1 Set Theory and

Real Number System

Set
A set is a collection of well defined objects. The objects of a set are called the members Syllabus
or elements of the set and their membership is defined by the certain conditions. The Elementary Set Theory
elements of the set can be anything pencil, apple, rubber, Sun etc.
Finite Countable and
Suppose, S be the set i.e., a collection of objects and x is an object which belongs to S Uncountable Sets
i.e., member of S, then we will write x ∈ S. We can also write S = { x : Q( x )}. It means S is
the set of objects for which the statement Q( x ) involving x is true. Real Number System as a
Complete Ordered Field

Note (a) Sets are generally denoted by capital letters A, B, C, P, Q, X, Y etc. Archimedean Property
(b) Elements of the set are denoted by the small letters a, b, c, p, q, x, y etc. Supremum, Infimum
(c) If x is not the member of the set S, then it is written as x ∉S and read as x
does not belong to S.

Subsets
If every element of a set A is also an element of a set B, then A is called a subset of B and
it is denoted by A ⊆ B.

Superset
If A is a subset of B means A is contained in B, we can also say that B contains A or B is
superset of A, it can be written as B ⊃ A.

Equality of Sets
If two sets A and B are equal, then symbollically it is written as A = B. If every element of
A belongs to B and every element of B belongs to A. i.e., A = B if and only if
x ∈ A ⇔ x ∈ B or A ⊂ B, B ⊂ A ⇔ A = B

Proper Set
If every element of the set A is an element of the set B and B contains atleast one element
which does not belong to A, i.e., if A ⊂ B and A ≠ B, then we can say that A is proper
subset of B and it is denoted by A ⊂ B.
e.g., {2, 3, 6, 4} is proper subset of {4, 3, 2, 6, 5, 8}

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Universal Set
We consider all the sets to be the subsets of a given fixed set
known as universal set or universe of discourse. It is denoted A A
B
by U or X.

Finite Set
If a set consist of finite number of elements, it is called a finite In the diagram shaded portion represents A ∪ B.
set.
∴ A ∪ B = { x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B or x ∈ both A and B}
e.g., {7, 9, 11} is a finite set.
Intersection
Infinite Set
The intersection of two sets A and B written as A ∩ B. It means
If a set consist of an infinite number of elements, it is called,
the set of points which belongs to both A and B.
infinite set.
e.g., Set of Natural numbers N, Set of Rational numbers R, etc.

Power Set
A B
Power set of the set is defined as the family consisting of all
subsets of a set. It is denoted by P.
e.g., { A : A ⊂ B} is power set of B. It can be written as
P = { A : A ⊂ B}
In the diagram shaded portion represents A ∩ B.
Null Set ∴ A ∩ B = { x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
A set consisting of no points is called the empty set or null set. If A ∩ B = φ, it means there is no common element in A and
It is denoted by φ or {}. B. In this case, the sets A and B are said to be disjoint.

Indexed Set and Index Set Note (a) Sometimes A + B can be written in place of
A ∪ B.
Let St be a non-empty set for each t in a set ∆. The sets
(b) Sometimes A ⋅ B can be written in place of A ∩ B .
A1, A2 , A3 , ....., An are called indexed sets and the set
∆ = {1, 2, 3, ..., n} is called index set. The suffix t ∈ ∆ of At is (c) If A = {1, 2 }, B = { 3, 4,5 }, then A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4,5 }.
called an index and such a family of sets is denoted by (d) If A = {1, 2 },B = {2, 3, 4 }, then A ∩ B = {2 }.
{ A t : t ∈ ∆} or { A t }, t ∈ ∆. (e) If x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ A ∪ B and any x ∈ B ⇒ x ∈ A ∪ B
∴ A ⊂ A ∪ B, B ⊂ A ∪ B
Singleton Set (f) If x ∈ A ∩ B ⇒ x ∈ A and any x ∈ A ∩ B ⇒ x ∈ B
∴ A ∩ B ⊂ A, A ∩ B ⊂ B
A set consisting of a single element is called a singleton set.
e.g., {1}, {2}, { a } etc., are singleton sets.
Complement of a Set
Pairwise Disjoint Sets The complement of a set A is denoted by A C or A′ i.e., the set
A family { An } of sets is said to be pairwise disjoint, if of all points in the universal set U which do not belong to A.
A t ∩ AS = φ, ∀ t, s ∈ ∆ s.t. t ≠ s. Symbollically, it can be written as
A C = U − A = { x : x ∈ U and x ∉ A}
Hereditary Property i.e., for any x ∈ A ′ ⇔ x ∉ A
A non-empty family A = { A t } of sets is said to have hereditary
property, if Difference of Sets
A t ⊂ As, A s ∈ A ⇒ A t ∈ A The difference A − B between two sets A and B is the set of
points in A which do not belong to B, i.e.,
Set Operations A − B = A ∩ BC

Union Symmetric Difference of Sets

Union of two sets A and B written as A ∪ B. It means the set of The symmetric difference of two sets A and B is denoted by
points which belongs to one of the sets A and B i.e., which A ∆ B. It is defined as
belongs to A or to B or to both. A ∆ B = ( A − B) ∪ ( B − A )

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Note (a) φ′ = U for φ′ = U − φ = U (vii) ( A ∩ B) × ( C ∩ D ) = ( A × C ) ∩ ( B × D )

(viii) A⊆ A× A⇒A=φ
(b) U ′ = φ for U ′ = U − U = φ
(ix) A= A×B ⇒ A=φ
(c) A − B = A ∩ B C , B − A = B ∩ AC
For A − B = {x : x ∈ A, x ∉B } (x) If A contains n elements and B contains m elements,
= {x : x ∈ A, x ∈ B ′ } then A × B contains n ⋅ m elements.
= A ∩B′
(d) A ∪ A′ = U , A ∩ A′ = φ Example 1. If | A ∩ B| = r. Then, find|( A × B) ∩ (B × A)|.
(e) x ∈ A ∪ B ⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B Solution. Let A ∩ B = D. Then,
x ∉ A ∪ B ⇒ x ∉ A and x ∉B
D ×D ⊆ A ×B
and D ×D ⊆ B× A
e.g., If A = {2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {4, 5, 6, 7}, then
⇒ |D × D| = r × r = r 2
A − B = {2, 3}, B − A = {6, 7}
A ∆ B = ( A − B) ∪ ( B − A ) = {2, 3} ∪ {6, 7} ⇒ |( A × B) ∩ (B × A)| = r 2
= {2, 3, 6, 7}

Important Laws
Relation
A relation from set A to set B is a subset of A × B. Similarly A
If A, B, C be any sets, then relation from set B to set A is a subset of B × A.
1. Commutative Laws e.g., Let A = { a, b} and B = {1, 2}. Then,
A∪ B= B∪ A A × B = {( a, 1), ( a, 2), ( b, 1), ( b, 2)} is a relation from A to B.
A∩ B= B∩ A Thus, every subset of A × B is a relation from A to B.
2. Associative Laws Similarly,
( A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ ( B ∪ C ) B × A = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b)} is a relation from B to A.
( A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ ( B ∩ C ) Thus, every subset of B × A is a relation from B to A.
3. Distributive Laws Since, φ is a subset of every set. Hence, φ is a relation from A
A ∩ ( B ∪ C ) = ( A ∩ B) ∪ ( A ∩ C ) to B (and B to A) known as empty relation.
A ∪ ( B ∩ C ) = ( A ∪ B) ∩ ( A ∪ C ) Theorem If a set A has n element and set B has m
4. De-Morgan’s Laws element, then total number of relations from set A to set
( A ∪ B)′ = A ′ ∩ B ′ B is 2n⋅m = 2| A| × |B| .
( A ∩ B)′ = A ′∪ B′
5. A − ( B ∪ C ) = ( A − B) ∩ ( A − C ) Relation on a Set
A − ( B ∩ C ) = ( A − B) ∪ ( A − C ) A relation on a set A is a subset of A × A.
e.g., φ and A × A are relation on A.
Cartesian Product e.g., ∆ = {( a, a) : a ∈ A} is a relation on A known as the
diagonal relation on A.
Let A and B be two sets. Then,
e.g., Let A = { a, b, c}. Then,
A × B = {( x, y ) : x ∈ A, y ∈ B}
R = {( a, b), ( b, a), ( a, c )} is a relation on A.
is known as cartesian product of A and B.
e.g., Let A be a set. Let R = {( X , Y ) : X , Y ∈ P( A ) and X ⊆ Y } is a
In general
relation on P( A ).
A× B≠ B× A
Now, let R and S be relations on A. Then, R ∪ S, R ∩ S and
where
R − S are all subsets of A × A and hence they are also relations
B × A = {( y, x ) : y ∈ B, x ∈ A} on A. The relation
RoS = {( a1, a2 ) ∈ A × A : ∃ a3 ∈ X such that ( a1, a3 ) ∈ S and
Properties of Cartesian Product ( a3 , a2 ) ∈ R} is called the composition of R and S.
Let A, B, C and D are sets. Then,
(i) ( A ∪ B) × C = ( A × C ) ∪ ( B × C )
(ii) ( A ∩ B) × C = ( A × C ) ∩ ( B × C ) Properties of Relation
(iii) ( A − B) × C = ( A × C ) − ( B × C ) Let R, S and T be relations on X. Then,
(iv) A × B = φ ⇔ A = φ or B = φ (i) ( RoS )oT = Ro( SoT )
(v) A × C ⊆ B × C, C ≠ φ ⇒ A ⊆ B (ii) Ro∆ = R = ∆oR
(vi) ( A × B = B × A ) ⇔ ( A = φ or B = φ or A = B) (iii) Ro( S ∪ T ) = ( RoS ) ∪ ( RoT )

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(iv) Ro( S ∩ T ) ⊆ ( RoS ) ∩ ( RoT ) i.e., U= A

(v) ( R ∪ S )oT = ( RoT ) ∪ ( SoT ) X ∈P

(vi) ( R ∩ S )oT ⊆ ( RoT ) ∩ ( SoT ) (ii) X , Y ∈ P, X ≠ Y ⇒ X ∩ Y = φ

Inverse Relation Function

Let R be a relation on A. Then, the relation Let A and B be two sets. A subset f of A × B is called a function
R −1 = { ( a1, a2 ) ∈ A × A |( a2 , a1) ∈ R } or a mapping (or a map) from A to B, if
is called the inverse relation of R. (i) ∀ a ∈ A, ∃ b ∈ B such that ( a, b) ∈ f
(ii) ( a, b1) ∈ f and ( a, b2 ) ∈ f
Theorem Let R and S be relations on A. Then,
⇒ b1 = b2
(i) ( R −1) −1 = R
A is called the domain and B is called the codomain of f. If
(ii) ( RoS) −1 = S−1oR −1 ( a, b) ∈ f , we write b = f ( a) and call it the image of the element
a under the map f. Thus,
f = {( a, f ( a)) : a ∈ A}
Types of Relations
we also adopt the notations f : A → B to say that f is a map
Let R be a relation on A. Then, from A to B.
(i) R is called reflexive, if ( a, a) ∈ R, ∀ a ∈ A or Let f : A → B and g : B → C be two maps.
equivalently ∆ ⊆ R. Then, gof :{( a, c ) :( a, b) ∈ f and ( b, c ) ∈ g}
(ii) R is called symmetric, if ( a1, a2 ) ∈ R ⇒ ( a2 , a1) ∈ R or is a map from A to C called the composition of f and g, given
equivalently R −1 = R. by
(iii) R is called anti-symmetric, if ( a1, a2 ) ∈ R and ( a2 , a1) ∈ R ( gof )( a) = g( f ( a)), ∀ a ∈ A.
⇒ a1 = a2 or equivalently R ∩ R −1 ⊆ ∆. Definition The subset ∆ of A × A is also a map from A to A
called the identity map on A and is denoted by I A. Thus,
(iv) R is called transitive, if ( a1, a2 ) ∈ R and ( a2 , a3 ) ∈ R
I A( a) = a, ∀ a ∈ A
⇒ ( a1, a3 ) ∈ R or equivalently RoR ⊆ R.
and foI A = f = IBof
e.g., Let A = { a, b, c} and
where f : A → B is a map.
R = {( a, a), ( b, b), ( c, c ), ( a, b), ( b, c ), ( c, b)}
Then, R is reflexive but none of the rest of three. Definition Let X ⊆ A. Then, IX = {( x, x ) : x ∈ X } is a map from X
e.g., Let A = { a, b, c} and to A called the inclusion map from X to A.
R = {( c, b), ( a, c )} Definition Let A and B be two sets and b ∈ B. Then, A × { b} is
Then, R is a anti-symmetric but none of the rest three. a map f from A to B such that
e.g., Let A = ( a, b, c ) and f ( a) = y, ∀ a ∈ A
R = {( a, a), ( b, b), ( c, c ), ( a, b), ( b, a), ( b, c ), ( c, b)} called constant map.
Then, R is reflexive , symmetric but neither anti-symmetric nor Definition Let A and B be two sets.
transitive. The map
p1 : A × B → A
Equivalence Relation defined by
p1( a, b) = a
A relation R on a set A, which is reflexive, symmetric and
transitive is called equivalence relation on A. is called the first projection and
Let R be an equivalence relation on A and a ∈ A. The subset p2 : A × B → B
Ra = { b ∈ A :( a, b) ∈ R} defined by
is called the equivalence class of A modulo R determined by a. p2 ( a, b) = b
is called the second projection map.
Theorem Let R be an equivalence relation on A. Then,
(i) Ra = Rb ⇔ ( a, b) ∈ R Theorem Let f : A → B, g : B → C and h : C → D be maps.
(ii) Ra ≠ Rb ⇔ Ra ∩ Rb = φ Then,
(hog)of = ho(gof )
i.e., The set of maps follows the associative law.
Partition of Set
Let A be a set. A subset P of the power set of A is called
partition of A, if Definition Let f : X → Y be a map. Then,
(i) union of member of P is A f −1 = { ( b, a) :( a, b) ∈ f }
⊆ B× A

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need not be a map from B to A. But f −1 will be a map iff gof = hof
(i) ∀ b ∈ B, ∃ a ∈ A such that ( a, b) ∈ f ⇒ g=h
(ii) ( a1, b) ∈ f and ( a2 , b) ∈ f (vii) A map f : A → B is bijective iff it can be left as well as
⇒ a1 = a2 right cancelled.
called inverse map of f. (viii) Let f : A → B be a map. Then, f is bijective iff ∃ a map
Definition A map f : A → B is called injective or one-one, if g : B → A such that
f ( a1) = f ( a2 ) gof = I A and
⇒ a1 = a2 fog = IB and then g = f −1
or equivalently (ix) Let f : A → B and g : B → C be bijective maps. Then
a1 ≠ a2
( gof )−1 = f −1og −1
⇒ f ( a1) ≠ f ( a2 )
or equivalently Example 4. Show that there is no surjective map from any
( a1, b) ∈ f , ( a2 , b) ∈ f set A to its power set P( A).
⇒ a1 = a2 Solution. Let f : A → P ( A) be a map. Consider the set
Definition A map f : A → B is called surjective map or onto X = {a ∈ A : a ∉ f ( a)}
map, if ∀ b ∈ B, ∃ a ∈ A such that ( a, b) ∈ f . Thus, f is surjective, Then, X ∈ P( A). Suppose that f ( b) = X for some b ∈ A, if
if ∀ b ∈ B, ∃ a ∈ A such that f ( a) = b. b ∉ X = f ( b), then b ∈ X . If b ∈ X = f ( b), then b ∉ f ( b) = X .
Definition A map f which is injective as well as surjective is Hence, supposition that f ( b) = X for some b ∈ A is false. This
called a bijective or one-one-onto map. shows that f cannot be surjective.

Theorem Let f be a map from A to B and X ⊆ A. Then,

Note f −1 is a map iff f is bijective.
X ⊆ f −1( f ( X)). Also,

Example 2. Show that a surjective map need be injective. X = f −1( f ( X)),∀ X ⊆ A iff f is injective.
Solution. Let A = {a, b, c} and B = {x, y} Theorem Let f : A → B be a map and Y ⊆ B. Then,
Define the map f : A → B by f ( a) = x = f ( b), f ( c) = y. f ( f −1(Y )) ⊆ Y . Also,
Then, f is surjective but not injective for f ( a) = f ( b) but a ≠ b.
Y = f ( f −1(Y )),∀ Y ∈ B iff f is surjective.
Example 3. Show that an injective map need not be
surjective. Theorem Let f : A → B be a map. Let X1 and X2 be
subsets of A. Then,
Solution. Let A = {a, b} and B = {x, y , z}
(i) f ( X1 ∪ X2) = f ( X1) ∪ f ( X2)
Define the map f : A → B by f ( a) = x, f ( b) = y. Then, f is
injective but not surjective for there is no element in A (ii) f ( X1 ∩ X2) ⊆ f ( X1) ∩ f ( X2)
whose image is z.
Theorem Let f : A → B be a map. Let Y1 and Y2 be
subsets of Y. Then,
Properties of Map (i) f −1( B1 ∩ B2) = f −1( B1) ∩ f −1( B 2)
(i)Inverse of a bijective map is a bijective map. (ii) f −1( B1 ∪ B2) = f −1( B1) ∪ f −1( B 2)
(ii)Composition of any two injective maps is injective.
(iii)f −1( B1 − B2) = f −1( B1) − f −1( B 2)
(iii)Composite of two surjective maps is surjective.
(iv) Composite of two bijective maps is bijective.
(v) Let f : A → B and g : B → C be maps. Then,
(a) If gof is surjective, then g is surjective.
Ordered Pair
(b) If gof is injective, then f is injective. Order pair is an element of the form ( a, b). The element a is
called first element and the element b is called the second
(c) If gof is bijective, then g is surjective and f is element of the ordered pair.
injective.
(vi) A map f : A → B is injective iff f can be left cancelled
in the sense that Equality of Ordered Pairs
fog = foh ⇒ g = h Let ( a, b) and ( c, d ) be any two ordered pairs, then
A map f : A → B is surjective iff f can be right ( a, b) = ( c, d ) ⇔ a = c, b = d
cancelled in the sense that

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Cardinally Equivalent or Equivalent Product of Cardinal Numbers

Sets Suppose A and B be any two sets s.t.| A| = n and| B| = m, then
A set A is said to be equivalent or cardinally equivalent to the the product of cardinal numbers n and m is defined as
set B if there exist one-one map from A to B. This relation is n × m =| A × B|
denoted by the symbol ~. Therefore, A ~ B ⇔ A and B are e.g., Let A = { a, b, c}, B = { a, 2, 3, 4}
equivalent.
Then, | A| = 3 and | B| = 4
e. g., The set of natural numbers N = {1, 2, ...} and set of all
odd natural numbers O = {1, 3, 5, ...} are equivalent because f ∴ | A × B| = 3 × 4 = 12
is a map f : N → O by the formula f ( n) = (2n − 1), ∀ n ∈ N Now,| A × B| =|{( a, a), ( a, 2), ( a, 3), ( a, 4 ), ( b, a), ( b, 2), ( b, 3),
which is one-one from N onto O. ( b, 4 ), ( c, a), ( c, 2), ( c, 3), ( c, 4 )}|
= 12
Note (a) The relation ~ is an equivalent relation. ∴ | A × B| =| A| ×| B| = n × m
(b) The relation A ~ B in the family of sets is an
equivalent relation.
Denumerable (or Enumerable or
Cardinal Numbers Countably Infinite) Countable
(or Power or Potency) and Uncountable Sets
A set A is called a denumerable set if ∃ a one-one mapping
The cardinal number of a equivalence sets is any
representative of the class or we can say that every from the set N of all natural numbers onto the set A i.e., if
equivalence class defines a unique cardinal number. A ~ N.
If S is any set consisting of s elements, then the cardinal A set A is said to be countable set if either A is denumerable
number is s. or A is finite i.e., if either A ~ N or A is finite.
The cardinal number of φ is defined as zero. If the set A is not countable, then it is said to be uncountable.
If A ~ {1, 2, 3, ..., n}, then n is called the cardinal number of A. i.e., A set is called uncountable set, if either A is an infinite or
The cardinal number of the any set A is denoted by card A or A is not cardinally equivalent to N.
| A|. Therefore,| A| or card A = n.

Note (a) If A ~ B , then by the definition of cardinal Note Uncountable sets are also called
number | A | = | B |. non-countable, non-denumerable, non-enumerable.
(b) Cardinal number corresponding to a finite set is
called a finite cardinal number.
(c) Cardinal number corresponding to an infinite set
Decimal Representation
is called transfinite cardinal number. The digits 0, 1, 2, ..., 9 are called the decimal digits. When the
(d) All transfinite cardinal numbers are greater than series
any finite cardinal numbers. d1 d d d d
+ 2 + 3 + 4 + ... + nn + ...
10 102 103 104 10
Sum of Cardinal Numbers converges to x with each dn as a decimal digit. Therefore, the
Let A and B be any two sets with cardinality n and m s.t. their decimal representation of x is given by
intersection is empty. Let
x = 0 ⋅ d1d2 d3 d4 ...
| A| = n, | B| = m and A ∩ B = φ 3 6 8
Then, the sum of n and m is defined as n + m =| A ∪ B|. e.g., + 2 + 3 + ... represents 0.368…
10 10 10
e.g.,
If A = { a, b, c, d}, B = { a , p, q, r, s, t}
Then, A ∪ B = { a, b, c, d} ∪ { a, p, q, r, s, t}
= { a, b, c, d, p, q, r, s, t} Ternary Representation
∴ | A ∪ B| = 9 The digits 0, 1, 2 are said to be ternary digits when the series
and | A| = 4,| B| = 6, A ∩ B ≠ φ t1 t2 t t t
+ + 3 + 4 + ... + nn + ...
∴ By the definition 3 32 33 34 3
| A ∪ B| ≠| A | + | B | converges to x with each tn as a ternary digit, then a ternary
representation of x is given by
Note This example shows that A ∩ B = φ is a x = 0 ⋅ t1t2t3t4 ...
necessary condition for the rule | A ∪ B | = | A | + | B |.

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Important Theorems on Countable and Uncountable Sets

1. Every subset of a finite set is finite.
2. Every superset of an infinite set is infinite.
3. If A and B are finite sets, then A ∩ B is also a finite set.
4. If A and B are finite sets, then A ∪ B is also a finite set.
5. Every subset of a countable set is countable.
6. Every infinite subset of a denumerable set is denumerable.
7. If A and B are countable sets, then A ∩ B is also a countable set.
8. Every superset of an uncountable set is uncountable.
9. Every infinite set has a denumerable subset.
10. Countably infinite sets are the smallest infinite sets.
11. The countable union of countable sets is countable.
12. Every infinite set is equivalent to one of its proper subsets.
13. The set of all rational numbers is countable.
14. The set of all rational numbers in [0 , 1] is countable.
15. The unit interval [0 , 1] is uncountable i.e., the set of all real numbers in the closed interval [0 ,1] is not enumerable
i.e., the set of real numbers x s.t. 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 is not countable.
16. The set of real numbers is uncountable.
17. The set of irrational numbers is not countable.
18. Any open interval ] a, b [ is equivalent to any other open interval ] c, d [.
19. The set N × N is countable, where N is the set of natural numbers.
20. The cartesian product of two countable sets is countable. i.e., If A and B are countable sets, then A × B is
countable.
21. (i) The intervals ] 0 , 1[ and [0 , 1] are equivalent.
(ii) The intervals [0 , 1] and [ 0 , 1[ are equivalent.
(iii) The intervals [0 , 1] and ] 0 , 1[ are equivalent.
(iv) Any open interval is equivalent to [0 , 1.]
22. Any interval is equivalent to the set R of real numbers. In particular, R is equivalent to [0 ,1.]

Binary Representation Cantor Set

The digits 0 and 1 are said to be the binary digits when the 0 1
b1 b2 b3 b4 b
series + + + + .... + nn + ...
2 22 23 24 2 1 2 1 2 7 8
converges to x with each bn as a binary digit, then the binary 32 32 3 3 32 32
First step Removed
expression of x is given by
Second step Removed Removed
x = 0 ⋅ b1b2 b3 b4 ...
1 Consider the closed interval [0, 1.] Divide this closed interval
0 1 0 1 1 into three equal parts and remove the middle one i.e. remove
+ 2 + 3 + 4 + ... = 4 =
the open interval  ,  . This is our first step of the
e.g., 1 2
2 2 2 2 1 3
1−  3 3
4
construction of cantor set.
1
Therefore, = 0 ⋅ 0101010101... Now, again we divide the each of the remaining two intervals
3 into three equal parts and remove the middle part means
remove the open intervals  2 , 2  and  ,  . This is the
1 1 2 7 8
and similarly, = 0 ⋅ 010000 ...
4 3 3  9 9
second step of construction. On proceeding in this way
Note Suppose A be a set of all sequences whose infinitely many steps, at the rth step we have 2r − 1 open
1
elements are the digits 0 and 1, then the set A is intervals are removed each of the length r . The remaining
countable. 3
set constitutes cantor set or cantor-ternary set.

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8 UGC-CSIR NET Tutor Mathematical Sciences

1 2 1 2 7
Thus, the cantor set contains the points 0, 1, , , , , , Note If we have a positive real number m and a
3 3 9 9 9 natural number n, then there exist one and only one
etc. Therefore, cantor set is non-empty. positive real number b s.t. bn = m.

Definition of Cantor Set Important Theorems on Real Numbers

The cantor set is the set of all numbers in the interval [0, 1]
which have a ternary expansion without the digit 1 i.e. ternary Theorem 1 A non-empty subset of real numbers which
expansion involves only two digits 0 or 2. is bounded below has the greatest lower bound (infimum)
Cantor set is the complement of an open set, therefore, cantor in R, the set of all real numbers.
set is closed.
Theorem 2 (Dedekind Property) Suppose L and U be
two non-empty subsets of the ordered field R s.t.
Important Properties of Cantor Set
(i) L ∪ U = R
1. Cantor ternary set is measurable and its measure is zero.
(ii) each member of L is less than each member of U i.e.
2. Cantor set is equivalent to [0, 1.]
x ∈ L ∧ y ∈U ⇒ x < y
3. Cantor set is uncountable.
Then, either the subset L has a greatest member or the
subset U has a smallest member.
Real Number System as a
Complete Ordered Field Subtraction and Division in R
The set R of real numbers is an ordered field. 1. a − b = a + ( − b)
a
2. a ÷ b = or a( b−1), b ≠ 0
b
Order Completeness of R
Note The multiplicative inverse of b ≠ 0 may be
The set of upper bounds of a non-empty set of real numbers 1
which is bounded above has a smallest number or we can also denoted as b −1 or .
b
say that every non-empty set of real numbers which is
bounded above admits of a least upper bound i.e.,
supremum.
This property of the set R of real numbers is referred to as its Archimedean Property of Real
order-completeness. This property states that if A be the set of
real numbers which is bounded above there exists the smallest
Numbers
of the upper bounds of A. The fact of a number s being the Theorem 1 If x and y are two given real numbers w ith
smallest of the upper bounds of A can be described by the x > 0, then ∃ a natural number n s.t. nx > y .
following properties:
1. The number s is an upper bound of A i.e., no member of Theorem 2 For any real number b ∃ a positive integer n
A is greater than s. s.t. n > b.
x ∈ A ⇒ x ≤ s ⇔ x ≤ s, ∀ x ∈ A 1
2. No number less than s is an upper bound of A i.e., if s′ be Theorem 3 For any ε > 0 ∃ a positive integer n s.t. <ε
n
the number less than s so that s′ is not an upper bound of
A, ∃ atleast one number x ∈ A s.t. x > s′. Therefore, if s′ < s, Theorem 4 For any real number y, ∃ two integers p and
then there exist x ∈ A s.t. x > s′. n s.t. p < x < n.
Thus, we have completed the description of the set of real
numbers as a complete ordered field. Theorem 5 For any real number x, ∃ a unique integer n
s.t. n ≤ x < n + 1
Note The ordered field of rational numbers is not Theorem 6 For any real number x, ∃ a unique integer n
order-complete.
s.t. x − 1 < n < x.

Irrational Number Archimedean Ordered Field

A real number which is not rational is called irrational. e.g., Archimedean ordered field is an ordered field which has
3, 10 etc. Archimedean property. For example, the field R of the set of
real numbers is an Archimedean ordered field.

8
 Set Theory and Real Number System 9

Important Theorems Greatest Member of a Set Bounded

Denseness Property of Real Number System above
A number η is called the greatest member of the set S, if
Theorem 1 (The Density Theorem)
(i) η ∈ S ⇒ η is itself a member of S.
Between any two distinct numbers, there lies atleast one
rational number and hence there lie infinitely many (ii) No member of S is greater than η
rational numbers. ⇒ η is an upper bound of S, therefore
x ∈S ⇒x ≤ η
Theorem 2 Between any two distinct real numbers, Hence, the greatest member of a set is a member of the set
there lies atleast one irrational number also, and hence
bounded above and as well as an upper bound of the set.
there lies infinitely many irrational numbers also.

Theorem 3 Between any two distinct rational numbers,

there lies atleast one and hence infinite number of Smallest Number of a Set Bounded
rational numbers. below
A number ξ is called the smallest number of a set S, if
(i) ξ ∈ S ⇒ ξ is itself a member of S.
Supremum or least upper bound (lub) (ii) No member of S is smaller than ξ i.e., ξ is a lower
If the set of all upper bounds of a set S of real numbers has a bound of S
smallest member k, then k is said to be a least upper bound or ∴ x ∈S ⇒ x ≥ ξ
supremum of S and it is denoted by lub or Sup S. Hence, the smallest member of a set is a member of the set
bounded below and as well as lower bound of the set.
Infimum or greatest lower bound (glb)
If the set of all lower bounds of a set S of real numbers has a Note (a) The smallest member of a set, if it exists, is
the infimum or glb of the set.
greatest member K, then K is said to be a infimum or greatest
lower bound of S and it is denoted by Inf S or glb. (b) The greatest member of a set, if it exists, is the
supremum or lub of the set.

Important Theorems on Supremum Bounded Set

and Infimum A set S of real numbers is said to be bounded if it is bounded
Theorem 1 lub or supremum of a non-empty set S of above as well as below. When the set S is bounded, ∃ two real
real numbers, whenever it exists is unique. numbers l and m s.t.
l ≤ x ≤ m, ∀ x ∈ S
Theorem 2 glb or infimum of a non-empty set S of real
numbers whenever it exists, is unique. Note By saying that the set is bounded it means that
∃ an interval I s.t. S ⊂ I .
Theorem 3 The necessary and sufficient condition for a
real number ‘ t ’ to be the glb or infimum of a bounded e.g. (i) The sets I, Q are neither bounded above nor bounded
below set S is that ‘ t ’ must satisfy the follow ing below.
conditions: (ii) The set N of natural numbers is bounded below but not
(i) x ≥ t , ∀ x ∈ S bounded above. The smallest number is 1.
(ii) For each positive real number ε, ∃ a real number
Therefore, Inf N = 1.
x ∈ S s.t. x < 1 + ε.
Theorem 4 The necessary and sufficient condition for a
real number ‘ s’ to be the lub or supremum of a bounded Limit Point of a Set
above set S is that ‘ s’ must satisfy the follow ing
conditions: Adherent Point
(i) x ≤ s, ∀ x ∈ S A point p ∈ R is said to be an adherent point of a set A ⊂ R if
(ii) For each positive real number ε, ∃ a real number x ∈ S every neighbourhood of p contains a point of A. The set of all
s.t. x > s − ε. adherent points of A is called the adherence or closure of A
and it is denoted by Adh( A ). Adherent point is also called
Note The supremum or infimum if exist they are closure point.
unique.

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10 UGC-CSIR NET Tutor Mathematical Sciences

Limit Point Important Theorems

(i) A point p ∈ R is said to be a limit point of the set
A ⊂ R if every neighbourhood of p contains atleast
Theorem 1 Interior of a set is an open set.
one point of A other than p. Or we can say that a Theorem 2 A point p ∈ R is a limit point of a set A ⊂ R iff
point p ∈ R is a limit point of A ⊂ R if and only if for every neighbourhood of p contains infinitely many points of
each neighbourhood N of p, we have A.
( N ∩ A ) ~{ p} ≠ φ
Theorem 3 If a non-empty subset A of R which is
(ii) A point p ∈ R is called a limit point of a set A ⊂ R if for
bounded above and has no maximum member, then its
each ε > 0, the open interval ] p − ε, p + ε [ contains a supremum is a limit point of the set A.
point of A, other than p.
Theorem 4 The finite set has no limit point.
Derived Set Theorem 5 If a non-empty subset A of R, which is
The set of all limit points of a set A ⊂ R is said to be derived bounded below has no maximum member, then its
set and it is denoted by D ( A ) or A′. Therefore, infimum is a limit point of the set A.
A ′ = D( A ) = [ p : p is a limit point of A ]
Theorem 6 (Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem) Every
The derived set of A′ i.e., ( A′ )′ or A ′′.
infinite bounded set of real numbers has a limit point.

Isolated Point Theorem 7 Every bounded infinite set has the smallest
and the greatest limit point.
A point p ∈ R is called an isolated point of A, if it is not the
limit point of A i.e., if there exist a neighbourhood of p which
contains no point of A other than p.
Important Definitions
Note (a) A set A is called the discrete set if all its Condensation Point
points are isolated points.
(b) Each point of a set A is either an isolated point of If every neighbourhood of a point contains an infinite number
A or a limit point of A. of points of A, then that point is called the condensation point
of A. Thus, a finite set has no condensation point.

Closed Set Interior Point

1. A set A is said to be closed set if it contains all its limit The point x ∈ A is called an interior point of A if there exist a
point. neighbourhood containing x and contained in A. Evidently, x
must belong to A.
2. A set A is said to be closed if its complement is open.
e.g., Closed Set
(i) The null set φ is closed.
If every limit point of a set is contained in the set itself, then
(ii) The set Q is not a closed set. such a set is called closed set. Thus, a closed set has the
(iii) Finite set is always closed. derived set as its subset, D( A ) ⊆ A, A is a closed set.

Closure of a Set Open Set

The smallest closed set containing A, is called the closure of A If every point of set A is an interior point of A, then A is always
and is denoted by A. called an open set. Open interval is always an open set.

Note (a) The cover G is called an open cover, if

Dense Set every member of G is an open set.
1. A set A is said to be dense or everywhere dense in R, if (b) If ∃ G1 ⊂ G s.t. G1 is a cover of A, then G1 is called
A = R. a subcover of G. If every member of G1 is open s.t. G1
is finite set, then G1 is called a finite open subcover of
2. A set A is said to be nowhere dense in R if interior of the G.
closure of A is empty i.e., ( A )° = φ .

10
 Set Theory and Real Number System 11

Important Theorems
1. The finite intersection of open subsets of R is an open subset of R.
2. Suppose A ⊂ R , then
(i) A° is an open subset of R.
(ii) A° is the largest open set contained in A.
(iii) A° is open if and only if A° = A
where A° represents the set of all interior point of A.
3. A subset A of R is closed if and only if its complement Ac is open.
4. The arbitrary intersection of closed sets is a closed set.
5. The finite union of closed sets is a closed set.
6. (Heine-Borel Theorem) Suppose, A ⊂ R and G be the collection of subsets of R. Then, G is called a cover of A if
A ⊂ ∪ G.
G ∈G

SOLVED EXAMPLES
Type I (Only one correct option)
Example 1. If A = {a, b, c} and (b) A and R are both correct, but R is not the correct
R = {( a, a), ( a, b), ( b, c ), ( b, b), (c , c ), (c , a)} is a binary relation explanation of A.
on A, then which one of the following is correct? (c) A is correct but R is wrong.
(a) R is reflexive and symmetric, but not transitive (d) A is wrong but R is correct.
(b) R is reflexive and transitive, but not symmetric Solution. (a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct
(c) R is reflexive, but neither symmetric not transitive explanation of (A).
(d) R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive Q ( A ∪ B ∪ C) c = Ac ∩ Bc ∩ C c = D
Solution. (c) Q ( a, a), ( b, b), ( c, c) ∈ R
Example 4. Elements of a population are classified
∴ R is a reflexive relation according to the presence or absence of each of 3 attributes
But ( a, b) ∈ R and ( b, a) ∉ R A, B and C. What is the number of smallest ultimate classes
∴R is not a symmetric relation into which the population is divided?
Also, ( a, b), ( b, c) ∈ R (a) 5 (b) 6
⇒ ( a, c) ∉ R (c) 8 (d) 9
∴ R is not a transitive relation. Solution. (d) Elements of a population are classified according
to the presence or absence of each of 3 attributes A, B and C.
Example 2. If the cardinality of a set A is 4 and that of a set Then, the smallest number of smallest ultimate classes into
B is 3, then what is the cardinality of the set A ∆ B? which the population is divided, is 9.
(a) 1
(b) 5
Example 5. If A and B are subsets of a set X, then what is
{A ∩ ( X − B)} ∪ B equal to?
(c) 7
(a) A ∪ B (b) A ∩ B
(d) Cannot be determined as the sets A and B are not given.
(c) A (d) B
Solution. (d) Since, the sets A and B are not known, thus
cardinality of the set A ∆ B cannot be determined.
Solution. (a) Q A ⊆ X and B ⊆ X
∴ {( A ∩ ( X − B))} ∪ B (Q X − B = B′ )
Example 3. Assertion (A) If events, A, B, C and D are = ( A ∩ B′ ) ∪ B = ( A ∪ B) ∩ (B′∪B) = ( A ∪ B) ∩ X
mutually exhaustive, then ( A ∪ B ∪ C ) c = D = A∪B
Reason (R) ( A ∪ B ∪ C ) c = D implies if any element is
excluded from the sets A, B and C, then it is included in D. Example 6. The total number of subsets of a finite set A has
(a) A and R are both correct, also R is the correct 56 more elements, then the total number of subsets of another
explanation of A. finite set B. What is the number of elements in the set A?
(a) 5 (b) 6 (c) 7 (d) 8

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12 UGC-CSIR NET Tutor Mathematical Sciences

Solution. (b) Let sets A and B have m and n elements, Example 10. If A and B are disjoint sets, then A ∩ ( A ′∪B) is
respectively. equal to which one of the following?
∴ 2 m − 2 n = 56 (According to question) (a) φ (b) A
n m− n
⇒ 2 (2 − 1) = 8 × 7 = (2) × 7 = 23 (23 − 1)
3
(c) A ∪ B (d) A − B′
On comparing Solution. (a) Q A ∩ B = φ (given)
⇒ n = 3 and m − n = 3 A ∩ ( A′∪B) = ( A ∩ A′ ) ∪ ( A ∩ B) = φ ∪ φ = φ
⇒ m = 6 and n = 3
Number of subsets of A = 23 + 56 = 64 = 2 6 Example 11. Let U = {1, 2, 3, ..., 20}. Let A, B, C be the
⇒ Number of elements in A = 6 subsets of U. Let A be the set of all numbers, which are
perfect squares, B be the set of all numbers which are
1, if x is a rational number multiples of 5 and C be the set of all numbers, which are
Example 7. If f ( x) =  divisible by 2 and 3.
0 , if x is an irrational number Consider the following statements.
what is the value of ( fof )( 3)? I. A, B, C are mutually exclusive.
(a) 0 (b) 1 II. A, B, C are mutually exhaustive.
(c) Both 0 and 1 (d) None of these III. The number of elements in the complement set of
1, if x is a rational number A ∪ B is 12.
Solution. (b) Q f ( x) = 
0 , if x is an irrational number Which of the statements given above the correct?
(a) I and II (b) I and III
( fof ) 3 = f {f ( 3)}
(c) II and III (d) I, II and III
= f(0) (Q 3 is an irrational number)
Solution. (b) U = {1, 2, 3,... , 20}
=1 (Q 0 is a rational number)
A = Set of all natural numbers which are perfect square
= {1, 4, 9, 16}
Example 8. Consider the following statement.
B = Set of all natural numbers which are multiples of 5
I. Parallelism of lines is an equivalence relation.
II. xRy, if x is a father of y, is an equivalence relation. = {5, 10 , 15, 20}
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? C = Set of all natural numbers which are divisible by 2 and
3 = {6, 12, 18}
(a) I only (b) II only
(c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II Q A∩B∩C = φ
and A ∪ B = {1, 4, 9, 16, 5, 10 , 15, 20}
Solution. (a) I. Let l , m, n are parallel lines and R is a relation.
⇒ n( A ∪ B) = 8
∴ l || l, then R is reflexive.
⇒ n( A ∪ B)′ = 20 − 8 = 12
and l || m and m|| l, the R is symmetric.
∴A, B, C are mutually exclusive and the number of elements
Also, l || m, m|| n ⇒ l || n, in the complement set of A ∪ B is 12.
then R is transitive.
Hence, R is an equivalence relation. Example 12. The function f ( x) = e x, x ∈ R is
II. If x is father of y and y is not father of x, then relation is (a) onto but not one-one
not symmetric, thus relation is not equivalence. (b) one-one onto
(c) one-one but not onto
Example 9. The function f : R → R defined by f ( x) = ( x2 + 1)35 (d) neither one-one nor onto
for all x ∈ R is
(a) one-one but not onto
Solution. (c) It is clear from the graph that f ( x) = ex , ∀ x ∈ R is
(b) onto but not one-one one-one but not onto. Since, range ≠ codomain, so f ( x) is
(c) neither one-one nor onto into.
(d) both one-one and onto y
y = ex
Solution. (c) Since, f ( −1) = f (1) = 2
35

i.e., Two real number 1 and −1 have the same image. So,
the function is not one-one and let
y = ( x2 + 1)35
⇒ x = (y)1 35 − 1
x′ x
Thus, every real number has no pre-image. So, the function
is not onto.
Hence, the function is neither one-one nor onto. y′

12
 Set Theory and Real Number System 13

Example 13. If A = P {1, 2} where P denotes the power set, r +1

) ⇒n =
and r = 1 + (n − 12
then which one of the following is correct? 2
(a) {1, 2} ⊂ A (b) 1 ∈ A (c) φ ∉ A (d) {1, 2} ∈ A n
Q Sum of n terms of an AP = × [ 2a + (n − 1)d ]
2
Solution. (d) A = P{1, 2} = {φ , {1}, {2}, {1, 2}}
p +1  q + 1
From above, it is clear that  
  p + 1    2   q +1  
{1, 2 } ∈ A ∴ 2 2 × 1 +  − 1 2 + 2 × 1 +  2 − 1 2
2   2   2  
Example 14. Let R and S be two equivalence relations on a r +1 r +1  
= 2 ×1+  − 1 2
set A. Then, 4   2  
(a) R ∪ S is an equivalence relation on A p +1 q +1 r +1
⇒ [ 2 + ( p − 1)] + [ 2 + (q − 1)] = [ 2 + r − 1]
(b) R ∩ S is an equivalence relation on A 4 4 4
(c) R − S is an equivalence relation on A ⇒ ( p + 1) 2 + (q + 1) 2 = (r + 1) 2
(d) None of the above
This the possible only when p = 7, q = 5, r = 9
Solution. (b) Given, R and S are relations on set A. [Q p > 6 (given)]
∴ R ⊆ A × A and S ⊆ A × A ⇒ R ∩ C ⊆ A × A ∴ p+q +r =7+5+9
⇒ R ∩ S is also a relation on A.
= 21
Reflexivity Let a be an arbitrary element of A. Then,
a ∈ A ⇒ ( a, a) ∈ R and ( a, a) ∈ S , [Q R and S are reflexive] Example 16. Let A = {x| x ≤ 9, x ∈ N}. Let B = {a, b, c} be the
⇒ ( a, a) ∈ R ∩ S subset of A where ( a + b + c ) is a multiple of 3. What is the
Thus, ( a, a) ∈ R ∩ S for all a ∈ A. largest possible number of subsets like B?
So, R ∩ S is a reflexive relation on A. (a) 12 (b) 21 (c) 27 (d) 30
Symmetry Let a, b ∈ A such that ( a, b) ∈ R ∩ S. Solution. (d) A = {x : x ≤ 9, x ∈ N}
Then, ( a, b) ∈ R ∩ S ⇒ ( a, b) ∈ R and ( a, b) ∈ S
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
⇒ ( b, a) ∈ R and ( b, a) ∈ S [Q R and S are symmetric]
Total possible multiple of 3 are
⇒ ( b, a) ∈ R ∩ S
3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27
Thus, ( a, b) ∈ R ∩ S
But 3 and 27 are not possible.
⇒ ( b, a) ∈ R ∩ S for all ( a, b) ∈ R ∩ S.
So, R ∩ S is symmetric on A. 6 → 1+ 2 + 3
Transitivity Let a, b, c ∈ A such that ( a, b) ∈ R ∩ S and 9 → 2 + 3 + 4, 5 + 3 + 1, 6 + 2 + 1
( b, c) ∈ R ∩ S. Then, ( a, b) ∈ R ∩ S and ( b, c) ∈ R ∩ S 12 → 9 + 2 + 1, 8 + 3 + 1, 7 + 1 + 4, 7 + 2 + 3, 6 + 4 + 2,
⇒ {(( a, b) ∈ R and ( a, b) ∈ S)} 6 + 5 + 1, 5 + 4 + 3
and {(( b, c) ∈ R and ( b, c) ∈ S)} 15 → 9 + 4 + 2, 9 + 5 + 1, 8 + 6 + 1, 8 + 5 + 2, 8 + 4 + 3,
⇒ {( a, b) ∈ R , ( b, c) ∈ R} and {( a, b) ∈ S , ( b, c) ∈ S} 7 + 6 + 2, 7 + 5 + 3, 6 + 5 + 4
⇒ ( a, c) ∈ R and ( a, c) ∈ S 18 → 9 + 8 + 1, 9 + 7 + 2, 9 + 6 + 3, 9 + 5 + 4, 8 + 7 + 3,
 Q R and S are transitive. So 8 + 6 + 4, 7 + 6 + 5
( a, b) ∈ R and ( b, c) ∈ R ⇒ ( a, c) ∈ R 21 → 9 + 8 + 4, 9 + 7 + 5, 8 + 7 + 6

( a, b) ∈ S and ( b, c) ∈ S ⇒ ( a, c) ∈ S 24 → 9 + 8 + 7
Hence, total number of largest possible subsets are 30.
⇒ ( a, c) ∈ R ∩ S
Thus, ( a, b) ∈ R ∩ S and ( b, c) ∈ R ∩ S ⇒ ( a, c) ∈ R ∩ S. Example 17. A mapping f : R → R which is defined as
So, R ∩ S is transitive on A. f ( x) = cos x; x ∈ R is
Hence, R is an equivalence relation on A. (a) one-one only (b) onto only
(c) one-one onto (d) neither one-one nor onto
Example 15. If (1 + 3 + 5 + ... + p) + (1 + 3 + 5 + ... + q) Solution. (d) Given, f ( x) = cos x
= (1 + 3 + 5 + ... + r) where each set of parentheses contains y
the sum of consecutive odd integers as shown, what is the
smallest possible value of ( p + q + r) where p > 6?
(a) 12 (b) 21 (c) 45 (d) 54 f (x) = cos x
Solution. (b) Since, Tn = a + (n −1)d (Q nth term of an AP) x′ x
p +1
∴ ) ⇒n =
p = 1 + (n − 12 ,
2
q +1
) ⇒n =
q = 1 + (n − 12
2 y′

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14 UGC-CSIR NET Tutor Mathematical Sciences

It is clear from the figure that f ( x) is neither one-one nor a (a) x = 39 (b) x = 63
onto function. (c) 39 ≤ x ≤ 63 (d) None of these
Since, whenever we drawn a line parallel to x-axis, then it Solution. (c) Let A denote the set of Americans who like
intersects at infinite points to the curve. So, f ( x) is not cheese and let B denote the set of Americans who like
one-one. apples.
And, range of f ( x) = [ −1, 1] Let population of American be 100.
Codomain of f ( x) = R Then, n( A) = 63, n(B) = 76
Range of f ( x) ≠ codomain of f ( x) Now, n( A ∪ B) = n( A) + n(B) − n( A ∩ B)
∴f ( x) is not onto. = 63 + 76 − n( A ∩ B)
Example 18. If n( A) = 115, n(B) = 326, n( A − B) = 47, then ∴ n( A ∪ B) + n( A ∩ B) = 139
what is n( A ∪ B) equal to? ⇒ n( A ∩ B) = 139 − n( A ∪ B)
(a) 373 (b) 165 But n( A ∪ B) ≤ 100
(c) 370 (d) 394 ∴ −n( A ∪ B) ≥ −100
Solution. (a) Now, n( A − B) = n( A) − n( A ∩ B) ∴ 139 − n( A ∪ B) ≥ 139 − 100 = 39
∴ n( A ∩ B) ≥ 39 i.e., 39 ≤ n( A ∩ B) ...(i)
⇒ 47 = 115 − n( A ∩ B)
Again, A ∩ B ⊆ A, A ∩ B ⊆ B
⇒ n( A ∩ B) = 68
∴ n( A ∩ B) ≤ n( A) = 63 and n( A ∩ B) ≤ n(B) = 76
n( A ∪ B) = n( A) + n(B) − n( A ∩ B)
∴ n( A ∩ B) ≤ 63 ...(ii)
= 115 + 326 − 68 = 373
Then, 39 ≤ n( A ∩ B) ≤ 63 ⇒ 39 ≤ x ≤ 63
Example 19. In a town of 10000 families it was found that
40% family buy newspaper A, 20% buy newspaper B and 10% Example 21. The set of all limit point of the set
families buy newspaper C, 5% families buy A and B, 3% buy B 1 1 
S =  + : m ∈ù , n ∈ ù  is
and C and 4% buy A and C. If 2% families buy all the three m n 
newspaper, then number of families which buy A only is
(a) φ (b) {0}
(a) 3100 (b) 3300
1 
(c) 2900 (d) 1400 (c)  : m ∈ ù  (d) None of these
m 
Solution. (b) n( A) = 40% of 10000 = 4000
Solution. (c) Let us fixed m ∈ ù. Then, for every δ > 0.
n(B) = 20% of 10000 = 2000 1 1 
n(C) = 10% of 10000 = 1000  − δ , + δ contains infinitely many elements of ù.
m m 
n( A ∩ B) = 5% of 10000 = 500 1 
Hence, the set of all limit point of S is  : m ∈ ù .
n(B ∩ C) = 3% of 10000 = 300 m 
n(C ∩ A) = 4% of 10000 = 400
n( A ∩ B ∩ C) = 2% of 10000 = 200 Example 22. The set of all limit points of the set
1 
We want to find n( A ∩ Bc ∩ C c ) = n[ A ∩ (B ∪ C) c ] S =  : n ∈ ù is
n 
= n( A) − n[ A ∩ (B ∪ C)] = n( A) − n[( A ∩ B) ∪ ( A ∩ C)]
(a) φ (b) {0}
= n( A) − [n( A ∩ B) + n( A ∩ C) − n( A ∩ B ∩ C)]
(c) N (d) None of these
= 4000 − [500 + 400 − 200 ] = 4000 − 700 = 3300
Solution. (b) For every δ > 0 , ( − δ , δ) contains infinite number of
Example 20. A survey shows that 63% of the Americans like elements of set S. Hence, {0} is the set of all limit point of
cheese whereas 76% like apples. If x% of the Americans like the set S.
both cheese and apples, then

Type II (One or more than one correct option)

Example 23. Which of the following(s) is/are correct? a nbd of a point it necessarily contain an infinity of points.
(a)A non-empty finite set is not a nbd of any point Thus, a finite set cannot be a nbd of any points. Hence, no
(b)Every point of a non-empty finite set is an interior point points of finite non-empty set is an interior point.
(c)No point of a non-empty finite set is an interior point
(d)A non-empty finite set is a nbd of each of its points Example 24. Which of the following(s) is/are correct?
(a) The set of interior points of N is empty
Solution. (a), (c)
(b) The set of interior points of I is empty
A set can be a nbd of a point if it contains an open interval
containing the point. Since, an interval necessarily contains (c) The set of interior points of Z is empty
an infinite number of points. Therefore in order that a set be (d) The set of interior points of R is empty

14
 Set Theory and Real Number System 15

Solution. (a), (b), (c) Now, consider the open sets

Since, for the set ù, I and Z there is no open interval which is  1 1
Gn =  − ,  , n ∈ ù
contained in ù or I or Z as every open interval contains  n n
rational and irrational number but the set of interior points of
ú is ú. ⇒ I G n = {0}, which is not an open set.
n∈ ù

Example 25. Which of the following(s) set is/are open? ⇒ The intersection of arbitrary number of open set need
(a) ú (b) Q (c) Z (d) φ not be open.
Solution. (a), (d) Next, let G be the union of an arbitrary family
The set of real number ú is an open set as every real number F = {G λ : λ ∈ Λ} of open sets, Λ being an index set. To prove
is an interior point of ú. Similarly the set φ is open as the set that G is an open set, we shall show that for any point x ∈ G,
φ is a nbd of each of its points in the sense that there is no it contains an open interval containing x.
point in φ of which it is not nbd. But the set Q and Z are not Let x ∈ G
open as no points of Q or Z is an interior points. ⇒ ∃ atleast one member, say
G λ 1 of F such that
Example 26. Which of the following(s) is/are correct? x ∈G λ1
(a) Every open interval is an open set Since, G λ 1 is an open set, ∃ an open interval In such that
(b) Every open interval is a nbd of each of its points x ∈ In ⊆ G λ 1 ⊆ G
(c) Every point of an open interval is an interior point
Thus, the set G contains an open interval containing any
1 
(d) The set  : n ∈ ù  is not open point x of G. Hence, G is an open set.
n 
Solution. (a), (b), (c), (d) Example 28. Which of the following(s) is/are correct?
(a) The set I has no limit point
Let ( a, b) be an open interval and x ∈( a, b) which implies that
a < x < b. (b) The set ù has no limit point
c d (c) Every point of the set Q is a limit point
(d) Every point of the set ú is a limit point
a x b
Solution. (a), (b), (c), (d)
Let c, d be two numbers such that a < c < x and n < d < b
 1 1
⇒ a < c < x < d < b ⇒ x ∈ ( c, d) ⊂ ( a, b) The set I has no limit point, for a nbd m − , m +  of m ∈ I,
 2 2
Thus, the given interval ( a, b) contains an open interval contains no point of I other than m. Thus the derived set of I
containing the point x and is therefore a nbd of x. is the null set φ.
Hence, the open interval is a nbd of each of its points and is
 1 1
therefore an open set. The set ù has no limit point, for a nbd m − , m +  of
Hence, every point of an open interval is an interior point.  2 2
1  m ∈ù, contains no points of ù other than m. Thus, the
Now ‘ o ’ is an interior point of the set  : n ∈ ù  which does derived set of ù is null set φ. Every point of the set Q of
n 
rationals is a limit point, for between any two rationals there
not lie in this set.
exist an infinity of rational.
1 
Hence, the set  : n ∈ ù  is not open. Further every point of ú is a limit point, for every nbd of any
n  of its points contains an infinite member of ú.
Example 27. Which of the following(s) is/are correct? Example 29. If S denotes the closure of the set S, then
(a) The intersection of any finite number of open sets is which of the following(s) is/are correct?
open (a) I = I
(b) The intersection of an arbitrary number of open sets is (b) Q = ú
open
(c) R = ú
(c) The union of an arbitrary family of open sets is open
1  1 
(d) Exactly one of the above is true (d) If S =  : n ∈ ù , then S =  : n ∈ ù  ∪ {0}
n  n 
Solution. (a), (c)
Solution. (a), (b), (c), (d)
Let G1 and G 2 be two open sets. Then,
Since, I′ = φ, Q′ = ú, ú′ = ú and S′ = {0}
if G1 ∩ G 2 = φ, it is open
Hence,
if G1 ∩ G 2 ≠ φ, let x ∈ G1 ∩ G 2
I = I ∪ I′ = I ∪ φ = I
⇒ x ∈ G1 and x ∈ G 2
Q = Q ∪ Q′ = Q ∪ ú = ú
⇒ G1 , G 2 are nbd of x.
ú = ú ∪ ú′ = ú ∪ ú = ú
⇒ G1 ∩ G 2 is a nbd of x.
but since x is any point of G1 ∩ G 2, therefore G1 ∩ G 2 is a nbd 1 
S = S ∪ S′ =  : n ∈ ù  ∪ {0}
of each of its points. Hence, G1 ∩ G 2 is open. n 

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16 UGC-CSIR NET Tutor Mathematical Sciences

Example 30. Which of the following(s) is/are countable? Solution. (a), (b)
(a) The set ú of real number is uncountable (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), ( 4, 4) ∈R; ∴R is reflexive.
(b) The set of rational number in [0 , 1] is countable
(c) The set of all rational numbers is countable Q (1, 2), (3, 1) ∈R and also (2, 1), (1, 3) ∈R.
(d) None of the above Hence, R is symmetric. But clearly R is not transitive.
Solution. (a), (b), (c)
Let us suppose that the set of real number ú is countable, Example 32. Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and Y = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.
then ú = {x1 , x2 ,... , xn ,....}. Which of the following(s) is/are relations from X to Y?
Enclose each member xn of ú in an open interval (a) R1 = {( x, y)| y = 2 + x, x ∈ X , y ∈ Y}
 1 1  (b) R2 = {(1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 3), ( 4, 3), (5, 5)}
In =  xn − n + 1 , xn + n + 1 
 2 2  (c) R3 = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (3, 5), (3, 7), (5, 7)}
1
of length n , n = 1, 2, 3,... (d) R4 = {(1, 3), (2, 5), (2, 4), (7, 9)}
2
Solution. (a), (b), (c)
where the sum of lengths of In′ s is + 2 + 3 + ...
1 1 1
2 2 2 R4 is not a relation from X to Y, because (7, 9) ∈R4 but
∞ ∞ (7, 9) ∉ X × Y.
But xn ∈ ú and R = U {xn} ⊆ U In
n =1 n =1
Example 33. In a class of 55 students, the number of
⇒ The whole real line is contained in the union of intervals students studying different subjects are 23 in Mathematics, 24
whose lengths add up to 1. Which is a contradiction. Hence,
in Physics, 19 in Chemistry, 12 in Mathematics and Physics, 9
ú is uncountable.
in Mathematics and Chemistry, 7 in Physics and Chemistry
Arrange the set of rationals according to increasing
1 1 2 1 3 1 2 3 4 1 5 and 4 in all the three subjects. The number of students who
denominators as 0 ,1, , , , , , , , , , , ,....
2 3 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 have taken exactly one subject is
Then the one-one correspondence can be indicated as (a) 6 (b) 9
2 2
1↔ 0 5↔ 9↔ (c) 7 (d) None of these
3 5
1 3 Solution. (a), (b), (c)
2 ↔1 6↔ 10 ↔
4 5 n(M) = 23, n(P) = 24, n(C) = 19
1 3 4 n(M ∩ P) = 12, n(M ∩ C) = 9, n(P ∩ C) = 7
3↔ 7↔ 11 ↔
2 4 5
1 1 n(M ∩ P ∩ C) = 4
4↔ 8↔ .......... We have, to find
3 5
.......... n(M ∩ P′∩C′ ), n(P ∩ M′∩C′ ), n(C ∩ M′∩P′ )
which shows that the set of rational numbers in [0 ,1] is
countable. Now, n(M ∩ P′∩C′ ) = n[M ∩ (P ∪ C)′ ]
∞
Now, the set of all rational numbers is the union U Ai , where = n(M) − n(M ∩ (P ∪ C))
i=1 = n(M) − n[(M ∩ P) ∪ (M ∩ C)]
Ai is the set of rationals which can be written with
denominator i. That is = n(M) − n(M ∩ P) − n(M ∩ C) + n(M ∩ P ∩ C)
0 −1 1 −2 2  = 23 − 12 − 9 + 4 = 27 − 21 = 6
Ai =  , , , , ,...
i i i i i  n(P ∩ M′∩C′ ) = n[P ∩ (M ∪ C)′ ]
Each Ai is equivalent to the set of all positive integers and = n(P) − n[P ∩ (M ∪ C)] = n(P) − n[(P ∩ M) ∪ (P ∩ C)]
hence countable.
= n(P) − n(P ∩ M) − n(P ∩ C) + n(P ∩ M ∩ C)
Example 31. Let A = [1, 2, 3, 4] and R be a relation in A given = 24 − 12 − 7 + 4 = 9
by R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), ( 4, 4), (1, 2), (2, 1), (3, 1), (1, 3)}.
n(C ∩ M′∩P′ ) = n(C) − n(C ∩ P) − n(C ∩ M) + n (C ∩ P ∩ M)
Then, R is
(a) reflexive (b) symmetric = 19 − 7 − 9 + 4 = 23 − 16 = 7
(c) transitive (d) an equivalence relation

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