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English language teaching, learning and assessment in India: Policies and

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English language teaching,
learning and assessment
in India:
Policies and practices in
the school education system
Simon Borg, Amol Padwad and Pranjana Kalita Nath

Contents 1
English language
teaching, learning and
assessment in India:
Policies and practices
in the school education
system
Simon Borg, Amol Padwad and Pranjana Kalita Nath
ISBN 978-1-915280-05-3
© British Council 2022

British Council
17 Kasturba Gandhi Marg
New Delhi 110001
India
www.britishcouncil.in

Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge the input provided for this

report by the teachers and teacher educators who
shared their experiences of English language teaching
and learning in India.

Acknowledgements 5
Contents

Acknowledgements 5

Introduction to the series 8

Abbreviations 10

Executive summary 12

1 Introduction 15

2 Education in India 17

2.1 Responsibility for education 17

2.2 Structure 18
2.3 Gender 18
2.4 Curriculum and assessment 18
2.5 Teachers 18
2.5.1 Pre-service teacher education and qualifications 18
2.5.2 In-service teacher education 19
2.5.3 Teacher evaluation and performance standards 19
2.6 Technology and education 19
2.7 NGOs in education 20
3 The role of English in India 22

4 Languages and education 24

4.1 The Three Language Formula 24

4.2 English as a subject vs as a medium of instruction 24
4.3 Language mixing in the classroom 25
5 English in education structures 28

5.1 Organisational structure for education 28

5.2 Departments for English language education 28
6 English language teaching in practice 30

6.1 Textbooks 30
6.2 Other resources 30
6.3 ICT in English education 31
6.4 Classroom practices 31
6.5 Assessment 32
6.6 NGOs and English 33
6.7 English language teachers 33
6.7.1 Qualifications 33
6.7.2 Subject specialisation 34
6.7.3 Teachers’ English language levels 34

6 Contents
 6.7.4 Postgraduate programmes for English teachers 35
6.7.5 Changes under the new National Education Policy 35
6.8 Continuing professional development 35
6.8.1 Government CPD 35
6.8.2 Non-government CPD 36
6.8.3 Teacher perspectives 37
7 Opportunities, challenges and future trends 38

Author biographies 41

References 43

Contents 7
Introduction to the series

Across South Asia, English is widely seen as the To access the full series of reports, please visit our
language of social mobility, educational opportunity, TeachingEnglish website: www.teaching english.org.
employability, global business and dialogue. Many uk/article/english-language-teaching-learning-
consider English language skills to be an essential assessment-south-asia
component of economic development and
growth – both on an individual and national level.
However, the inclusion of English within language-in-
Amy Lightfoot
education policies that must simultaneously promote
other national languages, along with its history as a Director Insight and Innovation
colonial and/or elite language in most countries in English Programmes
this region, means that it does not always sit easily British Council
within education systems. The place of English within
school systems in South Asia has fluctuated over time
and a number of challenges remain around ensuring
equitable, high-quality provision of English language
teaching and learning for all who want or need it.

This report is one of a series of five focusing on the

policy and practices relating to English language
education in Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri
Lanka. It aims to provide a contemporary snapshot of
the role that English currently plays within the lives of
school children and the wider community. It explores
the current scenario, considering both the private and
government school sectors, including reflections on
the impact of the Covid-19 crisis. It also looks to the
future: how might some of the current challenges be
addressed, and what opportunities exist to support the
development of this aspect of the school education
system?

Across the series, the author teams collaborated in

defining the overall focus and structure, and peer-
reviewed each other’s work to provide feedback and
ensure coherence across the reports. The authors have
focused primarily on a review of policy documentation,
reports and data provided by relevant government
departments, academics and international agencies.
This is supported by input from a small number of
important stakeholders such as teachers, curriculum
and textbook writers, and policy officers. Their
input is often included verbatim to provide further
contextualised insight into the realities of the classroom
and wider education system.

Providing a detailed overview of even a single subject

like English within any school education system is
a significant task, particularly in large, complex and
multilingual countries. Coupled with the historical,
political and cultural factors that are unique to English
in South Asia, we are conscious that these reports have
their limitations and can serve mainly as an entry point
to this vast and complicated topic. Nevertheless, we
hope that readers will find them informative and useful
for critical discussion, research and development –
particularly those who are involved in English language
education implementation in this region.

8 Introduction to the series

Introduction to the series 9
Abbreviations
ASER Annual Status of Education Report
BEd Bachelor of Education
CABE Central Advisory Board of Education
CBSE Central Board of Secondary Education
CCE Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation
CEFR Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
CISCE Council for the Indian School Certificate Examination
CPD Continuing Professional Development
CSR Corporate Social Responsibility
CTE College of Teacher Education
CTET Central Teacher Eligibility Test
DElEd Diploma in Elementary Education
DIET District Institute for Education and Training
DIKSHA Digital Infrastructure for Knowledge Sharing
EFLU English and Foreign Languages University
ELTI English Language Training Institutes
EMI English Medium Instruction
ETA English Teacher Association
IASE Institutes of Advanced Studies in Education
ICT Information and Communications Technology
ITEP Integrated Teacher Education Programme
KVS Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan
MHRD Ministry of Human Resource Development
MITRA Maharashtra In-service Teachers Resource App
NCERT National Council of Educational Research and Training
NCF National Curriculum Framework
NCFTE National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education
NCTE National Council for Teacher Education
NEP/NPE National Education Policy/National Policy on Education
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
NIEPA National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration
NIOS National Institute of Open Schooling
NPST National Professional Standards for Teachers
OER Open Education Resources
PET Pre-entry Test
PISA Programme for International Student Assessment
RIE Regional Institute of English
RMSA Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (National Secondary Education Mission)
SCERT State Council of Educational Research and Training
SCF State Curriculum Framework
SEBA Board of Secondary Education Assam
SSA Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan (Integrated Education Mission)
TET Teacher Eligibility Test
TLM Teaching and Learning Material

10 Abbreviations
Contents 11
Executive summary

Education in India is immensely complex and varied. In 2. Across school education, governments have
addition to the sheer scale of schooling in the country invested in numerous large-scale initiatives that aim
– 1.5 million schools, 260 million learners and 9.7 to support teaching and learning, especially in
million teachers – national educational policies operate primary school. These include online platforms for
alongside those defined and implemented locally in 28 teachers and learners and various forms of teacher
states and seven union territories. There are also over CPD. However, multiple initiatives across and within
400,000 private schools – often loosely regulated and states, particularly related to teacher CPD, are often
with more autonomy than government schools – which not well co-ordinated.
account for a substantial proportion of school-age 3. Several initiatives have promoted the use of
students in the country. India is also richly multilingual, technology to support education, though evidence
with hundreds of languages in use and a national policy from the Covid–19 pandemic suggests that most
that emphasises the study of at least three languages at learners have been unable to benefit from
school. It is within this complex educational landscape opportunities to take part in online learning.
that the teaching and learning of English unfolds.
4. English is a compulsory subject, often from Grade 1.
English in India is, in fact, a conundrum because, A national curriculum is available but is
despite the value attached to it (children learn it for implemented through textbooks, which remain the
seven to ten years at school) and the benefits (socially, predominant source of material used by teachers.
for employment, leisure and study) that accrue from its For many teachers it is likely that there is little
mastery, the over-riding sense that persists is that the distinction between ‘curriculum’ and ‘textbook’. The
quality of English teaching and learning across primary levels of English assumed in the textbooks used are
and early secondary education is modest, a factor that often beyond the ability of learners and perhaps in
feeds into low English proficiency at subsequent stages many cases also the teachers. Especially, but not
of education, including among university students and only, in the private sector, English-medium
in the population more generally. instruction is used, but often as a status symbol and
not always with a clear understanding of how it
This report provides insight into this problem by might assist or hinder learning.
reviewing the current status of English in the Indian
education system. It is informed by a desk-based review 5. Teaching practices across subjects, including
of policy documents, educational reports, academic English, remain didactic. In English lessons, typical
papers and information available online, such as official activities include detailed analyses of written texts
government statistics. This desk work is supplemented using translation and with a focus on vocabulary.
by a small number of interviews with practitioners While awareness of the importance of speaking and
– teachers and teacher educators – with first-hand listening skills is increasing, they are not given
experience of English education in the country. Overall, substantial space during English lessons; in
the goals of the analysis presented here are to describe contrast, students spend much time copying
what is known about various aspects of English information from the board. Classes are multilingual
education in India and to make recommendations but teachers of English lack the skills to exploit and
for issues that can be a productive focus of efforts build on the language resources learners have.
– by national and state governments and the many Various factors contribute to the persistence of
educational partners they work with – to improve teacher-centred pedagogies. These include
English teaching and learning. limitations in teachers’ competences as well as
pressures that come from heavily loaded syllabi and
Following a brief analysis of the Indian education demands from parents that teaching and learning
system and the role of languages generally and English follow a certain conventional pattern.
specifically in the country, the report focuses on the 6. Limitations in pre-service teacher education mean
practice of English language teaching and teacher that graduates become primary school teachers of
education, including the continuing professional English with insufficient subject-specific
development (CPD) of teachers of English. The pedagogical competence and modest levels of
following key points emerge from the analysis: English proficiency. Any induction training they
receive is generic and does not address gaps in
1. National- and state-level educational policies
their knowledge and skills. Teachers of English do
operate simultaneously but may not always be
have access to various forms of CPD provided by
wholly consistent given the autonomy that states
government and non-government bodies, though
have. Policies provide a good basis for reform but
provision and quality vary and there is limited
are often not supported by mechanisms that lead to
information about which forms of CPD work best in
effective implementation.

12 Executive summary
 promoting positive change in the teaching and
learning of English.
7. The 2020 National Education Policy establishes a
number of principles for improving school
education in India and focuses on the importance
of teacher quality. Thus, the structure of pre-service
programmes is being revised and the CPD
allocation for teachers increased. New teacher
professional standards are also being introduced.
Such measures can contribute to more effective
education generally, including for English, but it is
important that reform proceeds in an informed
manner, guided by an understanding of current
barriers to progress in education, aware of
international good practice in teacher education
and CPD and based on systematic evaluations of
reform initiatives. New policies alone will not lead to
change in what educational practitioners believe
and do.
The report concludes with ten recommendations that
reflect on these key findings. Strengthening the English
proficiency of teachers will be critical to improve
the outcomes of English across the system. Equally
important will be revisions to pre-service and CPD
activity so that teachers can develop the practical
pedagogical skills they need to work in multilingual
classrooms and with textbooks that are often too
demanding for learners. Generally, more informed
decision-making regarding the use of English medium
of instruction is needed.

Executive summary 13

1 Introduction

This report provides an overview of English in the

school education system in India. India’s Right to
Education Act 2009 guarantees free and compulsory
education to learners in Grades 1–8 (Department
of School Education and Literacy, 2021a), and
accordingly this review examines the status of English
in India in those grades (which we refer to here as
basic education). Throughout, we focus on national
policy and its implementation, though it must be
acknowledged from the outset that individual states
across India have their own educational policies and
corresponding practices. We seek to capture some of
these by citing examples from across the country.

The analysis that follows is based largely on a

deskwork review of publicly available educational
reports, academic papers and online information.
Some key informant interviews were also carried out
to supplement the desk work with the voices and
perspectives of practitioners involved in specific areas
of English education in India. These interviews, while
not in any way generalisable, provide the specific
practical insight often absent in official documents and
allow some gaps in the available literature to
be addressed.

The report begins with an overview of education

in India generally before focusing in more detail on
a range of issues of specific relevance to English
language education. Following a discussion of the
role of English in India, key educational policies that
affect English language education are highlighted.
The core section of the report examines the practice
of English language teaching, including a discussion
of the multilingual context for language learning
in India, textbooks and resources, educational
technology, teaching methods and assessment.
Pre-service education and continuing professional
development (CPD) for teachers of English in India are
also discussed. The report concludes by highlighting
opportunities, challenges and future trends for English
education in India that emerge from the analysis
presented here.

Introduction 15
 Key facts about education in India

Population Enrolment
1.4 billion (2021)
(Worldometer, 2021)
rates
(Net Enrolment Ratio)
(all enrolment rates below are from
Department of School Education
and Literacy, 2021b)

Political division Primary

28
states union
7 92.4%
and
territories (Office of the Registrar General and
Census Commissioner India, 2021)
Upper primary

Number of schools 71.9%

1.5 million Secondary

50.0%
(July 2021) (All Schools in India, 2021)

Private schools

422,000
(July 2021) (All Schools in India, 2021)
Upper secondary

Number of learners
33.3%
260 million
(2019–20) (Department of School

Adult literacy
Education and Literacy, 2021b; see
Figure 1 for gender breakdown)

rate

74.4%
Number of teachers

9.7million
(Department of School Education and
(Knoema, 2021)

Literacy, 2021c)

Expenditure on
Compulsory education (per
education cent of GDP)

Grade 1–8
(Department of School Education
and Literacy, 2021a)
3.5%
(2019–20) (Ministry of Finance, 2021)

16 Key facts about education in India

 2 Education in India

This section, which draws on and updates where 2.1 Responsibility for education
necessary a 2019 analysis published by the British The Ministry of Education (formerly the Ministry of
Council (Anderson and Lightfoot, 2019), provides Human Resource and Development) has overall
an overview of the education system in India (see responsibility for education in India. The educational
also Mehendale and Mukhopadhyay, 2019 and, most system, though, is regulated and managed by a
recently, UNESCO, 2021). This is a very large and complex range of councils and institutes at both
complex system, as the indicators shown on the national and state level (see Anderson and Lightfoot,
previous page suggest. It is important to note that while 2019:38–9 for an organogram). For example, the
a new National Education Policy (NEP) was released in National Council of Educational Research and Training
2020 (Ministry of Human Resource Development, 2020; (NCERT) (for its 2020 annual report, see National
for an analysis, see Agarwal and Narang, 2021), this has Council of Educational Research and Training, 2020)
not yet impacted significantly on educational practices and the National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE),
around the country. Our focus here, therefore, is on the both based in New Delhi, play central roles in school
situation in education and English education in India as education (particularly curricula and textbooks) and
it currently stands, although proposed reforms that are initial teacher education respectively. Education within
of particular relevance will be highlighted. states, though, is also regulated by State Councils
of Educational Research and Training (SCERTs) and
supported at district level by District Institutes for
Education and Training (DIETs).

70M

60M

50M

40M
Total

30M

20M

10M

0
Primary Upper Primary Secondary Higher Secondary

Girls Boys

Figure 1: Learners in primary and secondary education in India

(Department of School Education and Literacy, 2021b)

Education in India 17
2.2 Structure 2005 and, in principle, this works as an overarching
Education in India is divided into pre-primary (ages guide for curriculum development across subjects,
3–6), primary (6–10), upper primary (11–14), secondary with flexibility and freedom within states to adapt
(14–16) and higher secondary (17–18).1 These divisions the framework as necessary and relevant without
are not always reflected in practice and variations in the compromising its basic tenets. But very few states
range of age groups present in specific grades have develop their own explicit and independent curricular
been found, particularly in rural areas. framework documents. In most cases, curricula appear
in the form of brief outlines appended to textbooks,
Schools are classified as either government or summarising the objectives, pedagogic approaches
private, with the latter being further divided into and assessment schemes to be followed for the given
government aided or unaided (i.e. which receive no subject. At present, the guidelines of the NCF 2005 are
financial support from the state). Education is also in force, but a new NCF is envisaged in response to NEP
provided through madrasas and Tribal/Social Welfare 2020. In the past, State Curriculum Frameworks (SCFs)
Department schools. According to the Department followed the NCF and were developed on the basis of
of School Education and Literacy (2021b), students it. However, in the current exercise, SCFs are expected
are divided almost evenly between government and to feed into the NCF. SCERTs have been tasked to
non-government schools. Though class sizes vary prepare SCFs of four kinds – school education, early
significantly across the country, the average pupil– childhood care and education, teacher education and
teacher ratio for primary schools is 27 and for upper adult education – which will then be used by a National
primary it is 19 (Department of School Education and Steering Committee for the Development of National
Literacy, 2021c). Curriculum Frameworks, according to a recent press
release by the central Ministry of Education (Ministry of
2.3 Gender Education, 2021b).
According to 2018 figures, the adult literacy rate is over
74 per cent (66 per cent of females and 82 per cent 2.5 Teachers
of males). Among G20 countries, India has the highest According to UNESCO (2021), the workforce in
share of adults without primary education (OECD, 2019). India has a deficit of over one million teachers. The
While primary enrolment figures for boys and girls are government schoolteacher population is made up
both over 90 per cent, ‘the gender gap in educational of more males (2.7 million) than females (2.1 million)
attainment remains high [in favour of men] across all (Department of School Education and Literacy, 2021c),
levels of education’ (OECD, 2019:02). India participated though this gender gap has been closed substantially
in PISA in 2009 but performed badly (72nd out of 73 in recent years. In private schools, though, females total
nations) (ThePrint, 2021) and did not participate in 2.3 million compared to 1.3 million males.
2012 and 2015. It was planning to participate again in
2021 but this has been postponed until 2022 due to 2.5.1 Pre-service teacher education and
Covid–19 (Exams Daily, 2021). qualifications
As noted above, responsibility for initial teacher
2.4 Curriculum and assessment education in India lies with the NCTE and is regulated
The National Curriculum Framework (National Council by the National Curriculum Framework for Teacher
of Educational Research and Training, 2005) regulates Education (NCFTE) (National Council for Teacher
education provision in the country and school syllabi Education, 2009). Various teacher qualifications
and textbooks are expected to be aligned with it. are recognised, such as the Diploma in Elementary
Assessment in government schools is designed and Education (DElEd) and Bachelor of Education (BEd).
delivered largely by teachers, though high-stakes Prospective basic education teachers must also pass
examinations taken at the end of Grades 10 and 12 are the Teacher Eligibility Test (Government of India,
managed centrally through various assessment boards. 2021a) An important government report (Ministry of
Human Resource Development, 2012) noted several
NCERT views the National Curriculum Framework (NCF) problems associated with initial teacher education in
as a broad plan for achieving educational goals. It India, including a lack of breadth and depth due to its
provides a ‘curriculum core’ that offers a conceptual short duration. It was also noted that ‘one major area
structure, which indicates workable principles to of weakness in existing teacher education programmes
guide the development of textbooks and pedagogic is the quality and experience of those who have
practices (National Council of Educational Research the responsibility of training young entrants to the
and Training, 2006a). Curriculum frameworks are profession of teaching’ (p.21). In response to the first
expected to be periodically formulated both at national concern about the duration of initial teacher education
and state levels. The most recent NCF was released in in India, the new NEP proposes that a revised (i.e. with
a greater focus on developing practical teaching skills)

1 The 2020 NEP proposes a revised structure of education into ages 3–8 (Foundation), 8–11 (Preparatory),11–14 (Middle) and 14–18 (Secondary).

18 Education in India
four-year Bachelor of Education (BEd) be the minimum with primarily cascade models of delivery (UNESCO,
teaching qualification by 2030. The launch of a new 2021). The new NEP recommends a yearly minimum of
four-year integrated teacher education programme 50 hours of in-service training, which gives teachers
aligned with the NEP was in fact announced in an element of choice and avoids cascade and other
November 2021 (Ministry of Education, 2021a). top-down models of training. Covid–19 has also given
rise to many opportunities for teachers to pursue
2.5.2 In-service teacher education professional development through online platforms
There is no specific framework for teacher professional such as, for example, DIKSHA (https://diksha.gov.in/)
development in India, though the NCFTE (National and Firki (https://firki.co/), Teach for India’s online
Council for Teacher Education, 2009) does include a teacher education platform.
chapter entitled ‘Continuing Professional Development
and Support for In-Service Teachers’. This defines 2.5.3 Teacher evaluation and performance
several aims for teacher professional development, standards
including, for example, ‘Explore, reflect on and develop An analysis of teacher evaluation in India (Bambawale,
one’s own practice’ and ‘Deepen one’s knowledge of Hughes and Lightfoot, 2018) concluded that the
and update oneself about one’s academic discipline importance of this process was recognised and
or other areas of school curriculum’ (p.64). General relevant tools to support it are available but that
principles for the design of in-service programmes ‘uncertainty exists around its purpose and application’
are also outlined; for example, it is advised that (p.29). Thus, for example, while a guide on teacher self-
‘interactivity must not be compromised on any account. assessment has been published (National Council of
Large numbers and the use of electronic media in the Educational Research and Training, 2019a), it is unclear
place of human interaction compromise on the non- in practice how teachers use this to reflect on their own
negotiable’ (p.67). Primary teachers in India, according competences. In a more recent analysis, Pandey (2021)
to the NCFTE, are mandated to complete 20 days of also notes that various approaches to teacher appraisal
training each year. Three problems with the existing (such as APAR – Annual Performance Assessment
approach to teacher professional development in India Reports) are applied in India but without any
were also outlined: teachers in private schools are consistency. NEP 2020 has stimulated closer attention
excluded; teachers have little autonomy in the kinds to teacher quality, including teacher appraisal, and new
of professional development they do; and education draft teacher standards have been published (National
departments do not ‘have any mechanism for co- Council for Teacher Education, 2021). Four standards
ordinating the total training being undergone by are defined: core values and ethics; professional
teachers, with the result there is a lot of over-training, knowledge and understanding; professional practice
repetition and overlap’ (p.71). and competence; and professional development and
growth. It will be interesting to monitor how these
For teachers who are newly recruited, induction training standards shape teacher evaluation practices in the
of 30 days is funded by Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan years ahead; creating new frameworks and tools is
(SSA)2. In 2017–18, 0.27 lakh (27,000) teachers were important, but these need to be accompanied by
approved by MHRD for induction training (Ministry of support and education that allows teachers and other
Human Resource Development, 2018). Such induction stakeholders to modify established ideas and practices
programmes focus on general pedagogical issues for regarding what counts as teacher quality and how it
teachers and are not subject-specific. should be assessed.
According to UNESCO (2021:115), ‘several central
institutions such as NCERT, National Institute of 2.6 Technology and education
Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA) The number of internet users in India rose by over
and state institutions including the State Institutes eight per cent to 624 million in 2021 compared to the
of Educational Management and Training (SIEMAT), previous year (DATAREPORTAL, 2021). Recent years
SCERTs, DIETs and BRCs-CRCs, design and offer have also seen an increasing focus on the role of
CPD’. CPD is also provided by NGOs and international technology in education as reflected in various national
educational development organisations such as initiatives. These have included ‘Digital India’ (https://
UNICEF and (particularly for teachers of English) the www.digitalindia.gov.in/), SWAYAM (https://swayam.gov.
British Council (see Section 6.7). According to figures in/) and DIKSHA (https://diksha.gov.in/).
cited by Anderson and Lightfoot (2019), 3.5 million
teachers in India receive in-service training each
year, though provision and quality vary across states
and programmes. Generally, though, commentators
suggest that official in-service training remains largely
top-down and transmissive (Padwad and Dixit, 2014),

2 SSA is an over-arching government programme to support the improvement of school education in India; see https://samagra.education.gov.in/features.html

Education in India 19
The new NEP also emphasises the importance of research. The Azim Premji Foundation, for example,
technology and states that ‘use and integration of runs its own lower primary ‘demonstration schools’ in
technology to improve multiple aspects of education nine districts in four states (Azim Premji Foundation,
will be supported and adopted’ (Ministry of Human 2017). It also has ‘field institutes’ in 50 districts across
Resource Development, 2020:56). Challenges in six states and one union territory aimed at ‘improving
relation to this goal are also acknowledged, such as the government school education system at the
ensuring schools have access to electricity (according district level’ through professional capacity building of
to the Department of School Education and Literacy, stakeholders (Azim Premji Foundation, 2017). Another
2021d, 83.4 per cent of schools in India meet this NGO, Pratham, intervenes both directly (its instructors
requirement), hardware and software. According to teaching children in schools and communities) and
UNESCO (2021), most teachers in India have positive through partnerships with government teams, and
attitudes towards the integration of technology into has an extensive portfolio of activities especially in
their work. primary education. It also conducts the annual national
survey of children’s schooling and foundational learning
Since March 2020, Covid–19 has impacted substantially across rural India, leading to Annual Status of Education
on education in India (Vegas, Shah and Fowler, 2021). Reports (ASERs), which are considered key documents
A recent report (ASER, 2020) examined the impact of on basic literacy and the status of education (Pratham,
Covid–19 in rural areas, finding, for example, that 50 per n.d.). NGOs like Central Square Foundation also
cent of the respondent teachers had received training work with the government, technology partners and
to support teaching remotely. However, only around educational entrepreneurs to support initiatives aimed
18 per cent of rural students, mostly above Standard 8 at improving the quality of foundational and basic
and in private schools, attended online classes, with the education. Some other well-known NGOs working in
general conclusion being that, even though 62 per cent education in India are the Akshara Foundation, Ekalavya,
of households had a smartphone, ‘the impact of digital Digantar and Teach for India.
means of reaching children is not impressive, whether
in government schools or private’ (p.10). UNESCO
(2021:07) reports that smartphones have been the
primary technology used by teachers during Covid–19
but, again, notes, that ‘a large proportion of students
have had limited or no access to devices
and data’.

2.7 NGOs in education

Reliable statistics regarding NGOs in India are not
available. According to one estimate (Anand, 2015)
there are over 3.1 million NGOs operating across the
country. While the sector-wise distribution of NGOs is
also not accurately known, Niti Darpan, the directory
of NGOs maintained by the Niti Ayog (formerly the
Planning Commission of India), has 130,000 entries. Of
these, 73,000 work in education and literacy (Niti Ayog,
2021). It may be safely assumed that the contribution of
NGOs to school education in India is quite substantial,
though the specific extent of this contribution to
English language education is unclear.

A white paper on NGOs by Global Governance Initiative

(GGI, 2020) identifies four broad areas of intervention
followed by educational NGOs – infrastructure,
government advocacy, primary teaching services and
human capital development. Based on surveys with the
top 32 NGOs, this report concludes that the last two of
these areas are where most NGOs focus, while there is
less focus on infrastructure and government advocacy.
Activity reports from several leading NGOs indicate that,
in school education, issues such as literacy, numeracy,
access and inclusion are given. NGOs working in
education also intervene in many ways, from direct
involvement in teaching and learning to advocacy and

20 Education in India
21 The role of English in Bangladesh
3 The role of English in India

The legacy of English in India can be traced back to the English proficiency as a key determinant of success (it
early 17th century via the trade and evangelical missions is therefore somewhat ironic that insufficient attention
of the East India Company and Christian missionaries is paid to the levels of English that teachers of the
respectively. English began to take a more central language should have – see Section 6.7).
position with the introduction of public instruction
in English in the 1830s and it became the official The strong demand for English spurred by the software
language of the Company rule in 1835. It became and ICT industries two decades ago still remains high,
further entrenched as the language of administration now thanks to the booming services sector, where even
and consequently of prosperity, power and modernity jobs with lower levels of educational requirements still
with the establishment of the British colonial rule. demand some knowledge of English (Endow, 2021).
Ambivalent positions arose regarding English during English language skills provide significant returns to
India’s struggle for independence; it was opposed as those with high proficiency as compared to those
the colonisers’ language and a ‘Westernising’ influence, without in many sectors of employment (Azam, Chin
but also valued for the prospects of modernisation and and Prakash, 2010). Mohan (2014) notes that even
unification it seemed to offer. These tensions continued when good jobs do not intrinsically require English, the
even after independendence which continued even language serves as a kind of gatekeeper. Two reports
after independence; the Constituent Assembly in (Erling, 2014; and Prince and Singh, 2015) also find
fact spent three years debating the status of English English proficiency figuring to varying but significant
in the free India. These conflicting positions were degrees in all major sectors of employment as an
reconciled in a ‘compromise’ status of English as an important influence on recruitment and
‘associate language’, initially for 15 years until 1965, career progression.
but later indefinitely via the Official Languages Act
English also has a strong presence in the cultural life of
of 1963. The fact that India does not have a specific
India, particularly in literature and films, as evidenced
‘national’ language and that English continues to be
by, for example, a large English language publication
formally recognised as a language of administration
industry and a substantial readership for Indian writings
and education, contrary to the original plans at the
in English. The widespread use of English by celebrities
Independence, indicate the immense socio-cultural,
and luminaries from the cultural world is one example
historical, political and economic complexities besetting
of numerous intangible but powerful influences that
languages in India in general and English in particular.
continue to uphold the prestige status of English (see
Gaekwad, 2017 and various discussions on forums
English touches nearly all aspects of the social and
such as Quora3, for interesting insights into this
personal life of every individual in India, as it is widely
phenomenon).
used in a range of fields including federal and state
administration, legislation and the judiciary, trade and
commerce, public services, education and social
media. It also has utility as a lingua franca in the
vastly multilingual landscape of India. It is therefore
seen as the language of opportunity, prosperity and
social mobility. In other words, knowledge of English
significantly boosts one’s social, economic and
cultural capital.

A recent survey (Guha, 2021) points out that the

centrality of English in a social aspirational space
is tied to it being a language of the ruling elite,
the emancipatory potential it has and the socio-
economic benefits it brings. Higher studies, career
and employment opportunities are significantly
shaped by a knowledge of English. All high-stakes
examinations, whether for entry into prestigious
institutions and academic programmes or into high-
end public or corporate careers, inevitably include

3 For example: https://www.quora.com/Why-do-Bollywood-films-have-almost-half-of-the-lines-spoken-in-English-Is-this-how-they-speak-in-India-too.

22 The role of English in India

23 The role of English in Bangladesh
4 Languages and education

English is just one of the hundreds of languages used 4.2 English as a subject vs as a medium of
in India. According to the People’s Linguistic Survey instruction
of India (2016), there are 780 living languages and The teaching of English typically starts between Grade
potentially 100 unreported languages in India, while 1 and Grade 3 in most states and children generally
Ethnologue (2019) reports 447 living languages in spend seven to ten years learning English at school.
India (both sources above are cited in Bedi, 2020). On average, English is taught for about three hours
According to Graddol (2010), estimates of how many per week at the primary level up to five hours per
Indians speak English vary between 55 and 350 million, week at the secondary, with at least one lesson every
while the 2011 India census reported that 260,000 day. In certain schools and for specific subjects, EMI
people consider English to be their primary language, is used. For example, English-medium schools, which
83 million view it as their second language and 46 are predominant in the private sector (a point stressed
million as their third. Reliable recent figures for the in an earlier analysis of medium of instruction policy
number of English speakers in the country, though, are in India by Erling et al., 2016), start teaching widely
unavailable. In terms of proficiency, data is also limited in English from pre-primary years. Other schools are
but according to EF’s English Proficiency Index, India’s informally known as ‘semi-English’ medium and in
position is 48th among 112 countries with an overall these EMI is introduced later, often from Grade 5 and
proficiency rating of ‘moderate’ (Education First, 2021). typically only for mathematics and natural sciences.
However, the linguistic diversity of the country is so rich It is not uncommon to find schools with some classes
and complex that ‘people have multilinguality rather in the regional medium and others in the English
than one specific language’, according to Agnihotri or ‘semi-English’ medium. Government schools that
(2007, 2014) (cited in Heugh et al., 2019:18). typically offer education in the regional medium are
now increasingly accommodating EMI by converting
4.1 The Three Language Formula or adding EMI sections in existing schools and more
In terms of policy, language education in India is rarely converting entire schools to EMI or setting up
regulated by the three-language formula, emphasising new EMI schools. This is often justified as a response to
the study of at least three languages in school, one of strong parental demand, but concerns about dwindling
which has always been English. Introduced by NEP in enrolments in state-run regional-medium schools are
1968 and continued by subsequent NEPs, the formula also seen as an important cause behind this move.
remains in force with English as a constant feature
across the nation, though its implementation differs Recent statistical surveys illustrate the rise in English-
across states and sectors. Typically, the state language medium schools in comparison to schools with other
is considered the first language in this formula and languages as a medium of instruction in the country.
English as the second, with various options for the third According to 2019 National Statistical Survey data
language, though most states allow students to study reported in the press (The Indian Express, 2020),
other languages, including English, as the first language. the proportion of English-medium students at lower
However, in all cases, states insist on students taking primary level (Grade 1 to 5) went up to 23.2 per cent
the state language as one of the three. States usually in 2017–18 from 22.3 per cent in 2014, whereas it went
keep schools not affiliated to the state board out of this up to 21 per cent from 19.3 per cent at upper primary
mandate, but now there is an increasing tendency to level. Except for Karnataka, in all southern states of
insist on the mandatory teaching of the state language India English was also found to be the most preferred
across all schools, irrespective of affiliation, levels or medium of instruction according to another recent
medium of instruction. On the other hand, while all survey conducted by the Unified District Information
education policies so far have unequivocally favoured System in 2019 and reported in The Federal (2021).
other Indian languages as the most preferable medium Sometimes, the spread of English as a medium of
of school education, English-medium instruction (EMI) instruction is seen as an indication of dilemma and
has seen a significant rise during the last few years transition caused by the increasing importance of
(Nagarajan, 2021). Thus, there are contradictory policy English on the one hand and strong cultural and
approaches on promoting Indian languages and English emotional values attached to Indian languages on
across different states. the other:

While English as a lingua franca gains importance as the

language of social and professional mobility, Indian
languages hold cultural and emotional value. In some
instances, English becomes indigenised and operates as

24 Languages and education

 an Indian language, evoking emotional and cultural of instruction and languages taught in the primary
connections through its creolisation. English in these schools of Assam reported that more than 60.6 per
circumstances occupies a liminal place, simultaneously cent of the schools were heterogeneous in terms of
desired and distrusted. The proliferation of private and students’ linguistic composition and 75.5 per cent
public schools that advertise education in the English of the teachers used two or more languages in their
medium is an example of this dichotomy. The teaching of speech. Two further findings from the same study
were that teachers did not receive any training to
English then requires strategic handling to achieve the
help them deal with linguistically diverse classrooms
aims of a language classroom that strengthens critical
and that teachers tended to ignore the linguistic
literacy in a globalised world. (Jayendran, Ramanathan heterogeneity of the classrooms. There are other
and Nagpal, 2021:42) studies highlighting the lack of preparedness of
teachers to deal with linguistic diversity (Borah, 2018)
In relation to these tensions between English and
and how teachers encourage students to behave like
local languages, official documents encourage a
monolingual speakers (Boruah, 2017). Anderson and
balance. For example, acknowledging the place of
Lightfoot (2021:1210) also highlight schoolteachers’
English in the Indian education sector, the Position
reluctance to encourage use of other languages in
Paper of the National Focus Group on Teaching of
English language classrooms despite widespread use
English (National Council of Educational Research and
of translingual practices in daily lives, and advocate for
Training, 2006b:01) describes English as ‘a symbol of
the ‘need for explicit focus on use of other languages in
people’s aspirations for quality in education and a fuller
Indian English language teacher education’ and ‘more
participation in national and international life’. But it also
cohesive support for translingual practices across the
stresses that English cannot stand alone and must find
education system’.
its place in both regional-medium and English-medium
schools along with other Indian languages. This is
echoed in the National Curriculum Framework (National
Council of Educational Research and Training, 2005:39)
as well: ‘English needs to find its place along with other
Indian languages in different states, where children’s
other languages strengthen English teaching and
learning’. Similar opinions are expressed in Jayendran,
Ramanathan and Nagpal (2021:45):

The teaching and learning of English, at this point, must

not be seen as an act isolated from the teaching and
learning of indigenous languages and their cultures.
Instead, the rich narrative, discursive and
representational traditions embedded in post-colonial
contexts can be leveraged to achieve cultural and critical
literacy, in the process of which, operational literacy
develops naturally.

4.3 Language mixing in the classroom

Irrespective of the medium of instruction, language
mixing is a common practice in the schools in India.
This multilingual reality has been clearly documented
in a study conducted by Lightfoot et al. (2021) in two
different cities of India where the frequent occurrence
of language mixing was found in Grade 4 and 5 in
English-, Hindi- and Telegu-medium schools in both
English and Maths subject classes.

Not surprisingly, the multilingual nature of the society

is reflected in both the teacher and student population
in classrooms. While students’ linguistic resources
are considered to have an important positive role in
successful learning at school (Heugh et al., 2019),
this does not seem to receive enough pedagogical
attention in language classrooms. A small study
(Goswami, 2004) in 33 primary schools on the medium

Languages and education 25

 A timeline of English and English
education in India
Secondary education
commission –
importance of mother
tongue and English;
English to be taught in
all secondary schools

1964–6 1963
1952–3

Kothari Commission
– English to serve as
link language to higher
education; usefulness of Official Languages
the study of English at Act –
secondary and higher leading to indefinite
secondary level; seeds of continuation of
three-language formula English in India

1968

National Education
Policy – introduction of the National Education Policy – District Primary
three-language formula, emphasis on education in the Education
which includes study of mother tongue, augmenting Programme – aimed
Hindi, English and a modern materials and resources in Indian at universal primary
Indian language in school languages especially through education
education; emphasis on translations, greater role of
promotion of both Hindi universities in strengthening
and English ELT, strengthening of pre- and
in-service training of language
teachers

1976 1987–8 2002

1986 1993

Central scheme for

42nd constitutional teacher education 86th
amendment – education – establishment of constitutional
becomes concurrent District Institutes amendment –
subject; states in control for Education and addition of right
of English teaching Training (DIETs) to education

26 A timeline of English and English education in India

 National Focus Group Position Paper on Model school scheme – 2007–8
Teaching of Indian Languages – English expanding access to quality
becoming integral to Indian socio-cultural education, leading to more
matrix; acknowledges English as a language English and EMI opportunities
of mobility and aspirations; recommends
teaching of English interwoven into
teaching of Indian languages in multilingual
classrooms; foreign languages to be
introduced only after the child has gained Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha 2009
proficiency in one or more languages Abhiyan (RMSA) (National
Secondary Education Mission)
National Focus Group Position Paper on – objectives include quality
Teaching of English – revisiting aims and enhancement of English teaching,
challenges of English teaching, proposing entailing in-service re-training of all
new approaches such as multilingualism secondary teachers
and language across curriculum, tri-dialectal
model; recognises teachers’ PD and English
proficiency as concerns

2006 Right to Education Act – 2009–10

economically weaker students get
access to private sector (including
National Curriculum EMI) schools through 25 per cent
Framework – recognition quota reserved for them
of multilingualism as
a resource, stress
on language across
curriculum, introduction
of second language Scheme to provide quality 2014
acquisition frameworks education in madrasas – support
and approaches to to madrasas to introduce English
conceptualise English among other subjects; Madrasas to
education join mainstream school education,
including affiliation to education
2005 boards

2020 2018

National Education Policy Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)

– bilingual teaching-learning (Integrated Education Mission
materials in mother tongue merging of SSA and RMSA) – quality
and English; Three-Language enhancement across Grade 1–12
Formula from the foundational continuum; State Councils of Educational
stage; funding to alternative Research and Training (SCERTS) to cover
schools to introduce English Grades 1-12; SCERTs and DIETs to have
(among other subjects); separate cells and faculties for English
recommendation to offer education; English achievement in Grade
all subjects at two levels of 10 to be measured through National
‘standard’ and ‘higher’ Achievement Survey

A timeline of English and English education in India 27

 5 English in education structures

5.1 Organisational structure for education 5.2 Departments for English language
The broad organisational structure that regulates education
education in India, of which English education forms a There are also some key institutions and agencies at
part, is summarised in Table 1. the national, regional and state levels, which specifically
deal with English language education in the school
Usually, English language education falls within the sector. Two Regional Institutes of English (RIE-North at
purview of the agencies listed in the table with respect Chandigarh and RIE-South at Bengaluru) undertake in-
to their specific roles. However, there is some diversity service education and training of teachers (see Section
at the state level in terms of how these broad structures 6.7.1). Some states also have English Language Training
are further devolved. For example, separate structures Institutes (ELTIs), while many states have departments
for textbook production, examinations, training and or autonomous institutes looking after English
research or publications have been set up within the education included within the SCERTs.
boards of education.

Table 1: Educational structures and English education

Level Administrative Academic Assessment and

Certification

Central Central Ministry of National Council for Educational CBSE, National Institute of
Education and its various Research and Training (NCERT), Open Schooling (NIOS),
departments National Institute of Educational Council for the Indian School
Planning and Administration Certificate Examination
(NIEPA), National Council for (CISCE)
Teacher Education (NCTE),
Central Advisory Board of
Education (CABE), Central Board
of Secondary Education (CBSE)

State State Ministries and State Council for Educational State Boards of Education,
Directorates of Education Research and Training (SCERT), State Boards of Open
State Boards of Education, Schooling
Institutes of Advanced Studies in
Education (IASEs)

District and District and block District Institutes of Education

town/village education offices and Training (DIETs), Colleges of
Teacher Education (CTEs), Block
and Cluster Resource Centres

28 English in education: structures

 English language teaching in practice 29
 6 English language teaching in practice

6.1 Textbooks The Position paper of the National Focus Group

Though India does have a national curriculum, schools on Curriculum, Syllabus and Textbooks (National
are not compelled to use uniform textbooks until Grade Council of Educational Research and Training, 2006a)
8 and these vary significantly across states and schools. called for the use of ‘a package of teaching learning
Many government and government-aided schools material’ rather than a single textbook. However, Indian
follow NCERT/SCERT textbooks for English, while classrooms, particularly the ones in the government
private schools use a wider variety of their own choice, sector, are still largely dominated by the use of
including, in some cases, standard ELT textbooks textbooks. This dependence on textbooks has been
produced by international publishers. To illustrate these termed a ‘textbook trap’ by Dutta and Bala (2012).
variations, government and government-aided schools
in Assam mostly use the textbook series developed by 6.2 Other resources
the State Council of Educational Research and Training, Other resources available for English classrooms
Assam (the state academic authority), while regional- include grammar books, spoken English books and
medium private schools affiliated to the Secondary other materials such as chart paper, pictures and
Education Board of Assam (SEBA) mostly use their own worksheets. But the availability and use of these
series of textbooks. Additionally, some CBSE-affiliated resources vary greatly in different schools and is
English-medium private (usually high-cost) schools driven by various factors. For example, one informant
follow standard ELT textbooks such as Snowflakes: working in a private school explained that, though he
Northeast Edition (Cambridge University Press), wanted to draw on a variety of resources for teaching
Communicate in English (Ratna Sagar Pvt. Limited) grammar, he was compelled to fall back on traditional
and Collins Enriching English Reader. As a result, the grammar exercises from a single grammar book due
textbooks used for English across the country and to pressures by guardians (who believe that having
within states differ substantially in terms of content, one grammar book to learn is more effective) or the
layout and price, providing students with different school authorities. On the other hand, a key informant
language learning experiences. Mahapatra (2012:14) (who is a teacher in a government school) explained
describes the ‘government-private divide’ as ‘perhaps that the textbook was self-sufficient and that she did
the most obvious factor when it comes to class politics not feel much need to use any other material. It is also
in ELT in India,’ and differences in the textbooks used in commonly the case that materials complementing and
these two sectors are one clear sign of this division. supplementing the textbook are not readily available
(Meganathan, 2019).
State boards can exercise their own autonomy in
developing textbooks for English and a closer look The MHRD Annual Report 2017–18 (Ministry of
at the Grade 1 textbooks in three different states Human Resource Development, 2018) acknowledges
(Telangana, Assam and West Bengal) illustrates this. the challenges of making teaching and learning
In Telangana state, the textbook My English World has materials (TLM) packages available in government
seven units connected through the story of a single schools, suggesting collaboration with private bodies
character, though each unit has a specific theme. The as a possible solution and highlighting the need for
textbook has big pictures and activities for developing developing clear mechanisms for quality control that
listening and responding, vocabulary, reading and can be led by government institutions such as DIETs.
writing. In Assam, the textbook (Beginners’ English – I) However, our desk research did not identify evidence of
has eight lessons (units), each of which has a different the form such mechanisms might take in practice.
topic. Each unit begins with a picture followed by a text
or rhyme and a number of activities for developing Some private schools develop a set of TLMs by
skills such as listening, speaking, reading, writing and asking teachers to submit a definite number of TLMs
storytelling. West Bengal adopts a different approach per year, as explained by one of our key informant
– it has integrated the teaching of Bangla, English and teachers. Other agencies/institutions are sometimes
Mathematics into a single textbook (Amar Boi) rather engaged by the SCERTs and/or the government to
than using a separate textbook for teaching English. For design materials for teaching English. For example,
teaching English, the textbook consists of worksheets SCERT Sikkim was supported by Azim Premji University
addressing, for example, listening, speaking and letter to revise their English textbooks for Grades 1 to 5 in
recognition. Besides the lesson content, textbooks 2018–19. Government schools in Kerala, Tamil Nadu
often contain notes or instructions for teachers at the and Karnataka have been regularly using 20 video films
end of each lesson/unit (Assam) or towards the end of titled ‘Hello English’ produced by the Regional Institute
the textbook (West Bengal). of English South India (RIESI) for learning English at

30 English language teaching in practice

 primary level. Government and government-aided PM eVidya (https://www.swayamprabha.gov.in/index.
schools usually procure books including supplementary php/schooledu) is another initiative through which
readers in English through library grants provided by curriculum-based educational content for Grades 1 to
SSA. Many schools have set up reading corners for 12, developed by NCERT and other agencies such as
children with such books with the aim of developing CBSE, KVS, NIOS, Rotary, etc, is telecast by 12 eVidya
positive reading habits. direct-to-home (DTH) channels, making the materials
accessible to students with limited internet connection.
Materials are also developed in a responsive manner. The materials include English.
For example, to address grey areas in learning
outcomes identified by the assessment surveys and In Maharashtra, e-content for schoolteachers was
programmes such as the National Achievement Survey developed by the Maharashtra Academic Authority
of 2017, Assam has developed grade-wise and subject- under the Pragat Shaikshanik Maharashtra Programme
wise Open Education Resources (OERs) for English in 2017 and made available through the Maharashtra
along with other subjects at primary level using the In-service Teachers Resource App (MITRA). Later,
expertise of resource persons from SCERT, subject MITRA materials were incorporated into the DIKSHA
experts, SSA, RMSA, CTE and DIET (Government of portal; however, an evaluation report (Ocansey and
Assam, n.d.). These materials have attempted to address Sharma, 2019) observed that the current version of
the learning gaps with the help of case studies and DIKSHA does not have some features that made MITRA
include activities aimed at achieving particular popular among teachers (these were not specified in
learning outcomes. the report).

States such as Maharashtra and Telangana have Despite these large-scale ICT initiatives, limited
developed bridge courses for various subjects research is available into the impact they have on the
including English to help address the learning loss teaching and learning of English. Meganathan (2019)
caused by the lockdown period during Covid–19. Such mentions one study that demonstrates how technology
bridge courses help learners review material from the had a positive effect on the speaking skills of Grade
previous grade as well as helping them with content 6 students in a regional-medium school in West
from the current grade. This is meant to provide Bengal. However, while the use of mobile phones and
students with a smooth transition between grades. digital apps has increased rapidly in India during the
In Assam, pedagogic support during the pandemic pandemic, including for teaching English, studies of the
period has included, among others, the supply of outcomes of these innovations are not yet available.
learning recovery package for English, worksheets for
students in neighbouring schools prepared by DIETs 6.4 Classroom practices
and YouTube videos (Y-Kiran) for students launched by
Though there are policy documents and resources
the SSA.
available for teaching English, classroom practices,
particularly in the government sector, are largely driven
6.3 ICT in English education by the textbook content without much consideration
The use of ICT in English teaching and learning has for policy. Teachers working in government schools
gained momentum following the Covid–19 pandemic. do review the learning outcomes occasionally during
The government has formulated eight steps for the the teaching process, but find it difficult to attain the
implementation of online or digital education, namely outcomes at the respective grades, as reported by
PRAGYATA (plan, review, arrange, guide, Yak (talk), the teacher informants, due to very limited exposure
assign, track and appreciate). One national digital of the students to the language outside the classroom
platform for school education is DIKSHA (Digital and/or insufficient learning at a lower grade. On the
Infrastructure for Knowledge Sharing), an initiative other hand, our sources suggest that teachers working
of NCERT launched in 2017. Thirty-two states/union at private schools often do not consider the learning
territories have uploaded content on the portal so far. outcomes and simply follow the textbook activities and
Several states have uploaded e-resources related to the instructions of school authorities.
textbook content for various subjects, including English,
that can be accessed by teachers, students and other From discussions with the teacher informants, it can
stakeholders. For example, SCERT Assam has uploaded be said that a typical lesson in an English class often
e-textbooks for English and practice resources along begins with a read-aloud activity. Sometimes this is
with interactive content for primary-level students, preceded by the teacher giving an idea about the
which the students are supposed to use with the content of the text in the school language, in the belief
guidance of teachers and guardians. This content is yet that doing so will create students’ interest in the text.
to be integrated extensively in schools and only seems This is followed by translation and/or explanation of
to be used sporadically. Limited public information is texts in the textbooks. Difficult words are written on
available to date about the extent, manner and use of the board and meanings are discussed or written up.
such resources for English teaching and learning. All these activities are mostly teacher-led and students

English language teaching in practice 31

 are expected to follow and listen to the teacher and/or Practices vary in more challenging contexts. As
copy the teacher’s writing into their notebooks. Rather discussed in Section 4, English classrooms in India
than helping students complete the language tasks or are linguistically diverse. Due to teachers’ lack of the
activities included in a lesson in the textbook, lessons awareness of appropriate methodological strategies,
often focus wholly on understanding the content of this diversity becomes a barrier to the process of
texts through translation. English teaching and learning. Frustration caused by
such challenges combined with the very disadvantaged
Teacher talking time is usually much higher than socio-economic background of the students is reflected
student talking time in English classrooms. This might in a teacher informant’s opinions:
be the result of limited pedagogical competence
among teachers, in particular a lack of skill in Teaching English is even more problematic than teaching
implementing activity-based and learner-centred other subjects ...They use a different language variety at
instruction. As reported by a teacher informant, home … they even find it difficult to speak the first
teachers’ efforts are also often constrained by practical language used in the school … so this is a challenge to
challenges such as large classrooms, limited time for make the transition to English … Rather than using any
completing the syllabus and the low proficiency
recommended techniques, I rely on whatever works best
of students.
to keep them interested in the lesson without much focus
Among the language skills, reading and writing are on vocabulary or other language points … We do not
emphasised more than listening and speaking (Dutta have any spoken English classes … we actually cannot
and Bala, 2012) in most government schools. Listening reach that level … there are many hindrances … students
and speaking are becoming more prominent (see, are from poor backgrounds … it is difficult to even bring
for example, The Hindu, 2021, for an article about them to the school.
the introduction of 30 minutes of English speaking
in Grades 6 to 12) but generally such developments
are not supported by change in curriculum and in the
6.5 Assessment
way teachers are trained (Meganathan, 2019). In some Considering assessment as an integral part of teaching-
private schools, there are separate spoken English learning activities, the Right to Education Act of 2009
classes where activities for improving oral skills are mandated the use of Continuous and Comprehensive
conducted, but practices in conducting such classes Evaluation (CCE) for all subjects at primary level4.
are not uniform across schools. Accordingly, a number of learning outcomes for each
grade and subject have been formulated by NCERT
The teaching of reading and writing is often limited as reference points that assessment systems are
to lower-level skills in most government schools. supposed to use for measuring students’ progress
Reading aloud is both taught and assessed until qualitatively or quantitatively. For the subject of English,
Grade 5 in some schools, as reported by one of the learning outcomes have been spelt out based on
teacher informants. A study (Dutta and Bala, 2012 :34) separate curricular expectations for lower primary
conducted in eight states/union territories explained and upper primary stages. For example, one of the
the practice of teaching reading as follows: Grade 1 learning outcomes is ‘identifies characters
and sequence of events in a story’ (National Council of
Teaching of ‘reading‘ was synonymous with reading aloud Educational Research and Training, 2017:25), while for
by one student or teacher, choral reading, group reading Grade 8, one is ‘narrates stories (real or imaginary) and
(loud). Textbook was used in more than 90 per cent of real-life experiences in English’ (ibid:39).
classrooms for being read by the teacher and making
children listen. Teachers themselves performed ‘model’ Classroom assessment practices, through CCE, are
reading without understanding the concept of reading
supposed to facilitate the achievement of learning
outcomes developed for English in each grade at both
for comprehension. ‘Reading’, as silent reading at classes
lower primary and upper primary levels. The NCERT has
III, IV or V level was not observed in any school.
developed CCE packages to help teachers understand
A common problem, also voiced by the teacher and implement CCE in teaching-learning with examples
informants in this study, is learners’ composition of activities for English classes.
skills. Classroom practice is largely dominated by the It is not clear how far these reforms have been
dictating of notes by teachers due to various reasons translated into practice in English classrooms.
such as limited time for ‘covering’ the syllabus, pressure No studies were found during this desk research
from school authorities to keep the learners’ notebooks investigating how effectively CCE had been
error-free and low proficiency of learners. As a result, implemented in English classrooms at the basic
learners, particularly in government schools, are rarely education level. However, interviews with key informants
taught the process of writing. (school teachers) align with an observation made in the

4 CCE was introduced in 2009 but withdrawn in 2017, with plans to reintroduce in 2020–1; see https://www.indiatoday.in/india-today-insight/story/why-the-cbse-introduced-
and-then-withdrew-continuous-evaluation-1821304-2021-07-01

32 English language teaching in practice

 Foreword of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation 6.6 NGOs and English
Guidelines prepared by NCERT (National Council of The role of NGOs in education in India was discussed
Educational Research and Training, 2019b) that there in Section 2.7. In some cases they also provide specific
are no visible changes at the ground level probably support for the teaching and learning of English. For
because of the habit of using tests and examinations example, Teach-India, a CSR initiative of The Times of
as traditional assessment strategies. Teachers tend India, runs spoken English development programmes
to equate CCE to the unit tests conducted at regular for underprivileged youth. Another NGO, e-Vidyaloka,
intervals. Those unit tests actually test the learners’ teaches English among other subjects to rural children
grasp of the syllabus/textbook content rather than of Grades 5–8 through online and digital means. Many
measuring their progress in terms of English language education NGOs have their own teaching and teacher
level. The teacher informant from a private school training centres, where methodologies and materials
shared some practices he follows for continuously developed in-house are put into practice. Similarly,
assessing spoken English performance of the learners NGOs also develop their own materials and practices
in a separate class hour. However, he did not have for the learning, teaching and assessment of English,
any knowledge about learning outcomes or policy which are used in a variety of contexts. Often there is
directives and just followed instructions from his school little information about the origins of such materials
authorities. On the other hand, the teacher working in or practices. The pedagogic soundness and socio-
a government school was aware of learning outcomes cultural relevance of materials, approaches or practices
and CCE because of orientations she received through followed by NGOs, or how they compare or align with
SSA, but she expressed the need for more guidance on those followed in the formal state education system,
pedagogy for using these ideas in the classroom. are issues which need urgent attention, given the large
Though there are no other assessment systems number of entities operating in this space.
exclusively focused on measuring the English language Issues of alignment and pedagogic soundness are
levels of primary-level students, general assessments further aggravated by a common challenge of human
of some bodies partially include such assessment. For resources NGOs all over India face: NGOs typically
example, along with arithmetic ability, the Annual Status work with volunteers with no or limited skills, training
of Education Report (ASER) survey (facilitated by the and knowledge in pedagogy or even subject areas.
NGO Pratham and carried out by partner institutions) The GGI white paper (GGI, 2020) cites a report of the
assesses basic reading ability through tasks designed Confederation of Indian Industries, which ‘indicated the
on the basis of analyses of state textbooks and glaring void of skilled workforce in the Indian education
curricular framework documents. The basic reading and NGO space. It was found that Indian NGOs face huge
comprehension abilities in English of children aged five hurdles when it comes to recruiting, training and
to 16 years were assessed by administering the ASER retaining quality teachers’ (Section 4). NGOs functioning
English tool for ASER in 2007, 2009 and 2012. Banerji without qualified materials producers, curriculum
and Bobde (2013:31) state that the ASER English designers and teacher trainers should not be surprising,
tool, with five levels for reading and two levels for but is certainly alarming.
comprehension, has been used on average with over
522,000 children a year, ‘making it perhaps the most
widely used basic English assessment for children in
6.7 English language teachers
the non-English-speaking world’. 6.7.1 Qualifications
In accordance with the provisions of the Right to
The assessment survey results have implications for
Education Act of 2009, the NCTE has laid down
English learning and teaching in India. For example,
minimum entry and academic qualifications for a
according to Banerji and Bobde (2013:31), ‘less than
person to be eligible to be appointed as a teacher at
half the children in Grade 5 can read simple words in
the primary level. One essential qualification is passing
English … and, of the children who can read words,
the Teacher Eligibility Test (TET) conducted by both the
approximately 40 per cent cannot tell the meanings
central government and state governments. Passing
of the words they have read’ . This is a clear indication
the Central Teacher Eligibility Test (CTET) helps one to
of the need for immediate attention to reading skills in
be recruited in central schools, while passing the TET
India in both regional language and more so in English.
conducted by the state governments helps one to be
Be it in classroom assessments or other assessment
recruited in the state schools.
systems, there seems to be very little or no focus on
either productive skills (speaking/writing) or TET (an objective-type test) consists of two papers –
on listening. Paper 1 for those intending to be teachers at the lower
primary level and Paper 2 for those intending to be
teachers at the upper primary level. A candidate can
take both papers. There are two language components
in each paper – the first is on the proficiency of
the language which is the medium of instruction,

English language teaching in practice 33

 while the other component sees candidates choose 6.7.3 Teachers’ English language levels
from the available options. In states such as Assam, The English proficiency of teachers is not systematically
candidates need to take a test of English for the assessed at the state or the national level, whether
second component in both papers. The syllabus for this at entry into the profession or in-service, and hence
component includes aspects of teaching and learning it is difficult to present general estimates of teachers’
languages and grammar. The syllabus for the lower proficiency. Some isolated studies indicate teachers’
primary level seems to be a reduced version of that in English levels to be much lower than those in textbooks
the upper primary level. This second component carries and curricula. Three needs analysis surveys by the
30 marks out of the total of 150 marks in the test. British Council in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and
Bihar found that less than ten per cent of the surveyed
The minimum academic qualifications needed to
teachers were at the preferred B2 level of CEFR (British
be a teacher are a senior secondary certificate (or
Council, 2013, 2016; Hayes and Raman, 2013).
equivalent) for lower primary and graduation at
upper primary level. Other than this, candidates need According to a press report (The Indian Express, 2014)
a professional qualification, namely a Diploma in a further British Council analysis in Maharashtra also
Elementary Education (DElEd) for all grades at primary found that only 39 per cent of teachers at secondary
level or a Bachelor of Education (BEd) for teaching at level had the required level of B1 proficiency or
upper primary level only. Most private schools, however, above in combined reading, grammar and vocabulary
define their own norms for appointing teachers of score and only 47 per cent had it in speaking. Also
English. Besides looking for candidates with a higher in Maharashtra, estimates based on the observation
degree, many such schools are still seen to consider of teachers in classrooms (rather than tests) have
the BEd as an essential qualification and candidates suggested that most teachers were below B1 (Borg,
with a specialised degree for teaching English are 2018, 2019).
often preferred.
NCERT’s Position Paper of the National Focus Group
6.7.2 Subject specialisation on Teaching of English (National Council of Educational
Teachers in primary schools in India might or might not Research and Training, 2006b) recognises the
be subject specialists and different practices are seen importance of English teachers’ proficiency in the
in government and private schools. In government language, and in recent years some measures have
schools, generally all teachers at lower primary level been taken to address this issue (and that of subject-
need to teach all subjects. Therefore, a teacher with specific pedagogy training for teachers of English) at
any subject background may teach English at Grades pre-service level, particularly through revisions to the
1–5. However, the Right to Education Act of 2009 Diploma in Elementary Education (DElEd) programme.
mandated the norm of at least one teacher per class
The compulsory admission examination for the DElEd
for languages at the upper primary level (Grades 6–8).
programme, known as the Pre-entry Test (PET), now
This mandate, in many states, has been implemented
includes a component on ‘General English’. Moreover,
so that teachers with an Arts degree teach a range of
some additional weight has been given to English
Arts subjects such as English and Social Science, while
language throughout the DElEd syllabus in terms of
those with a Science degree teach Science subjects. In
both proficiency and pedagogy. For example, in the
most private schools, though, a teacher with a degree
syllabus developed by SCERT Assam (Government of
in English/English language is assigned to teach English
Assam/UNICEF, 2018), eight credits of the 80-credit
irrespective of the grade level.
course have been devoted to proficiency development
There are few opportunities available for initial teacher and pedagogy of English. There is one course each on
training designed specifically for aspiring teachers Proficiency in English in the first and second semester,
of English or for newly recruited teachers of English. while in the third semester there is a course on the
Whatever training they receive is in the form of limited Pedagogy of English. In the fourth semester there is an
input on teaching English as part of courses or training optional pedagogy course on the teaching of English
programmes meant for all teachers teaching at the (meant for upper primary teachers of English).
primary level. Additionally, evaluations lack a focus on
The curriculum-syllabus for the DElEd programme
the extent to which pre-service courses sufficiently
(Government of Assam/UNICEF, 2018:03) justifies the
prepare teachers of English to work in basic education.
inclusion of courses in English pedagogy in the syllabus
It is possible, though, that the general observation that
document as follows:
‘there is little connection on the ground between …
programmes for teacher education with programmes Earlier, the study of English was introduced in upper
for school education’ (Ministry of Human Resource primary classes in most of the states, but with the
Development, 2015:02) applies to the overly theoretical
increasing use and importance of English its study now
and academic orientation of pre-service work for
starts from Class I itself. Every teacher in primary classes
English teachers too.
is required to teach two or three languages; therefore,

34 English language teaching in practice

 courses in the pedagogy of English and regional in pilot mode. This announcement has been made
language have been assigned an important place following a mandate of the NEP 2020 that teachers for
in the curriculum of the Elementary Teacher all school levels (from foundational to secondary stage
Education Programme. as per the new structure proposed by NEP 2020) will
be engaged only through ITEP from 2030 onwards. This
However, the extent to which the proficiency courses in programme will have the dual purpose of preparing
the DElEd programme address the English proficiency aspiring teachers for school education and for higher
needs of teachers requires further investigation. For studies by developing disciplinary knowledge. This
example, trainees are mostly assessed on reading seems to be an attempt to address the problem that
and writing, while listening and speaking are not ‘initial training of primary teachers continues to suffer
given much importance. Hence, it is likely that a gap from isolation, low profile and poor visibility in view of it
remains between the stated aims of the proficiency being a non-degree programme’ (National Council for
development courses on the programme and the Teacher Education 2009:08). While these reforms are
learning that actually takes place. not specific to English, they will of course affect all pre-
service programmes including those that prospective
6.7.4 Postgraduate programmes for English teachers of English follow.
teachers
Higher education programmes in English language 6.8 Continuing professional development
teaching are available, though not specifically aimed at
As noted in Section 2, India does not have a national
teachers at the primary level. For example, the two-
policy regarding the professional development of
year MA in English Language and English Language
teachers generally, which means that CPD provision and
Teaching at Gauhati University provides, as stated on its
practice will vary significantly across states. Examples
website ‘professional training to pre-service teachers’
of government and non-government CPD are discussed
of English’. In the fourth semester, it offers a course on
below. More broadly, while limited research into the
practice teaching where student teachers are trained to
attitudes to CPD of teachers of English in India exists,
teach English, particularly at primary level, by engaging
a study by the British Council in South Asia (British
in lesson planning and completing a practicum at a
Council, 2015) did find that in India teachers were very
local school. Students with any subject background
interested in improving their English skills, particularly
can join the programme after passing an entrance test
their speaking. They also wanted to improve their
measuring their English language proficiency. In Assam,
knowledge of teaching and learning materials, using
some institutions list an MA in English language and/or
technology for teaching and lesson planning. More
English language teaching as a desirable qualification
systematic and up-to-date research, though, is required
for recruiting teachers of English.
to better understand the CPD needs of Indian teachers
Another university offering courses for enhancing of English. Such research, of course, is of little value
English-teaching skills is the English and Foreign unless the identified needs are then used to inform CPD
Languages University (EFLU), Hyderabad. It offers a provision in the country.
Postgraduate Certificate in the Teaching of English (for
those with an MA in English or an allied subject) and a 6.8.1 Government CPD
Postgraduate Diploma in the Teaching of English (for Regarding in-service training for basic education
those who have completed the PGCTE), providing both teachers of English provided by state or district
theoretical and practical knowledge about the teaching educational authorities, our desk work yielded limited
of English. Some students who obtain these higher information. For example, NCERT’s 2020 report
qualifications in English also go on to teach in basic (National Council of Educational Research and Training,
education, though no clear estimates are available on 2020) does not refer to any in-service development
the numbers of such teachers. for teachers of English while the SCERT Delhi website
(Government of India, 2021b) has a section on ‘In-
6.7.5 Changes under the new National Education service Education and Training’ but does not include
Policy information about any recent activity. A recent book on
The newly launched National Education Policy (NEP) the teaching of English in India (Jayendran, Ramanathan
2020 has signalled changes in pre-service education. and Nagpal, 2021) also makes no reference at all to
National Professional Standards for Teachers (NPST) in-service development. Through personal contacts
have been designed to monitor the design of pre- and key informant interviews, though, we were able to
service teacher education programmes and to help obtain some insight into the contemporary situation
teachers raise professional standards. Recently, the regarding CPD for teachers of English across
Ministry of Education announced a four-year integrated the country.
teacher education programme (ITEP), a dual-major
One initial point to make is that the volume of such
bachelor’s degree (an undergraduate degree and
activity has decreased in the last five years or so,
teacher education degree) to be offered in around
largely due to reductions in the amount of central
50 selected multidisciplinary institutions from 2022–3
funding available. Thus, for example, until around

English language teaching in practice 35

 2015, there were over 30 English Language Training 30-day residential certificate course (moved online
Institutes (ELTIs) around the country that received recently due to Covid–19), while the RIE in Chandigarh,
central funding. Since then, these have either closed which also previously adopted an intensive short-
or merged with the state government. And, to take course model, has since 2016–7 moved to a more
a specific example highlighted by one of the key distributed approach; teachers attend training several
informants, until 2016 there existed in Telangana a times in shorter blocks. More detailed information
Districts Centre in-service scheme for teachers of about the work of the RIEs is available on their websites
English. This was implemented by the English and (http://riesielt.org/; http://www.rieni.org/). State school
Foreign Languages University (EFLU) and initially teachers of English do not receive formal recognition
focused on secondary school teachers (Grades 8–12) for completing in-service courses at RIEs, although
although towards the end of the scheme primary achieving a high grade can allow them to apply for
teachers were also involved. The scheme consisted a position at their DIET and offers the possibility of
of an initial ten-day orientation followed by (for those working as a Master Trainer on state- or district-level
teachers interested in continuing to study) a three- training programmes.
month training programme at the university. Teachers
completing the full programme would then cascade It is not clear how the CPD work of the RIEs is
the training to other teachers in their local districts. evaluated, but closer study of the in-service
This has, though, been discontinued. Currently, EFLU programmes they offer would certainly be of value in
continues to provide in-service courses on demand developing existing provision for in-service teachers
across states, though these are developed responsively of English in India. More generally, further research is
rather than as part of any systematic programme. needed into the design, delivery and impact of CPD in
the country (see, Meganathan, 2019, for a summary of
Government-funded CPD also takes the form of very various studies in India that have examined aspects of
short and often specific meetings organised by DIETs professional development for teachers of English).
(within which one officer is typically responsible for
English). These are largely informational in nature; 6.8.2 Non-government CPD
for example, teachers might receive updates on Different non-governmental organisations support the
policies, the textbook, curriculum or assessment CPD of teachers of English in India and examples are
procedures (such training sessions are referred to discussed in his section.
as ‘content-enrichment programmes’). The extent to
which such events qualify as CPD is arguable, but they The British Council
do fulfil the purpose of ensuring teachers are up to The British Council has worked in partnership with
date with developments in the teaching of English in State Education departments across several Indian
their state. DIETs are responsible for the in-service states, with over 20 projects for primary and secondary
training of English teachers, particularly in states teachers listed on the British Council India website
not serviced by Regional Institutes of English (RIEs), (British Council India, 2021a). These projects have been
which are discussed below. At local levels, Resource delivered using different models, including cascade
Persons placed at Block Resource Centres and Cluster training (for example, in the Andhra Pradesh Developing
Resource Centres conduct short training programmes English Language Teaching project) and, more recently,
for teachers and provide on-site support to teachers teacher communities of practice (in person and online),
through monitoring, classroom observations and such as in the Tejas project in Maharashtra (British
development of resource materials. Usually, such Council India, 2021b and Borg, Lightfoot and Gholkar
resource persons are trained by DIETs and then are 2020). Mentoring is another model of CPD that has
supposed to cascade training to other teachers. been used, such as on the ELISS project. Generally,
However, a practising teacher, who was another projects have focused on improving teachers’
informant in this project, expressed dissatisfaction confidence in their own English and developing their
with the general support received from such resource classroom skills for teaching English. Several projects
persons and believed that external resource persons have also included a capacity-building element through
with more expertise on language pedagogy would have which experienced teachers have had opportunities
been helpful. to develop competences as teacher educators. Most
projects seem to have been evaluated, but while
Two RIEs also provide CPD for teachers of English.
impact summaries are included on the British Council
These are the Regional Institute of English for South
India website, evaluation reports do not seem to be
India (RIESI, which covers six states in the south
publicly available (see, however, a recent external
of India) and the Regional Institute for English in
evaluation of the British Council’s work in Maharashtra
Chandigarh (which caters for a smaller number of
– Ecctis, 2021). In the case of Tejas, a publication called
states in the north). Both RIEs offer in-service courses
Stories of Change (British Council, 2020) is available,
for teachers of English in primary and secondary
which documents, from the perspective of diverse
schools, though their models differ. The RIESI provides
stakeholders, the impact that Tejas has had. Many
(among other distance programmes) an intensive

36 English language teaching in practice

 thousands of teachers of English have participated in enhance teachers’ sense of autonomy. However,
CPD programmes delivered by the British Council in sustainability is one key challenge for teacher clubs,
partnership with State Education authorities in India, particularly because they are not officially recognised
with support from other UK organisations by the educational authorities. The informal nature of
and consultants. these CPD groups makes them hard to study in any
systematic way; according to one of the authors here
More recent CPD projects delivered by the British and who has been involved with English Teacher Clubs
Council illustrate the role that social media can play in for many years, these groups continue to exist, though
facilitating continued interaction and support for virtual in Maharashtra where they originated, only about three
teacher communities. For example, in the mentoring or four of the original 20 groups remain active. There
phase of the ELISS project, WhatsApp groups were is, though, anecdotal evidence that Covid–19 has
created both for mentors and for each individual prompted the growth of a number of informal teacher
mentor and the group of teachers they supported. An development groups online.
analysis of the mentor groups found that these fulfilled
a range of social and professional functions (Parnham, Teacher associations
Gholkar and Borg, 2018). Given the widespread use
English teacher associations (ETAs) are another
of WhatsApp in India (487 million users according to
source of professional development. National ETAs
Statista, 2021) and its relatively modest requirements
such as AINET, ELTAI and FORTELL offer a range of
in terms of devices, data and bandwidth, it is clearly a
CPD channels including conferences, courses, action
social media platform with potential for supporting CPD
research projects and publications. AINET, for example,
among ELT practitioners in India.
supports teachers to develop as trainers, researchers,
conference presenters and materials producers,
TESS-India
in addition to capacity building in pedagogy and
TESS-India (Teacher Education through School- educational technology, through various initiatives.
based Support in India – https://www.open.edu/ There are also numerous local, regional and university-
openlearncreate/course/index.php?categoryid=45) based ETAs offering opportunities for CPD. However,
is another example of non-government support for there is hardly any systematically compiled data on the
teachers of English. This was a partnership involving number, reach or impact of ETAs.
several organisations working with the Government of
India’s Ministry of Human Resource Development to 6.8.3 Teacher perspectives
produce Open Education Resources to improve the
Two of our teacher informants reflected on their
classroom practices of primary school teachers in India.
experiences of CPD in India. One teacher who works in
For primary English, the project produced modules on
a government school felt that the pedagogical support
several topics including classroom routines, letters and
she received from the national project (SSA) was very
sounds of English, early writing, storytelling and using
insufficient and the experts in the short-term training
the textbook creatively. The modules have also been
provided were not resourceful. She wanted more
made available in several regional languages. However,
support in terms of techniques of teaching English to
insight into the use and impact of such resources on
learners with low socio-economic backgrounds in a
what happens in English lessons in primary schools in
rich multilingual context. The second key informant
India is lacking.
worked in a private school, which sometimes organises
training programmes for their own teachers by inviting
Teacher clubs
external experts as resource persons. The teacher
Another form of professional development available to felt that even though the training they receive often
teachers of English in India (particularly in Maharashtra) recommends learner-centred pedagogies, parents and
is the Teacher Club model (Padwad and Dixit, 2015; guardians are seen to prefer traditional methods such
Padwad and Parnham, 2019). This is a form of teacher as teachers dictating notes that students copy and
community of practice defined by: school authorities succumb to such pressures. This
means that teachers are not able to use innovative
… small, close-knit groups of teachers, characterised by
ideas in their teaching. Two messages from these
friendliness, informality, an absence of hierarchy and a
informants’ experiences relate to (a) the importance of
mixture of amateur and professional interests. They are practical CPD content delivered by informed teacher
essentially voluntary groups of teachers coming together educators, and (b) the need for post-training support
to help each other address their concerns and improve that allows teachers to use in their classroom new skills
themselves as teachers. (Padwad and Parnham, and strategies they obtain through CPD.
2019:556).

Teachers are responsible for managing teacher clubs

and deciding what group discussions will focus on.
According to Padwad and Parnham, teacher clubs
provide for individualised and personalised CPD and

English language teaching in practice 37

 7 Opportunities, challenges and future trends

One theme that has recurred throughout this analysis On a practical level, based on our analysis, there
is diversity; the English education landscape in India are several key themes in English education in India
is vast, multi-faceted and almost infinitely varied in that provide opportunities for further inquiry, deeper
a manner that largely defies, other than at the level understanding and evidence-based interventions.
of national policy, monolithic characterisation. The The point about understanding is key here because,
autonomy that states (and, particularly in the private despite large volumes of activity in English in basic
sector, even schools) have in defining key features education in India, evidence of its impact remains
of English language education, together with the scarce. Without such insight it is difficult to isolate
often-tenuous links that seem to exist between formal particular barriers to quality and to suggest appropriate
policy and actual practice in teaching, learning and interventions. The following issues merit particular
assessment, are two factors that contribute to the attention:
sense that English education in India is defined by
multiple forms of provision. 1. Curricula for English: In government schools,
curricular decisions are made at state level, based
Tension is another word that captures many of the on a national framework, but these amount largely
forces that shape the current English education to decisions about which textbooks to use or, where
landscape in the country. National policies compete these are produced locally, how to design
with those at state level; well-intentioned mandates
textbooks. It is commonly (but largely anecdotally)
(such as Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation)
noted, though, that the level of English in the
are at odds with the competences teachers possess;
textbooks often assume levels of English that are textbooks used in many basic education
beyond those learners (and probably, in many classrooms is too high for their users. This issue
cases, teachers) have; and educational technology needs to be investigated more closely and if
is promoted while teachers and learners lack the corroborating evidence is found, then a closer
equipment and digital skills required to benefit from it. analysis of the factors leading to this discrepancy
between teacher and learner competence and
Much excellent work has taken place, through several
curricular expectations should be undertaken.
national and state-wide projects designed to support
Learners who work with curricula that are well
teachers of English in various ways and which have
been delivered through local educational authorities beyond their competence will inevitably become
and bodies, often in partnership with external partners. demotivated; teachers whose levels are not
However, there is little sense of co-ordination and of a sufficiently high will also inevitably prioritise
framework within which this body of activity creates a pedagogical strategies (such as translation-based
coherent whole. This is, perhaps, not wholly surprising text analysis) that fail to optimise the learning of
given the scale and complexity of India’s educational English.
system. The lack of state-level or national policies (such
2. The private sector: Around 50 per cent of
as for teacher professional development) may at times
primary school students in India attend private
be blamed for this situation, but even where policy
and related curricula frameworks do exist (such as for schools. This is a substantial component of India’s
pre-service teacher education or primary education educational provision, but one that is both less
curricula), there is limited evidence that these have regulated (for example, in terms of textbooks,
assured quality in teaching, learning, assessment teacher recruitment and the use of EMI) and
and teacher preparation. This suggests, then, that sometimes overlooked (for example, government-
the formulation of policy is not the fundamental mandated CPD provision is often not extended to
problem here and that establishing new policies will these teachers). There is clearly a need to better
not in itself resolve many of the challenges we have understand the private sector and how English
highlighted. Thus, for example, while NEP 2020 has education unfolds there; this can highlight effective
mandated that pre-service teacher education move policy and practice that might be transferrable to
towards a new four-year integrated model, it cannot
government schools, as well as identify limitations
be assumed that re-designing programmes to meet
in how English is taught and learned in the private
the new requirements will automatically improve the
quality of graduates and of the subsequent teaching sector that need to be addressed. Partnerships
they provide. This is perhaps one of the conceptual between private and government schools also have
challenges that needs to be addressed at higher levels much potential for supporting English education
of the system; the mistaken belief that new policy will nationally.
automatically lead to changes in entrenched ideas
and practices.

38 Oppurtunities, challenges and future trends

 3. Pre-service teacher education: Changes 5. Teacher educator development: Those who
promoted by NEP 2020 will be phased in over the facilitate CPD for teachers of English will also benefit
next few years, but it is important for this work to be significantly from opportunities to enhance their
based on an understanding of the features of competences as teacher educators; they are often
current initial teacher education programmes that academically well qualified and hold postgraduate
limit their effectiveness. While extending the length qualifications in ELT, but may not have had
of pre-service teacher education will create space opportunities to develop the kinds of competences
for improved teacher learning, the simple allocation specific to teacher educators. Given the increase in
of more time will not necessarily generate benefits. online CPD, trainers would also benefit from
It is important to ensure that prospective teachers opportunities to develop their skills as online
experience high-quality learning and this must be teacher educators.
based on well-designed and delivered curricula, 6. Teacher competence: Insufficient information is
with space for the development of practical available about what teachers of English do in basic
teaching skills and clear connections with the education classrooms and of the skills and
realities of schools and classrooms (as opposed to knowledge they need further support with. The
theoretical programmes taught by lecturers with range of competences (including as skilled users of
limited knowledge of what classrooms are like). The English) effective teachers of English require is
development of graduates’ English language skills broad, yet the limited focus on teaching English
also needs to be addressed much more many basic education teachers will have
substantially, as the quality of English education is experienced in their pre-service teacher education
seriously compromised if teachers themselves only most likely means there are significant gaps in how
have basic English skills. There also needs to be effectively they are able to support the learning of
much more emphasis on the development of English. For example, the multilingual nature of
teacher educator competences, informed, for Indian classrooms means that teachers will benefit
example, by frameworks such as that developed by from competences that allow them to exploit
the British Council (2022). multiple languages effectively without detriment to
4. Continuing professional development: There any of them. Assessment is another important
are no national or state-level CPD frameworks and competence basic education teachers need yet
thus provision for teachers generally is uneven and little is known about the processes through which
sporadic across the country. Existing provision (for English is assessed in basic education. Teachers,
example, by RIEs, DIETs and bodies similar in though, are expected to play a central role in the
function to the Regional Academic Authority in process and to use continuous and formative
Maharashtra) is also not systematically evaluated assessment. The extent to which this occurs, the
and reviewed. There are clear opportunities here, exact assessment strategies teachers use and the
therefore, for research that maps current provision assessment literacy they possess as teachers are
at state level, examines its rationale, strengths, all issues where more evidence is required and
limitations and impacts, and works towards where interventions will be of value. General
understandings of good practice in CPD for primary observations about the largely didactive nature of
school teachers of English in India. NEP 2020 teaching in India (UNESCO, 2021) will apply equally
advocates a move away from top-down cascade to English, and while the limitations of pre-service
models of in-service training; this is a significant programmes partly explain this, deeper analyses of
shift and CPD providers at state and district level the factors responsible for the continued
will benefit from opportunities to develop their widespread use of teacher-centred pedagogies
understanding of what this means in practice for are needed.
the design and delivery of CPD. Some of the 7. Societal pressures: Insights provided by our key
projects implemented by, for example, the British informant teachers suggest that schools come
Council that have used community of practice under external pressure, particularly from parents
models may be instructive in this regard. Displacing or guardians, to persist with conventional modes of
persistent notions among teachers that CPD instruction that focus on rote learning, and that this
equates to formal training courses will be an influences what happens in classrooms. This is an
important part of the changes NEP 2020 is seeking interesting issue to examine in the context of
to bring about. broader analyses of the factors that shape the
pedagogical choices of basic education teachers of
English. If, for example, teachers must follow

Oppurtunities, challenges and future trends 39

 directives issued by headteachers who are in turn teacher evaluation, and of the role teachers can
influenced by parents, an important dimension of play in the process. Unless these issues are
teacher professionalism is being eroded. This may systematically addressed by educational
have implications for the kinds of professional authorities, it is unlikely that policy will lead to any
support needed by school leaders so they can practical change.
educate guardians, protect teachers and enable
them to improve classroom practices.
8. Educational technology: There has been a very
visible drive by the government of India to promote
wider use of technology in education, including
online, in response to Covid–19. Various NGOs have
also partnered with educational authorities to
support these efforts. Questions remain, though,
about the extent to which teachers and learners
have access to the skills, confidence, equipment
and software they need to make effective use of
technology to support English language education,
and this merits closer study. There is evidence, too
(Borg, 2022), that teacher education departments
in India were largely unprepared to move online
during the pandemic and it is thus also important to
explore teacher educators’ needs regarding online
delivery and to establish appropriate support
mechanisms. Partnerships with NGOs and the
private sector are likely to be an important part of
efforts to support the wider and more effective use
of educational technology by teachers of English
and English language teacher educators.
9. English as medium of instruction: Here, too, the
impression that emerges from this review is one of
substantially varied and insufficiently co-ordinated
practice regarding the use of English as a medium
of instruction in basic education. In the private
sector especially (see Erling at al., 2016), EMI is
often adopted for the prestige it is seen to bestow
on schools (i.e. EMI is used an indicator of quality).
This assumption is often unquestioned and
influences the choices and expectations of parents.
The development of strategies that make informed
advice available to parents and guardians regarding
the role of English in the education of primary
school children in India is thus another measure
that can be recommended here.
10. Teacher evaluation: The 2020 NEP has
stimulated the development of new professional
standards for teachers. Again, while the availability
of such standards is positive, their formulation must
be viewed as an initial and relatively unproblematic
step in reforming teacher evaluation practices
across the country. In addition to ongoing
discussions of what these generic standards mean
specifically for teachers of English, there is much
work to be done to bring about change in
established ideas about what good teachers know
and can do, about the purposes and processes of

40 Oppurtunities, challenges and future trends

 Author biographies

Simon Borg has been involved in English language

teaching and teacher education for over 30 years.
He specialises in the design, implementation and
evaluation of professional development programmes
and policies, and has published over 100 books,
chapters and research papers. As a consultant, he has
completed assignments related to English language
teacher education in over 20 countries. Details of his
work and his blog are available at http://simon–borg.
co.uk/

Amol Padwad is Professor and Director, Centre for

English Language Education, DrBR Ambedkar University
Delhi. He is also the secretary of AINET (Association of
English Teachers) and a former National President of
the English Language Teachers’ Association of India.
His career of over 35 years includes teaching, training,
ELT consultancy and organisational leadership. He
pioneered English Teachers Clubs – self-help teacher
development groups – in several rural towns of
central India. His key publications include Continuing
Professional Development: Lessons from India (with Rod
Bolitho), Teaching in Low Resource Classrooms: Voices
of Experience (with Richard Smith and Deborah Bullock)
and Research in English Language Education in Indian
Universities: A Directory.

Pranjana Kalita Nath is Assistant Professor in the

Department of English Language Teaching in Gauhati
University, Assam, India. She teaches Academic
Reading, Methodology of Language Teaching and
Practice Teaching to postgraduate students. In addition,
she delivers sessions on CPD programmes for teachers
of English. She completed a PhD in English language
teacher education from Gauhati University with financial
support from a Junior Research Fellowship received
after qualifying in a national-level test (UGC-NET). She
has also completed OPEN Alumni CoP Community Lead
Training and facilitated a TESOL Methodology MOOC.
She is an early career researcher and has published
three research articles.

Author biographies 41
 Author biographies 42
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References 47
This report provides an overview of how English
language teaching, learning and assessment are
currently situated within school-level education in
India. The report provides up-to-date contextual
information, exploring policies and practices. The
authors draw on policy documentation, research
studies and a small number of interviews and focus
groups to provide an overall picture of the current
scenario. They provide commentary on the status of
English within the curriculum, classroom practices,
how teachers are supported to develop their skills
and knowledge and the opportunities, challenges and
future trends that the authors have extrapolated from
their research.

All images © British Council

ISBN 978-1-915280-05-3

© British Council 2022 

The British Council is the United Kingdom’s international organisation for cultural relations and educational opportunities.

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