Table of Contents

LO1) Terminology used in construction technology 4

Differences between Residential, Commercial and Industrial buildings 4
Residential Buildings 4
Commercial Buildings 5
Industrial Buildings 6
Residential Buildings 7
Commercial Buildings 7
Industrial Buildings 7
Functional characteristics and design selection criteria are informed by proposed building use 10
Strength and Stability 11
Environment Friendly 11
Proper Lighting 11
Safety and Security 11
Weather Resistant 11
Fire Resistant 11
Heat Resistant/Insulation 11
Airy and Light 11
Sound Resistance 12
Sustainability in Building’s projects 12
Ways to Promote Sustainability in Building Projects 12
Using Sustainable Building Material 12
Energy Efficient Building Designs 13
Using Sustainable Building Methods 13
Selecting Renewable Energy Resources 13
Building Waste Management 13
Using Prefabricated materials 13
Setting Sustainability Standards on Site 14
Discourage the use of non-Sustainable Materials 14
LO2) Different techniques used to construct a range of substructures and superstructures 14
Pre-design studies and information collected for a given site 14
Site analysis 14
Land surveys 15
Soil investigation 15
Information collected for a construction site: 16
Functional characteristics and design criteria for primary and secondary elements of a building
substructure and superstructure 16
Techniques required to construct superstructures and substructures 16

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 Superstructure and substructure 16
Design selection criteria of superstructures and substructures: 17
Superstructure
Techniques to construct superstructures and their functions 17
Elements of superstructure: 17
Primary elements of Superstructure 17
Secondary elements of Superstructure 18
Design selection criteria of superstructures 18
Substructures 18
Design selection criteria of substructures 18
Conditions impact on design of foundation 18
Footing depth and spacing 19
Displaced soil effects 19
Corrosion protection 19
Water table fluctuations 19
Substructures in in soil and silt deposits 19
Identifying superstructure and substructure 19
LO3) Different Types of Civil Engineering Technologies Used in Support of Buildings 20
Techniques used for remediating the site prior to construction commencing 20
Containment 21
Pump-and-Treat 21
Soil Vapour Extraction 21
Solidification/Stabilization 22
Soil Washing 22
Types of substructure works carried out by civil engineers 22
Comparison of Different Types of Structural Frames 23
Primary elements of superstructure 23
Secondary elements of superstructure 23
LO4) Supply and Distribution of Range Of Building Services and their Accommodation within the
Building 24
Supply Arrangement for Primary Services 25
Classification of primary building services 25
Distribution Arrangement for Primary Services: 28
Water Supply system 28
Cold water storage and distribution 28
Hot water storage and distribution 29
Electrical supply system 30
Gas Supply system 31
Elements Of Superstructure Used To Facilitate Primary Services: 31

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 Frame 31
Upper floors 31
Roof 31
Stairs and ramps 32
External walls 32
Bibliography 32

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LO1) Terminology used in construction technology

Differences between Residential, Commercial and Industrial

buildings
The figures below indicate the residential, commercial and industrial buildings

Residential Buildings
These are the buildings which provide accommodation or housing facilities to the individuals or
families. Mostly residential buildings offer dinning facility too. There are different type of residential
buildings like single family houses, apartments, dormitories and so on. Figure below show some of
the residential buildings

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Commercial Buildings
Commercial buildings are the buildings structured for corporate or business purposes. The business
may be a service or product. Cafes, restaurants, showrooms, hospitals are some of the commercial
buildings. Some of the commercial buildings are displayed in images below

5
Industrial Buildings
Industrial buildings are designed and structured to serve the industry. The architecture of some of
the industrial buildings is shown below

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 Residential Buildings Commercial Buildings Industrial Buildings

1 The residential buildings are The commercial buildings The industrial buildings are
designed and constructed for are the buildings designed specially designed large
offering living, residing and for commercial purposes structures to incorporate
accommodation facilities to offering places for business large machinery setups,
the individuals. These are or corporate activities like offices and residential areas.
the buildings where families warehouses, showrooms,
These are the specially
or individuals can live, eat, retail outlets, educational
designed large structures
sleep and enjoy private life. institutes, hospitals. These
designed according to the
buildings are reserved for
requirement of the industry
commerce or commercial
like power industry or
activities.
cement industry. The
buildings comprises of office
space, warehouses, working
field areas, machinery
operation rooms, storage
rooms, controlling centres
and residential colonial
facilities.

2 The residential buildings are Commercial buildings are As the industrial building is a
meant to provide shelter or solely designed for business combination of many small
accommodation to the or corporate so they may or large buildings
individuals or groups so they necessarily not have a encompassing offices,
must have the facility of kitchen or washroom. If the residential areas and
kitchen for cooking, building is large like a colonies so the facility of
washrooms, sleeping rooms shopping mall or hospital the washroom and kitchen is
and living rooms. rest rooms are must. widely available with proper
safety measures. Kitchen is
not constructed near the
machinery operating areas
or control rooms.

3 Residential buildings include Commercial buildings Industrial buildings are also

include commercial buildings at a
Flats, townhouses, Studio
larger scale. The industry is
apartments, single family Offices, educational
established mostly at
houses, duplex, triplex, Institutes, formal training
remote areas so it is
bungalows, cottages, institutes, hospitals, services
necessary to offer all the
condominiums and housing providing facilities, shops,
residential and commercial
cooperatives showrooms, retail outlets,
facilities inside an industrial
warehouses, storage
setup. So an industrial
centres, hostels, restaurants,
building will be a
hotel building, banks,
combination of residential
consultancy centres or other
buildings, offices and
corporate offices
machinery storing building.
Important part of the
industrial building is
warehouse and machines
operating area where stuff
is stored and manufactured

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 respectively

4 The residential buildings The commercial buildings The size of industrial

must own sleeping rooms, are designed and building depends upon the
bathrooms and kitchens. constructed according to the size and nature of the
These structures are type of the business and the industry. Large industries
designed according to the business requirements. If it’s like power industries, Oil
requirement of the family a corporate business and gas industries, fertilizers
which have some certain building, it must own a industries or cement
general requirements. visitors area, executive industries utilizes large
employee rooms, meeting machines like motors and
rooms and restrooms. If it’s generators. Each machine
a retail store it must have a can be size of a large room
display area and storage or compartment so a large
area. So residential building building is required to
structure is totally business’s accommodate such large
need based. machine. Each machine has
multiple protection systems
associated with it so a large
space is demanded. With
such large machinery there
is need of large warehouses
to store spare parts and
consumables. There is a
large team to operate such
machines so large number
of supervisory rooms, rest
rooms are also required.
Good industries provide
accommodation to their
employees within the
industrial areas so
residential arrangements
are also done within the
industrial buildings.

5 Residential buildings can be The commercial setups or Industrial buildings are large
small or large designed for building deals with large setups with expensive
one to multiple families. In number of individuals at a machinery inside so safety
most cases such building time so safety concern is measurements are also
don’t require any extra kept in mind while designing taken at large scale. Fire
safety requirement like fire residential building. detection and prevention
exits or firefighting systems. Emergency exits and fire system is usually installed in
Such safety measures can be exits are added to their these building. Fire alarm
added to building design on designs. In addition to this system is active in the
the request of the building fire alarm system, fire machine operating area to
owner. extinguishers and extra evacuate the area in case of
lighting facilities are also emergency. Health and
available at these buildings. safety monitoring teams are
roaming to avoid any
unpleasant incident.

6 Camera surveillance (CCTV The building codes for CCTV camera monitoring is
cameras) are installed by the commercial buildings utilize in the industrial

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 residential building owners suggest to utilize camera building for the monitoring
for the security of their surveillance for the safety and supervision of the
building, property and and security of the building machines and the staff
belongings and the individuals visiting members working with the
the offices or the buildings. machines. Industrial
In addition to security the machinery is very critical
commercial buildings must and required to be
have a special provision for monitored carefully. For the
handicapped or special abled monitoring of different
persons. spaces the cameras are
employed in industrial
buildings. There are also
spaces where humans can’t
enter because of the
presence of toxic gases and
chemicals. Such spaces are
also monitored with the
help of CCTV cameras. The
cameras surveillance is also
employed for the security of
the industrial building.

7 The cost of construction of The cost of construction of a Industrial buildings require a

single unit of a residential commercial building great budget and schedule
building is comparatively low depends upon the size of the plan. Budget is approved
as compared to commercial. business. For a large then contracts and sub
The time required to business the cost will be high contracts are awarded to
construct a single unit is as a large set of permit, different companies each of
relatively less. Not a lot of codes and regulations will be the work division. There will
resources are invested on required to follow. A proper be a separate contract for
the design and techniques of electrical system, plumbing electrical works. A separate
construction. system and ventilating contract will be awarded for
system will be required civil works. All the
which will add up to the cost subcontractors work in
and the time required to conjunction. The building
complete the project. codes and regulations must
Resources will be required to be followed. A lot of time is
research and invest in the invested in pre project
design, building material and activities like drafting and
construction technology drawings. These drafts are
required to seek approval
from authorities before
implementation. For each
service withheld and
material consumed a
contract or subcontract is
awarded to a third Party
Company.

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Functional characteristics and design selection criteria are informed
by proposed building use
The main purpose of the building is to offer a space which is structurally strong, safe for inhabitants
and environmental friendly. The functional characteristics of a building are the properties or the
provisions which a building should offer or the basic necessities or requirements which should be
met while designing the structure of the building. These characteristics are determined by the
nature of the building or the purpose for which it will be used. The building can be commercial,
residential or industrial. A building can be a restaurant as well as a hospital. It can be studio
apartment as well as a coffee shop. So its functional properties are determined by the purpose it will
be used for. The functional requirements of the buildings are specified at the design stage. The
design of the building is also closely linked with the building use. If the building is commercial, the
permit and codes followed will be totally different than a residential building.

Some of the functional characteristics and design selection criteria which a building either
commercial or residential should offer are stated below

Strength and Stability

Building should be strong enough to take the load of the individuals safely without breakage or
damage. Environmental factors like air pressure are also considered. Building material should be
chosen accordingly to offer required strength to the building. Building should be durable and
reliable.

Environment Friendly
The building should be environment friendly. Sustainable methods must be used so that greenhouse
gas emissions are minimised. It must have energy efficient design. The renewable energy methods
like solar panels must be employed for energy sources.

Proper Lighting
The lighting inside the building should be optimal and enough.

Safety and Security

The building should be safe and secure. Building must have fire protection system and security
camera surveillance.

Weather Resistant
As the building is exposed to extreme and harsh weather conditions so it must be resistant to the
weather changes.

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Fire Resistant
The building material used must be resistant to fire and must oppose the fire spread in case any
incident occur.

Heat Resistant/Insulation
The building must not be affected by external hot temperatures. The internal temperature should
stay normal. The good humidity level must be maintained.

Airy and Light

The building should be designed in a way so it is properly lit and ventilated. The building should
make proper use of the day light and outside air. The air quality indoor should be good. The proper
ventilation and cooling system must exist inside the building.

Sound Resistance
The building should be sound proof so noise could be filter out and noise pollution is avoided.

Sustainability in Building’s projects

Construction industry is one of the fastest growing industry around the globe. It is one of the major
consumer of the global resources. These global resources like wood, water, concrete are of finite
nature. The industry is not only gulping the resources but is also a major contributor to the
environmental pollution. Construction and demolition of buildings not only consumes the resources
but also stack up the building waste which adds upto 4% in the particulate emissions causing water
pollution. With the increase in demand of wood for building projects, the threat to the natural
resources is also increasing which is responsible for the climate change to great extent. Here arise
the need to reduce the environmental impact of the construction industry and buildings projects.

With the introduction of the term sustainability in the world, there is a hope that the sustainable
methods of consuming natural resources may be beneficial for not disturbing the balance between
the human life and nature. It is the need of the hour to introduce and implement the concept of
sustainability in construction and building projects. It is assumed that by 2025 2 billion tons of
construction waste will be added every year in the existing piles of the waste which could be a
serious threat to ecosystem, thus the construction firms have started to take the sustainability
concept seriously and thinking to bring innovation with ”go green” ideas.

Sustainability in building and construction sector means to employee renewable, reusable, eco-
friendly and recyclable materials in new building projects thus to reduce natural resources
consumption and construction waste. The building thus constructed would be itself environment

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friendly and will have a positive environmental impact even after construction. The construction
material and components used in construction should have a positive impact on the atmosphere.

Ways to Promote Sustainability in Building Projects

Using Sustainable Building Material
The most commonly used building material is concrete. Concrete is not an environment friendly
material as its production results in huge amount of carbon emission (5% of total CO2 emissions)
and water consumption. This can be replaced by environment friendly materials like wood, Mud
bricks, straw bales, wool bricks and plastic. Plastic is highly non- biodegradable but it can be a
blessing for construction industry. Recycled plastic usage can significantly reduce the greenhouse
gases emission in the environment. Bamboo is highly flexible, strong and fast growing tree whose
wood can be use in building projects.

Energy Efficient Building Designs

The smart ways should be adapted using renewable energy sources while designing building
projects. The building structure should be designed so natural daylight could be used mostly. Solar
panels must be installed for power source. HVAC units and geysers should be solar aided. The
structure must be well ventilated. Install more windows to captivate more day light. Avoid toxic
paints

Using Sustainable Building Methods

Sustainable methods should be introduced in the building projects thus to reduce the construction
waste. Material cutting techniques, recycled material selection, waste management at site and old
buildings transformations are some of the methods that can be induced in the building project to
increase efficiency.

Selecting Renewable Energy Resources

A large number of machinery is employed at the construction site which aid in the building project.
This machinery uses the fossil fuel resources for operation and results in carbon emission in the
environment. The equipment and tools used on site should be energy efficient and environment
friendly. Try to operate the electrical equipment from solar energy.

Building Waste Management

The construction and building waste produced in result of demolition or construction must be
treated properly. The waste may contain bricks, concrete, metals, gravel, wiring, ducts and so on.
The reusable materials should be reused after proper re touches. The material which can be recycled
should be delivered to recycling units. The waste which demands disposal should not be disposed off

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in water streams or rivers. It must be disposed of properly. The wiring, metals, ducts must be
removed before disposal.

Using Prefabricated materials

The use of prefabricated materials in the buildings must be promoted. The prefabricated material
include door, windows, wall panels, ceilings etc. The preparation of these materials in controlled
environment will result in low waste while their onsite preparation would generate huge waste and
it would be non-economical too. The transportation of prefabricated material is a better option.

Setting Sustainability Standards on Site

The supervisor on site should set the sustainability targets on the site and monitor that whether
these sustainability goals are kept in mind while performing tasks.

Discourage the use of non-Sustainable Materials

Discourage the use of non-environment friendly materials like concrete. A large number of drawings
printed on paper are used which result in large amount of paper waste must be avoided.

LO2) Different techniques used to construct a range of

substructures and superstructures
Pre-design studies and information collected for a given site
After some funding is available or the project, the construction project enters into the pre-design
phase. Pre design studies are mandatory before designing the buildings. In this phase the space
requirement issues are studied and investigated. The constraints at the site are estimated. The
benefits and opportunities of the project site are noticed. The cost and budget plans are discussed.
The quality of the pre design studies is linked to the funds available at pre-design stage. Lack of
funding may restrict the pre-design studies only to the technical issues like scope, budget and
schedule of the project. In the pre design phase of construction project most of the focus is put on
the following areas

● Site analysis

● Land surveys

● Soil investigation

● Desktop works

● Budget analysis

● Value engineering

● Planning.

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 ● Design development.

● Financials.

● Permits.

Some of the pre design activities are discussed below

Site analysis
The analysis of the proposed site either a new construction or reconstruction is performed in order
to know the constraints which could affect the building design. Studies are conducted to evaluate
existing conditions of the site. Frequent site studies are carried out and reported in the form of
combined data and reports. The site analysis mainly includes site selection and reviewing the
existing similar structures. Multiple sites are visited and analysed for a single project. The
information and data thus gathered by site analysing can be used in project development and to
predict its impact on the environment.

The analysis are performed by consultants with expertise, who provide analysis reports. The
investigation findings and measures to be taken are mentioned in report and recommendations are
made to incorporate the investigation findings in building design. The analysis report also impact the
feasibility, safety and legal issues of projects. Other studies contain data gathering, site analysis
reports, site analysis drawings, and comparative site analysis.

These studies comprise geotechnical reports, hydrology studies, land surveys and soil surveys. The
geotechnical reports are prepared by the geotechnical engineers. These reports may inform the
project team about the geological and soil condition of the land on the project site. These reports
inform about the geotechnical hazards like liquefaction and subsidence of the area. Hydrological
reports provide the hydrological facts of the site like water drainage patterns, depth of the ground
water, flooding hazards and other hydrological issues.

Land surveys
Land surveys are carried out to know the site features like project area boundaries, legal boundaries
and right of way. The surveyor identifies the physical elements on the site like trees, existing
buildings, roads and other structures within or nearby the project land boundaries.

Soil investigation
Soil investigation is carried out at the site to know the contaminants in the soil. On the bases of the
soil test reports the necessary measures are taken into account to remediate the soil or ground
water. Ground water monitoring and surface water monitoring is also done while ground
investigation. Soil samples are tested in laboratory to measure moisture content, soils type,

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expansion, percolation, bearing capacity, friction, and other factors pertinent to the proposed
building. Other important soils information includes:

● Drainage characteristics and permeability.

● Depth to ground water.

● Depth to bedrock.

● Vulnerability to compaction and erosion.

● Shrink and swell probability.

● Compressive strength and stability (bearing capacity).

● Evidence of fill.
On the basis of soil investigation data numerous recommendation are made e.g

● Site preparation, such as tamping or replacing existing soils.

● Bearing loads and the resultant predictable amount of settlement.

● Measures to deal with ground water and surface water which can affect construction
procedures and the deliverable
● Special groundwork necessities.

Information collected for a construction site:

Following information is gathered for a construction site:

● Cash flow and procurement accounts for each organization,

● Intermediate analysis results during planning and design.

● Design documents including drawings and specifications

● Construction schedules must be arranged or made and cost estimates.

● Quality control and assurance record.

● Planning and management of the project.

● Health and safety hazards including design and construction hazards and how they will
be addressed.
● Information in any existing health and safety file.

● Old and new records of the part of land where we have to begin construction.

● Keeping in mind the surroundings of that land for our construction site whether that
land and soil is suitable or not whether the soil is strong enough to hold the building
made on that particular land.

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Functional characteristics and design criteria for primary and secondary elements
of a building substructure and superstructure
Functional characteristics and design selection criteria have an impact on the eventual design
solution. This guarantee the best value proposal, rather than simply the lowest price submission. The
design chosen decides the profit or loss as it signifies the appearance of our building, with this the
functional characteristics also matters whether the building is serving its purpose or not.

Techniques required to construct superstructures and substructures

Superstructure and substructure
Any building project can be divided into two major parts

● Superstructures.

● Substructures.

Various methodologies are employed to build a variety of superstructures and substructures.

Design selection criteria of superstructures and substructures:

Superstructure
Techniques to construct superstructures and their functions
Superstructures is the main building or structure constructed above the ground level. it is
constructed over the foundation or base of the building. These are the structures where occupants
spent their most of the time inside the building. The first floor, second floor and all floors above the
second floor in large buildings are part of superstructures. The superstructure comprises of beams,
columns, finishes, windows, doors, the roof, floors and anything else.

16
If we come to do comparison between superstructure and substructure than the parts of
superstructure are considered lengthier than the parts of substructure as the superstructure is much
larger than the substructure.

Elements of superstructure:

Primary elements of Superstructure

Following are the primary elements of superstructure

● Roof

● Parapet

● Lintels

● Slab

● Beams

● Columns

● Walls

● Floor

● Stair
Secondary elements of Superstructure

Following are the secondary elements of superstructure

● External walls

● Internal walls

● Floating floors

● Cavity floors

● Floors traps floors

● Balustrades

● Suspended ceilings

● Roof lights

Design selection criteria of superstructures

Walls: External walls, traditional cavity, timber frame, lightweight steel
Cladding: panel systems, infill systems, composite panel systems, internal partition walls.
Roofs: Pitched and flat roof systems, roof coverings.

Floors: Ground floors, intermediate floors, floor finishes.

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Staircases: Timber, concrete, metal staircases, means of escape

Finishes: Ceiling, wall and floor finishes

Substructures

Design selection criteria of substructures

Substructure is the building part constructed below the ground level. The main purpose of
substructure of a building is to shift the loads of superstructure to the soil or that particular part of
land on which a building is standing. The substructure supporting elements like beam, column and
foundation must be integrated so well to rule out the chances of any collapse. Substructure of a
building is made from plain or reinforced concrete. Then to finish the substructure stones, bricks, or
additional concrete is used. The foundation must be protect from any kind of moisture so its top is
made up of damp-roof which avoids any moisture penetrating the base. Proper technique and
strong material must be used while making substructures as they are the foundation of building.

Conditions impact on design of foundation

Following are the conditions or factors which impact the design of substructures

● Footing depth and spacing.

● Displaced soil effects.

● Net versus gross soil pressure: design soil pressures.

● Erosion problems for structures adjacent to flowing water.

● Corrosion protection.

● Water table fluctuation.

● Foundations in sand and silt deposits.

● Foundations on lose and other collapsible soils.

Footing depth and spacing

Footings should be carried below the frost line, zone of high volume change due to moisture
fluctuations, topsoil or organic materials, peat and muck and unconsolidated material such as
abandoned garbage dumps.

Displaced soil effects

Soil is always displaced by installing a foundation.  In the case of spread footings the displacement is
the volume of the footing pad and the negligible amount from the column resting on the footing. In

18
cases where a basement is involved, the basement floor slab usually rests directly on top of the
footing pad. In other cases, a hole is excavated for the ground surface.

Corrosion protection

If the soil has excess quantity of sulphates, the sulphate resistant concrete is required to use to
avoid corrosion.

Water table fluctuations

A high water table may cause the following problems in substructure construction

● The substructure can be floating, unstable or tilt.

● Excessive settlements and arrangements required.

● Generating a wet basement if the basement walls are water permeable.

Substructures in in soil and silt deposits

If the foundation is to be lid in soil and slit deposits, the following factors must be considered

● Bearing capacity.

● Densification of loose deposits to control settlement .

Identifying superstructure and substructure

The substructures and superstructures for different building projects are indicated in the images
below

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 -

LO3) Different Types of Civil Engineering Technologies Used in

Support of Buildings
Techniques used for remediating the site prior to construction commencing

Rapid economic and social growth around the growth is appreciable but it has caused serious
damages to the environment. One of such damage is the contamination of the soil and ground
water. The industrial waste, agriculture and urban waste are the major causes of soil contamination.
The accumulation of the toxic contaminants like hydrocarbons, chlorinated compounds, and toxic
organic and inorganic compound like metals in the soil or water beyond a safe limit is highly
threatening to the environment and poses a potential threat to life and ecosystem.

Remediation is the technique or process of cleaning the contaminated site and removing the
contaminants from the soil and ground water by removing the toxic materials and bringing the PH
value of soil and water to the safe value. Remediation involves transfer of contaminants or
contaminated soil or water. There are various remediating techniques used at the site prior to the
construction. Some of remediating techniques are listed and discussed below

1. Containment
2. Pump-and-Treat
3. Soil Vapour Extraction
4. Solidification/Stabilization
5. Soil Washing
6. Bioremediation
7. Air Stripping
8. Precipitation
9. Vitrification
10. Thermal Desorption

Containment
Containment is the technique in which the contaminated water or soil is contained within a site to
cut off its contact to the people and other living organisms on the site. The surface and ground water
is diverted away from contaminated water to control the spread of contaminants. Low permeability

20
cut-off walls made up of soil and water mixture with bentonite are built around the containment
areas.

Pump-and-Treat
It is another basic soil and ground water remediating technique in which the ground water is
pumped to the surface and the contaminants are removed by treating the water. The water is
pumped by either one or multiple pumps. The water is then treated by different methods like
activated carbon, biodegradation, ultraviolet radiations, ozone treatments or precipitation. The
methods is best suitable for water in which the contaminants are dissolved.

Soil Vapour Extraction

Soil vapour extraction is used for the removal of volatile contaminants from the soil. Air flow is
induced in the soil with the help of vacuum blowers. Extraction well made up of plastic are used to
separate the soil and contaminants by collecting them in different columns. Air through by the
blowers disrobe the volatile contaminants from the soil. In some cases steam can also be used
instead of air to remove volatile and semi volatile hazardous particles from soil. The vapours
produced are then treated by different methods like condensation, UV oxidation or thermal
destruction.

Solidification/Stabilization
In this remediation process the contaminants are let to be immobilized by using additives and
processes. Stabilization transforms the contaminants in less mobile form while solidification ensures
the solidity or integrity. In this process the contaminants are not removed but their spread is
controlled by obstructing their suppleness.

Soil Washing
In this process the soil contaminants are removed by using water. The main principle of the process
is to dissolve the contaminants, present in the soil, in the water. The water then can be treated to
remove the contaminants. The process itself is not very efficient as it doesn’t immobilize or destruct
the contaminants.

Types of substructure works carried out by civil engineers

Substructures involve all work below the ground level. A substructure is defined as the part of the
building which lies below the level of ground. The substructures are helpful to transfer the load of
superstructures to the soil under the substructure. Colum, beams and foundation of substructures
must be integrated properly to avoid any collapse. Plain or reinforced concrete is commonly used in
making substructures. The substructure works carried out by engineer include

● Top-down deconstruction

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● Substructure demolition

● Enabling/ground works

● Temp works

● Deep multi storey basement excavations

● Obstruction clearance

● Contiguous/Secant/Sheet piled walls

● Bearing Piles

● Ground Remediation

● Ground Heave

● Basement RC

● Ground works.

● Piling methods.

● Underpinning.

● Propping.

● Pile trimming.

● Pile probing.

● Bulk excavation.

● Ground slab and foundation removal.

● Sequenced excavations

● Construction (incl. waterproofing)

● RC Raft and pile cap construction

● One sided retaining RC walls

● Precast solutions

● Infrastructure works

● Drainage installation

● Underpinning/jacking

● Remediation

● Basement box construction

● Waterproofing

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Comparison of Different Types of Structural Frames
Primary elements of superstructure
The primary elements of the superstructures are the main components of a buildings required for
the structures. It does not includes the services and finishing elements. Primary elements of
superstructure are

● Roof

● External walls

● Galleries

● Partitions

● Stair and ramps

● Internal walls

Secondary elements of superstructure

The secondary elements of the superstructures are the components of a buildings which completes
the construction of the structures. Secondary elements of superstructure are

● Wall hangings

● Tile hanging

● Weather boarding

● Tiles and wood blocks

● Plasterboards

● Metal coverings and so on

Primary framing Secondary framing

1 Primary farming must be strong as it Secondary framing is meant to offer
has to carry all the vertical load of the support to primary framing.
building.

2 It is the backbone of the building. All It prevents the de shaping or twisting

elements of superstructure are of main frame.
mounted over primary framings.

3 It carries the whole load of the The load is still transferred to the
superstructure primary framing. It just supports the
main frame.
4 Without a proper primary frame the Secondary framing is added to
building would not be able to take support the secondary elements like

23
 vertical load and collapse. interior designing materials.

5 Made up of hot rolled steel structures Made up of cold rolled steel

mostly structures mostly
6 Following primary framing Following secondary framing
components are integrated together to components are integrated together to
form superstructure: form superstructure:
7

● Studs.

● Tracks.
● Columns.
● Struts.
● Beams.
● Girts.
● Rafters.
● Purlins.
● Trusses and lattice girders.
● Eave struts.
● Girders.
● Wall bracing.
● Clips.
● Flange bracing.
● Anchor bolts. ● Joists.

● Headers and jambs.

8 Columns are the vertical supporting Studs are used for interior drywall
frames attachment vertically.

9 Beams are the horizontal supporting Tracks are used to hold the studs.
frames.

1 Rafters support the roof assembly. Struts distributes the loads around its
0
axis.

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LO4) Supply and Distribution of Range Of Building Services and
their Accommodation within the Building
A building is a set or combination of multiple systems like electrical system, plumbing system, and
ventilation system. The building services are the services offered within a building to meet the
demand of the inhabitants of the building who either use the building for living or work purpose. The
services offered by the building make the life of the residents easier, safe and comfortable. The basic
set of services which each and every building must offer are called primary services. Primary services
are the basic and vital services for the smooth running of a building e.g. water supply, electricity
supply, ventilation, safety & security and drainage. In addition to primary services, some additional
services may also be proposed which are not vital but add the comfort, sustainability and luxury to
residents of buildings. These services are called secondary services. Some example of secondary
services include elevators, luggage lifts, renewable energy source, in house communication channels
and so on

1. These services are included in the range of a building:

2. Water supply, drainage and plumbing.
3. Energy supply electricity and gas
4. For large buildings energy generation, distribution and supply.
5. Proper heating and ventilation using sustainable resources
6. Air conditioning and refrigeration
7. Fir safety like fire alarms and fire protection system
8. Security cameras surveillance and security alarm system
9. Lighting during day as well as night time
10. Information and Communication systems like telephone and internet
11. Escalators and elevators
12. Building management systems.

Supply Arrangement for Primary Services

Classification of primary building services

Building services can be usually classified into the following main categories:

● Mechanical
● Electrical
● Plumbing
These services are combined called MEP services (Mechanical, electrical and plumbing). These
services are of great importance and are given special weightage while structuring the design of a
building. The MEP is necessary at all stages of building projects that is planning, designing and
implementation.

Mechanical

The mechanical services are further sub classified into few main categories of system like

25
 ● HVAC System

● Fire alarming and firefighting system

● Gas supply system

● Elevator and lifts

Supply Arrangements

The mechanical systems are also linked with electrical and plumbing system as they required power
for the appliances to operate.

HVAC Systems

“Heating, ventilation and air-conditioning” includes mechanical and electrical systems installed to
maintain the temperature of buildings. One of the major goals oh HVAC is to offer thermal control in
the building. Better heating, ventilation and air conditioning will increase heath and promoter better
environment and occupant living experience.

Gas supply system

Gas supply system involve the supply of LPG to commercial and residential areas. This gas is either
supplied packed in the cylinders or with the help of a pipeline system. The gas provided to
residential buildings is distributed inside the building with the help of multiple connector or dividers.
Gas supply system also includes the supply of compressed air, nitrogen or oxygen gases. These gases
are required in commercial or industrial areas. Oxygen is required in hospitals. Nitrogen and
compressed air is used in industry for pneumatic control devices. Piping arrangements are made in
the building while sometimes the gases are supplied filled in the cylinders.

Fire alarming and firefighting system

Fire safety system includes water supply, sprinklers, fire and smoke alarms, where required. The fir
or smoke detectors are installed inside the buildings which sense smoke and triggers the alarm and
protection systems. For open areas water and foam is used as fire extinguishers. This water and
foam is stored in tanks and sprinkled or showered over the fire automatically once the system is
activated. In closed proximities with electrical installation sand or carbon dioxide gas is used as fire
extinguisher. The fire alarm is also there to alarm the building occupants regarding any such
incident.

Electrical

The electrical services include

● Power supply

26
 ● Backup Power

● Emergency power

Power supply
The electricity is provided to the building from national power grid. The power generated in the
power stations is transferred to the consumer areas with the help of transmission and distribution
systems. From the distribution transformers arrangements are made to utilize the electricity inside
the building. Depending upon the nature of building either commercial or residential, the electric
wiring is done. Commercial buildings have heavy motors and machinery to be operated which
required large currents so its wiring arrangement is totally different from residential building. A
proper electric wiring system is running throughout the building for proper and safe distribution of
electricity in the building. The power supplied is used for

1. Natural and artificial lighting.

2. Escalators and lifts.
3. Telephone and IT network.
4. Domestic and electrical installations.
5. Power circuits and etc.
Backup Power

A backup power plan is also provided in the building in case of grid failures like battery bank or
diesel generators. The arrangements are made if the main power source is failed, the power cut off
could be avoided by altering the main power source with backup power source. The backup power
source can be a diesel generator or a battery bank. Diesel generator as run by fossil fuel is not
sustainable. On the other hand batteries can be charged using solar power readily available.
Sustainable buildings make the use of renewable energy resources like solar for its energy
requirements.

Emergency Power

Emergency power is needed in case of any emergency. These power needs are also met by backup
battery banks charged with the help of solar power.

Plumbing

The plumbing services mainly include

● Water supply

● Water filtration

● Waste drainage

● Rainwater drainage

● Water recyclers

27
Water services, sanitation facilities, water storage and distribution through tanks, piping and taps. A
plumbing system comprises of components that promises water at the desired and anticipated
quality, quantity and pressure and its drainage after the use. Drainage promises the disposal and
evacuation of waste water from building using piping system. The waste water from domestic use,
toilet waste and storm water is managed and disposed of. This water is also recycled in some of the
buildings and reused.

In addition to MEP other services include information and communication systems which comprises
of telephone, Wi-Fi connections and television connection. These services are supplied by telecom
service providers.

Distribution Arrangement for Primary Services:

While constructing a building, special attention and priority must be given to the distribution of
primary services inside the building. This distribution includes electricity distribution, water
distribution, gas supply, hot water distribution and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems.
Electricity, water, gas, and telecommunication systems are the most common and basic service
systems.

Water Supply system

A water distribution system is obligatory to attain a constant supply of water. The method of
distribution is subjected to the topography of the area building is constructed in. The main three
methods used to distribute water inside the buildings

1. Pumped distribution
2. Gravity distribution
3. Combined pumped and gravity systems
The method employed for the water distribution also depends upon the temperature of the water.

● Cold Water Distribution

● Hot Water Distribution

Below we will discuss the cold water and hot water storage and distribution systems.

Cold water storage and distribution

There are two types of cold water distribution

1. Direct
2. Indirect
In direct water distribution the water is supplied to the building directly from the main source
without using any storage tank or equipment.

28
In indirect water distribution water is first fed to a large storage tank constructed over the top of a
building and then water is consumed in the building using the gravitational force. The water can be
pumped to storage tanks from main sources.

Hot water storage and distribution

Hot water can be distributed using three systems

1. Open vented Systems

2. Unvented Systems
3. Instantaneous water systems
The open vented system comprises of a cold water storage tank, hot water cylinder, open vent pipe
and the source element to heat the water. The water can be heated directly or indirectly.

29
The unvented system is bit more complex. The water is heated under high pressure. The number of
components in unvented system are increased.

Electrical supply system

A reliable and safe power supply system must be utilized to transport the power from the main
source to the building. Inside the building the power is than distributed to different parts of the
buildings for various applications

The power is generated a low voltage levels and then step up to high voltages for transmission
purposes. The transmitted power is then received at a receiving substation where it is stepped down
and distributed to the areas where it will be consumed. The distribution substation is then
connected to consumer premises with the help of a distributor conductor. The consumer can be
residential, commercial or industrial. Each type of consumer has a different need of voltage level.
The load supplied to residential consumer is single phase while commercial or industrial consumer
demand three phase load supply.

30
Gas Supply system
Gas distribution system is designed by keeping in mind the safety, economy and availability of
constant pressure. While designing a gas distribution system the safety is the main concern because
the supply system is highly vulnerable to danger because of the explosive nature of gas. Gas
pipelines are specially built and constructed which carry the high pressure gases from the production
unit to the consumer premises.

Elements Of Superstructure Used To Facilitate Primary Services:

The superstructure of the building is meant to offer primary services to the occupants. The primary
services are supported by the following elements of a structure

Frame
Frame is the basic support structure of a building. It includes Columns, beams, rafters, trusses and
lattice, riders, clips and anchor bolts.

Upper floors
Suspended floors over, or in basements, service floors, balconies, sloping floors

Roof
Roof structure, roof coverings, roof drainage, roof lights.

Stairs and ramps

Construction of ramps, gradients, stairs, slopes, ladders, etc. for connecting multi-level floors

External walls
Outside surrounding walls.

31
Other elements include internal walls, windows, doors and openings in external walls, partitions,
moveable room dividers, cubicles, doors, hatches and other openings in internal walls.

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