Nuclear Physics

Changes to our knowledge and understanding of the structure of

the atom.
Activity: Match the year to the physicist to the atomic model and to the discovery .

Discovery of atomic
1897 James Gold foil
energy levels
Chadwick experiment

Discovery of Cathode
Niels the neutron ray tube
1907 Bohr

1913 J. J. Discovery of Emission

Thompson the nucleus spectra

Ernest Discovery of Bombardment

1932 of beryllium
Rutherford the electron
with α particles

The discovery of the nucleus - Rutherford’s Scattering experiment

J.J. Thompson discovered the electron in 1897. In 1898 he proposed a model for the atom. His model
of the atom is often called the Plum Pudding model.
Ernest Rutherford designed an experiment to test the hypothesis of Thompson in his lab at
Manchester University. His experiment was to fire alpha particles at thin gold foil and detect what
happened to them using the apparatus below
It was already known that alpha particles had positive charge, moved very fast and had high energy.
 Using this model Rutherford predicted that
• All alpha particles should pass straight through, only slightly deflecting as they pass through
the gold foil (like a bullet through a snowball).
What he actually found was This lead him to the conclusion that

1.
1.

2. 2.

3.
3.

α, β and γ radiation
Radiation was discovered by Henri Becquerel in 1896, and radioactive compounds were
identified by Pierre and Maria Curie shortly afterwards. Further research was carried out by Ernest
Rutherford who showed that radiation emitted by radioactive sources ionises air, causing it to conduct
electricity. He also discovered there were different types of radiation; one more easily absorbed, he
called alpha, and the other more penetrating he called beta. A third type, gamma, was discovered by
Paul Villard a year later. Other research using cloud chambers showed that α, β and γ radiation behave
differently in magnetic fields.

Penetration
Ionisation Effect in magnetic
Radiation What is it? Power Effect in electric field?
(low/med/high) field?
(low/med/high)

Alpha ()

Beta ()

Gamma
()
Detection of α, β and γ radiation
A Geiger counter is used to detect radiation. It is built around a Geiger-Müller tube. As radiation enters
the Geiger-Müller tube and passes through the inert gas it leaves behind a trail of ions. These ions
create a charged path between the metal rod in the centre of the detector and the metal casing. This
briefly allows current to flow and the circuit to be complete. Each time the circuit is completed the
counter registers a count on the screen.

Identify and discuss potential problems with this system?

Background radiation
Background radiation is a measure of the level of ionizing radiation present in the environment at a
particular location which is not due to deliberate introduction of radiation sources. Background
radiation originates from a variety of sources, both natural and artificial.

List sources of background radiation:

Background radiation must be accounted for in experiments.

Absorptions tests
• Alpha particles are stopped by either a few cm of ………………..……………… or a few millimetres of
……………………..……
• Beta particles are stopped by a few millimetres of ………….…………………
• Gamma rays are never stopped completely, instead their amplitude (intensity) is greatly reduced
by either a few cm of ……………….………....…….. or a couple of metres of ………………………...……..
These properties can be observed using a simple absorption experiment:

Ruler

Geiger
counter
Activity: How could this equipment be used to determine the nature of an unknown radioactive
source?

Application of alpha and beta radiation

Absorption
Discuss how a beta source may be used to control the
thickness of sheet metal or paper.
Ionisation

Discuss how smoke alarms may use an alpha source such as

Americium 241 to detect smoke.

Inverse Square Law for Gamma Radiation in air.

Activity is the actual number of nuclei in a source that decay per unit of time.

Count rate is the number of ionisation pulses recorded per unit time by a detector. This is usually a
small fraction of the overall activity.

For example a source might undergo 4000 decays per second but a Geiger Muller Tube placed near
to the source may only register 20 counts per second.

The activity is ……………………… The count rate is ………………………..

This is because …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Spread of gamma radiation

If a gamma source is emitting radiation

equally in all directions then the surface
area it covers will be a
………………..………….., this has a formula of
………….……………………….
This means the count rate of a detector
(and hence the intensity of the received
radiation) decreases as you move away
from the source as an ……………………………
………...…………………. Law.

As a proportionality As an equation
equation this would this would be:
be:
 You need to be able to test this law in two ways: Testing by a graphical approach
Testing by equation

If the corrected count rate measured from a source

is 73 counts min-1 at a distance of 0.72m then what
would the count rate be at 1.34m?

Example:

1. Use the set of data below to test if the inverse square law is obeyed by using the calculation
method.
Count rate/ counts per minute 50 46 37 29 14
distance from source/ cm 2.1 2.2 2.6 3.0 4.5
2. Use graph paper and the data set below to test if the inverse square law is obeyed using the
graphical method.
Count rate/ counts per minute 150 126 105 85 55
distance from source/ cm 4.0 4.4 4.8 5.3 6.6
Here are some more you can test as practice using either method.
Exam question. A gamma ray detector with a cross-sectional area of 2.5 x 10-3 m2 when facing the
source is placed 0.19 m from the source.

A corrected count rate of 0.78 counts s-1 is recorded.

a) The gamma ray detector detects 1 in 500 of the gamma photons incident on the facing
surface of the detector. Calculate how many gamma ray photons pass through the detector
in one second

b) Assuming the source emits gamma rays uniformly in all directions. Calculate the activity of
the source giving an appropriate unit for your answer.

c) Calculate the corrected count rate when the detector is moved away from the source by a
further 0.15m
Radiation effects on the human body

The ions created by radioactive particles and

rays are very reactive and may alter the
chemical reactions in the cells of the body. A
cell may therefore die or become defective.
The defective cell may then divide and produce
more defective cells. This rapid production of
defective cells is cancer. If a large number of
cells die then the body may not be able to
replace them quickly enough.

Safe handling of radioactive sources in the lab

When using radioactive sources in the lab there are certain safety measure to take.

Do Don’t
Medical applications of Gamma radiation

Diagnosis using a medical tracer such as Technetium 99 or iodine 131

Radiotherapy using a gamma source such as cobalt 60

When choosing an isotope for medical imagining or diagnosis you must consider:
1. The majority of the radiation emitted must be …………………………………… only

2. It must have a …………..………………. Half life

Alpha is not used because

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Stable and Unstable Nuclei
Previously, in the A level course, we have looked at some of the modes of decay ( − +, electron
capture, ) that a nucleus may undergo to change to a more stable form. It is also important you
understand why some isotopes of atoms are unstable and decay. All stable nuclei lie on a so called
“line of stability”, as shown in the graph below. These nuclei all have a suitable ratio of protons and
neutrons to keep the nucleus stable.

As the number of protons increases the number of neutrons needed to keep the nucleus stable also
increases, but at a slightly greater rate. This is because the larger the number of protons in the atom
the ………………………… the force of repulsion between them. The neutrons act to separate the protons
and reduce the effect of repulsion.

120
Neutron number / N

Line of stability

N=Z

Nearby regions
of instability

20

20 80 Proton number/Z

There are 3 main reasons why a nucleus may be unstable and that determines what it emits?

1. Too many neutrons for the number of protons. It will emit ………………………………

2. Too few neutrons for the number of protons. It will emit ………………………………

3. Too many nucleons. It will emit …………………………….

Types of Decay

Alpha (α) emission

• This happens in mostly in very large nuclei (too many nucleons for stability).
• The electrostatic repulsion between the large number of protons is too great for the short-
range strong nuclear force to hold the nucleus together.
• The nucleus seeks to lose nucleons by emitting an alpha particle.
• An α particle is identical to the nucleus of a helium atom. It consists of a very stable
combination of 2 protons and 2 neutrons.

You need to be able to complete decay equations for alpha and beta decays. The key is that the
proton and nucleon numbers on both sides of an equations must balance.

Example equation for alpha decay:

224 4
He +
228
Th 88
Ra + 2
Q
90

The daughter nucleus in this case is Radium. The energy given out in the equation appears mainly in
the form of kinetic energy of the particles. After the decay the alpha and the remaining daughter
nucleus move away from each other (recoil).

In general for an alpha decay the daughter nucleus has a proton number of 2 less than the parent
and has a nucleon number of 4 less than the parent.

Beta minus (β-) emission.

• This occurs when there are too many neutrons for the number of protons in the nucleus.
• A neutron in the nucleus decays into a proton, an electron and an electron antineutrino.
• The high energy electron is known as a beta (minus) particle.
• 𝟎 𝟎
−𝟏𝜷 is the symbol for a beta (minus) particle. It is often written as −𝟏𝒆. The -1 indicates its
charge (same as proton but negative).

Example:
29 29 0 0
Al 14
Si + -1
e +
0
e  + Q
13
On an atomic level the equation for the decay of the neutron into a proton via β decay is:
1 1 0 0
n
1
p + -1
e
0
+ e  + Q
0

The neutrino is a fundamental particle with no charge. It has a very small or zero
mass. It interacts with other matter very weakly.
Beta plus (β+) emission.
• This occurs when there are too few neutrons in the nucleus.
• A proton in the nucleus decays into a neutron, a positron and an electron neutrino. The high
energy positron is called a beta+ particle.
• The positron is the antiparticle of the electron.

𝟎
+𝟏𝜷 is the symbol for the beta+ particle. It is sometimes written as +𝟏𝟎𝒆+ . The +1 indicates its charge
(same as proton).

Example:

0
e
22 22
0 -
11
Na 10
Ne + −1𝑒 + 0

On an atomic level the equation for the decay of the proton to a neutron via β+ decay is:

1 1 0

1
p 0
n + 0 -
−1𝑒 + 0 e
Note that the neutrino in these decays is a regular neutrino not an antineutrino.

Electron Capture
There is another way that a proton is turned into a neutron, and that is by electron capture. An
electron is captured from the electron cloud and combines with a proton to form a neutron.

Example

19
F
9

On an atomic level the equation for the electron capture is:

1
p
Further examples

( The following elements may help you to write full answers: 24Cr 28Ni 91Pa 90Th 23V )

Complete the following equation for an alpha decay

238
U
92

Complete the following equation for a beta+ decay

52
Mn
25

Complete the following equation for an electron capture

60
Cu
29

Complete the following equation for a beta- decay

49
Ti
22

Complete the following equation if 3 alphas and 4 beta- are given off in a decay chain

237
Np
93
Complete the decay below to show the number of alpha and beta decays present to complete the
decay chain

222 206
Rn Re
86 75
Distance of closest approach

Consider a particle with positive charge approaching the nucleus of an atom head on. It will naturally
be repelled by the electrostatic force. The closest distance it will get to the nucleus will be when all
the kinetic energy of the incoming particle is transferred into potential energy. At this point the
particle will have become stationary before being repelled away opposite to its original direction.

Example: calculate the distance of closest approach for an alpha particle travelling at 3.5x104 ms-1
approaching a gold nucleus (gold has an atomic number of 79) draw a simple diagram of the path
taken by the alpha particle as it approaches the nucleus

Nuclear radius

It can be shown experimentally that

R is the nuclear radius

1/3
R = ro A ro is a constant

A is the mass number of the nucleus

As a proportionality showing how R and A are related

Question: For what value of A would R = ro ?

Question: From your previous answer what does ro represent?

If you need to use this formula you will be given the value of the constant ro or asked to calculate it
for yourself if you are given all the other data needed. What you do need to be able to do is test the
formula for a given set of data in 4 different ways.

1. By calculation If the nuclear radius of is 156 pm what is the nuclear radius

of

2. Using a graph of R against A1/3 3. Using a graph of R3 against A

Grad = Grad =

4. By plotting ln R against ln A
Grad =

Intercept =
Nuclear Density

Starting with the AS formula of

density = mass/volume

and the formula above for nuclear radius we should be able to show that the density of the nucleus
is constant. This is a proof you should be able to reproduce in the exam.

Two methods for finding the nuclear diameter

This is a comparison of Rutherford’s alpha scattering experiment and the more modern technique of
electron diffraction.
You do not need to know the details of the exact measurements and methods to determine the
diameter of the nucleus. You just need to know the main principles, accuracy and
advantages/disadvantages of each method so you can compare them.

1. The principles and equations behind both methods are as follows:

• For alpha scattering there is electrostatic repulsion between the alpha particles and the
nucleus due to their similar (positive) charge. The electrostatic repulsion can be found by
using the equation

Therefore as the alpha particles approach the nucleus head on their kinetic energy is converted
entirely into potential energy at the point of closest approach.
• For the electron scattering experiment, the electrons behave like waves with a De Broglie
wavelength.

The 1st minimum is then used to calculate diameter.

This is shown on the intensity graph below.

Intensity of diffracted electrons

1st minimum
2. Accuracy

Alpha scattering
• In the alpha scattering experiment the calculations only produce the distance of closest
approach of the alpha’s not the diameter
• The experiment cant detect alphas scattered by 180o
• The alpha’s have their own size which must be taken into account

Electron diffraction
• Electrons need high speed because they need a wavelength similar to the diameter of the
nucleus

Both experiments need monoenergetic beams and need a thin sample of target material.

3. Advantages and disadvantages

Alpha scattering
• Results upset by nuclear recoil
• Results upset by the strong force as alphas contain hadrons
• The alphas are only affected by protons not neutrons

Electron diffraction
• Not affected by the strong force since they are leptons
• The 1st minimum in the scattered intensity can be difficult to detect
 3. Radioactive Decay
It is worth remembering that radioactive decay is a random process. This means we can never be
certain when any single unstable nucleus will decay. It also means that rate at which radioactive
decays occur cannot be increased or decreased using external factors such as catalysts, heat, stirring
etc. Instead what we can say is that large numbers of particles obey statistical laws.

This is similar to tossing 1000 coins. You can never say with any certainty when a single coin will land
on a head, but you can say that if you throw all 1000 that roughly 500 will land on heads.

When discussing radioactive decay there are three main variables we need to consider. A, N and λ

• A is the activity of a sample. This is the total number of decays that occur per second and is
measured in Becquerel’s [Bq which means decays per second]
• N is the total number of active nuclei in a sample therefore it doesn’t have a unit
• λ is the decay constant. This is the probability that a single nucleus decays in a second. Its units are
therefore s-1

The three variable are linked using the equation from the formula sheet

 must be in s-1

The activity, by definition can also be thought of as the rate of change of number of nuclei (decays
per second). If this is the case you can write A as

This leads to a different version of the equation above which is also found on the formula sheet
which is

The minus sign indicates the number of

In a more mathematical way nuclei (N) is decreasing with time
this can be written as
We can treat this as a partial differential equation, by separating the variables and integrating this
leads to

• N is the number of nuclei remaining after a period of time

• No is the initial number of nuclei in a sample
• λ is the decay constant
• t is the time since the initial number of nuclei was recorded

Much like capacitors this can be written with A in place of N to give [A is proportional to N]

[this version is not on the formula sheet]

As with a capacitor it is useful to know the half life of a sample, so we need a way to calculate this
from graphs and equations.

First let’s look at equations. Using the equation for number of particles above substitute N = No/2
into the equation and rearrange for t, which is the time for the number of surviving atoms to fall to
half the initial value (This is called the half life with symbol T1/2).

On the formula sheet this is written as

Be careful here, often the times and the

decay constant can be given in units other
than seconds.
Example:

An isotope of cobalt has a half life of 5.3 years and an activity of 3.5 x 108 Bq

a) What is the decay constant of this isotope?

b) What will the activity be after 16 years?

c) How many nuclei were in the initial sample?

d) How long would it take for the activity to reduce to 4.5x106?

Finding half life from a graph

Just like with capacitors as well as calculations you also need to know how to derive the half life
from two different graphs.

Remember to find the half life

multiple times and average to get
full marks

Draw on the graph the construction lines to determine the half life.

It’s a little more complicated for log plot.

Rearrange the exponential equation from page

15 so we can compare to it y=mx+c

The gradient of the graph is ……………………………………………………………………………………………

The intercept of the graph is ………………………………………………………………………………………….

To find the half life ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

To find the initial number of nuclei ………………………………………………………………………………..

Why is the half life important?

Well it depends on what the radioactive isotope is being used for. There are 4 examples below

• in medicine you want an isotope to have a …………………………. half life. This is so the sample
doesn’t remain in the patient’s body decaying for longer than is necessary.

• for the disposal of nuclear waste it is important to understand the half life of the waste
material to evaluate for what length of ………………….. the materials remains a danger.

• isotopes used in nuclear reactors need to have a half life ………………….. enough to make sure
they have a viable life span. They would be useless if the half life was too ………………….. as
they would have to be replaced regularly slowing down production and costing money to
replace.

• the americium used in smoke alarms has to have a half life ………………….. enough to make
sure it doesn’t decay to untraceable levels during the lifetime of the smoke alarm otherwise
it would become redundant and pose a danger to the occupants of a building.

Carbon dating

Carbon dating is a process used to determine the age of living materials such as plants, animals and
wood.

• All living things contain a proportion of carbon-14 a radioactive isotope of

carbon. This means all living things emit radiation to some extent. The activity of
a living organism remains constant during their lifetime as the carbon-14 that
decays is replaced.

• Once the organism dies the carbon-14 is no longer replaced. This means the
activity of the sample begins to reduce.

• By comparing the activity of a dead organism with that of a living organism you can deduce
how long ago the material died.
Example

Wood from a sample taken from a boat at an archaeological dig is measured to give a count rate of
2.2x102 counts per minute. Wood from a living tree is measured to have a count rate of 5.1x102
counts per minute. Carbon-14 has a half life of 5730 years.

Calculate the age of the wood sample.

 4. Energy and the nucleus
Activity:

This may sound trivial but it is a useful skill to be able to do from AS. What is the mass of a nuclei of

The mass of a proton is 1.673 x 10-27 kg

The mass of a neutron is 1.675 x 10-27 kg

Notice we are now using the full 4
significant figures from the formula
sheet rather than 3 at AS as strictly
speaking the proton and neutron have
different masses

In actual fact the mass of a nuclei is 3.9046 x 10-25kg !!!

This means the mass of a nucleus is ……………………….. than the mass of its constituent parts

This is the same for all nuclei

In this example the mass defect is ………………………………………. Kg

The definition for binding energy comes in two ways

• It is the energy released when the nucleons come together to form the nucleus. (loss of
mass means a loss of energy)
• It is the energy needed to split an atom into its constituent parts (nucleons). (increase in
mass requires an energy input.)

Where has the mass gone when the nucleus is formed? It has been released as energy (See the
section on nuclear fusion).

Example
Calculating the binding energy for a nucleus

To calculate the binding energy of an atom we first need to know the mass defect, which is found
exactly as we did on the previous page. Once you have the mass defect we can use arguably the
most well known physics equation that exists!

• E is the binding energy in J

• m is the mass defect or mass difference in kg
• c is the speed of light in a vacuum (this is on the formula sheet) in
ms-1
Using out example at the top of page 19. Calculate the binding energy in J

As you can see from the numbers involved here we end up dealing with very small numbers when
working in SI units. It is therefore convenient sometimes to use alternative units.

The alternative unit for mass is the atomic mass unit.

1 Atomic mass unit is defined as the mass of 1/12 of a carbon-12 atom.

1 u = 1.661 x 10-27 kg [this can be found on the front page of the formula sheet]

1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J

It is also useful to know what 1u of mass is equivalent to in terms of eV or MeV in particular

Activity

Convert 1 u to its energy equivalent in MeV using the formula E = mc 2

Fortunately you don’t have to do this conversion every time the information in alternative units is
also written on the formula sheet

1u = 931.5MeV The mass of a proton is The mass of a neutron is

1.00728u 1.00867u

So we have looked at two methods for finding energy using different systems of units so it’s
important you don’t confused the methods.

When you are given the question in

atomic mass units [u] find the mass
When you are given the question in
defect in u and then multiply by
SI units find the mass defect or
931.5 to get the binding energy in
difference in kg and them use
MeV
E=mc2 to find the binding energy in
joules

You can always convert from Joules to MeV • To convert eV to J then multiply by 1.6 x 10-19
and vice versa at the end if you need to • To convert J to eV divide by 1.6 x 10-19
• If changing to a smaller unit the number gets
bigger

Activity

Convert 13.3MeV to Joules

Convert 5.3x10-12J into MeV

Examples

The mass of a nucleus is 2.32 x 10-26 kg. calculate the binding energy of the nucleus
in J

The mass in amu of a nucleus is 22.990 u calculate the binding energy in MeV

Convert this to J

This shows that not all nuclei have the same binding energy. One way to compare the binding energy
and stability of different nuclei is to look at binding energy per nucleon for a nucleus. This literally
means dividing the total binding energy of the nucleus by the number of particles in the nucleus.

Example

The mass of a nucleus of is 51.941 u. Find the binding energy per nucleon of the nucleus
in MeV

The mass of a nucleus of is 14.003 u. Find the binding energy per nucleon of the nucleus
in MeV

In the above two examples the nucleus with the ………………….. binding energy per nucleon is the
most stable. This is because it releases ………………….. energy when its being formed and therefore
requires ………………….. energy to separate the particles within the nucleus.
In general the higher the binding energy per nucleon the more ………………….. the nucleus.

If you plot binding energy per nucleon against nucleon number for all the isotopes we know you get
a graph that looks like
Nuclear energy states

Just like electrons, a nucleus has excited states which are unstable. By emitting one or more gamma
photons a nucleus can lose energy and return to its ground state. This often occurs with a daughter
nucleus after an alpha or beta decay.

Magnesium decays by beta minus emission to form a daughter nucleus of Aluminium in an excited
state (1.02 MeV or 0.83 MeV) which then decay as shown in the diagram. The transitions that may
then de-excite the aluminium nucleus by gamma emission are labelled 1, 2 and 3 in the diagram.

Question: Find the energy released in joules and the

wavelength of each of the 3 gamma photons.

(1)

(2)

(3)

Technetium - 99 : A medical tracer

The technetium generator is used in ______________ to produce

a source which emits _____________ radiation only. Some
99𝑇𝑐
radioactive ______________ such as the technetium isotope 43
form in an _________________ state after an alpha emission or a
beta emission and stay in the excited state long enough to be
separated from the ______________ isotope. Such a long-lived
excited state is said to be a _______________ state. Nuclei of the
99
technetium isotope 43𝑇𝑐 form in a metastable state (indicated by
99 𝑚
the symbol 43𝑇𝑐 ) after beta emission from nuclei of the
99
molybdenum isotope 42𝑀𝑜 which has a ___________________ of
99 𝑚
67 hours. 43𝑇𝑐 has a half-life of 6 hours and decays to the
______________ state by gamma emission.
 99
Technetium 43𝑇𝑐 in the ground state is a beta minus emitter with a half-life of 500 000 years and it
99 𝑚
forms a _____________ product. Therefore, a sample of 43𝑇𝑐 with not molybdenum present
effectively emits only gamma ________________. Such samples or
99𝑇𝑐 𝑚 are used in medical diagnosis applications.
technetium 43

The technetium generator consists of an ion exchange column

containing ammonium molybdenate exposed to neutron radiation
several days earlier to make a significant number of the
molybdenum nuclei ________________. When a solution of
sodium chloride is passed through the column, some of the chlorine
ions exchange with the pertechnate ions but not with the
molybdenate ions so the solution that emerges contains
99 𝑚
43𝑇𝑐 nuclei.

unstable excited hospitals ground isotopes photons

parent half-life gamma metastable stable

Example: The germanium isotope 77 32𝐺𝑒 has a metastable state which decays to the ground state by
emission of a 0.16 MeV γ photon. The isotope decays by the 𝛽 − emission to form the arsenic isotope
77𝐴𝑠 in an excited state 0.48 MeV above the ground state of 77𝐴𝑠.
33 33
a. Complete the energy level diagram to show
these changes.

b. The excited state of 77

33𝐴𝑠 also decays to the
gound state via an excited state which is
0.27MeV above the ground state.
Calculate the energies of the γ photons emitted
in this decay.
 5. Nuclear Fission and Fusion
Nuclear fission

All nuclei want to become more stable. One of the ways this can happen is through nuclear fission.

Nuclear fission is defined as a heavy nucleus splitting into two lighter and more stable nuclei
with the release of energy and neutrons.

On the binding energy curve below draw an arrow to show the fission of a heavy nucleus assuming
the nucleon number approximately halves when forming the two products.

This means the end products have a ………………..binding energy per nucleon than the starting
nucleus. In order to do this they have to release …….……….. and this is why fission is of interest to us.
But how does this happen? In order to release energy …………….. has to be lost. It is this loss of
……………… that is converted into energy.

We can calculate the energy lost using a similar method to pages 20 and 21 as we shall see shortly.

How does induced fission work practically

Most commonly used fission reaction in commercial operations is as follows:

An isotope of uranium 235 is bombarded by a neutron to make uranium 236. This is why the
reaction is known as an induced fission reaction

Uranium 236 is unstable and will undergo a fission reaction to split into two lighter nuclei and
release neutrons and energy. One possible reaction is as follows.

The neutrons released can then go on to be absorbed by other uranium 235 nuclei to start further
fission reactions. This is known as a chain reaction.

In the example we have just looked at this means each fission could start two further fissions. This
means the number of fissions and hence the amount of energy that is released can quickly increase
to very high levels as shown in the diagram below.
Calculating the energy realised in a fission reaction.

Using the atomic masses below find the mass difference for the reaction on the previous page from
uranium 236 to its products.

Note here we are finding the mass

difference not the mass defect.
Mass defect is applied to a single
nucleus. Mass difference is used for
complete reactions like this
example.

Now find the energy released from the mass difference in MeV

The energy released can be in a variety of forms

• Kinetic energy of the two lighter nuclei

• Kinetic energy of the neutrons
• Gamma rays given off at the time of the reaction
• Energy carried away by neutrinos
• Energy subsequently released by alpha of beta decay of the lighter nuclei as there is no
guarantee they will be stable.
Harnessing the energy released in a fission reaction

1. The fuel rods are made of uranium. Naturally occurring uranium contains around 0.7% of
uranium 235. This is enriched to around 5% of uranium 235.
2. Fission reactions occur in the rods, releasing energy and increasing the temperature of the
rods. Neutrons released in each fission reaction go on to create further fissions sustaining
the reaction.
3. A coolant is pumped around the core which transfers energy from the fuel rods to pipes
containing water.
4. The water is heated by the coolant and turns to steam
5. Steam drives a turbine which is connected to a generator similar to the ones we looked at in
magnetic fields
6. The generator creates an alternating current.

You are required by the exam board to know further details of some parts of the reactor, what its
purpose is and what suitable materials can be used.

Coolant

The coolant in the centre of the reactor is there to transfer heat from the fuel rods to the pipes
containing water that pass into the reactor vessel. It passes through heat exchangers to maximise
the efficiency of heat transfer to the water in order to make sure it boils and is turned into steam
before it reaches the turbines.

A suitable material for a coolant is carbon dioxide gas.

Control rods

As we discussed on page 32 a reaction left alone will increase in the number of fissions occurring per
second and hence the amount of energy released. This is dangerous in a reactor as the temperature
and pressure will keep increasing and could lead to an explosion.

On average 2.4 neutrons are released in each fission reaction. Therefore to maintain a steady rate of
reaction 1.4 neutrons per fission need to be absorbed. The control rods are made of a material that
absorbs neutrons.

Putting the control rods further into the reactor and the rate of reaction will decrease. Withdrawing
them will increase the rate of reaction. This is controlled by a computer to ensure that the rate
remains at a constant level. When one fission creates one further fission this is known as critical
mass.

In an emergency the control rods are inserted all the way in to stop the rate of reaction. A material
suitable for control rods has to be capable of absorbing neutrons. Often Boron is used for this.

Moderator

Neutrons released from a fission reaction are high in energy and are travelling too fast to be
absorbed by another uranium nucleus to start a further fission reaction. Therefore each fuel rod is
inserted into a material that is designed to reduce the energy of the neutrons but without stopping
them completely. This is done by having a material where the neutrons can pass through it whilst
undergoing collisions with the nuclei in the moderator. Each collision reduces the energy of the
neutrons slowing them down.

Neutrons that have been slowed to sufficient speeds to be absorbed by a uranium nucleus are
known as thermal neutrons. A material suitable for this could be water, heavy water or graphite.

The first few collisions between neutrons and the moderator transfer a high amount of energy to the
nuclei in the moderator. This excites the moderator nuclei into higher energy levels. This position is
unstable so they fall back down again emitting photons of high energy electromagnetic radiation.
This means the moderator can release gamma rays which obviously need safety considerations.

Safety features:

A nuclear reactor needs to have a range of safety features to protect its workforce, the wider
community and the environment.

1. The reactor core is a thick steel vessel designed to withstand the high pressure and
temperature in the core. The thick steel vessel absorbs ß radiation and some of the γ
radiation and neutrons from the core.
2. The core is in a building with very thick concrete walls which absorb the neutrons and γ
radiation that escape from the reactor vessel.
3. Every reactor has an emergency shut-down system designed to insert the control rods
fully into the core to stop fission completely.
 4. The sealed fuel rods are inserted and removed from the reactor by means of remote
handling devices. The rods are much more radioactive after removal than before. This is
because the fuel cans
a. before use contain U-235 and U -238 which emit only α radiation and this is
absorbed by the fuel cans,
b. after use emit ß and γ radiation due to the many neutron-rich fission products
that form.
In addition, the spent fuel rods contain the plutonium isotope 239Pu as a result of the
absorption of neutrons by U-238 nuclei. This plutonium isotope is a very active α emitter and if
inhaled causes lung cancer.

Nuclear Waste

The nuclear fuel rods made of uranium are alpha emitters in their natural state because of the large
size of the nuclei. This is not inherently very dangerous as alpha particles, although highly ionising,
have low penetration power. The neutrons emitted when nuclear fissions occurs are more
concerning as these may interact with other nuclei producing unstable nuclei.
The daughter nuclei produced in nuclear fission may be in an excited state or still unstable. If they
are excited they may emit gamma rays. If they are still unstable they may emit further beta particles.
This makes the nuclear waste left over after fission reactions potentially more dangerous as beta
and gamma are more penetrating and so need containing carefully.
The spent fuel rods must be removed by remote control and stored underwater in cooling
ponds for up to a year as they continue to release heat and radiation. The remaining plutonium
and uranium is separated to be recycled. The remaining material (i.e., the fission products and
the fuel cans) is radioactive waste and is stored in sealed containers in deep trenches. High level
waste is may also be made solid into pyrex glass then placed in stainless steel or lead barrels or
concrete cylinders and stored deep underground. Such waste must be stored safely for centuries
as it contains long-lived radioactive isotopes, which must be prevented from contaminating
food and water supplies. Transporting waste presents a potential danger to the public so waste is
transported enclosed in crash resistant, extra thick and strong casings or processed onsite or nearby.
Nuclear fusion
We have seen with fission how heavy nuclei become more stable by splitting but how do lighter
nuclei become more stable?

Nuclear fusion is defined as a two light nuclei combining to form one heavier nucleus with the
release of energy.

On the binding energy curve below draw an arrow to show how 2 light nuclei combine to form a
heavier one. Account for the release of energy in both fission and fusion processes and compare the
relative amounts

The heavy nucleus after the reaction has greater binding energy per nucleon and therefore is more
stable. This means there has to be a loss of mass. The heavy nucleus at the end of the reaction has a
lower mass than the sum of the masses of the lighter products at the beginning of the reaction.
Calculating the energy released in a fusion reaction

One of the most common fusion reactions is the conversion of hydrogen to helium.

Using the information below calculate the energy released in this fusion reaction.

How fusion works practically

• For two nuclei to fuse together they first need to get close enough to each other to virtually
come into contact. They need to get within 1 fm of each other. This is so the strong nuclear
force can act to hold the nuclei together.
• To get just the nuclei on their own to fuse they first need to be ……………………….
• This forms a plasma
• All the nuclei therefore have a ……………………… charge
• This means the nuclei will ……………………….. each other
• Therefore they need to have a high kinetic energy in order to overcome this ………………………
• In order for this to be achieved the plasma needs to be at high……………………….. and high
…………………………
• This is hard to achieve this in a manmade environment. At present more energy is put into
the system to achieve the high temperatures and pressures than is gained from the fusion
reactions.
• It is much easier to achieve in the centre of stars due to the high …………………………….. and
high …………………….caused by the large mass of a star.

In the early years of the life of a star the main fusion

reaction is the conversion of hydrogen to helium. Once
the hydrogen has been used up it is possible for helium
nuclei to fuse together to form even heavier nuclei. This
can continue until iron is reached as this is the most
stable isotope. This accounts for how some of the
heavier elements in the solar system exist.

How are the heavier elements formed?

Feasibility of decay

For any decay to happen

the nuclei at the end of the reaction must be more stable than those at the beginning

this means mass has to …………………………………..

and therefore energy is ……………………………………

Using the data below determine which of the reactions below are feasible