOKUP() and VLOOKUP() is a logical value named range_
lookup that determines whether an exact match or approximate match is used.

An exact match looks for the exact lookup value and returns the error value #N/A if no match is
found. An approximate match, on the other hand, looks for the largest value that is less than or
equal to the lookup value. It only returns an error value if all the values in the first column or row
of the lookup table are larger than the lookup value.

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When using an exact match, the only way to make sure that all lookups are successful is to include
all possible lookup values in the lookup table. This can make the lookup table very long. Using
an approximate match lets us shorten the lookup table as the table does not need to contain
the exact lookup values. This is useful if a single row or column of the lookup table is used for
multiple lookup values, as explained in the following examples.

Figure 10.28 shows how VLOOKUP() is used to look up the names of three students based on
their registration numbers (5, 6 and 9).

Lookup
table
These grades are obtained from Lookup Column
A2:C15 using VLOOKUP() value number

Ctrl `

p Figure 10.28 Using VLOOKUP() to look up names based on registration number

In this case, the first argument for each use of VLOOKUP() is a registration number in column E
(that is, E2, E3 or E4). This is the lookup value that we are searching for.

The second argument for all three uses of VLOOKUP() refers to the class list in A1:C15. This is
the lookup table that we wish to search through and retrieve a value from. (An absolute range
reference is used here to make copying the formula to new rows easier.)

Finally, the third argument of 3 tells VLOOKUP() to return the value in the third column of the
lookup table if it finds a match. This is because the names we wish to retrieve are in the third
column of the lookup table.

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How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

Figure 10.29 shows how VLOOKUP() can also be used to convert rounded percentage scores into
grades (such as A1, A2 and B3). However, the lookup table in this case is very long as it includes
every possible rounded percentage score from 0 to 100.

Lookup
table
Lookup Column These grades are obtained from
value number D2:E102 using VLOOKUP()

Ctrl `
Lookup
table is 102
rows long!

p Figure 10.29 Using VLOOKUP() to convert rounded percentage scores into grades

However, notice that the entries in the second column of the lookup table are the same for every
value in the first column from 0 up to but not including 40, from 40 up to but not including 45,
from 45 up to but not including 50, and so on. This indicates that we can achieve the same result
using approximate matching and a shorter lookup table that only includes the boundaries for
the different grades in the first column. This works because approximate matching looks for the
largest value that is less than or equal to the lookup value.

Approximate matching is used by default when the fourth argument is left out. Nonetheless, to
make it clear that we wish to use approximate matching, we shall include the fourth argument
and set it to TRUE, as shown in Figure 10.30.

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 Module 1: Data and Information

Lookup
table range_lookup These grades are obtained from
Lookup Column D2:E10 using VLOOKUP()
value number with approximate matching

Matches any lookup

value from 0 up to
but not including 40

Ctrl ` Matches any lookup

value greater than
or equal to 75

p Figure 10.30 Using approximate matching to convert rounded percentage scores into grades

Figure 10.30 shows how VLOOKUP() with approximate matching can be used to convert rounded
percentage scores into grades (such as A1, A2 and B3). For example, the formula in cell B2 looks
for the largest value in column D (the first column) that is less than or equal to the lookup value of
98, i.e., the value of 75, which is found in row 10. It then returns the value found in column E (the
second column) of the same row, i.e., “A1”. Hence, the formulas in column B are able to return
valid results even though most of the values in column A do not have exact matches in column D.

On the other hand, if the fourth argument is set to FALSE, VLOOKUP() will perform an exact
match instead, as shown in Figure 10.31. In this case, only the scores of 65 and 40, which exactly
match rows 8 and 3 of range D2:E10 respectively, will have a valid result. The other cells will
return the error value #N/A.

Lookup
table range_lookup
Only the percentages 65 and
Lookup Column 40 have valid results using
value number VLOOKUP() with exact matching

Ctrl `

p Figure 10.31 Using exact matching returns an error value if an exact match cannot be found

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How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

Figure 10.32 shows how VLOOKUP() with approximate matching can be used to group BMI values
into the Underweight, Acceptable and Overweight categories.

Lookup
table range_lookup
These results are obtained from
Lookup Column D2:E4 using VLOOKUP()
value number with approximate matching

Ctrl `

p Figure 10.32 Using VLOOKUP() with approximate matching to categorise BMI values

Suppose that the lookup table D2:E4 is now “flipped” such that rows are used for fields and
columns are used for records instead. This means that the BMI values of 0, 16 and 27 are now
on row 1 and the categories “Underweight”, “Acceptable” and “Overweight” are now on row
2. In this case, we will have to use HLOOKUP() instead of VLOOKUP() to perform the same task.

Lookup
table range_lookup These results are obtained from
Lookup Row E1:G2 using HLOOKUP()
value number with approximate matching

Ctrl `
Lookup table E1:G2 has rows
and columns swapped

p Figure 10.33 Using HLOOKUP() with approximate matching to categorise BMI values

When using HLOOKUP(), the first two arguments still refer to the lookup value and lookup table
range respectively. However, the third argument is now a row number instead of a column
number. In this case, the row number is still 2 as the groupings we want to retrieve are on the
second row of the lookup table.

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Note that for approximate matching to work, the first column (for VLOOKUP()) or row (for
HLOOKUP()) of the lookup table must have its values arranged in increasing order. For instance,
the values in the ranges D2:D10 in Figure 10.30 and D2:D4 in Figure 10.32 are arranged in
increasing order from top to bottom.

Similarly, the values in range E1:G1 in Figure 10.33 are arranged in increasing order from left to
right. Exact matching, on the other hand, does not require the values in the first column or row
of the lookup table to be arranged in increasing order.

10.3.5 Math Functions

Table 10.8 shows some common spreadsheet functions for performing mathematical calculations
and generating random numbers.

‚ Table 10.8 Common math functions

Function Syntax Description

CEILING.MATH() =CEILING.MATH(number) Returns number rounded

Example: up to the nearest whole
=CEILING.MATH(12.34)
number

This would return 13. (Other uses of this function

are not covered in this
textbook.)

FLOOR.MATH() =FLOOR.MATH(number) Returns number rounded

down to the nearest whole
Example:
number
=FLOOR.MATH(98.76)
This would return 98. (Other uses of this function
are not covered in this
textbook.)

POWER() =POWER(number, power) Returns number raised to

Example: the exponent power
=POWER(2, 8)

This would return 256.

SQRT() =SQRT(number) Returns the square root of

number
Example:
=SQRT(2017)

This would return 44.9 (3 s.f.).

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How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

‚ Table 10.8 Common math functions (continued)

Function Syntax Description

ROUND() =ROUND(number, Returns number rounded

num_digits) to num_digits decimal
• Note that num_digits is place(s)
a compulsory argument.
Example:
=ROUND(12.34, 0)

This would return 12.

RANDBETWEEN() =RANDBETWEEN(lowest, Returns a random number

highest) between the whole
Example: numbers lowest and
=RANDBETWEEN(1965, 2017) highest (both inclusive)

This would return a random integer

between 1965 and 2017 (both
inclusive).

RAND() =RAND() Returns a random number

Example: greater than or equal to 0
=RAND()*2017 and less than 1

This would return a random

floating-point number between 0
(inclusive) and 2017 (exclusive).

SUM() =SUM(number1, number2, …) Returns the total of the

• Only the argument number1 given numbers (number1,
number2, etc.) or numbers
is compulsory. The arguments
from number2 onwards in the given range/cell
are optional. references

• number1, number2, etc. can

be either numbers or range/
cell references.
Example 1:
=SUM(2, 0, 1, 7)

This would return 10.

Example: 2
=SUM(A1:C3)

This would return the total of all

the numbers in the range A1:C3.

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‚ Table 10.8 Common math functions (continued)

Function Syntax Description

SUMIF() =SUMIF(range, criteria, Returns the total of the numbers

sum_range) in sum_range where the
• sum_range is an corresponding value in range is
optional argument. equal to or satisfies the condition
in criteria
Suppose table A2:C40 is used to
record the test scores of students Any criteria that includes
identified by registration number relational operators must be
and group name. The table has enclosed in double-quotes.
registration numbers in column
A, group names in column B If sum_range is left out, then
and scores in column C. range is used as sum_range.
Example 1:
=SUMIF(A2:A40, ">6",
C2:C40)

This would return the total score

of students with registration
numbers greater than 6.
Example 2:
=SUMIF(B2:B40,
"Computing", C2:C40)

This would return the total score

for the group “Computing”.

QUOTIENT() =QUOTIENT(number, Returns the quotient when

divisor) number is divided by divisor
Example:
=QUOTIENT(2017, 1000)

This would return 2.

MOD() =MOD(number, divisor) Returns the remainder when

Example: number is divided by divisor
=MOD(2017, 1000) Similar to Python’s % operator
This would return 17.

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10.3.6 Statistical Functions

Table 10.9 shows some common spreadsheet functions for performing statistical calculations and
gathering statistical information.

‚ Table 10.9 Common statistical functions

Function Syntax Description

MAX() =MAX(number1, number2, …) Returns the largest number

• Only the argument number1 is out of the given numbers
compulsory. The arguments (number1, number2, etc.)
from number2 onwards or the numbers in the given
are optional. range/cell references

• number1, number2, etc. can

be either numbers or range/cell
references.
Example 1:
=MAX(2, 0, 1, 7)

This would return 7.

Example 2:
=MAX(A1:C3)

This would return the largest of all

the numbers in the range A1:C3.

MIN() =MIN(number1, number2, …) Returns the smallest number

• Only the argument number1 is out of the given numbers
compulsory. The arguments (number1, number2, etc.) or
from number2 onwards numbers in the given
are optional. range/cell references

• number1, number2, etc. can

be either numbers or range/cell
references.
Example 1:
=MIN(2, 0, 1, 7)

This would return 0.

Example 2:
=MIN(A1:C3)

This would return the smallest of all

the numbers in the range A1:C3.

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‚ Table 10.9 Common statistical functions (continued)

Function Syntax Description

COUNT() =COUNT(range1, range2, …) Returns the number of

• Only the argument range1 is cells that contain numbers,
compulsory. The arguments currencies, dates, times
from range2 onwards and percentages in the
are optional. given range references
(range1, range2, etc.)
Example:
=COUNT(A1:C3) Empty cells and cells with
text or logical values are
This would return the number of cells not counted.
that contain numbers, currencies,
dates, times and percentages in the
range A1:C3.

COUNTA() =COUNTA(range1, range2, …) Returns the number of

• Only the argument range1 is non-empty cells in the
compulsory. The arguments given range references
from range2 onwards (range1, range2, etc.)
are optional.
Empty cells are not
Example: counted while cells with
=COUNTA(A1:C3) any other data type (e.g.,
This would return the number of numbers and text) are
non-empty cells in the range A1:C3. counted.

COUNTIF() =COUNTIF(range, criteria) Returns the number of cells

Example 1: in range that are equal to
=COUNTIF(A1:A20, ">6") or satisfy the condition in
criteria
This would return the number of cells
in range A1:A20 that have a value Any criteria that
greater than 6. includes relational
Example 2: operators must be
=COUNTIF(B1:B20, "Computing") enclosed in double-quotes.

This would return the number of cells

in range B1:B20 that match the text
“Computing”.

COUNTBLANK() =COUNTBLANK(range) Returns the number of

Example: empty cells in range
=COUNTBLANK(A1:C3)

This would return the number of

empty cells in the range A1:C3.

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How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

‚ Table 10.9 Common statistical functions (continued)

Function Syntax Description

MODE.SNGL() =MODE.SNGL(number1, number2, …) Returns the most

• Only the argument number1 is frequently occurring
compulsory. The arguments from or repeated value in
number2 onwards are optional. the given numbers
(number1, number2,
• number1, number2, etc. can be etc.) or the given
either numbers or range/cell references. range/cell references
Example 1:
=MODE.SNGL(1, 9, 6, 5, 2, 0,
1, 7)

This would return 1 as it is most repeated

value out of all the arguments.
Example 2:
=MODE.SNGL(A1:C3)

This would return the most repeated

number in the range A1:C3.

MEDIAN() =MEDIAN(number1, number2, …) Returns the median

• Only the argument number1 is of the given numbers
compulsory. The arguments from (number1, number2,
number2 onwards are optional. etc.) or numbers in
the given range/cell
• number1, number2, etc. can be references
either numbers or range/cell references.
Example:
=MEDIAN(2, 0, 1, 7)

This would return 1.5 (which is the average

of the middle numbers 1 and 2 when the
numbers are sorted in ascending order).

AVERAGE() =AVERAGE(number1, number2, …) Returns the mean or

• Only the argument number1 is average of the given
compulsory. The arguments from numbers (number1,
number2, etc.) or
number2 onwards are optional.
numbers in the given
• number1, number2, etc. can be range/cell references
either numbers or range/cell references.
Example:
=AVERAGE(2, 0, 1, 7)

This would return 2.5 (which is the average

of the four numbers).

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‚ Table 10.9 Common statistical functions (continued)

Function Syntax Description

SMALL() =SMALL(range, k) Returns the kth smallest

Example: number in range
=SMALL(A1:C3, 2)

This would return the

second-smallest number in the
range A1:C3.

LARGE() =LARGE(range, k) Returns the kth largest number

Example: in range
=LARGE(A1:C3, 2)

This would return the

second-largest number in the
range A1:C3.

Quick Check 10.3

1. The spreadsheet in Figure 10.34 is used to tabulate costs for a class party.

p Figure 10.34 Costs for a class party

a) Suggest a formula for cell E2 that can be copied into range E3:E9 in order to complete
the spreadsheet.

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How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

b) Suggest a formula for cell E10 to calculate the total cost from the subtotals.
c) Predict the value that will be returned for the following formulas:
i) =COUNTIF(B2:B9,">3")
=IF(A6="Drinks", IF(B6<10, "A", "B"), "C")
ii)

2. The formulas below are two ways of comparing the value in cell A1 with the number
3. They both return a text value of “Less than 3”, “Equal to 3” or “Greater than 3”.
• =IF(A1<3, "Less than 3", IF(A1=3, "Equal to 3", "Greater than 3"))
• =IF(A1<3, "Less than 3", IF(A1>3, "Greater than 3", "Equal to 3"))
Suggest two other formulas that can achieve the same result by rearranging the IF()
functions, arguments and/or changing the conditions.

3. The spreadsheet in Figure 10.35 is used to track scores in a race.

p Figure 10.35 Scores in a race

Timings of one minute or less get a score of 5. Timings between one minute and three
minutes get a score of 2. Timings exceeding three minutes get a score of 1.

a) Suggest a formula for cell C2 that can be copied to range C3:C6 in order to look up
the correct score from E2:F4. The formula must not require any further changes
after it is copied into C3:C6.
b) Suggest a formula for cell C8 to calculate the average of the five scores.
c) Suggest a formula for cell C9 to calculate the median of the five scores.

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4. The spreadsheet in Figure 10.36 is used to track the weight readings of students in
a class.

p Figure 10.36 Weight readings for a class

a) Suggest a formula for cell C2 that can be copied to range C3:C15 in order to round
the weight readings to one decimal place.
b) Suggest a formula for cell E17 to count the number of students with a rounded
weight reading that is less than 60 kg.
c) Suggest a formula for cell E18 to calculate the range of rounded weight readings.

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How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

10.4 What-If Analysis

As you have learnt, a spreadsheet is able to perform automatic recalculation of all affected cells if
any referenced cells are changed. We can use this ability to answer “what if” questions and predict
the outcomes that may occur when particular values are changed. In particular, a spreadsheet lets
us search for the best answer to meet a particular goal (using the Goal Seek feature).

10.4.1 Goal Seek

After defining the relationships between cells in a spreadsheet, we may wish to adjust the value in
one cell so that another cell can reach a particular value (i.e., the goal). Goal Seek automatically
solves the problem using a trial-and-error approach by plugging in guesses until the goal is reached.

For instance, suppose we have a spreadsheet that calculates the BMI (cell C2) of a student, given
his height (cell A2) and weight (cell B2) using the formula:
BMI = (Weight in kg) / (Height in m)2

p Figure 10.37 Spreadsheet to calculate a student’s BMI

As shown in Figure 10.37, the student is currently overweight as his BMI is above 27 (based
on the BMI guideline for 15- to 16-year-olds). To find out what his weight must be to reach an
acceptable BMI of 27, we can use the Goal Seek feature that can be found under the “What-If
Analysis” menu of the “Data” tab.

Figure 10.38 shows what the Goal Seek window looks like when it is first opened.

p Figure 10.38 Goal Seek window when initially opened

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 Module 1: Data and Information

In this case, we want to set the BMI (cell C2) to 27 by changing the weight (cell B2). Figure 10.39
shows how these requirements can be entered into the Goal Seek window.

p Figure 10.39 Using Goal Seek by keying in the required values

After clicking on “OK”, the spreadsheet automatically calculates the value of 56.77 for the student’s
weight in order to achieve a BMI of exactly 27, as shown in Figure 10.40. This means that the
student with a height of 1.45 m can only reach a BMI of 27 by reducing his weight to 56.77 kg.

p Figure 10.40 The solution (weight in kg) is found by Goal Seek

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How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

The spreadsheet in Figure 10.41 collates the expected attendance, funding and costs for the class
party described at the beginning of this chapter.

Formulas are used to calculate the total funding (cell C18) based on the amount each attendee
is expected to contribute (cell C1).

Formulas are also used to calculate the total cost (cell I12) based on the quantities of items needed
to organise a potluck. In particular, the formula in cell I1 shows whether the class party makes a
net profit or loss by calculating the difference between total funding and total cost.

p Figure 10.41 Spreadsheet for class party finances

Suppose the organisers of the class party wish to change the contribution per attendee so that the
class party breaks even exactly and neither makes nor loses money. This means that we should
set the difference between total funding and total cost (cell I1) to 0 by changing the contribution
per attendee (cell C1), as shown in Figure 10.42.

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 Module 1: Data and Information

p Figure 10.42 Using Goal Seek by setting the value for cell I1 to 0

After clicking on “OK”, the spreadsheet automatically calculates that each attendee should
contribute $3.00 in order to break even, as shown in Figure 10.43.

p Figure 10.43 The solution (contribution per attendee) found by Goal Seek

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How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

10.5 Conditional Formatting

When trying to understand a large set of data, it is often

useful to highlight important details to make them more Key Terms
noticeable. This can be done using a spreadsheet feature
called conditional formatting. Conditional formatting
Spreadsheet feature which
Conditional formatting allows a cell to automatically vary its automatically formats a
appearance based on its contents, ranking, relation to the cell based on given criteria
average, uniqueness or some other formula.
Rule (conditional
To use conditional formatting, we need to create rules. Each formatting)
rule specifies three pieces of information: Criterion for conditional
formatting; specifies a
1. Which range of cells the rule is applied to
range of cells, a condition
2. What condition is being tested to be tested for and the
3. What formatting should be applied if the condition formatting to apply if the
is true condition is true

To create a rule, select the range of cells that the rule should be
applied to, then choose “Conditional Formatting” under the “Home” tab, as shown in Figure 10.44.

The most common cases and options for using conditional formatting are listed under this menu.
More complex rules can be created using the “New Rule…” option while existing rules can be
edited or removed using the “Manage Rules…” and “Clear Rules” options respectively.

p Figure 10.44 Conditional formatting menu under the “Home” tab

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 Module 1: Data and Information

For instance, suppose we wish to highlight the cells in the second column of the spreadsheet in
Figure 10.45 that contain a number that is less than 3.

p Figure 10.45 Spreadsheet for tracking class party contributions by each classmate’s family

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How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

To do this, we would follow the instructions in Table 10.10:

‚ Table 10.10 Using conditional formatting to highlight

cells that contain a number less than 3

Instructions

Step 1:
Select the range of cells that the new rule should be applied to.

In this case, we select the cells containing numbers under the second column (range
B4:B17).

Step 2:
Select “Conditional Formatting” under the “Home” tab.
Since we wish to highlight the cells that contain a number that is less than 3, we can
select “Highlight Cells Rules” and choose the “Less Than…” option.

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‚ Table 10.10 Using conditional formatting to highlight cells

that contain a number less than 3 (continued)

Instructions

Besides varying the font, fill and border of cells, we can also use the “Data Bars”, “Color
Scales” and “Icon Sets” (outlined in green) options to display tiny bar graphs called data
bars, or icons that update automatically based on each cell’s contents.

Step 3:
Complete the “LESS THAN” condition by entering a value of 3.
(Note that cell references can also be used here instead of constants. Relative cell
references will be changed relative to the top-leftmost cell of the range when applied to
other cells in the range.)
The box outlined in green describes how cells that match the condition will be formatted.
Besides the default options, we can also choose the “Custom Format…” option to
customise the formatting.

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How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

‚ Table 10.10 Using conditional formatting to highlight cells

that contain a number less than 3 (continued)

Instructions

In this case, we will use the default option of “Light Red Fill with Dark Red Text” and
click “OK”.

Result:
The cells under the second column which contain a number less than 3 are now
highlighted using a light red fill and dark red text, as expected.

Note that changing the contents of highlighted cell to a number that is 3 or more will
automatically remove its highlighting. Similarly, changing the contents of a
non-highlighted cell in B4:B17 to any number that is less than 3 will automatically
highlight it.

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If we select the “Manage Rules…” option under the conditional formatting menu while the
highlighted cells are selected, we see that there is now a rule applied to range $B$4:$B$17 that
formats any cells in this range containing a value less than 3 with a light red fill and dark red text,
as shown in Figure 10.46.

p Figure 10.46 Conditional formatting rules can be edited and/or deleted

in the Conditional Formatting Rules Manager window

To remove a conditional formatting rule, select it in the Conditional Formatting Rules Manager
window and click “Delete Rule”. To change the rule’s range, condition and/or highlighting style,
select it and click “Edit Rule…”.

Sometimes, none of the common cases and options under the “Conditional Formatting” menu
are suitable for what is required. In that case, we will need to create a custom rule by selecting
“New Rule…” under the conditional formatting menu.

Suppose we wish to highlight the cells in the first column of the spreadsheet in Figure 10.47 that
contain a name starting with the letter M.

p Figure 10.47 Spreadsheet where conditional formatting is needed

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How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

To do this, we would follow the instructions in Table 10.11:

‚ Table 10.11 Using conditional formatting with a custom rule

for names starting with the letter M

Instructions

Step 1:
Select the range of cells that the new rule should be applied to.

In this case, we select the cells containing the names under the first column (range
A4:A17).

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 Module 1: Data and Information

‚ Table 10.11 Using conditional formatting with a custom rule

for names starting with the letter M (continued)

Instructions

Step 2:
Select “Conditional Formatting” under the “Home” tab.
We wish to highlight the cells that contain names starting with the letter M. Unfortunately,
none of the common options under the “Conditional Formatting” menu appear suitable
for this requirement.
This means that we will need to create a custom rule by selecting “New Rule…”.

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How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

‚ Table 10.11 Using conditional formatting with a custom rule

for names starting with the letter M (continued)

Instructions

Step 3:
The New Formatting Rule window will appear.

None of the first five options appear suitable for checking whether any cells start with
the letter M, so we will select the last option: “Use a formula to determine which cells
to format”

Step 4:
Now we need a formula that will produce a logical value based on whether the first letter
of the name in each cell is the letter M.

We always write custom formulas for conditional formatting rules relative to the top-left
cell of the range. In this case, it is cell A4.

To check whether the first character of A4 is the letter M, we use the formula
“=LEFT(A4, 1)="M"”.

We then customise the formatting to have a yellow fill and click “OK”.

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‚ Table 10.11 Using conditional formatting with a custom rule

for names starting with the letter M (continued)

Instructions

Result:
Cells under the first column containing a name which starts with the letter M are now
highlighted using a yellow fill.

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How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

Chapter Summary

Data Data
Processing Distribution

Data Data Goal Seek

Collection Analysis

DATA CONDITIONAL WHAT-IF

MANAGEMENT FORMATTING ANALYSIS

SPREADSHEETS

UNDERSTANDING
FUNCTIONS
SPREADSHEETS

Logical Functions
Cell and Range
Text Functions Addresses

Date Function

Lookup Functions Data Types

Math Functions

Statistical Functions Formulas and

Automatic
Recalculation

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Review Questions

1. The spreadsheet in Figure 10.48 is used to tabulate the monthly interest earned and money
withdrawn from a bank account.

p Figure 10.48 Interest earned and money withdrawn from a bank account

When Ctrl-` is pressed, the spreadsheet looks like this:

p Figure 10.49 Spreadsheet for bank account with formulas shown

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How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

Create this spreadsheet with the formulas shown in Figure 10.58 using a spreadsheet
program, then answer the following questions:
a) Suggest a formula for cell C2 that can be copied into range C3:C13 in order to
calculate the interest earned for each month before money is withdrawn, using the
interest rate that is specified in cell G1.
b) In the program, use Goal Seek to determine what the monthly interest rate must be to
have $4,200 left at the end of December. Give your answer to two decimal places.
c) In the program, use conditional highlighting to automatically colour the text of cells in
column D red if they show a withdrawal amount greater than $100.

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 11 Module 2: Systems and Communications

How Do I Create a
Simple Network?
Siti’s family has several devices, such as laptops, mobile phones, tablets and a wireless
printer. She wants to create a simple network to connect all these devices together in
her new home so that data can be transferred between them. Previously, she could only
print her assignments from her brother’s desktop computer but not from her laptop.
She would like to print from both devices.

In previous chapters, we learnt about ethical issues that relate to the use of computers
in public and private networks. The world is becoming increasingly connected with the
growing number of network hardware being linked to the Internet. Computer networking
has enabled the fast and effective transfer of data, which is essential for the daily
operations of businesses and our way of life.

In this chapter, we will learn about what makes up a network and the different types
of networks. We will also learn about the practical concerns of implementing a wired
and a wireless network, the differences between client-server and peer-to-peer network
architectures, and the components of a simple home network.

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How Do I Create a Simple Network?

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Identify and explain the function of different network hardware: modem, network
interface controller, hub, switch and router.

• Describe the difference between wired and wireless networks and explain the factors
that will determine the use of each type of network.

• Describe the components for a simple home network and design a simple
home network.

• Compare and contrast client-server and peer-to-peer network strategies with

emphasis on:
– Purpose
– Function
– Organisation
– Bandwidth

• Explain the use of parity and checksums in data transmission.

11.1 Computer Network

A computer network is a system of two or more computers

that are connected together by a transmission medium for the Key Term
exchange of data.
Transmission medium
Table 11.1 on the next page shows some advantages and Means of connecting
disadvantages of a computer network. two or more computers
together, such as using
copper cables, radio
waves or light pulses,
so that they may
exchange data and
interact with each other

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‚ Table 11.1 Advantages and disadvantages of a computer network

Advantages Disadvantages

• Shared resources: A network allows • Initial costs: Installing a network could

a group of computers to make use of be costly due to the high setup and
shared resources such as printers equipment costs.
or files.
• Maintenance costs: There are also
• Shared Internet access: Depending on subsequent costs associated with
the network’s configuration, every user administering and maintaining the
who logs on to the network may have network.
access to the Internet.
• Security risks: As files are shared
• Shared software: Software can be through a network, there is the risk
stored on the central server of a of virus or worm attacks spreading
network and deployed to other throughout the network even with just
computers over a network. one infected computer.

• Shared storage: Data files can be • Risk of data loss: Data may become
stored on a central server for ease of lost due to hardware failures or errors.
access and backup purposes. Using a network means regular data
backups are needed.
• Communication: Computers in the
same network are often able to share • Server outage: If the server fails, the
instant messages and emails for network will not be able to function,
communication. thus affecting work processes.

11.2 Types of Computer Networks

Computer networks can be classified according to their geographical size, transmission medium
and network organisation type.

11.2.1 Geographical Size

Depending on the geographical coverage of the network, a network can be classified into one
of the following types:
1. Local area network
2. Metropolitan area network
3. Wide area network

The number of users that it serves will also vary according to its geographical size.

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11.2.1.1 Local Area Network

A local area network (LAN) is a network of computing

devices connected within a small geographical area, typically Key Terms
within the same building, such as a home, school or office.
Due to the small number of connections supported and the Local area network (LAN)
close proximity of the devices, LANs typically provide faster Network of computing
data transfer than the other networks. devices connected within
a small geographical area,
The size of the network in Siti’s home is relatively small. Thus, typically within the same
her home network is a LAN. building, such as a home,
school or office

Metropolitan area
11.2.1.2 Metropolitan Area Network
network (MAN)
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network of Network of computing
computing devices covering a larger geographical area – devices typically spanning
two or more buildings within the same town or city – than across two or more
a LAN. A MAN is typically owned and operated by a large buildings within the same
organisation such as a business or government body. town or city

Wide area network

(WAN)
11.2.1.3 Wide Area Network Network of computing
devices covering a
A wide area network (WAN) is a network of computing
large-scale geographical
devices covering a large-scale geographical area, typically
area, typically across
across multiple geographical locations.
multiple geographical
locations
A WAN generally consists of multiple smaller networks such
as LANs or MANs.

A WAN differs from a LAN in several ways. Unlike a LAN, a WAN is not limited to a single
geographical location and can span long distances via long-range transmission media such as
telephone lines, fibre optic cables or satellite links.

WANs can be either private or public. Private WANs are built and maintained by large
multinational companies and government organisations. The Internet is an example of a public
WAN. A WAN also uses more expensive and high-speed technology than a LAN.

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Figure 11.1 compares the geographical distribution of these three types of network.

WAN
Wide Area Network

MAN
Metropolitan
Area Network

LAN
Local Area Network

p Figure 11.1 Geographical distribution of LAN, MAN and WAN

11.2.2 Transmission Medium

Networks can also be classified according to their transmission
medium, such as cables or electromagnetic waves. The Key Terms
following sections will describe wired and wireless networks
and their transmission media. Ethernet
Most commonly used
wired network protocol
for local and metropolitan
11.2.2.1 Wired Networks
area networks
A wired network is a network of devices connected by a
physical medium, such as cables. Data transfer is typically Network protocol
faster and more secure in a wired network. However, as Set of standards and rules
the number of devices and the distance between devices that govern how two or
increase, the cost of setting up the network increases as well. more devices communicate
over a network
Computers in a network communicate using a set of network
protocols, just like how people communicate using languages. Wired network
The Ethernet is the most widely used wired network protocol Network of devices
in LANs and MANs. Figure 11.2 shows the connector of connected by a physical
an Ethernet cable that is used to connect devices in a medium, such as cables
wired network.

p Figure 11.2 An Ethernet cable connector

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How Do I Create a Simple Network?

11.2.2.2 Wireless Networks

A wireless network is a network of devices in which signals

are transmitted without the use of a physical medium. The Key Terms
transmission is in the form of electromagnetic waves, such
as radio waves and microwaves. Users can be connected to Client
a wireless network as long as they are within range of the Computer that initiates
network coverage. a connection to a server
to request for resources
The most common wireless network protocol is Wi-Fi, which and services to perform
uses radio waves to transmit data. operations

A wireless access point (WAP) is network hardware that Server

provides a connection between wireless devices up to 100 Computer that shares
metres away and can connect to wired networks. Obstacles resources with and
such as walls or metal frames can reduce the strength of responds to requests from
Wi-Fi signals. Radio signals such as those from microwave devices and other servers
ovens can also interfere with Wi-Fi signals. on the network

Wireless networks are becoming increasingly popular in Wireless access point

homes and businesses as they are becoming lower in cost (WAP)
and are easy to configure and manage. Network hardware that
provides a connection
between wireless devices
up to 100 metres away
11.2.3 Organisation
and can connect to
Computers in a network are generally classified as either wired networks
clients or servers.
Wireless network
A client is a computer that initiates a connection to a server Network of devices
to request for resources and services to perform operations. in which signals are
Employees in offices or students in schools would normally transmitted without the use
use client computers to do their work. of a physical medium

A server is a computer that shares resources and responds

to requests from devices and other servers on the network. It usually has a higher capacity and is
more powerful than a client as it needs to manage resources and services. These might include:
• Providing central storage of files
• Sharing hardware such as printers
• Controlling logins and network access

Although any computer can function as a server, computers that are designed specifically for use
as servers are built to be reliable and less prone to failure. This means that they may be much
more expensive than normal computers.

Computers can be organised in either a client-server or peer-to-peer network.

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11.2.3.1 Client-Server Network

In a client-server network, one or more higher-capacity computers will act as servers while the
remaining computers are clients. Each server contains data and other resources to be shared with
clients. The server also fulfils requests from clients.

Table 11.2 shows the advantages and disadvantages of a client-server network.

‚ Table 11.2 Advantages and disadvantages of a client-server network

Advantages Disadvantages

• Centralised control of data • Higher initial cost due to the need for
and resources a server
• Easy to schedule backups of all shared • Administrative costs needed for the
files at regular intervals maintenance of server and clients
• Security may be enhanced with the
use of specialised software or
operating system features that are
designed for servers

11.2.3.2 Peer-To-Peer Network

Peer-to-peer (P2P) is a type of network where all computers are considered as equals and the
load is distributed among all computers. Each computer in the network is able to act as both a
client and a server, communicating directly with other computers. Users are able to share files
and resources located on their computers as well as access shared resources found on other
computers in the network. These networks are low in cost.

Figure 11.3 shows an example of a P2P network.

Computer Computer

Computer Computer

Computer Computer

p Figure 11.3 A P2P network

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How Do I Create a Simple Network?

Table 11.3 shows the advantages and disadvantages of a P2P network.

‚ Table 11.3 Advantages and disadvantages of a P2P network

Advantages Disadvantages

• Cheaper to set up as there is no cost • More effort is required to access and

related to dedicated servers back up resources as they are stored
locally within each computer instead
• Easy to set up as no specialised
of centrally in a server
software or operating system features
are needed • Security is an issue as access rights are
not administered by a central server

Table 11.4 compares client-server and P2P networks.

Key Term

Bandwidth
The average number of bits of data
that can be transmitted from a source
to a destination over the network
in one second; usually measured
in megabits per second (Mbps) or
gigabits per second (Gbps)

‚ Table 11.4 Comparison between client-server and P2P networks

Feature Client-server P2P

Function Data and resources are shared Data and resources are shared
using one or more dedicated directly between computers;
servers; each computer has a each computer acts as both a
distinct role – client or server client and server

Organisation Each client is connected to one or Each computer in the network

of hardware more dedicated servers can serve as a client and server
at the same time

Bandwidth Typically high but limited by the Varies depending on how

capability of the server data needs to be transmitted;
bandwidth may be reduced if
a single computer must handle
a large request, but may be
increased if a large request can
be divided into smaller requests
that are handled by multiple
computers simultaneously

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‚ Table 11.4 Comparison between client-server and P2P networks (continued)

Feature Client-server P2P

Security High as access rights can be Low as security is handled by

controlled centrally at a server each computer and not by a
central server

Setup cost High as the use of specialised Low as basic computers can act
high-performance servers would as servers to share resources
be needed

Storage Centralised and carried out only Decentralised and can be carried
at the server; usually managed by out by individual users at each
a network administrator computer

Application Found in businesses or Found in homes or small

organisations with a large number businesses where there are
of users fewer users

Quick Check 11.2

1. Company X has a remote office in another country that needs to access information
from its main headquarters. What is the type of network used in this case?
A LAN
B MAN
C WAN
D None of the above

2. The main office of Y Corporation occupies five floors in their building. What is the type
of network used in this case?
A LAN
B MAN
C WAN
D None of the above

3. Write down three advantages of a client-server network.

4. State whether each of the features below describes a client-server network or a

peer-to-peer network:
a) Every computer is able to directly share resources with other computers in
the network.
b) Each computer has a distinct role in the network.
c) It is easier to schedule backups of shared files on this type of network.

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11.3 Factors Affecting Choice of Transmission Medium

Both wired and wireless networks have their advantages and disadvantages.

Table 11.5 shows the factors that should be considered when deciding between a wired or
wireless network.

‚ Table 11.5 Comparison between wired and wireless networks

Factor Wired Wireless

Cost Initially cheaper but becomes Initially expensive due to the cost
more expensive as network of wireless networking equipment
grows in size due to the cost of but becomes more cost-effective
cables as network grows in size

Speed of Faster and higher bandwidth Generally slower and lower

transmission as cables provide dedicated bandwidth due to possible
and connection interference from radio waves
bandwidth or microwaves; varies according
to user location in relation to
network

Reliability More reliable as data transmission Less reliable due to potential

is unaffected by interference interference from radio waves
and microwaves or blockage
from physical obstructions

Security More secure as the network is Less secure due to possible

less susceptible to interception intrusion by hackers
and hacking

Mobility of Lower as network connections Higher as users can move about

users are fixed at specific spots and freely within the range of the
users cannot move to other wireless network
locations

Scalability More cumbersome to add Easier to add new devices to the

new devices to the network network as the router can be
as physical constraints and the easily configured
running of cables need to be
considered

Physical Tends to look more disorganised More organised without cables

organisation due to cables running across
floors

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Quick Check 11.3

1. Siti wants to send print jobs from both her laptop as well as tablet whenever she is at
home. Describe two advantages of using a wireless network to enable printing from
multiple devices in her home.

2. Give two reasons why wireless networks are preferred over wired networks at cafes
and canteens.

11.4 Identifiers

Networks typically have many computers and programs using them at any one time. In order
to identify the different networks, computers and programs, we need to give them names and
describe their respective functions.

In Chapter 8, you learnt how IP addresses (sections 8.4.2.1 and 8.4.2.2) and MAC addresses
(section 8.4.2.3) are used to identify individual computers so that data transmitted over a network
can be directed to the correct destination. The following sections will discuss other ways that
networks, computers and programs can be identified – using port numbers and SSIDs.

11.4.1 Port Numbers

A port number is used in combination with an IP address to
identify a program that is running on a network. Each program Key Term
that is active on the network must be identifiable by one or more
unique combinations of an IP address and a port number. Both Port number
clients and servers can run programs that use port numbers to Number that is used
identify themselves. together with an IP
address to uniquely
A computing device can run multiple programs at the same identify a program that
time. For example, a single computer can run both a web server is running on a network
program with port number 80 and a mail server program with
port number 143. All port numbers are assigned in a range from
0 to 65,535.

Did you know?

You can list all the port numbers that are in use on your computer by entering “netstat -na”
at the command prompt.

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How Do I Create a Simple Network?

11.4.2 Service Set Identifiers

A service set identifier (SSID) is a string of up to 32 bytes that
identifies a wireless access point (WAP) and all the devices Key Term
connected to it. All wireless devices connected to the same WAP
must use the same SSID. Service set identifier
(SSID)
If Siti decides to set up a wireless network at home using a WAP, A 32-byte string that
she will need to configure an SSID for her WAP so that her devices identifies a wireless
can select this WAP and connect to it. access point (WAP)
and all devices
Figure 11.4 shows an example of the SSID of a wireless network. connected to it

p Figure 11.4 An example of the SSID of a wireless network

Quick Check 11.4

1. On a computer or laptop connected to the network, use the command line interface
or network tools available to find its MAC and IPv4 addresses.

2. Choose the correct words in the statements below from the given choices:
a) A program running on a network can be uniquely identified by its (MAC address /
port number / SSID) and IP address.
b) All (wired/wireless) devices connected to the same WAP must use the same SSID.

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11.5 Network Hardware and Their Functions

Data is seldom sent in a single stream over networks. Instead, it is broken up into smaller packets
before being sent independently over the network through devices such as hubs, switches and
routers. Besides containing a piece of the original data, each packet also contains a header with
information about the source and destination addresses that are needed for transmission. These
data packets are then reassembled at the destination device.

11.5.1 Network Interface Controller

A network interface controller (NIC) provides the hardware interface to enable the transfer of data
between a device and a network. An NIC may connect to a network physically or wirelessly.
Most devices are equipped with a built-in NIC. Figure 11.5 shows an example of a wireless NIC.

p Figure 11.5 A wireless NIC

As discussed in section 8.4.2.3, each NIC also has a unique 48-bit MAC address that can be used
to identify the particular computer or device with that NIC.

11.5.2 Network Hub

A network hub is the simplest way to connect multiple devices
to the same network. When a hub receives a packet, the packet Key Terms
is transmitted to all the devices that are connected to the hub.
Likewise, when a device responds, the response is sent to every Network hub (or hub)
device that is connected to the hub. Device that transmits
received packets to all
In this way, a hub acts like a loudspeaker as it broadcasts the connected devices
data to all its connected devices without limiting the data to
only the specific device it was intended for. Packet (computing)
A unit of broken-up data
containing a header with
information about the
source and destination
addresses that are
needed for transmission

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How Do I Create a Simple Network?

Figure 11.6 shows how a network hub works.

Computer A

A hub broadcasts data

like a loudspeaker
Data for
Computer A

Computer B

Data for
Data for Computer A
Hub
Computer A

Data for
Computer A Computer C

p Figure 11.6 How a network hub works

A hub is the cheapest option among all the network connection devices as it does not store any
information about the devices that are connected to it. However, because the hub transmits data
to all connected devices regardless of the intended recipient, it can cause bottlenecks that reduce
the overall efficiency of the network.

11.5.3 Network Switch

A network switch constructs a single network by connecting
multiple similar networks together. Switches are typically Key Term
used to connect multiple LANs that use the same protocol so
that the combined network can cover a larger physical area. Network switch (or switch)
Device that constructs
Unlike a hub that simply repeats data to all connected a single network by
devices, a switch uses MAC addresses to keep track of connecting multiple similar
the devices that are connected to it. This lets the switch networks together
intelligently decide whether it should drop or forward the
packets that it receives.

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In Figure 11.7, suppose the switch receives a packet from computer A. The switch first examines
the destination MAC address stored in the packet’s header and decides whether to forward or
drop the packet.

Network 1

Network 2
Hub

Computer A

Computer B
Switch Computer C

Computer D
Hub

p Figure 11.7 How a switch connects two networks

If the destination MAC address is that of computer B, the switch will drop the packet as computers
A and B are already on the same network.

On the other hand, if the destination MAC address is that of computer C or D, the switch will
forward the packet to the other network and on towards its intended destination.

Did you know?

A network switch that connects exactly two networks together is also called a network bridge. Most
large networks use switches and bridges instead of hubs as these devices are more “intelligent” and
will send packets through a connection only if the switch or bridge determines that the intended
recipient is on the other end, hence avoiding unnecessary bottlenecks. This makes using switches
and bridges more efficient than using hubs.

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How Do I Create a Simple Network?

11.5.4 Router
A router forwards packets between separate networks.
While a switch combines multiple similar networks that Key Term
use the same protocol into a single network, a router keeps
the connected networks (which may use fundamentally Router
different protocols) separate and forwards packets between Device that forwards packets
them using Internet protocols. between separate networks

For instance, Siti’s Internet service provider (ISP) has supplied

her with a modem (described in section 11.5.5) that connects to the ISP’s network using a special
protocol that works over telephone lines. For Siti to send packets through the ISP’s network using
the Ethernet connection on her computer, she will need a router to forward packets between her
computer, which uses Ethernet, and the ISP’s network, which uses a different protocol.

In order for a router to forward packets between different networks using Internet protocols,
both the device sending the packet and the device receiving the packet must be identified using
IP addresses.

Note that switches (described in section 11.5.3) forward packets based on permanent MAC
addresses, while routers forward packets based on IP addresses that may change dynamically.

Did you know?

The name “Internet” actually comes from the term “internetworking”, which refers to the practice
of forwarding packets between different and separate networks. The Internet Protocol achieves
this by serving as an additional “overlay” protocol on top of the different Ethernet, Wi-Fi and other
protocols used by the separate networks.

11.5.5 Modem
While Ethernet cables are useful for LANs and some MANs, they are not suitable for connecting
devices over a long distance (such as from Siti’s ISP to her home) as the number of transmission
errors increases with cable length. Instead, ISPs typically use special protocols and long-range
transmission media such as telephone lines or fibre optic cables.

Long-range transmission media, however, are typically not designed for transferring digital data
(i.e., 0 and 1 bits) that are used by computers. For instance, telephone lines are designed for
transmitting analogue sounds and not digital data. Hence, it becomes necessary to convert digital
data into a form suitable for the transmission medium before it can be transmitted.

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The process of converting digital data into a form suitable for

transmission is known as modulation. The reverse process is
Key Terms
known as demodulation. On either end of the transmission, the
device responsible for modulation and demodulation is known Demodulation
as a modem (short for “modulator-demodulator”). Conversion of
transmitted signals into
When setting up Internet access in a home network, an ISP digital data
will typically provide a modem that sets up a long-distance
connection to the ISP’s network. Modem
Device responsible
In Figure 11.8, a wireless router and a modem are installed to for modulation
provide Internet access to multiple devices in the home. and demodulation

Modulation
Conversion of digital
data into a form suitable
for transmission

WAN LAN

Internet

Internet service provider

Telephone
lines

Modem 192.168.1.9
86.102.26.202

Router

Public IP address assigned 192.168.1.1

by Internet service provider (ISP)

Private IP addresses assigned

by router

p Figure 11.8 How a LAN is connected to the public network using a modem

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How Do I Create a Simple Network?

Quick Check 11.5

1. Which of the following network hardware allows separate networks that use different
network protocols to be connected together?
A Firewall
B Hub
C Switch
D Router

2. Give two examples of network hardware used in your home and school.

11.6 Network Topologies

A topology describes the physical layout of a network. Understanding the topology is essential
to designing a network.

11.6.1 Bus Topology

In the bus topology, a common cable or backbone known as the bus connects all the devices. The
bus is a medium that allows the transmission of data. It also allows the devices to communicate
with the server, with each other and with devices such as a shared printer.

During communication, a sender will transmit data along the bus and all the devices connected
to the bus can detect that data is being transmitted. However, only the intended recipient will
accept and process the data.

Figure 11.9 shows how the devices are connected in a bus topology.

Computer Server Computer Computer

Data bus

Computer Printer Computer

p Figure 11.9 A bus topology network

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 Module 2: Systems and Communications

Table 11.6 shows the advantages and disadvantages of a bus topology.

‚ Table 11.6 Advantages and disadvantages of a bus topology

Advantages Disadvantages

• Easy and cheap to install as it uses less • A break anywhere along the bus may
cabling than other network designs disable the entire network
• Scalable as new computers can be • The size of the network is limited by
easily added the capacity and length of the bus
• Can continue to operate even when • A single bus is unsuitable for networks
one of the computers breaks down with many computers; performance
slows down as the number of
• Works well for small networks
computers increases

11.6.2 Ring Topology

In the ring topology, each computer is connected to two other computers in a ring formation. All
the data is passed around in the same direction. If a failure occurs in the cable or if a computer
breaks down, the entire network will fail to function.

Figure 11.10 shows how the devices are connected in a ring network.

Computer Computer

Computer Server

Computer Printer

p Figure 11.10 A ring topology network

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How Do I Create a Simple Network?

Table 11.7 shows the advantages and disadvantages of a ring topology.

‚ Table 11.7 Advantages and disadvantages of a ring topology

Advantages Disadvantages

• Can operate over larger distances and • If a computer or cable in the network
handle more data than a bus topology fails, the entire network may fail as the
data cannot be passed on
• Data packets that are sent between
two computers will pass through • Adding a new computer to the
intermediate computers, hence a ring network would mean that the
central server is not required to whole communication ring needs to
manage the network be temporarily interrupted

11.6.3 Star Topology

In the star topology, network hardware such as a hub or switch is at the centre of the network
with connections to all the other computers. The computers will send data to the central network
hardware and the hardware forwards the data to the intended destination.

Figure 11.11 shows how the devices are connected in a star topology.

Computer

Computer Computer
Network
hardware in
the centre
such as
a hub

Computer Printer

p Figure 11.11 A star topology network

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Table 11.8 shows the advantages and disadvantages of a star topology.

‚ Table 11.8 Advantages and disadvantages of a star topology

Advantages Disadvantages

• The load on each section of cabling is • Uses more cabling than other
reduced as each computer uses a topologies and hence costs more
separate cable from the rest
• If the central network hardware fails,
• If a fault occurs at a computer or the entire network fails
cable, it is easy to isolate the fault and
do a replacement without affecting the
rest of the network

Quick Check 11.6

1. The describes how the network is arranged and how resources

are shared.
A communication channel
B network topology
C network hub
D local area network

2. Which of the following network topologies is the least reliable in the event of a
breakdown of a computer in the network?
A Bus
B Client-server
C Ring
D Star

3. Jake plans to set up an accountancy consulting business in town. He wants to have

a LAN in his office. He has about 100 staff working in the same office while about
20 other staff work from offsite locations such as his clients’ offices. The staff need to
share files among themselves and be able to connect to printers. Most of the data being
handled is confidential and dates back from 10 years ago to the present. He also has
plans to expand his business in the next five years.
a) Which network topology is most suitable in this case? Why?
b) Explain why a client-server network is preferred over a peer-to-peer network by
considering bandwidth, security and storage issues.

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How Do I Create a Simple Network?

11.7 Error-Checking Methods in Data Transmission

Data can become lost or corrupted during transmission. As mentioned in section 11.5, data is
seldom sent in a single stream, but is instead broken up and sent in smaller packets. This allows
us to focus on detecting transmission errors one packet at a time.

There are two basic error-checking methods to ensure that the data received at the destination
is the same as that at the source:
1. Parity check
2. Checksum

Each packet illustrated in the following examples is eight bits long. Note that, in reality, the packets
are usually much longer.

11.7.1 Parity Check

In parity check, an additional bit is either appended or
prepended to a string of binary data for transmission. This Key Terms
parity bit can be either 0 or 1, depending on whether an
odd or even parity system is used. Parity bits are the simplest Parity bit
method of error detection. Additional bit, which can
be either 0 or 1 depending
In the odd parity system, the total number of 1 bits in each on whether an odd or even
packet (including the parity bit) should be odd. In the even parity system is used, that
parity system, the total number of 1 bits in each packet is appended or prepended
(including the parity bit) should be even. to a string of binary data
before transmission
For example, the packet in Figure 11.12 has the original data
bits 1010001. There are three 1 bits in the original data string. Parity check
In an even parity system, the parity bit of 1 would be added Error-checking technique
to increase the total number of 1 bits in the packet to four, which uses a parity bit to
which is an even number. detect errors

parity bit original data bits

1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1

p Figure 11.12 Each packet in an even parity system should have an even number of 1 bits

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Table 11.9 describes the two possible scenarios that may occur when the packet arrives at the
destination. If the data transmission is successful, the total number of 1 bits detected would be
even, which is the same as that at the source. This means that the data is error-free. However, if
there is a simple error in the data transmission, the total number of 1 bits detected would be odd,
which differs from that at the source. This means that the data is corrupted.

‚ Table 11.9 Successful and failed data transmission in an even parity system

Data transmission
Original Parity system
data bits – even
Successful Unsuccessful

1010001 11010001 11010001 11110001

Total number of Total number of

1 bits is even 1 bits is odd

If the same packet is used in an odd parity system instead, then the parity bit of 0 is added, as
there is already an odd number of 1 bits in the original data string.

parity bit original data bits

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1

p Figure 11.13 Each packet in an odd parity system should have an odd number of 1 bits

Table 11.10 describes the two possible scenarios that may occur when the packet arrives at the
destination. If the data transmission is successful, the total number of 1 bits detected would be
odd, which is the same as that at the source. This means that the data is error-free. However, if
there is a simple error in the data transmission, the total number of 1 bits detected would be even,
which differs from that at the source. This means that the data is corrupted.

‚ Table 11.10 Successful and failed data transmission in an odd parity system

Data transmission
Original Parity system
data bits – odd
Successful Unsuccessful

1010001 01010001 01010001 11010001

Total number of Total number of

1 bits is odd 1 bits is even

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How Do I Create a Simple Network?

Parity checking has certain limitations. For instance, it is able to detect that an error has occurred
but cannot determine where the error occurred.

It is also unable to detect all the possible types of errors. It can detect simple errors where only a
single bit is changed, but not serious errors where multiple bits are changed. In particular, if two
different errors occur in a single packet, they can effectively cancel each other out and result in
the correct parity even though the data is actually corrupted.

In general, parity checking can only detect errors when an odd number of bits have been corrupted
but not when an even number of bits have been corrupted.

11.7.2 Checksum
A checksum is a calculated value that is used to determine the integrity of transmitted data.
A checksum serves as a unique identifier for the data and is sent together with the data.

Before transmission, the checksum for the data is first calculated. Assuming that the checksum is
one byte in length, it can be calculated in two ways.

If the sum of all the bytes in the data is less than or equal to 255, the checksum is this value.
If the sum is greater than 255, the checksum is the modulus of 256.

For example, if the sum is 1,350, the checksum is 1,350

modulo 256, which gives 70. Key Term

The data and the checksum are then sent together. At the Checksum
destination, the checksum is recalculated and compared Calculated value that is
to the sent checksum value. If the checksum value of the used to determine the
received data matches the sent checksum value, the data integrity of transmitted data
was transmitted correctly. If they differ, an error has occurred.

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Quick Check 11.7

1. Determine the parity bit for the data string in Figure 11.14 if an odd parity system
is used.

1 1 0 0 0 0 1

p Figure 11.14 A 7-bit data string in an odd parity system

2. Determine the parity bit of the following data strings if an even parity system is used:
a) 1001000
b) 1100110
c) 1001111

3. Determine whether each of the following data packets has been corrupted. Use the
parity check method, given that the last bit is the parity bit and an odd parity system
is used.
a) 11100111
b) 11011010

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Chapter Summary

Local Area Wide Area

Network Network
Wired
Client-Server Network
Network Metropolitan
Area Network
Wireless
Peer-to-Peer Network
Network

GEOGRAPHICAL TRANSMISSION
ORGANISATION SIZE MEDIUM

Parity Check Port Numbers

TYPES

Service Set
Checksum
Identifiers

COMPUTER
ERROR-CHECKING
NETWORKS IDENTIFIERS
METHODS

HARDWARE NETWORK
TOPOLOGY

Network
Interface Bus
Controller
Network Hub Ring

Network Star
Switch
Router

Modem

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Review Questions

1. State three advantages of setting up a home or office network.

2. Match statements A–L below to the correct network architecture in Table 11.11.

A. Access to shared resources on the network such as printers, data files and web
access is managed by servers
B. Resources and files located on one computer are accessible by all other computers
within the network
C. All computers are independent of each other and are of equal status when
communicating with each other
D. The network consists of computers operated by users and centralised computers
which control the resources of all computers
E. Regular backups can be easily implemented with the use of a centralised
backup storage
F. Backups are difficult to organise since there is no centralised backup storage
G. Data is stored independently in each computer
H. Data is stored in a centralised storage device monitored by the server
I. More commonly found in businesses and organisations
J. More commonly found in homes
K. There is often no mechanism to manage access to the network, hence it is
less secure
L. Access to the network is managed using a database of usernames, passwords and
user profile and permission settings, hence the network tends to be more secure

‚ Table 11.11 Network architecture

Design factors Peer-to-peer Client-server

a) Organisation of components

b) Resource management

c) Storage

d) Mode of backup

e) Security

f) Type of environment

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How Do I Create a Simple Network?

3. A doctor wishes to set up a LAN in his new clinic. He has three staff located at different
counters within the clinic. During operating hours, he and his staff need to retrieve records
from a patient history database using their individual desktop computers. They will also
need to access a shared network printer to print receipts and medical certificates.
For security reasons, the patient history database and printer must be isolated from the
Internet and connected using a wired network. However, he would still like to provide his
patients with free wireless Internet access while they wait for their consultation.
a) The doctor purchases a network switch to help set up the LAN. Name the network
topology that is formed when multiple devices are connected to the network switch.
b) The patient history database needs to be accessed and modified by the doctor and his
staff multiple times throughout the day. Recommend, with explanation, whether the
patient history database should be stored on a single server or distributed among the
doctors and his staff using a peer-to-peer network.
c) Draw a labelled diagram of the clinic’s network(s). The diagram should include at least
four laptops, one printer, one fibre optic modem (for Internet access), one network
switch and one combined wireless router/access point. You may include additional
devices as needed.

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 Answers

ANSWERS
Chapter 1 How Do Computers Work?

Quick Check 1.1

1. True. However, “kilobyte” is still often confused with “kibibyte”, which is 1,024 bytes.

2. a) 2,017 kB = 2,017 × (103 bytes) = 2,017,000 bytes

b) 19 GB = 19 × (109 bytes) = 19,000,000,000 bytes
c) 65 MB = 65 × (106 bytes) = 65,000,000 bytes

Quick Check 1.3

1. The main differences between RAM and ROM are summarised below:

RAM ROM

Read and write: stored data can be Read only: stored data cannot be easily
easily changed changed

Volatile: loses data once power supply Non-volatile: retains data regardless of
to the computer is interrupted whether the power supply is switched
on or off

Purpose: to store data and instructions Purpose: to store data and instructions
temporarily so that they can be quickly that would be needed for a computer to
accessed by the processor when needed start up or before data can be loaded into
RAM

Quick Check 1.4

1. True. Memory addresses are just numbers so they can also be treated as data.

Quick Check 1.6

1. a) A hard disk. It is the most common device with storage capacity available in terabytes.
b) A memory card. It is the only device small and flat enough to fit in a wallet. A memory
card would also be less vulnerable to mechanical shocks that could occur in a wallet.

A–1
Answers

Review Questions

1. a) Control unit: follows instructions and decides when data should be stored, received or
transmitted by different parts of the computer
b) Arithmetic logic unit (ALU): processes data by performing basic mathematical and
logical operations
c) Main memory: stores data and instructions temporarily so they can be quickly accessed
by the processor when needed
d) Secondary storage: way of storing large amounts of data that will not be lost when
power supply is interrupted

2. a) Volatile
b) Volatile
c) Non-volatile
d) Non-volatile

3. Processor register, DVD, hard disk

4. A possible tabulation is as follows:

Computer Storage media

Processor Memory
name options

VR7 High-End CPU 16 GB Dual • 1 TB M.2 PCIe

Gaming PC (8-Core, 16 MB Channel DDR4 NVMe SSD
Cache, up to XMP at 2933 MHz
4.8 GHz)

CMD Mid-Range CPU 8 GB DDR4 • 1 TB

Multimedia (6 MB Cache, 2666 MHz RAM 5400 RPM
Laptop 3.6 GHz) 2.5-inch SATA
Hard Drive
• Optical Disk
Drive

Mini 3.6 GHz 8 GB of • 256 GB

EMDX PC Quad‑Core 2666 MHz PCIe‑based
Low‑End CPU DDR4 SO-DIMM SSD
6 MB shared L3 memory
Cache

A–2
 Answers

5. a) 17 × 1,000 = 17,000 bytes

b) 18 × 1,024 = 18,432 bytes

6. a) 8 × 1,000 × 1,000 × 1,000 × 1,000 × 8 = 64,000,000,000,000 bits

b) 0.125 × 1,000 × 1,000 × 8 = 1,000,000 bits
c) 0.125 × 1,024 × 1,024 × 8 = 1,048,576 bits

7. a) 64 × 1,024 = 65,536 bytes, which need 65,536 addresses

b) Each address represents one byte, so if there are only 256 possible addresses, there are
only 256 bytes of memory. Hence, total size of memory = 256 × 8 = 2,048 bits

8. a) R is located in the computer’s processor.

b) In Step 1, the address bus is used to transport A from the processor to the memory, and
the data bus is used to transport data from the memory to the processor.
In Step 2, the address bus is used to transport B from the processor to the memory, and
the data bus is used to transport data from the processor to the memory.
c) R and S are both located in the computer’s processor. The data and address buses are
only needed to manipulate data in the computer’s main memory.

9. a) False. The data bus connects the processor to memory only and not to secondary
storage such as hard disks.
b) Two improvements (accept any possible answer):
1. Faster reading and writing of files
2. Less noise when laptop is on
3. Lighter laptop
4. Longer battery life due to reduced power use

A–3
Answers

Chapter 2 How Can Algorithms Be Used to Solve Problems?

Quick Check 2.1

1. A. By itself, the map does not have any step-by-step instructions and therefore is not
an algorithm.

2. A modified addition algorithm that works for three positive whole numbers is provided
below with the required changes indicated in italics:
Step 1: Write the first number, then write the second number below it and the third
number below the second number such that the digits in the ones place are
aligned vertically. Draw a horizontal line below the third number.
Step 2: Let the current column be the right-most column of digits in the ones place.
Step 3: Add all the digits (including any “carry-over” digits) in the current column.
If a digit is missing, treat it as 0. There is no “carry-over” digit for the
right-most column.
Step 4: If the result is greater than 9, write the first digit of the result at the top of the
column immediately to the left of the current column as a “carry-over” digit.
Step 5: Write the last digit of the result at the bottom of the current column, below
the line.
Step 6: If there are still digits (including “carry-over” digits) to the left of the current
column, redefine that column on the left as the new current column and go
back to Step 3. Otherwise, the final answer is formed by the row of digits
below the line.

The only changes needed are in Step 1 and Step 4. The most significant difference is that
when adding three numbers, “carry-over” digits can be either 1 or 2.

3. A possible algorithm to find the top score of a class test is provided below:
Step 1: Let the current score be the first score on the list of scores. Write down the
current score.
Step 2: If the current score is the last score in the list, proceed to Step 5, otherwise
proceed to Step 3.
Step 3: Redefine the current score to be next score in the list.
Step 4: If the current score is greater than the score that was previously written down,
erase the previous score and write down the current score. Proceed to Step 2.
Step 5: The final answer is the written score.

A–4
 Answers

Quick Check 2.2

1. The modified input and output specifications for addition problem are as follows:

Input Output

• x: a whole number • The sum of x and y

• y: a whole number

The addition algorithm provided previously is not a solution to this modified problem.
See the counter-example below of using the algorithm to add –2017 to 1965:

The counter-example shows that the addition algorithm produces an incorrect answer of
3982 while the correct answer should be –52.

2. The input and output requirements for the problem are as follows:

Input Output

• Weights: list of weights of different • Weight of the heaviest apple

apples

The following input and output requirements are equivalent:

Input Output

• Number: number of apples; must • Weight of the heaviest apple

be a positive whole number

• Weight: weight of apple (provided

number times)

A–5
Answers

3. The title of the class test should be excluded as it is irrelevant and does not affect what
we require for the output.

The improved input and output requirements are as follows:

Input Output

• Scores: list of class • The average score of

test scores with each the class test
student's score on a
separate row

Quick Check 2.3

1. The correct passage is as follows:

If a complex problem is not broken down into parts, the time taken to solve the problem
may be too long. The technique of breaking down the problem into parts, called
decomposition, allows the parts to be evaluated separately. By making the parts more
manageable, the solutions to these parts can then be combined, and the original problem
can be solved.

2. A.

3. a) The input and output requirements of the problem are as follows:

Input Output

• x: a positive whole number • The absolute difference

between x and y
• y: a positive whole number

b) A possible algorithm is as follows:

Step 1: Compare 2017 and 1965.
Step 2: 2017 is bigger, so subtract 1965 from 2017. The final answer is the
absolute difference.

c) A possible algorithm is as follows:

Step 1: Compare 2017 and 2020.
Step 2: 2020 is bigger, so subtract 2017 from 2020. The final answer is the
absolute difference.

A–6
 Answers

d) Let the first number be x and the second number be y. A possible general solution is
as follows:
Step 1: Compare x and y.
Step 2: If x is bigger, subtract y from x, otherwise subtract x from y. The final answer
is the absolute difference.

Review Questions

1. An appropriate order is as follows:

Step 1: Add tap water to the kettle.
Step 2: Boil the contents of the kettle.
Step 3: Place a teabag in a cup and pour some water from the kettle into the cup.
Step 4: Wait for a few minutes to let the tea steep.
Step 5: Drink the contents of the cup.

2. The input and output requirements for sub-problem #1 are as follows:

Sub-problem Input Output

#1 • Map: a map of roads in • List of all possible

Siti's neighbourhood routes from home to
school using the
• Home: the position of
roads shown on map
Siti's home on map

• School: the position of

Pines Primary School
on map

A–7
Answers

Chapter 3 How Do I Use Flowcharts and Pseudo-Code?

Quick Check 3.2

1. a) The input and output requirements of the problem are as follows:

Input Output

• time: time just after • Student arrives in school

student leaves home

b) A flowchart that represents the algorithm is as follows:

Leave home

Check time

Is time before 8 a.m.?

Yes No

Take the bus Take the train

Reach school

A–8
 Answers

Quick Check 3.3

1. a) The trace table for test data of 3 is as follows:

result x OUTPUT

1
3
3
2
6
1
6
0
6

The output of 6 is the result of 3 × 2 × 1 = 6.

b) The trace table for test data of 5 is as follows:

result x OUTPUT

1
5
5
4
20
3
60
2
120
1
120
0
120

The output of 120 is the result of 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120.

A–9
Answers

c) From the pattern of output in a) and b), we can deduce that the algorithm uses the test
data to calculate the following:
Result = n × (n–1) × (n–2) … 2 × 1
where n is the input.

This is the formula for the factorial operation you may have learnt in mathematics to
count the number of ways that n distinct objects can be arranged. Thus, the purpose of
this algorithm is to calculate the factorial of the input, or n! for short.

Quick Check 3.4

1. Using the IF...THEN...ELSEIF...ELSE...ENDIF selection construct, the required

algorithm can be represented in pseudo-code as follows:

INPUT number
IF number == 1 THEN
OUTPUT "one"
ELSEIF number == 2 THEN
OUTPUT "two"
ELSEIF number == 3 THEN
OUTPUT "three"
ELSEIF number == 4 THEN
OUTPUT "four"
ELSEIF number == 5 THEN
OUTPUT "five"
ELSEIF number == 6 THEN
OUTPUT "six"
ELSEIF number == 7 THEN
OUTPUT "seven"
ELSE
OUTPUT "Invalid input"
ENDIF

The input and output requirements of the problem are as follows:

Input Output

• number: a whole number • The spelling of number in English

between 1 and 7 inclusive or “Invalid input” if number is invalid

A–10
 Answers

2. Using the FOR...NEXT iteration construct, the required algorithm can be represented in
pseudo-code as follows:

sum = 0
FOR i = 1 to 10
INPUT number
sum = sum + number
NEXT
average = sum / 10
OUTPUT average

The input and output requirements of the problem are as follows:

Input Output

• number: a number • The average of all 10

(provided 10 times) number values provided

A–11
Answers

A trace table for the provided test data is as follows:

sum number average OUTPUT

20

20

17

37

19

56

65

121

20

141

18

159

19

178

66

244

20

264

19

283

28.3

28.3

A–12
 Answers

Review Questions

1. a) A flowchart of this algorithm is as follows:

START

INPUT x

counter = 0

Is x == 1?

No Yes

Is x even? OUTPUT counter

Yes No

x=x/2 x = 3x + 1 STOP

counter = counter + 1

A–13
Answers

b) The trace table for test data of 5:

x counter OUTPUT

16

A–14
 Answers

c) The trace table for test data of 6:

x counter OUTPUT

6
0
3
1
10
2
5
3
16
4
8
5
4
6
2
7
1
8
8

d) A pseudo-code of this algorithm is as follows:

INPUT x
counter = 0
WHILE x != 1
IF x is even THEN
x = x / 2
ELSE
x = 3x + 1
ENDIF
counter = counter + 1
ENDWHILE
OUTPUT counter

A–15
Answers

2. A possible flowchart of this algorithm is as follows:

START

INPUT temperature

Yes
Is temperature > 20 °C? Turn air conditioner ON

No

Yes
Is temperature < 18 °C? Turn air conditioner OFF

No

3. A possible solution is as follows:

INPUT Choice
INPUT Amount

IF Choice == "Ringgit" THEN

OUTPUT Amount * 3
ELSE
OUTPUT Amount * 4.66
ENDIF

A–16
 Answers

4. The three errors are located at:

1) Line 6: The WHILE condition should be “WHILE Count < 5” instead of “WHILE
Count <= 5” so that the algorithm reads in the correct number of inputs.
2) Line 12: Sport_Count should be incremented by 1, not 2.
3) Line 24: The last variable should be UniformedGroup_Count, not Sport_Count.

The corrected pseudo-code is as follows:

1 Count = 0
2 ClubSociety_Count = 0
3 Sport_Count = 0
4 UniformedGroup_Count = 0
5
6 WHILE Count < 5
7 INPUT Type
8 IF Type == "Club/Society" THEN
9 ClubSociety_Count = ClubSociety_Count + 1
10 Count = Count + 1
11 ELSEIF Type == "Sport" THEN
12 Sport_Count = Sport_Count + 1
13 Count = Count + 1
14 ELSEIF Type == "Uniformed Group" THEN
15 UniformedGroup_Count = UniformedGroup_Count + 1
16 Count = Count + 1
17 ELSE
18 OUTPUT "Invalid Option"
19 ENDIF
20 ENDWHILE
21
22 OUTPUT "Clubs and Societies: " + ClubSociety_Count
23 OUTPUT "Sports: " + Sport_Count
24 OUTPUT "Uniformed Groups: " + UniformedGroup_Count

A–17
Answers

5. The required trace table is as follows:

Count Sum Num Average OUTPUT

15

22

11

33

18

51

56

17

73

74

10.57

The sum is 74

The average is 10.57

A–18
 Answers

6. a) A pseudo-code of the flowchart is as follows:

i = 0
INPUT numbers[i]
WHILE numbers[i] != 0
i = i + 1
INPUT numbers[i]
ENDWHILE
WHILE i >= 0
OUTPUT numbers[i]
i = i - 1
ENDWHILE

b) The required trace table is:

i numbers OUTPUT
0
20
1
20, 17
2
20, 17, -19
3
20, 17, -19, 65
4
20, 17, -19, 65, 0
0
3
65
2
-19
1
17
0
20
-1

c) The flowchart's purpose is to output the given sequence of integers (including the last
integer 0) in reverse order.

A–19
Answers

Chapter 4 How Do I Write Programs?

Quick Check 4.4

1.
Name of variable that Final value
# Statement
is assigned a value being assigned

1 ratio = 0.75 ratio 0.75

2 greeting = "Hi!" greeting “Hi!”

3 to_hit = 17 + 3 to_hit 20

2.
# Source code Result Explanation

1 name= "Computing" (nothing displayed) The assignment

statement just assigns
the value on the right
to the variable on the
left. It usually does
not provide a result
or display anything
as output.

2 name name Error: name name is

SyntaxError not a valid Python
command.

3 Name = "Science" (nothing displayed) The assignment

statement just assigns
the value on the right
to the variable on the
left. It usually does
not provide a result
or display anything
as output.

4 print(name) Computing The print()

function outputs the
value assigned to
name.

A–20
 Answers

# Source code Result Explanation

5 print(Name) Science Python treats name

with a small letter n as
different from Name
with a capital N, so
the two variables can
naturally store different
values.

6 Real_Name = name (nothing displayed) The assignment

statement just assigns
the value on the right
to the variable on the
left. It usually does
not provide a result or
display anything
as output.

7 Real_Name 'Computing' In interactive mode, the

result for each line is
automatically displayed
(with additional quotes
for strs). Normally, the
print() function will
need to be used.

8 print(Real_Name) Computing The print() function

is needed to output the
value of Real_Name
outside of the interactive
mode. Within the
interactive mode,
however, lines 7 and 8
appear to give similar
results except that line 7
has extra quotes around
the output.

9 Fake_Name = Error: This assignment

SyntaxError statement is invalid as
the value being assigned
is missing.

3. original_value = 99
copy_1 = original_value
copy_2 = original_value

A–21
Answers

4. The fixed values of "Hello, ", "Ms. " and "Mr. " are repeated multiple times in the source
code. To make the source code more readable and easier to maintain, we should use
constants with descriptive names, that is, GREETING, FEMALE_TITLE and
MALE_TITLE respectively instead.

A possible modified program is as follows:

# Program greetings_with_constants.py

1 # Constants
2 GREETING = "Hello, "
3 FEMALE_TITLE = "Ms. "
4 MALE_TITLE = "Mr. "
5
6 # Prints out a series of greetings, with title based on gender.
7 print(GREETING + FEMALE_TITLE + "Aishah")
8 print(GREETING + MALE_TITLE + "Paul")
9 print(GREETING + MALE_TITLE + "Xiaoming")
10 print(GREETING + FEMALE_TITLE + "Jessica")

Quick Check 4.5

1.
Literal Data type
a) -2017 int
b) '"' str
c) 'Computing' str
d) 3.14159 float
e) "\"" str
f) "\"[]\"" str
g) True bool
h) 6.02e23 float
i) '\'' str
j) "2017" str
k) "'" str
l) [""] list
m) 'False' str

A–22
 Answers

2.
What will be
# Source code Explanation
displayed

1 print(1e100) 1e+100

2 print(103E1) 1030.0

3 print(1EE1) Error: 1EE1 is not a

SyntaxError valid literal.

4 print(3.141) 3.141

5 print(3.1.3) Error: 3.1.3 is not a

SyntaxError valid literal.

6 print("Hello,\ Hello,World The line break in

World") the source code is
ignored because it
was preceded by a
backslash (\).

7 print("Hello,\nWorld") Hello, The \n escape

World code represents a
new line.

8 print("Hello,\tWorld") Hello, World The \t escape

code represents
a tab.

9 print('Hello,\n\tWorld') Hello,
World
10 print('Hello,\t\nWorld') Hello,
World
11 print("\\\"") \" Python reads the
str literal as two
escape codes: \\
(a backslash) and
\" (a double
quote).

12 print("\\\") Error: The second quote

SyntaxError is part of an
escape code and
does not close the
str literal.

13 print(True) True

A–23
Answers

What will be
# Source code Explanation
displayed

14 print(true) Error: true, unlike True,

NameError is not a key word, so
Python assumes it is
a variable name. The
error occurs because a
variable named true
does not exist.

15 print(False) False

16 print(false) Error: false, unlike False,

NameError is not a key word, so
Python assumes it is
a variable name. The
error occurs because
a variable named
false does not exist.

17 print(None) None

18 print(none) Error: none, unlike None,

NameError is not a key word, so
Python assumes it is
a variable name. The
error occurs because a
variable named none
does not exist.

19 print([]) []

20 print([2, 3, 4]) [2, 3, 4]

21 print([[]]) [[]]

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 Answers

3.
What will be
# Source code Explanation
displayed

1 print(int("-3")) -3

2 print(float('-3')) -3.0

3 print(float("minus three")) Error: "minus

ValueError three" is
not a valid
float literal
and cannot be
converted by
float().

4 print(str(-3)) -3

5 print(str(-3.0)) -3.0

6 print(str(-3e3)) -3000.0

A–25
Answers

Quick Check 4.6

1.
What will be
# Source code Explanation
displayed

1 print(len(range(3))) 3

2 print(len(3)) Error: len() can

TypeError only be used on
sequences such as
lists and strs,
not ints.

3 phrase = "Hello, World!" (nothing The assignment

displayed) statement just
assigns the value
on the right to
the variable on
the left. It usually
does not provide
a result or display
anything
as output.

4 print(len(phrase)) 13 phrase has 13

characters: 5 for
the word “Hello”,
1 for the comma,
1 for the space,
5 for the word
“World” and 1 for
the exclamation
mark.

5 print(len([phrase])) 1 [phrase] is
just a list made
up of 1 item (i.e.,
phrase).

6 print(list(range(7))) [0, 1, 2,
3, 4, 5,
6]

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 Answers

What will
# Source code Explanation
be displayed

7 print(list(range(len("2017")))) [0, 1, The result of

2, 3] (len("2017")
is 4, so this
is equivalent
to printing
list(range(4)).

8 x = len(range(-2, 3)) (nothing range(-2, 3)

displayed) has 5 items: -2, -1,
0, 1 and 2.

9 print(x, x) 5 5

2. A possible solution is as follows:

# Program count_phrase.py

1 # Input
2 phrase = input("Enter phrase: ")
3
4 # Process
5 count = len(phrase)
6
7 # Output
8 print(count)

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Answers

3.
What will be
# Source code Explanation
displayed

1 x = 2 (nothing
displayed)

2 x **= 3 (nothing
displayed)

3 x / 10 0.8 This is the result of

calculating 23 / 10.

4 print(x) 8 The calculation on line

3 does not change the
value assigned to x.

5 print(1 + 1 <= "2") Error: The <= operator

TypeError cannot be used to
compare a number
with a string.

6 print(3 * "2") 222

7 quotient = 55 // 7 (nothing
displayed)

8 remainder = 55 % 7 (nothing
displayed)

9 print(quotient * 7 + True
remainder == 55)

10 print(remainder + 55 Following the standard

quotient * 7) order of operations,
the multiplication is
performed first before
the addition.

11 print((remainder + 91 As (remainder
quotient) * 7) + quotient) is
enclosed in brackets,
the addition is
performed first before
the multiplication.

A–28
 Answers

What will be
# Source code Explanation
displayed

12 55 = x Error:
SyntaxError

13 2.0 ** 3 == x True The == operator can

be used to compare
any two numbers
even if one is a
float and the other
is an int.

14 print(-55 // 10) -6 The result of floor

division is always
rounded down so the
answer is -6, not -5.

4. A possible solution is as follows:

def area_of_triangle(base, height):

area = 0.5 * base * height
return area

5. A possible program is as follows:

phrase = input("Enter phrase: ")

print( len(phrase) % 3 == 0 )

6. A possible program is as follows:

name = input("Enter name: ")

print( name[0] == name[-1] and not " " in name )

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Answers

7.
# Source code What will be displayed Explanation

1 data = [7, 9, 3, 5] (nothing displayed)

2 print(data[3:]) [5] The slice operator

is used with a start
index of 3 and
a stop index of
4 (omitted). This
results in the list
[5], which is a list
with just the item in
index 3.

3 print(data[:1]) [7] The slice operator

is used with a start
index of 0 (omitted)
and a stop index of
1. This results in the
list [7], which is a
list with just the item
in index 0.

4 print(data + [2]) [7, 9, 3, 5, 2] The argument to

print() is made
by joining data
with a list containing
just the number
2. This results in
the list [7, 9,
3, 5, 2]. Note
that the original
contents of data
are unchanged.

5 print(data + 2) Error: The “+” operator can

TypeError only be used to join
two lists, not a
list and an int.

A–30
 Answers

What will be
# Source code Explanation
displayed
6 print(data[-3:-2]) [9] The slice operator
is used with a start
index of 1 (3rd last
item) and a stop
index of 2 (2nd last
item). This results in
the list [9], which
is a list with just the
item in index 1.

7 print(data[len(data)- 1]) 5 The index of the

last item of a list is
always the length
of the list minus 1.
Hence, the result is
just the last item of
data.

8 print(data[len(data)]) Error: As list indexes start

IndexError from 0 and not
1, in general, no
item in a list has
the same index as
the length of the
list. Attempting to
retrieve such an
item results in an
error.

9 print(['A', 'B', 'C'][1]) B The index operator

is used with the
index 1, which
refers to the second
item of the list.

10 ['F', 'G'][0] = 'A' (nothing ['F', 'G']

displayed) is a list and is
therefore mutable.

11 "FG"[0] = 'A' Error: Unlike lists,

TypeError strs are
immutable and
their contents
cannot be
modified.

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Answers

8.
What will be
# Source code Explanation
displayed

1 x = 5 (nothing
displayed)

2 print(x > -5 and x < 5) False

3 print(x >= -5 and x <= 5) True

4 print(x > -5 or x < 5) True

5 print(not not True) True

6 print(not True and False) False Without parentheses,

the order of
operations may not
be clear. In this case,
the not operation is
performed before the
and operation.

7 print(not (True and False)) True As (True and

False) is enclosed
in parentheses, the
and operation is
performed before the
not operation.

9.
Variable/Constant Local or Global

a) SYMBOL on line 4 Global

b) length on line 4 Local

c) border on line 5 Local

d) SYMBOL on line 8 Global

e) left_side on line 10 Local

f) message on line 10 Local

g) right_side on line 10 Local

h) middle_line on line 12 Local

i) message on line 17 Global

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 Answers

Quick Check 4.7

1. A possible program is as follows:

# Program list_input.py

1 # Input and Process

2 result = []
3 while True:
4 input_str = input("Enter item, blank to end: ")
5 if input_str == "":
6 break
7 result += [input_str]
8
9 # Output
10 print(result)

Using the modular approach, we can break down the task into two parts. The first part
repeatedly asks the user for an item and adds it to our output list. We can think of this
as the “default behaviour” of the program. The second part detects when a blank item
is received and ends the program. We can think of this as an “exceptional case” to the
default behaviour of the program.

The first part of the task can be accomplished using a loop that keeps repeating without
end. We do this using a while condition that is always True on line 3. As the loop keeps
repeating, we keep getting the next item from the user (line 4) and adding it to our output
list, which we call result (line 7). Of course, before we start the loop we must initialise
result to an empty list first (line 2).

The second part of the task requires us to detect an exception to the default case. We do
this using an if statement immediately after getting the user’s input (line 5). If we detect
that the input is blank, we break out of the loop (line 6). The use of break helps to explain
why our program does not run forever as long as a blank input is eventually supplied by
the user.

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Answers

2. A possible program is as follows:

# Program password_check.py

1 # Input, Process and Output

2 while True:
3 password = input("Enter password: ")
4 password_again = input("Enter password again: ")
5 if password == password_again:
6 break
7 print("Invalid")
8 print("Valid")

Using generalisation, we see that, like the previous task, there is again a default behaviour
that is required (i.e., repeatedly asking for two passwords and printing “Invalid”) as well as
an exceptional case (i.e., stopping when the two passwords match and printing “Valid”).

Thus we can adapt our program from the solution to the previous task. Instead of
prompting for an item, we now prompt for two passwords (lines 3 and 4). Instead of adding
an item to a list, we print “Invalid” (line 7). Finally, instead of detecting a blank input, we
detect when the two passwords match (line 5) before breaking out of the loop (line 6) and
printing “Valid” as the final output (line 8).

A–34
 Answers

Review Questions

1. a) Alex’s method will simplify his program as the int values increase in the same order as
the corresponding dates. He can then easily compare whether one date is earlier or
later than another date by using the less than (<) and greater than (>) operators.

b) A possible program is as follows:

# Program overdue.py

1 # This program outputs the titles of all overdue books.

2
3 # Input
4 today = int(input("Enter today's date in YYYYMMDD: "))
5 titles = [
6 # The following data is copied from the given text file.
7 "How to Solve a Mystery", "Vacant Memories",
8 "The Cybersnake Chronicles", "Music History",
9 "Like Tears in Rain", "Out of the Abyss"
10 ]
11 duedates = [
12 # The following data is copied from the given text file.
13 20170727, 20170704, 20170711, 20170630, 20170703, 20170707
14 ]
15
16 # Process and Output
17 def is_overdue(duedate, today):
18 return duedate < today
19
20 for index in range(len(duedates)):
21 if is_overdue(duedates[index], today):
22 print(titles[index])

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Answers

2. The diagram below shows the different ways we can extract the hours, minutes and
seconds components from the time string using the slice operator:

time[−2:]
time[:2] time[6:]
time[0:2] time[3:5] time[6:8]

−8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

time H H : M M : S S

Using this analysis, a possible solution is as follows:

# Program time_string.py

1 # This program extracts the hour, minute and second values (as ints)
2 # from a time string that is provided in the format "HH:MM:SS".
3 # It is assumed that input data will always be valid.
4
5 # Input
6 time = input("Enter time string: ")
7
8 # Process
9 hours = int(time[:2])
10 minutes = int(time[3:5])
11 seconds = int(time[-2:])
12
13 # Output
14 print(hours)
15 print(minutes)
16 print(seconds)

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 Answers

3. A possible solution is as follows:

# Program time_interval.py

1 # This program calculates the number of seconds between a start time

2 # and an end time, both provided in the format "HH:MM:SS". It is
3 # assumed that input data will always be valid.
4
5 # Input
6 start_time = input("Enter start time string: ")
7 end_time = input("Enter end time string: ")
8
9 # Process
10 hours = int(start_time[:2])
11 minutes = int(start_time[3:5])
12 seconds = int(start_time[-2:])
13 start_total = hours * 60 * 60 + minutes * 60 + seconds
14
15 hours = int(end_time[:2])
16 minutes = int(end_time[3:5])
17 seconds = int(end_time[-2:])
18 end_total = hours * 60 * 60 + minutes * 60 + seconds
19
20 interval = end_total - start_total
21
22 # Output
23 print(interval)

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Answers

Chapter 5 How Can Programs Be Used to Solve Problems?

Quick Check 5.2

1.
x −20.17 −19.65 −0.1 0.0 0.1 19.65 20.17

math.ceil(x) −20 −19 0 0 1 20 21

math.floor(x) −21 −20 −1 0 0 19 20

round(x) −20 −20 0 0 0 20 20

math.trunc(x) −20 −19 0 0 0 19 20

2. A possible answer is as follows:

import random
We want to use counts[2], counts[3]
counts = [0] * 13 and so on up to counts[12] to track the
for i in range(1000): results. However, list indices always start
from 0, so counts[0] and counts[1]
die1 = random.randint(1, 6)
must also exist such that counts has 13
die2 = random.randint(1, 6)
entries in total from index 0 to index 12.
counts[die1 + die2] += 1
for i in range(2, 13):
print('{}: {}'.format(i, counts[i]))

Quick Check 5.3

1. A possible answer is as follows:

name = input("Enter name: ")

print(name[0].isupper())

2. A possible answer is as follows:

title = input("Enter title: ")

valid = True
for char in title:
if not (char.isupper() or char.isspace()):
valid = False
break
print(valid)

A–38
 Answers

Review Questions

1. a) Siti’s new solution stops searching through the list once the availability of the book is
determined, but the solution in availability_refined.py will always search
through the entire list, which makes it slower.

b) A possible solution is as follows:

# Program availability_revision.py

1 # Input
2 titles = [
3 # The following data is copied from the given text file.
4 "How to Solve a Mystery", "Vacant Memories",
5 "The Cybersnake Chronicles", "Music History",
6 "Like Tears in Rain", "Out of the Abyss"
7 ]
8 availability = [
9 # The following data is copied from the given text file.
10 "Not Available", "Available", "Available", "Not Available",
11 "Not Available", "Available"
12 ]
13 search = input("Enter title of book to check: ")
14
15 # Process
16 result = "Book Not Found"
17 index = 0
18 while index < len(titles):
19 if titles[index] == search:
20 result = availability[index]
21 break
22 index = index + 1
23
24 # Output
25 print(result)

A–39
Answers

2. A possible answer is as follows:

# Program Q2.py

1 # Input
2 values = []
3 while True:
4 item = input("Enter item, blank to end: ")
5 if item == "":
6 break
7 values += [int(item)]
8
9 # Process
10 if len(values) >= 2:
11 # For the basic sub-problem, only consider the first
12 # two items in values.
13 if values[0] < values[1]:
14 minimum_value = values[0]
15 second_minimum_value = values[1]
16 else:
17 minimum_value = values[1]
18 second_minimum_value = values[0]
19 # Start considering beyond the first two items.
20 for value in values[2:]:
21 if value < minimum_value:
22 # If there will be a new minimum value, the second
23 # minimum value will be the old minimum value.
24 second_minimum_value = minimum_value
25 minimum_value = value
26 else:
27 minimum_value = None
28 second_minimum_value = None
29
30 # Output
31 if minimum_value == None:
32 print("None")
33 else:
34 print(minimum_value, second_minimum_value)

A–40
 Answers

3. A possible answer is as follows:

# Program Q3.py

1 # Input
2 length = int(input("Enter length: "))
3 values = []
4 for i in range(length):
5 value = float(input("Enter item: "))
6 values += [value]
7
8 # Process
9 average = None
10 sum_values = 0
11 num_positive = 0
12 for value in values:
13 if value > 0:
14 sum_values += value
15 num_positive += 1
16 if num_positive > 0:
17 average = round(sum_values / num_positive, 2)
18
19 # Output
20 print(average)

A–41
Answers

Chapter 6 How Do I Ensure That a Program Works as Intended?

Quick Check 6.1

1. a) Format check.
A combination of the len() function, the in operator and the str.isdigit()
method is used to check that the input str matches the pattern of an O-Level grade
(i.e., a capital letter from A to F, followed by a digit).
b) Presence check.
The first and last strs are required inputs and must be provided (i.e., they must
not be equal to empty strs).
c) Range check.
The < and > operators are used to ensure that the input float p is strictly between
0.0 and 1.0.
d) Length check.
The len() function is used to check that the length of input list integers is equal
to the input int n.

2. A possible program is as follows:

# Program postal_code_validation.py

1 # Input and input validation

2 while True:
3 postal_code = input("Enter postal code: ")
4 if postal_code.isdigit() and len(postal_code) == 6:
5 break
6 print("Data validation failed!")
7 print("Postal code should be exactly 6 digits")

Line 3, which asks the user to enter a postal code, is included inside an infinite while
loop which will repeat until the condition in line 4 is True, i.e., the user enters a str that
is six characters long and consists only of numbers. When that happens, the loop will be
exited and we will continue with the rest of the program.

If the str entered by the user does not fulfil the conditions in line 4, the program will go
on to print the error messages in lines 6 and 7. The loop then restarts and asks the user
once again to enter a postal code.

A–42
 Answers

Quick Check 6.2

1. a) Test case that covers normal conditions (accept any possible answer):

 Input Expected Output 

• n: 7 *******
*******
*******
*******
*******
*******
*******

b) Test case for the boundary condition when n is at its lower limit:

 Input Expected Output 

• n: 1 *

This is a boundary condition as the input of 1 is the smallest possible value for n that is
valid based on the problem definition.

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Answers

Test case for the boundary condition when n is at its upper limit:

 Input Expected Output 

• n: 20 ********************
********************
********************
********************
********************
********************
********************
********************
********************
********************
********************
********************
********************
********************
********************
********************
********************
********************
********************
********************

This is a boundary condition as the input of 20 is the largest possible value for n that is
valid based on the problem definition.

c) As n is defined as an integer between 1 and 20 inclusive, an input of 0 is not within the

valid range of values of n and should be considered as an error condition:

 Input Expected Output 

• n: 0 Data validation failed!

n should be an integer
between 1 and 20 inclusive

Similarly, any non-integer input should also be considered as an error condition:

 Input for Test Case 7 Expected Output 

• n: "a" Data validation failed!

n should be an integer
between 1 and 20 inclusive

A–44
 Answers

2. a) The three errors are located at:

1) Line 4: The if condition needs to end with a colon (:).
2) Line 12: A str that is opened with a double quote (") must be closed with double
quote, not a single quote (').
3) Line 19: There is an extra right bracket at the end of the line.

b) The corrected program is as follows:

# Program diamond_with_syntax_errors_fixed.py

1 # Input and input validation

2 while True:
3 input_text = input("Enter n: ")
4 if input_text.isdigit():
5 n = int(input_text)
6 if n >= 1 and n <= 19 and n % 2 == 1:
7 break
8 else:
9 print("Data validation failed!")
10 print("n should be odd and between 1 and 19 inclusive")
11 else:
12 print("Data validation failed!")
13 print("n should be a positive integer")
14
15 # Process and output
16 for index in range(n // 2):
17 print(' ' * (n // 2 - index) + '*' * (2 * index + 1))
18 for index in range(n // 2 + 1):
19 print(' ' * index + '*' * (n - index * 2))

A–45
Answers

3. Although the run-time error occurs on line 25, it is actually caused by a logic error on line
18. This program uses stars to store each line of the diamond in a list but leaves out
the widest line of the diamond due to a logic error. The most straightforward way to fix this
error is to change the condition on line 18 from “index < n” to “index <= n”.

The corrected program is as follows:

# Program diamond_crash_fixed.py

1 # Input and input validation

2 while True:
3 n_str = input("Enter n: ")
4 if not n_str.isdigit():
5 print("Data validation failed!")
6 print("n should be a positive integer")
7 continue
8 n = int(n_str)
9 if n < 1 or n > 19 or n % 2 == 0:
10 print("Data validation failed!")
11 print("n should be odd and between 1 and 19 inclusive")
12 continue
13 break
14
15 # Process and output
16 stars = []
17 index = 1
18 while index <= n:
19 stars += [" " * ((n - index) // 2) + "*" * index]
20 index += 2
21
22 for index in range(n // 2):
23 print(stars[index])
24 for index in range(n // 2 + 1):
25 print(stars[-index - 1])

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 Answers

Quick Check 6.3

1. The results from running acronym_alternative.py on all six test cases are as follows:

 Input for Test Case 1 Expected Output 

• input_text: "Computer Science" CS

Running acronym_alternative.py on Test Case 1  Result

Enter the input text: Computer Science

Passed
CS

 Input for Test Case 2 Expected Output 

• input_text: "Meetings on etiquette" MOE

Running acronym_alternative.py on Test Case 2  Result

Enter the input text: Meetings on etiquette

Passed
MOE

 Input for Test Case 3 Expected Output 

• input_text: "" (blank output)

Running acronym_alternative.py on Test Case 3  Result

Enter the input text:

Passed

 Input for Test Case 4 Expected Output 

• input_text: " Computer Science " CS

Running acronym_alternative.py on Test Case 4  Result

Enter the input text: Computer Science

Passed
CS

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Answers

 Input for Test Case 5 Expected Output 

• input_text: "Lead, Care, Inspire" Data validation failed!
Input text should only
contain letters and spaces

Running acronym_alternative.py on Test Case 5  Result

Enter the input text: Lead, Care, Inspire

Failed
LCI

 Input for Test Case 6 Expected Output 

• input_text: "Computing 2017" Data validation failed!
Input text should only
contain letters and spaces

Running acronym_alternative.py on Test Case 6  Result

Enter the input text: Computing 2017

Failed
C2

This shows that acronym_alternative.py passes all test cases except Test Cases 5
and 6 as the program does not perform any input validation.

Review Questions

1. a) i) Line 5 splits input_text into a list of words (word_list) that are

separated by spaces.
ii) Lines 7 to 11 reverse the order of the letters in each word in word_list.
iii) Lines 13 to 16 join the contents of word_list together using spaces.

b) i) Normal condition
ii) A logic error has occurred. While the program has not crashed, its actual output is
different from the expected output.
iii) The error is located on line 10 and is caused by using the index operator to count
from the end of a string incorrectly. (The last character of a string is at index −1, not
index −0.)

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 Answers

iv) The corrected program is as follows:

# Program word_reversal.py

1 # Input
2 input_text = input("Enter input text: ")
3
4 # Process
5 word_list = input_text.split()
6
7 for i in range(len(word_list)):
8 current_word = ""
9 for letter_index in range(len(word_list[i])):
10 current_word += word_list[index][-letter_index - 1]
11 word_list[i] = current_word
12
13 result = ""
14 for word in word_list:
15 result += word + " "
16 result = result[:-1]
17
18 # Output
19 print(result)

2. a) i) True
ii)
False
iii)
True
iv)
False

b) i) The return value should be True since an empty string, having no characters,
trivially satisfies the requirement of not containing any non-letter characters.
ii) The return value should be False since an empty string, having no characters, is
not a sensible input for the task of checking whether every character is a letter.
iii) Since an empty string is considered valid input, we choose to have
is_letters_only('') return True so an empty string will pass data
validation. A possible answer is as follows:

# Returns True if s has alphabetical letters only

def is_letters_only(s):
for c in s:
if not c.isalpha():
return False
return True

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Answers

c) i) This is because convert_string() calls and uses the return value of

convert_letter() in its function body to determine its own return value. An
incorrect return value from convert_letter() is likely to result in an incorrect
return value for convert_string().
ii) The bug is in convert_string(). A possible answer is as follows:

# Program opposite_case_finished.py

1 # Returns True if s has alphabetical letters only

2 def is_letters_only(s):
3 for c in s:
4 if not c.isalpha():
5 return False
6 return True
7
8 # Converts single letter to opposite case
9 def convert_letter(l):
10 if l.islower():
11 return l.upper()
12 return l.lower()
13
14 # Converts string of letters to opposite case
15 def convert_string(s):
16 result = ''
17 for c in s:
18 result = result + convert_letter(c)
19 return result
20
21 while True:
22 s = input('Enter string: ')
23 if is_letters_only(s):
24 break
25 print('String must have alphabetical letters only')
26
27 print(convert_string(s))

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 Answers

Chapter 7 How Can I Be a Safe and Responsible Computer User?

Quick Check 7.1

1. How data can become corrupted (accept any possible answer):

• By human error, such as multiple users writing to the same file at the same time
• By hardware failure, such as a hard drive failing due to manufacturing defects
or overusage
• By power failure to the computer or storage device
• By malicious software that may be running on the computer

Quick Check 7.2

1. Advantages of using biometric systems (accept any possible answer):

• Ensures accuracy as students have to provide hard-to-fake evidence of their own
identities before their attendance can be marked
• Reduces time and effort by teachers and administrative staff in tracking attendance as
students are responsible for marking their own attendance
• Provides better protection of the attendance data from unauthorised access compared
to paper attendance sheets that can be read and modified by anyone

2. Possible measures (accept any possible answer):

• Use encryption to ensure that customer data is protected from eavesdroppers when
submitted over the Internet
• Ensure that customer data is stored on a computer that is protected by a properly
configured firewall
• Require multiple authentication factors to verify a customer’s identity before providing
access to that customer’s data
• Ensure that customer data is stored on a computer which has its software updated
regularly so that attackers cannot exploit known bugs in the software

3. CAPTCHA stands for Completely Automated Public Turing Test to Tell Computers and
Humans Apart. It tries to verify that an actual human and not a machine is using the
website by requiring the user to type out the letters and/or numbers in a distorted image.

CAPTCHAs are usually used when access control is needed to deny computer programs
and other automated systems access to a website or its services.

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Answers

Quick Check 7.3

1. C

2. B

3. a) Yes
b) No
c) No
d) Yes
e) Yes
f) No

4. Possible effects on the company (accept any possible answer):

• Legal punishment due to lawsuits from customers
• Legal punishment due to incorrect claims made in the company’s privacy policy
• Loss of reputation and customer trust

Possible effects on its customers (accept any possible answer):

• Threats or harassment from strangers
• Identity theft for accounts where an intruder is able to use the revealed mobile number
and address information to overcome authentication
• Inconvenience in changing mobile phone number or address

5. Siti should verify the authenticity of the source by checking that the sender is legitimate,
and if necessary, calling the organiser of the lucky draw and asking for proof of the lucky
draw results. Even if the result is legitimate, she should request to receive the cash prize in
a manner that will not reveal her personal details to a stranger. If there is any doubt, she
should decline to reveal any personal details and ignore the message.

Quick Check 7.4

1. a) Both copyright infringement and plagiarism

b) Copyright infringement
c) Neither
d) Plagiarism

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 Answers

Review Questions

1. a) Phishing uses email hyperlinks that lead to a fake website with a different address from
the real website, while pharming uses website redirection to show a fake website that
uses the same address as the real website.

b) Phishing

c) Two possible ways (accept any possible answer):

• The customers could have verified if the email hyperlink’s actual destination
matched the real address of the bank’s website before clicking on it.
• The customers could have contacted the bank directly to verify the identity of the
sender and the authenticity of the email.

2.
Unauthorised access likely
Threat Preventive measure
to occur? Why?

a) Cookies No. –
Cookies are files that store user
information each time a user
visits a website. They are not
malicious in nature and cannot
store information that the user did
not already provide to the website
through a web browser.

b) Spam No. –
Spam is the sending of mass
emails for advertising purposes.
Unless any hyperlinks from the
spam are clicked, no unauthorised
data is likely to be sent back to the
spammer.

c) Trojan Yes. Install anti-virus and

horses anti-spyware programs
Trojan horses are malicious
and download their
in nature and may result in
updates regularly.
unauthorised access if run on a
computer.

d) Viruses Yes. Install anti-virus and

anti-spyware programs
Viruses are malicious in nature and
and download their
may result in unauthorised access
updates regularly.
if run on a computer.

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Answers

3. a) Two economic effects (accept any possible answer):

• The price of music albums, television programmes and films would go up to
compensate for the loss in sales due to piracy.
• There would be fewer music albums, television programmes and films produced as
people would find it increasingly difficult to make money from doing so.

b) Siti’s actions are considered to be copyright infringement as she did not have explicit
permission from the copyright owner to copy the television series onto her hard drive.

c) The icon represents that the photograph is under a Creative Commons licence. It means
that users are granted permission to copy, modify and distribute the photograph under
certain conditions.

d) Music may be downloaded legally without copyright infringement as long as the

copyright owner has given permission for the downloading to occur. For instance, the
copyright owner may allow a music file to be downloaded from a legitimate online
music store as long as payment is made. Alternatively, the music file can be placed
under a Creative Commons licence, which explicitly gives everyone permission to
download the file as long as certain conditions are met.

4. a) What the company should do (accept any possible answer):

• Make regular backups of the submitted entries.
• Check the server's storage devices regularly and replace them immediately when
signs of failure are detected.
• Ensure that the server is set up with a backup power supply or an uninterruptible
power supply (UPS).

b) Plagiarism.

c) Two possible responses (accept any possible answer):

• The artwork’s creator should win because he has not violated any intellectual
property laws. The painting’s copyright is not violated since the resulting artwork
is significantly different from the painting. The photograph he used is also not
protected by copyright as it in under the public domain. Hence, his submission of
the artwork is legally allowed.
• The artwork’s creator should not win because his submitted artwork was
automatically generated using a computer program he did not write and from
images that he did not create. Hence, no matter how impressive the result, he has
demonstrated little to no originality or artistic ability.

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 Answers

Chapter 8 How are Number Systems Applied in Real Life?

Quick Check 8.2

1. a) 11 01102

Using the division by 2 method:

Denary Quotient Remainder

54 27 0

27 13 1

13 6 1
Direction to
read the digits
6 3 0

3 1 1

1 0 1

Using the sum of place values method:

256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 Denary

Place
value
28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 54
22
6
Binary
1 1 0 1 1 0 2
digit
0

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Answers

b) 101 10012

Using the division by 2 method:

Denary Quotient Remainder

89 44 1

44 22 0

22 11 0

11 5 1 Direction to
read the digits

5 2 1

2 1 0

1 0 1

Using the sum of place values method:

256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 Denary

Place
value
28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 89
25
9
Binary
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
digit
0

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 Answers

c) 110 01002

Using the division by 2 method:

Denary Quotient Remainder

100 50 0

50 25 0

25 12 1

12 6 0 Direction to
read the digits
6 3 0

3 1 1

1 0 1

Using the sum of place values method:

256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 Denary

Place
value
28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 100
36
Binary 4
1 1 0 0 1 0 0
digit 0

2. 7 = 1112
8 = 10002
9 = 10012
10 = 10102

3. a) 19
b) 96
c) 134

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Answers

Quick Check 8.3

1.
Denary Binary Hexadecimal

32 10 00002 2016

33 10 00012 2116

34 10 00102 2216

35 10 00112 2316

36 10 01002 2416

37 10 01012 2516

38 10 01102 2616

39 10 01112 2716

40 10 10002 2816

41 10 10012 2916

42 10 10102 2A16

43 10 10112 2B16

44 10 11002 2C16

45 10 11012 2D16

46 10 11102 2E16

47 10 11112 2F16

2. a) 100 10012
b) 1010 1011 01102
c) 1101 1010 0100 01112

3. a) 157
b) 2998
c) 44432

4. a) 3E816
b) ECD16
c) 10 7C16

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 Answers

Quick Check 8.4

1. A possible RGB colour code for magenta is #FF00FF.

2. A possible program is as follows:

# Program: valid_ipv4.py
1 # Input
2 input_str = input("Enter string: ")
3
4 # Process
5 is_valid = True # Assume input is valid until proven wrong
6 processed = 0
7 digits = ""
8 index = 0
9
10 # To avoid repeated code, <= instead of < is used so collected
11 # digits are checked one final time at end of input string
12 while index <= len(input_str):
13 # Get current character only if not at end of input string
14 # Otherwise, current character is None
15 current = None
16 if index < len(input_str):
17 current = input_str[index]
18
19 if current == None or current == '.':
20 # If at end of input string or current character is a dot,
21 # check that digits is a valid int between 0 and 255
22 if not digits.isdigit():
23 is_valid = False
24 break
25 digits_int = int(digits)
26 if not (digits_int >= 0 and digits_int <= 255):
27 is_valid = False
28 break
29 # digits was valid, so increase processed and reset digits
30 processed += 1
31 digits = ""
32 elif current.isdigit():
33 # If current character is a digit, add it to digits
34 digits += input_str[index]
35 else:
36 # If current character is not a digit or a dot, input is invalid
37 is_valid = False
38 break
39
40 # Update index to process next character
41 index += 1
42

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Answers

# Program: valid_ipv4.py (continued)

43 if is_valid and processed != 4:
44 # If input may still be valid, check that 4 ints were processed
45 is_valid = False
46
47 # Output
48 if is_valid:
49 print("Valid")
50 else:
51 print("Invalid")

Review Questions

1. When representing large numbers, the hexadecimal form is much shorter than the binary
form, making it more compact and easier to key in.

2. a) 10102
b) 1111 11112
c) 1 0000 10112

3. a) D16
b) 916
c) 516
d) ED16
e) 5516
f) 16 CD16

4. a) 0110 11002
b) 6C16
c) Common uses of the hexadecimal number system (accept any two valid answers):
• To represent red, green and blue intensities in an RGB colour code
• To present IPv6 addresses in a compact format
• To present MAC addresses in a compact format
• To present ASCII codes in a compact format

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 Answers

5. a) There are faults in the display and motor subsystems for lift number 7.
b) There are faults in the motor and ventilator subsystems for lift number 11.
c) 11001110

6. a) Electrical point number 56 is operational.

b) 00100100
c) 9C16

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Answers

Chapter 9 How Do Logic Circuits Make Decisions?

Quick Check 9.3

1. a) True
b) True
c) False

2. A

3. B

Quick Check 9.4

1. a) 3 (Note: Intermediate inputs are not counted as inputs.)

b) 1

Quick Check 9.5

1. a) Truth table:

Intermediate Intermediate
Input Input Input Output
Input Input
A B C Q
(NOT A) (NOT A OR B)

0 0 0 1 1 0

0 0 1 1 1 1

0 1 0 1 1 0

0 1 1 1 1 1

1 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0 0 0

1 1 0 0 1 0

1 1 1 0 1 1

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 Answers

b) Logic circuit:

B Q

Review Questions

1. a) Q = A OR (B AND C)

Intermediate
Input A Input B Input C Output Q
Input (B AND C)

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 0

0 1 1 1 1

1 0 0 0 1

1 0 1 0 1

1 1 0 0 1

1 1 1 1 1

(Note: Q is 1 when either A is 1, or both B and C are 1.)

b) X = (NOT A) AND (NOT B)

Intermediate Intermediate
Input A Input B Output X
Input (NOT A) Input (NOT B)

0 0 1 1 1

0 1 1 0 0

1 0 0 1 0

1 1 0 0 0

(Note: X is 1 only when both A and B are 0.)

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Answers

c) Y = A AND (NOT B)

Input A Input B Intermediate Input (NOT B) Output Y

0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0

1 0 1 1

1 1 0 0

(Note: Y is 1 only when A is 1 and B is 0.)

d) Z = (A OR B) AND (C OR D)

Intermediate Intermediate
Input Input Input Input Output
Input Input
A B C D Z
(A OR B) (C OR D)

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 1 0 0 1 0

0 0 1 1 0 1 0

0 1 0 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 1 1 1 1

0 1 1 0 1 1 1

0 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 0 0 0 1 0 0

1 0 0 1 1 1 1

1 0 1 0 1 1 1

1 0 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 0 0 1 0 0

1 1 0 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 0 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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 Answers

2. a) Boolean statement: Q = A OR B
b) Truth table:

Input A Input B Input Q

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

3
3. Step 1: Total number of rows in truth table = 2 = 8 as there are three inputs.

Step 2: Draw the truth table and fill in all the input combinations.

Input A Input B Input C

0 0 0

0 0 1

0 1 0

0 1 1

1 0 0

1 0 1

1 1 0

1 1 1

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Answers

Step 3: Work out the intermediate inputs D, E, F and G first.

A D

B
Q
E

G
F
C

D = A AND B
E = B OR C
F = NOT C
G = E AND F

Intermediate
Input Input Input Output
A B C Q
Input D Input E Input F Input G

0 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 0 1 0 1 0 0

0 1 0 0 1 1 1

0 1 1 0 1 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 1 0

1 0 1 0 1 0 0

1 1 0 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 0 0

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 Answers

Step 4: Work out the final output, Q.

Q = D OR G

Intermediate
Input Input Input Output
A B C Q
Input D Input E Input F Input G

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1

0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0

1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1

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Answers

Chapter 10 How are Spreadsheets Used to Process and Analyse Data?

Quick Check 10.1

1. a) Number
b) Text
c) By entering an apostrophe in front of the equals sign, i.e., '=
d) C4:C15
e) E4 only
f) C4:C15 and E4:E15

2. =A2/B2

Quick Check 10.2

1. a) 3
b) Text
c) Currency

Quick Check 10.3

1. a) =B2*D2
=SUM(E2:E9)
b)
c) i) 6
B
ii)

2. Possible formulas (accept any possible answer):

• =IF(A1>3, "Greater than 3", IF(A1=3, "Equal to 3", "Less than 3"))
• =IF(A1>3, "Greater than 3", IF(A1<3, "Less than 3", "Equal to 3"))
• =IF(A1=3, "Equal to 3", IF(A1<3, "Less than 3", "Greater than 3"))
• =IF(A1=3, "Equal to 3", IF(A1>3, "Greater than 3", "Less than 3"))

3. a) =VLOOKUP(B2, $E$2:$F$4, 2)
b) =AVERAGE(C2:C6)
c) =MEDIAN(C2:C6)

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 Answers

4. a) =ROUND(B2, 1)
b) =COUNTIF(C2:C15, "<60")
c) =MAX(C2:C15)-MIN(C2:C15)

Review Questions

1. a) =$G$1*B2
b) 0.67%
c) The required conditional formatting settings for D2:D13 are as follows:

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Answers

Chapter 11 How Do I Create a Simple Network?

Quick Check 11.2

1. C

2. A

3. Advantages of a client-server network (accept any possible answer):

• Centralised control of data and resources
• Easier to schedule backups of all shared files at regular intervals
• Enhances security with the use of built-in security features through the network
operating system
• Server is accessible remotely and across multiple platforms

4. a) Peer-to-peer
b) Client-server
c) Client-server

Quick Check 11.3

1. She can install a wireless printer to connect to both her laptop and tablet. Possible
advantages (accept any possible answer):
• Siti can move her printer to anywhere within the range of the wireless coverage at
home without being restricted to a fixed location.
• It is easy to connect more mobile devices to the wireless printer.
• The physical organisation is neater without the use of cables running across rooms.

2. Why wireless networks are preferred over wired networks at cafes and canteens (accept
any possible answer):
• A wireless network allows for user mobility within the range of the wireless coverage
without being bound to a fixed position unlike in wired networks.
• The physical organisation is neater without the use of cables.

Quick Check 11.4

1. Accept all valid answers.

2. a) A program running on a network can be uniquely identified by its port number and
IP address.
b) All wireless devices connected to the same WAP must use the same SSID.

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 Answers

Quick Check 11.5

1. D

2. Accept all valid answers.

• Home network using fibre optic or broadband: the hardware could include a modem
(optical network terminal modem or broadband modem) and a router
• School network: the hardware could include a modem, router and multiple hubs
or switches
(Note: Some devices have integrated functions incorporating modem, router and switch
capabilities in a single device.)

Quick Check 11.6

1. B

2. C

3. a) Star topology. If a fault occurs at a computer or cable, it is easy to isolate the fault and
do a replacement without affecting the rest of the network. This makes the network
more fault-tolerant and resilient as compared with the bus and ring topologies.

b) Why a client-server network is preferred over a peer-to-peer network:

• Bandwidth: The network needs to support a large number of users (about 120) with
the possibility of a business expansion in the future. If a P2P network were to be
used, the bandwidth of the network could decrease if the number of computers
were to increase.
• Security: As the accountancy consulting business requires the use and handling
of financial data, the nature of the business calls for high confidentiality. A
client-server network is best for implementing a secure system where users are
required to authenticate to a network, while a P2P network offers little to
no security.
• Storage: The business has a large data store dating back to 10 years ago. A
client-server network enables data to be stored centrally and is best for supporting
businesses requiring large data storage as storage servers can be added and
maintained centrally. In a P2P network, data is decentralised and stored on clients
instead of in a server. This limits the amount of data that can be stored as clients
have smaller storage space compared to servers.

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Answers

Quick Check 11.7

1. In an odd parity system, the total number of 1 bits is odd, hence the parity bit has to be 0.

0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1

2. a) Parity bit: 0
The total number of 1 bits is 2, which is even.
b) Parity bit: 0
The total number of 1 bits is 4, which is even.
c) Parity bit: 1
The total number of 1 bits should be 6, which will give an even parity system.

3. a) The data packet is corrupted. The total number of 1 bits in the first seven bits is 5,
which is an odd number. The parity bit should be 0 and not 1 in an odd parity system.
b) The data packet is not corrupted. The total number of 1 bits in the first seven bits is 5,
which is an odd number. The parity bit is 0, which tallies with the odd parity system.

Review Questions

1. Three advantages of setting up a home or office network (accept any possible answer):
• Allows users to share data and files
• Allows users to share network resources such as printers or storage
• Allows fast data transmission and communication between users within the network
• Allows data to be backed up and accessed centrally
• Can be configured for added security

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 Answers

2.
Design factors Peer-to-peer Client-server

a) Organisation C. All computers are D. The network consists

of components independent of each of computers operated
other and are of equal by users and centralised
status when computers which
communicating with control the resources of
each other all computers

b) Resource B. Resources and files A. Access to shared

management located on one resources on the
computer are accessible network such as printers,
by all other computers data files and web
within the network access is managed
by servers

c) Storage G. Data is stored H. Data is stored in a

independently in centralised storage
each computer device monitored by
the server

d) Mode of backup F. Backups are difficult to E. Regular backups can be

organise since there easily implemented with
is no centralised the use of a centralised
backup storage backup storage

e) Security K. There is often no L. Access to the network is

mechanism to manage managed using a
access to the network, database of usernames,
hence it is less secure passwords and user
profile and permission
settings, hence the
network tends to be
more secure

f) Type of J. More commonly found I. More commonly

environment in homes found in businesses
and organisations

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Answers

3. a) Star topology.

b) The patient history database should be stored on a single server using a client-server
network. As the database contains sensitive data, access to its contents needs to
be controlled and monitored. This is easier to achieve on a client-server network
compared to a peer-to-peer network. Centralising storage on a single server also
ensures that there is only one official copy of the database and that it is always the
latest version. On the other hand, distributing the database using a peer-to-peer
network may result in multiple conflicting copies as different users make changes.

c) For the wired network, the following devices should be connected to the network
switch: one laptop for the doctor, three laptops for staff, one printer and one
dedicated server (optional). For the wireless network, the fibre optic modem should
be connected to the wireless router/access point to provide Internet access. Both
networks should be isolated from each other. (Note: Detailed drawings of laptops,
printers or other devices are not required. Simple shapes such as boxes or ovals can
be used to represent any device as long as they are clearly labelled.)

Internet

Staff's laptop
Doctor's laptop

Fibre optic modem

Staff's laptop

Wireless router/access point

Network switch

Staff's laptop

Printer Dedicated server

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