National Metallurgical Laboratory (CSIR-NML)

Jamshedpur

Internship Report

Water Splitting For Green

Hydrogen Production

SUBMITTED BY:
NAME - Nikita Raj
ROLL NO. - 213206513542
SEMESTER - 3rd
SESSION - 2021-2023
NAME OF THE UNIVERSITY - Jamshedpur Women’s University
COURSE - Masters Of Science
SPECILIZATION - Chemistry

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 Table of Contents

Sl. No. Page No.

1. Acknowledgement 4
2. Abstract 5
3. About The Organization 6
4. About The Project 7
5. Hydrogen Economy 8
6. Green Energy 9
7. Water Splitting 10
8. Types of Water Splitting 11
9. Factors Affecting Water Splitting 12
10. Mechanism of Water Splitting 13
11. Different Devices For Water Splitting 15
12. Electrochemical of Water Splitting 16-20
13. Experiment 21-25
14. Result 26
15. Inference 27-28
16. Role Of Glycerol 29
17. Conclusion 30

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 Acknowledgement

First I would like to thank Dr. Mita Tarafder, Dr. Sanghita Mridha and Mr. Animesh Jana, Research
Scientist, NML Jamshedpur, for giving me the opportunity to do an internship within the
organization.

I would also like to thanks all the people that worked along with me NML Jamshedpur with their
patience and openness they created an enjoyable working environment.

It is indeed with a great sense of pleasure and immense sense of gratitude that Iacknowledge the
help of these individuals.

I am highly indebted to Vice Chancellor Prof.(Dr.) Anjila Gupta , for the facilities providedto
accomplish this internship.

I would like to thank my Head of the Department Dr. Anamika for her constructive criticism
throughout my internship.

I am extremely great full to my department staff members and friends whohelped me in successful
completion of this internship.

Nikita Raj

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Abstract

Water splitting is a process that uses electricity to separate water molecules into hydrogen (H2) and
oxygen (O2). This process is crucial in the production of green hydrogen, a clean and renewable source
of energy that can be used as fuel for transportation, energy storage, and as a raw material for other fuels
and chemicals. The electricity required for water splitting can be generated from renewable sources such
as wind, solar, or hydropower, ensuring that the hydrogen produced is clean and sustainable.
There are two main types of electrolysis processes for water splitting: alkaline electrolysis and polymer
electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolysis. Alkaline electrolysis is well-suited for producing large
quantities of hydrogen, while PEM electrolysis is more compact and efficient, making it ideal for
applications where space is limited or high hydrogen production rates are required.
Green hydrogen production helps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and supports the growth of the
hydrogen economy. However, the cost of producing green hydrogen through electrolysis is still high and
requires further advancements in technology to become more accessible and affordable.
In conclusion, water splitting for green hydrogen production is a promising technology that is expected
to play a crucial role in the transition towards a more sustainable energy future. With its ability to
provide a clean and renewable source of energy, water splitting is an important step in reducing
greenhouse gas emissions and supporting the growth of the hydrogen economy.

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About The Organization

The National Metallurgical Laboratory (NML) is a research and development organization located in
Jamshedpur, India. It was established in the year of 1950 and is one of the premier institutions in India
for conducting research in the field of metallurgical science and technology. NML is an autonomous
organization under the Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR) in India.
The main focus of NML is to promote and enhance the development of the Indian metallurgical industry
and provide technical support to the government, industry and academia. It provides R&D services,
technology transfer and consultancy services to the industry. The laboratory has state-of-the-art facilities
and infrastructure to carry out research in various areas of metallurgical science and technology, such as
extractive metallurgy, physical metallurgy, materials science, and process metallurgy.
The NML conducts research in a number of areas, including iron and steel making, non-ferrous
metallurgy, advanced materials, process metallurgy, and energy and environment. Its research efforts are
aimed at improving the efficiency and competitiveness of the Indian metallurgical industry, as well as
developing new and innovative technologies for the industry.
The laboratory also offers training programs for students, scientists and engineers to improve their skills
and knowledge in the field of metallurgical science and technology. It also collaborates with national
and international organizations to carry out joint research projects and exchange of scientific knowledge.
Overall, the National Metallurgical Laboratory plays a crucial role in promoting the development of the
Indian metallurgical industry and advancing the field of metallurgical science and technology in India.

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About the Project

The project on water splitting for green hydrogen production aims to develop a sustainable and
environmentally friendly method for producing hydrogen. The process of water splitting involves using
electricity to separate water molecules into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). The electricity used in the
process can be generated from renewable sources such as wind, solar, or hydropower, making the
hydrogen produced a clean and renewable source of energy.
The project focuses on improving the efficiency and affordability of water splitting technology to make
it a viable alternative to traditional hydrogen production methods that rely on fossil fuels. This involves
developing new materials and systems for electrolysis, optimizing the production process, and reducing
the costs associated with producing hydrogen through water splitting.
The project also involves investigating the potential applications of green hydrogen, such as its use as a
fuel for transportation, energy storage, and as a raw material for other fuels and chemicals. This includes
exploring new technologies and systems that can be developed to support the growth of the hydrogen
economy.
The project aims to promote the use of clean and sustainable energy sources, reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, and support the development of the hydrogen economy. It is expected to play a critical role in
the transition towards a more sustainable energy future and help to mitigate the impacts of climate
change.
In conclusion, the project on water splitting for green hydrogen production is an important initiative that
brings together scientists, engineers, and industry experts to find innovative solutions for producing
clean and sustainable energy. With its focus on improving the efficiency and affordability of water
splitting technology, the project has the potential to make a significant contribution to the development
of the hydrogen economy and promote a more sustainable energy future.

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Hydrogen Economy

The hydrogen economy is a theoretical future system that envisions hydrogen as a primary source of
energy for various industries such as transportation, power generation, and heating and cooling. The
hydrogen economy is seen as a potential solution to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and dependence
on finite fossil fuel resources. The idea is to replace fossil fuels with hydrogen, which is a clean and
renewable energy carrier, to power various industries.
Hydrogen can be produced through various methods such as steam reforming of natural gas, water
electrolysis using renewable energy sources, and biological processes. The most common method of
producing hydrogen is steam reforming of natural gas, which produces CO2 as a by-product. The use of
renewable energy sources to produce hydrogen through water electrolysis can help to eliminate CO2
emissions and make the hydrogen economy more environmentally friendly.
The use of hydrogen as an energy carrier has many advantages. First, hydrogen is a clean fuel,
producing only water as a by-product when burned. Second, hydrogen is abundant and can be produced
from a variety of sources, including natural gas, water, and biomass. Third, hydrogen has a high energy
density, making it a highly efficient energy carrier.
Despite these advantages, the widespread adoption of a hydrogen economy faces several technological
and economic challenges. First, producing hydrogen is expensive, and current production methods are
not cost-effective enough to support widespread use. Second, there is currently a lack of comprehensive
infrastructure for the distribution and storage of hydrogen, which makes it difficult to transport and store
large quantities of hydrogen. Third, there is a need for safe and efficient hydrogen storage solutions, as
hydrogen is highly flammable and can be difficult to store and transport safely.
To overcome these challenges and realize the potential of a hydrogen economy, governments and
private organizations need to invest in the development of new and improved hydrogen production
technologies, hydrogen storage solutions, and distribution infrastructure. Additionally, a coordinated and
comprehensive policy framework is needed to promote the development and adoption of hydrogen
technologies, and to provide incentives for businesses and consumers to switch to hydrogen-based
energy systems.
In conclusion, the hydrogen economy has the potential to play a major role in the transition to a clean
energy future. However, realizing this potential requires significant investments in technology
development, infrastructure, and policy. The widespread adoption of hydrogen as an energy carrier will
require the collaboration of government, private organizations, and the scientific community. If these
challenges can be overcome, the hydrogen economy has the potential to significantly reduce greenhouse
gas emissions and dependence on finite fossil fuel resources, helping to create a cleaner and more
sustainable energy future.

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Production and Application of green hydrogen

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Green Energy

Green energy, also known as renewable energy, refers to energy sources that are replenished naturally
and do not produce harmful emissions. Unlike traditional energy sources such as coal, oil, and natural
gas, green energy sources such as wind, solar, and hydropower, do not emit greenhouse gases, and
therefore do not contribute to climate change. Green energy sources are considered to be
environmentally friendly, sustainable, and offer a long-term solution to the global energy crisis.
Wind energy is produced by converting the kinetic energy of wind into electrical energy using wind
turbines. Wind turbines work by harnessing the kinetic energy of the wind and converting it into
mechanical energy, which is then transformed into electrical energy. Wind energy is considered to be
one of the most efficient and cost-effective forms of green energy. The wind energy sector has
experienced tremendous growth in recent years and is projected to continue to grow in the coming years.
Solar energy is another popular form of green energy that is produced by harnessing the energy of the
sun. Solar panels work by converting sunlight into electrical energy using photovoltaic cells. Solar
energy is an attractive form of green energy because it is abundant, clean, and does not produce harmful
emissions. In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the adoption of solar energy, and it is
expected to continue to grow in the coming years.
Hydropower is produced by converting the kinetic energy of falling water into electrical energy using
hydro turbines. Hydropower is considered to be one of the most reliable and efficient forms of green
energy, and it has been used for centuries to produce electricity.
Biomass energy is produced by converting organic matter, such as crops and waste, into energy.
Biomass energy can be produced through a variety of processes, including combustion, anaerobic
digestion, and gasification. Biomass energy is considered to be a form of green energy because it is
produced from renewable resources and does not produce harmful emissions. Despite its potential,
biomass energy is not as widely used as wind, solar, and hydropower, largely due to the fact that it
requires large amounts of land and resources to produce.
Green energy has many advantages over traditional energy sources. First, green energy sources are
renewable, meaning that they can be replenished naturally and are not subject to depletion like fossil
fuels. Second, green energy sources do not produce harmful emissions, meaning that they do not
contribute to climate change. Third, green energy sources are more sustainable and offer a long-term
solution to the global energy crisis.
In conclusion, green energy offers a promising solution to the global energy crisis and is a crucial part of
the transition to a clean energy future. The widespread adoption of green energy sources will require
significant investments in infrastructure, technology, and policy, and the collaboration of government,
private organizations, and the scientific community.

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Water Splitting

Water splitting refers to the process of converting water into hydrogen and oxygen, through the
application of energy. This reaction can be represented by the equation: 2H2O -> 2H2 + O2.
The hydrogen produced through water splitting can be used as a source of clean energy, as it burns with
little to no emissions. This makes it a promising alternative to traditional fossil fuels, which are non-
renewable and emit harmful pollutants when burned. Additionally, hydrogen can also be used as a fuel
in fuel cells, where it combines with oxygen to produce electricity and water, with only water as a by
product.
Water splitting is an important area of research, as it holds the potential to provide a sustainable source
of clean energy. However, the process is currently limited by several challenges, including the high cost
of materials, low efficiency, and the difficulty of producing hydrogen at scale. Additionally, the
production of hydrogen through water splitting requires large amounts of energy, which can make the
process energy-intensive.
In order to overcome these challenges, research is ongoing to develop new technologies and materials
that can make water splitting more efficient and cost-effective. For example, the development of more
efficient catalysts and photoelectrodes can improve the efficiency of the water splitting process, while
the use of sustainable energy sources, such as wind and solar power, can reduce its carbon footprint.
Overall, water splitting has the potential to be a major source of clean energy, and as research continues
to advance, it is likely that the process will become more efficient and cost-effective. With increased
investment in this field, it is possible that water splitting could play a major role in helping to address the
global energy challenge and reduce our dependence on fossil fuels.

Water splitting in electrolysis

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Types of Water Splitting

1. Alkaline Water Electrolysis: This is the most common method of water splitting and involves
using an alkaline solution, such as sodium hydroxide, to carry the electric current. The positive
electrode, or cathode, attracts hydrogen ions, which combine to form hydrogen gas, while the
negative electrode, or anode, attracts oxygen ions, which combine to form oxygen gas.

2. Acidic Water Electrolysis: This type of water splitting involves using an acidic solution, such as
sulfuric acid, to carry the electric current. The reaction mechanisms are similar to those in
alkaline water electrolysis, with hydrogen ions attracted to the cathode and oxygen ions attracted
to the anode.

Additionally, there are also two subtypes of water splitting based on the source of energy used:
• Galvanic Water Splitting: This type of water splitting involves the use of a galvanic cell, where
the reaction is powered by a difference in potential between two electrodes. This method is
typically not efficient and is used mostly in laboratory settings.

• Electrolytic Water Splitting: This type of water splitting involves the use of an external power
source, such as a battery or solar cell, to drive the reaction. This method is more efficient and is
commonly used in commercial water splitting systems.
Overall, water splitting has the potential to be a major source of clean energy, and research is ongoing to
develop new and more efficient methods for splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen.

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Factors Affecting Water Splitting

There are several factors that can affect the efficiency and effectiveness of water splitting, including:

• Electrode Material: The choice of electrode material can have a significant impact on the
efficiency of water splitting. Materials that are highly conductive and have a low overpotential,
or the minimum voltage required to drive the reaction, are preferred. Currently, platinum and
iridium are commonly used as catalysts due to their high conductivity and low overpotential,
however, research is ongoing to find alternative materials that are more affordable and abundant.

• Electrolyte: The type of electrolyte used can also affect the efficiency of water splitting. Alkaline
electrolytes, such as sodium hydroxide, are typically preferred over acidic electrolytes, such as
sulfuric acid, as they have a higher pH, which can reduce the overpotential required to drive the
reaction.

• Current Density: The current density, or the amount of current passed through the electrolyte per
unit area of electrode surface, can also impact the efficiency of water splitting. High current
densities can increase the reaction rate, however, they can also cause the electrodes to degrade
more quickly.

• Temperature: The temperature of the electrolyte can also affect the efficiency of water splitting.
Higher temperatures can increase the reaction rate, however, they can also cause the electrodes to
degrade more quickly. Additionally, higher temperatures can also increase the solubility of gas in
the electrolyte, which can make it more difficult to separate the hydrogen and oxygen gases.

• Impurities: The presence of impurities in the electrolyte, such as salts and minerals, can affect
the efficiency of water splitting by reducing the conductivity of the electrolyte and increasing the
overpotential required to drive the reaction.

• Overall, these factors must be carefully considered when designing and operating a water
splitting system in order to achieve maximum efficiency and effectiveness. Research is ongoing
to optimize the various components of water splitting systems and to develop new technologies
that can improve their performance.

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Mechanism Of Water Splitting

Water splitting is the process of breaking down water molecules (H2O) into their constituent elements,
hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). This process is typically accomplished through electrolysis, where an
electric current is passed through an electrolyte solution. The electrolyte acts as a conductor, allowing
ions to flow through it, and is typically an aqueous solution of an alkali or an acid.

The mechanism of water splitting can be described as follows:

• Proton Transfer: At the cathode, hydrogen ions (H+) are attracted to the electrode and combine
with electrons (e-) to form hydrogen gas (H2). This process is known as proton reduction.

• Oxygen Evolution: At the anode, oxygen ions (O2-) are attracted to the electrode and combine
with electrons to form oxygen gas (O2). This process is known as oxygen evolution.

• Electron Transfer: The electrons that are used in the proton reduction and oxygen evolution
reactions are supplied by the external power source, such as a battery or solar cell. The electrons
flow through the electrolyte, passing from the cathode to the anode, and providing the energy
needed to drive the reaction.

• Catalyst: A catalyst, such as platinum or iridium, is often used to increase the reaction rate and
reduce the overpotential, or the minimum voltage required to drive the reaction. The catalyst acts
as a site for the reaction to occur, allowing the hydrogen and oxygen to form more easily.

In summary, water splitting involves the transfer of protons, electrons, and oxygen ions to form
hydrogen and oxygen gas through an electrolysis process powered by an external power source. The
efficiency and effectiveness of water splitting can be affected by various factors, such as the choice of
electrode material, the type of electrolyte used, and the presence of impurities.

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 Uses of hydrogen gas

Different types of devices for water splitting

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Different Devices for Water Splitting

There are several types of devices that can be used for water splitting, including:
• Electrolyser: This is the most common type of device used for water splitting and typically
involves a series of electrodes, a membrane, and an electrolyte. The electrodes are used to
transfer electrons and ions, and the membrane is used to separate the hydrogen and oxygen
gases. Electrolysers can range from small, benchtop systems for laboratory use to large,
industrial-scale systems for hydrogen production.

• Photocatalytic Cell: This type of device uses light energy, typically from the sun, to drive the
water splitting reaction. A semiconductor material, such as titanium dioxide, is used as a catalyst
and is coated on a substrate. The light energy is absorbed by the semiconductor, creating
electrons and holes, which then drive the water splitting reaction.

• Thermochemical Cycle: This type of device uses heat energy to drive the water splitting reaction.
The heat energy is used to decompose a metal oxide, such as iron oxide, into metal and oxygen.
The metal then reacts with water to form hydrogen and the oxygen is released. The process is
then repeated in a closed cycle.

• Microbial Electrolysis Cell: This type of device uses microorganisms, such as bacteria, to
produce electricity through cellular respiration. The electricity is then used to drive the water
splitting reaction.

Overall, each of these devices has its own advantages and disadvantages and the choice of device will
depend on the specific application and the desired outcome. Research is ongoing to develop new and
more efficient devices for water splitting that can produce hydrogen and oxygen in a sustainable and
cost-effective manner.

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Electrochemical Measurements of water Splitting

Electrochemical measurement of water splitting refers to the process of measuring the potential
difference (voltage) and current involved in the electrolysis of water, which involves the conversion of
water into hydrogen and oxygen. The process of water splitting is an important step in the development
of renewable energy technologies, as it provides a way to produce hydrogen fuel from water, which can
be used as a clean source of energy.
In electrochemical measurements of water splitting, electrodes are immersed in an electrolyte solution,
and a potential is applied across the electrodes to initiate the electrolysis reaction. The voltage and
current involved in the reaction are then measured using an electrochemical measurement device, such
as a potentiostat or a galvanostat.
The measurement of the voltage and current can provide information on the efficiency of the water
splitting reaction, as well as the kinetics of the reaction. This information is useful in the development of
new materials and techniques for water splitting, as well as in the optimization of existing processes.
1L beaker was taken using measuring cylinder 600 ml water was taken in it. Then we have to add 32ml
concentrate sulphuric acid to 600ml water.

Electrolysis

Electrolysis of water is a chemical process that uses electrical energy to separate water into its two
constituent elements: hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). The process is performed by immersing two
electrodes in a solution of water and passing an electric current through the electrodes. The electrical
current acts as a catalyst to trigger a reaction that breaks down the water into its elemental components.
The process of electrolysis of water begins with the introduction of a direct current (DC) electrical
source into the water. The electrical source is connected to two electrodes, which are typically made of
graphite or platinum, and placed in the water. One electrode acts as the anode, while the other acts as the
cathode.
When the electrical current is passed through the water, the anode begins to oxidize the water molecules,
releasing oxygen gas. The oxygen gas then rises to the surface of the water and is collected. The
cathode, on the other hand, reduces the hydrogen ions (protons) in the water, converting them into
hydrogen gas. The hydrogen gas also rises to the surface of the water and is collected.

In order for the electrolysis of water to occur, the electrical source must be of sufficient voltage and
current to overcome the activation energy required for the reaction. The activation energy is a measure

16
of the energy required to trigger the reaction and is dependent on the type of electrodes used and the pH
of the water.
The amount of hydrogen and oxygen produced during the electrolysis of water depends on the amount
of electrical energy supplied. The amount of hydrogen and oxygen produced is directly proportional to
the amount of electrical energy used. The production of hydrogen and oxygen can be increased by
increasing the voltage and current of the electrical source.
Electrolysis of water has a number of applications, including the production of hydrogen fuel, the
generation of hydrogen for use in fuel cells, and the production of oxygen for medical use or for use in
diving. In addition, electrolysis of water can be used to purify water, by removing impurities and
contaminants from the water.
In conclusion, the electrolysis of water is a useful and versatile process that has a range of applications
in various industries. The process is simple and effective, and can be performed using a variety of
electrical sources. Whether it is being used to generate hydrogen fuel, purify water, or produce oxygen,
the electrolysis of water is an important and valuable process that continues to be used and developed in
many different fields.

Selection Of Electrodes
The most commonly used electrodes in water splitting are made of noble metals, such as platinum or
iridium, due to their high catalytic activity and stability. These metals have high overpotentials, meaning
they require a relatively small voltage to initiate the reaction, which reduces energy consumption and
makes the process more efficient.
However, due to the high cost of these metals, researchers have been investigating alternative materials,
such as nickel, iron, and cobalt, as well as alloys and composites, that have similar catalytic properties
and are more cost-effective. Additionally, recent advances in nanotechnology have led to the
development of nanostructured catalysts, which have increased surface area and higher catalytic activity,
leading to improved efficiency and lower costs.
In summary, the choice of electrodes for water splitting depends on the specific application and the
desired outcome, such as efficiency, cost, and durability. While noble metals have been the standard for
many years, new materials and advances in technology are providing promising alternatives that may
become more widely used in the future.
The potential range in water splitting refers to the range of voltage required to initiate and maintain the
electrolysis reaction. The potential range is a measure of the energy needed to convert water into
hydrogen and oxygen and is a key factor in determining the efficiency of the process.
In water splitting, two half-cell reactions occur at the electrodes: one at the anode, where water is
oxidized, and one at the cathode, where hydrogen ions are reduced. The overall reaction is exothermic,
meaning that it releases energy, and is spontaneous at a certain voltage. This voltage is known as the
thermodynamic voltage, and is dependent on the temperature, pressure, and pH of the water.

17
The potential range for water splitting is influenced by several factors, including the type of electrodes
used, the electrolyte used, and the pH of the water. The choice of electrodes is critical, as it determines
the overpotential of the reaction, which is the difference between the thermodynamic voltage and the
actual voltage required to initiate the reaction. The overpotential is a measure of the energy required to
overcome the activation energy of the reaction and is affected by the activity and stability of the
electrodes.
Noble metals, such as platinum and iridium, are commonly used as electrodes due to their high catalytic
activity and stability. These metals have low overpotentials, meaning that they require a relatively small
voltage to initiate the reaction, making the process more efficient. However, due to their high cost,
alternative materials, such as nickel, iron, and cobalt, as well as alloys and composites, are being
researched and developed as more cost-effective options.
The electrolyte used in water splitting also affects the potential range. Aqueous solutions, such as
sodium hydroxide (NaOH), are commonly used as electrolytes due to their low cost and easy
availability. However, the pH of the electrolyte must be carefully controlled to ensure that the
overpotential remains within the desired range. A pH range of approximately 13-14 is typically used in
water splitting, as this allows for the highest efficiency while still maintaining stability.
In summary, the potential range in water splitting is a critical factor in determining the efficiency of the
process. The choice of electrodes and electrolyte, as well as the pH of the water, all have an impact on
the potential range and must be carefully considered to ensure the highest efficiency and cost-
effectiveness. Advances in technology, such as nanostructured catalysts and alternative materials, are
continuing to drive progress in water splitting, and new breakthroughs in this field are expected to lead
to even more efficient and cost-effective processes in the future.

Onset potential

The onset potential in water splitting refers to the minimum voltage required to initiate the electrolysis
reaction, which is the process of splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen. This voltage is a measure of
the energy required to overcome the activation energy of the reaction and is an important factor in
determining the efficiency of the process.
The onset potential is dependent on several factors, including the type of electrodes used, the electrolyte
used, and the pH of the water. The choice of electrodes is critical, as it determines the overpotential of
the reaction, which is the difference between the thermodynamic voltage and the actual voltage required
to initiate the reaction. The overpotential is a measure of the energy required to overcome the activation
energy of the reaction and is affected by the activity and stability of the electrodes.
Noble metals, such as platinum and iridium, are commonly used as electrodes due to their high catalytic
activity and stability. These metals have low overpotentials, meaning that they require a relatively small
voltage to initiate the reaction, making the process more efficient. However, due to their high cost,

18
alternative materials, such as nickel, iron, and cobalt, as well as alloys and composites, are being
researched and developed as more cost-effective options.
The electrolyte used in water splitting also affects the onset potential. Aqueous solutions, such as
sodium hydroxide (NaOH), are commonly used as electrolytes due to their low cost and easy
availability. However, the pH of the electrolyte must be carefully controlled to ensure that the
overpotential remains within the desired range. A pH range of approximately 13-14 is typically used in
water splitting, as this allows for the highest efficiency while still maintaining stability.
In conclusion, the onset potential in water splitting is a critical factor in determining the efficiency of the
process. Advances in technology, such as the development of alternative materials and nanostructured
catalysts, are driving progress in this field and leading to more efficient and cost-effective processes.
The choice of electrodes and electrolyte, as well as the pH of the water, all play a role in determining the
onset potential and must be carefully considered to ensure the highest efficiency and cost-effectiveness.

Potential Range of Water Splitting

chemical equation involving water splitting

The overall chemical equation for water splitting is:
2H2O (liquid water) -> O2 (gaseous oxygen) + 4H+ (hydrogen ions) + 4e- (electrons)
In water splitting, water is oxidized at the anode, releasing oxygen gas and electrons, while hydrogen
ions are reduced at the cathode to form hydrogen gas. This reaction occurs in two half-cell reactions:

At the anode:
O2- (hydroxide ion) + 2H+ + 2e- -> O2 (gaseous oxygen) + 2H2O
At the cathode:
2H+ + 2e- -> H2 (gaseous hydrogen)

The overall reaction is exothermic, meaning that it releases energy, and is spontaneous at a certain
voltage, known as the thermodynamic voltage. This voltage is dependent on the temperature, pressure,
and pH of the water. The reaction is facilitated by the presence of a catalyst, such as a noble metal, at the
electrodes to reduce the overpotential, which is the difference between the thermodynamic voltage and
the actual voltage required to initiate the reaction.

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Solution Required for electrolysis - The preparation of a solution for water splitting involves several
key steps to ensure the efficiency and stability of the reaction. Here is a general outline of the solution
preparation process:
Choice of electrolyte: The choice of electrolyte is critical in water splitting, as it affects the conductivity
and pH of the solution, both of which are important factors in determining the efficiency of the reaction.
Aqueous solutions, such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH), are commonly
used due to their low cost and easy availability.
Electrolyte concentration: The concentration of the electrolyte affects the conductivity of the solution,
and too high or too low a concentration can lead to decreased efficiency or stability. The optimal
concentration of the electrolyte depends on the type of electrolyte used, as well as the specific conditions
of the reaction.
pH control: The pH of the solution must be carefully controlled, as it affects the overpotential of the
reaction. A pH range of approximately 13-14 is typically used in water splitting, as this allows for the
highest efficiency while still maintaining stability.
Deaeration: The presence of dissolved oxygen in the solution can affect the efficiency of the reaction,
and it is important to deaerate the solution to remove any dissolved oxygen. This can be done by
bubbling an inert gas, such as nitrogen or argon, through the solution for a specified period of time.
Electrode preparation: The electrodes must be cleaned and prepared prior to use in water splitting. This
involves cleaning the electrodes with a solvent or acid to remove any contaminants, followed by
polishing the surface to ensure good contact with the electrolyte.
Assembly of the cell: The electrodes and electrolyte are then assembled into a cell, which can be a
simple two-electrode setup or a more complex three-electrode setup, depending on the specific
requirements of the reaction.
In conclusion, the preparation of a solution for water splitting involves careful consideration of the
choice of electrolyte, electrolyte concentration, pH control, deaeration, electrode preparation, and
assembly of the cell to ensure the efficiency and stability of the reaction. Proper solution preparation is
critical in achieving high performance and cost-effectiveness in water splitting processes.

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EXPERIMENT

Aim: - Evolution of hydrogen gas through photochemical electrolysis

Chemical Required: - sulphuric acid , distilled water , nickel plate , copper plate

Procedure: -
• 1L beaker is taken and using measuring cylinder 600ml of distilled water is measured and mixed
with 32 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid. In this we prepare the electrolyte for electrolysis.
• The plates are placed inside the solution.
• Voltmeter and Ammeter is connected to measure the current density and voltage the solution.
• Measure linear sweep voltametric step size which 0.01V.
• Any specific changes in the solution must be noted.
• Voltage must be increased gradually and corresponding current changes must be noted for graph
representation.
• Any specific changes like colour of solution getting changed, colour plates getting changed
many more such changes should be noted.
• Both Hydrogen and Oxygen gas is evolved from their specific electrodes.
• Maximum voltage can be 10V.
• Current density must be accurately observed.
• This electrolysis can be characterised as acidic electrolysis because electrolyte used is acid.
• Over potential should be 0.07V.
• Ideal Potential is 1.23V which can only achieved when good catalyst is used for water splitting.

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Observation Table

Voltage (V) Current Density (A cm-2)

0.01-1.55 0.00

2.05-2.56 0.12
2.60-3.00 0.24
3.09-3.50 0.35
3.56-4.00 0.54
4.10-4.53 0.66
4.63-5.02 1.00
5.09-5.59 1.20
6.01-6.52 1.43
6.59-6.99 1.69
7.05-7.59 1.83
7.60-7.99 2.06
8.05-8.56 2.46
8.59-8.96 2.80
9.00-9.50 3.03
9.52-10.00 3.23

10.14 3.45

22
Graph

POTENTIAL

23
Calculation

The onset potential and over potential are two critical parameters in electrochemistry that determine the
performance of electrochemical systems such as batteries, fuel cells, and electrochemical sensors. The
onset potential refers to the minimum potential required to initiate electrochemical reactions at the
electrodes, while the over potential represents the difference between the onset potential and the actual
operating potential. Both of these parameters are dependent on the current density, which is defined as
the flow of electric charge per unit area.

For example, consider two current densities, 10 mA cm-2 and 100 mA cm-2. The onset potential is a
function of the nature of the electrodes, the electrolyte, and the reaction kinetics. At a low current
density of 10 mA cm-2, the onset potential will be lower compared to a high current density of 100 mA
cm-2. This is because at higher current densities, the rate of the reaction increases, leading to an increase
in the activation energy required to initiate the reaction. This results in a higher onset potential.

The over potential, on the other hand, depends on the impedance of the system and the reaction kinetics.
The impedance of the system includes the resistance of the electrodes, the electrolyte, and the diffusion
of the reactants and products. At low current densities, the over potential is low due to the low resistance
and low diffusion rate of the reactants and products. On the other hand, at high current densities, the
over potential increases due to the high resistance and high diffusion rate of the reactants and products.

In conclusion, the onset potential and over potential are two important parameters in electrochemistry
that determine the performance of electrochemical systems. The onset potential increases with
increasing current density, while the over potential depends on the impedance of the system and the
reaction kinetics. Understanding these parameters is crucial for the design and optimization of
electrochemical systems.
Over potential = potential – 1.23
= 2.26 – 1.23 = 1.03V

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Important Observations

➢ In copper plate gas starts releasing at 0.77V and current density 0.02 A. Bubbles are small in
size.
➢ Bubbles at nickel plate starts releasing at 02.66V and 0.114 A.
➢ Vapours are observed at top layer of the solution.
➢ Solution start turning unclear.
➢ As we increase the voltage the release of gases becomes fast in the for of bubble formation.
➢ Solution starts turning slightly white due to gas evolution.
➢ No change of colour in the solution is observed.
➢ Both plates remains same after the completion of the reaction.
➢ Solution turns normal as the reaction is completed.

Acidic electrolysis

25
Result

The result of water splitting in electrolysis is the formation of hydrogen and oxygen gases, which have
important applications in energy generation, industrial processes, and medical applications.
The use of catalysts in water splitting has several benefits, including increased efficiency, increased
stability, and improved selectivity. Catalysts also enable the use of less expensive materials, such as
aluminium or stainless steel, as the electrodes.
The role of catalysts in water splitting is to increase the efficiency and rate of hydrogen and oxygen
production. The use of catalysts also provides several benefits, including increased efficiency, stability,
and selectivity, and enables the use of less expensive materials as electrodes.

After experiment plates

26
Inference

• New catalyst should be used because at low voltage hydrogen production is cost effective.
• Hydrogen gas is a versatile energy carrier with many important uses in various industries. Some
of the key applications of hydrogen gas are:
• Fuel Cells: Hydrogen gas can be used as a fuel in fuel cells to generate electricity. In a fuel cell,
hydrogen gas reacts with oxygen to produce electricity, heat, and water. Fuel cells are clean,
efficient, and environmentally friendly, making them an attractive alternative to traditional fossil
fuel-based power generation systems.
• Refineries: Hydrogen gas is used in oil refineries to remove impurities such as sulphur and
nitrogen from gasoline, diesel, and other fuels. This process is known as hydrotreating and
results in the production of cleaner and more environmentally friendly fuels.
• Chemical Production: Hydrogen gas is a key component in the production of chemicals such as
ammonia, methanol, and hydrogen peroxide. In these processes, hydrogen gas reacts with other
chemicals to form new compounds that have important applications in the chemical industry.
• Space Exploration: Hydrogen gas is used as a fuel in rocket propulsion systems due to its high
energy content and low weight. This makes it an ideal fuel for use in space exploration and
satellite launch vehicles.
• Metal Processing: Hydrogen gas is used in the production of metals such as aluminum, where it
reacts with metal oxides to produce pure metal. This process is known as hydrogen reduction and
results in the production of high-quality metals for various industrial applications.
• Making hydrogen gas economical is essential to its widespread adoption as a clean and
renewable energy source. There are several ways to make hydrogen gas more affordable:
• Improved Production Methods: The development of more efficient and cost-effective methods of
hydrogen production, such as renewable-energy-based electrolysis and the use of biomass as a
feedstock, will reduce the cost of hydrogen production.
• Widespread Adoption: As hydrogen becomes more widely used, economies of scale will be
achieved, reducing the cost of production and distribution.
• Tax Incentives: Governments can provide tax incentives to encourage the development and use
of hydrogen technology, such as tax credits for the purchase of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and
subsidies for hydrogen production facilities.
• Research and Development: Ongoing research and development into hydrogen technology, such
as the development of new catalysts and the optimization of hydrogen storage systems, will
result in cost savings and efficiency improvements.

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• Infrastructure Development: The development of a hydrogen infrastructure, including hydrogen
production facilities, pipelines, and filling stations, will increase the accessibility and
convenience of hydrogen, reducing the cost for consumers.
• In summary, making hydrogen gas economical requires a combination of improved production
methods, widespread adoption, tax incentives, research and development, and infrastructure
development. By addressing these areas, hydrogen gas can become a cost-effective and
sustainable energy source that provides a cleaner and greener alternative to traditional fossil
fuels.

Electrolysis in the presence of sunlight

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Role of Glycerol in water splitting

Glycerol is a by-product of the biodiesel production process and has been found to have potential as a
feedstock for hydrogen production through water splitting. This process involves the electrolysis of
water to produce hydrogen gas and oxygen gas.
In water splitting, glycerol can be used as an additive to improve the efficiency of the electrolysis
reaction. The addition of glycerol has been found to reduce the overpotential required for the reaction to
occur, thus improving the energy efficiency of the process. This is due to the ability of glycerol to act as
a proton conductor and to increase the solubility of hydrogen gas in the electrolyte solution, leading to a
more efficient hydrogen production process.
In addition, glycerol can also improve the stability of the electrolysis process. The addition of glycerol to
the electrolyte solution has been found to reduce the formation of side reactions that can lead to the
degradation of the electrodes and the reduction in the efficiency of the process.
Furthermore, glycerol can also be used as a carbon source for the production of hydrogen in microbial
electrolysis cells (MECs). In MECs, microorganisms such as bacteria or algae are used to produce
hydrogen gas through the oxidation of organic compounds, such as glycerol. This process has been
found to be more efficient and sustainable than traditional water splitting, as it utilizes renewable and
waste-based feedstocks.
In conclusion, glycerol has the potential to play a significant role in water splitting by improving the
efficiency, stability, and sustainability of the process. Its use as a feedstock for hydrogen production can
help to address the increasing demand for clean and renewable energy sources, making it an important
component of the hydrogen economy.

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 Conclusion

In conclusion, water splitting is an important process for producing green hydrogen, which is a clean and
renewable energy source. This process involves separating water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen
using energy, and it is considered "green" because it does not emit greenhouse gases or other pollutants
during production or use. Green hydrogen has the potential to play a significant role in reducing our
dependence on fossil fuels and mitigating the impacts of climate change. The technology is still in the
early stages of development, but it holds great promise for a cleaner and more sustainable energy future.

One of the challenges of water splitting is that it requires a significant amount of energy to separate the
hydrogen and oxygen molecules. However, this energy can be supplied by renewable energy sources
such as wind or solar, making it a more environmentally friendly option compared to traditional
hydrogen production methods. In addition, green hydrogen can be stored and transported more easily
than other forms of renewable energy, making it a more flexible option for meeting our energy needs.

Overall, water splitting for green hydrogen production is a promising technology that has the potential to
play a significant role in the transition to a clean and sustainable energy future. As research and
development in this field continues, we can expect to see improvements in the efficiency and
affordability of green hydrogen production, further increasing its potential as a key component of a
clean energy mix.

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