SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

Inheritance and Interfaces    2.1

UNIT -2

INHERITANCE AND INTERFACES

2.1 Inheritance
Inheritance is the mechanism in java by which one class is allow to inherit the features
(fields and methods) of another class. It is process of deriving a new class from an existing
class. A class that is inherited is called a superclass and the class that does the inheriting is
called a subclass. Inheritance represents the IS-A relationship, also known as parent-child re-
lationship. The keyword used for inheritance is extends.
Syntax:
ET
class Subclass-name extends Superclass-name  
{  
    //methods and fields  
C
}  
Here, the extends keyword indicates that we are creating a new class that derives from an
SV

existing class.
Note: The constructors of the superclass are never inherited by the subclass
Advantages of Inheritance:
• Code reusability - public methods of base class can be reused in derived classes
• Data hiding – private data of base class cannot be altered by derived class
• Overriding--With inheritance, we will be able to override the methods of the base
class in the derived class
Example:
// Create a superclass.
class BaseClass{
int a=10,b=20;
public void add(){
System.out.println(“Sum:”+(a+b));

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 1

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

}
}
// Create a subclass by extending class BaseClass.
public class Main extends BaseClass
{
public void sub(){
System.out.println(“Difference:”+(a-b));
}
public static void main(String[] args) {
Main obj=new Main();
/*The subclass has access to all public members of its superclass*/
obj.add();
ET
obj.sub();
}
}
C
Sample Output:
Sum:30
SV

Difference:-10
In this example, Main is the subclass and BaseClass is the superclass. Main object can
access the field of own class as well as of BaseClass class i.e. code reusability.
Types of inheritance
Single Inheritance :
In single inheritance, a subclass inherit the features of one superclass.
Example:
class Shape{
int a=10,b=20;
}
class Rectangle extends Shape{
public void rectArea(){
System.out.println(“Rectangle Area:”+(a*b));

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 2

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

}
}
public class Main
{
public static void main(String[] args) {
Rectangle obj=new Rectangle();
obj.rectArea();
}
}

ET
C
SV

Multilevel Inheritance:  
In Multilevel Inheritance, a derived class will be inheriting a base class and as well as the
derived class also act as the base class to other class i.e. a derived class in turn acts as a base
class for another class.

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 3

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

Example:
class Numbers{
int a=10,b=20;
}
class Add2 extends Numbers{
int c=30;
public void sum2(){
System.out.println(“Sum of 2 nos.:”+(a+b));
}
}
class Add3 extends Add2{
public void sum3(){
ET
System.out.println(“Sum of 3 nos.:”+(a+b+c));
}
}
C
public class Main
{
SV

public static void main(String[] args) {

Add3 obj=new Add3();
obj.sum2();
obj.sum3();
}
}
Sample Output:
Sum of 2 nos.:30
Sum of 3 nos.:60
Hierarchical Inheritance:
In Hierarchical Inheritance, one class serves as a superclass (base class) for more than
one sub class.

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 4

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

Example:
class Shape{
int a=10,b=20;
}
class Rectangle extends Shape{
public void rectArea(){
System.out.println(“Rectangle Area:”+(a*b));
}
}
class Triangle extends Shape{
public void triArea(){
System.out.println(“Triangle Area:”+(0.5*a*b));
ET
}
}
public class Main
C
{
public static void main(String[] args) {
SV

Rectangle obj=new Rectangle();

obj.rectArea();
Triangle obj1=new Triangle();
obj1.triArea();
}
}
Sample Output:
Rectangle Area:200
Triangle Area:100.0
Multiple inheritance 
Java does not allow multiple inheritance:
• To reduce the complexity and simplify the language
• To avoid the ambiguity caused by multiple inheritance

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 5

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

For example, Consider a class C derived from two base classes A and B. Class C inherits
A and B features. If A and B have a method with same signature, there will be ambiguity to
call method of A or B class. It will result in compile time error.
class A{  
void msg(){System.out.println(“Class A”);}  
}  
class B{  
void msg(){System.out.println(“Class B “);}  
}  
class C extends A,B{//suppose if it were  
   Public Static void main(String args[]){  
   C obj=new C();  
   obj.msg();//Now which msg() method would be invoked?  
ET
}  
} 
Sample Output:
C

Compile time error

Direct implementation of multiple inheritance is not allowed in Java. But it is achievable
SV

using Interfaces. The concept about interface is discussed in chapter.2.7.

Access Control in Inheritance
The following rules for inherited methods are enforced −
• Variables declared public or protected in a superclass are inheritable in subclasses.
• Variables or Methods declared private in a superclass are not inherited at all.
• Methods declared public in a superclass also must be public in all subclasses.
• Methods declared protected in a superclass must either be protected or public in
subclasses; they cannot be private.
Example:
// Create a superclass
class A{
int x; // default specifier
private int y; // private to A

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 6

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

public void set_xy(int a,int b){

x=a;
y=b;
}
}
// A’s y is not accessible here.
class B extends A{
public void add(){
System.out.println(“Sum:”+(x+y)); //Error: y has private access in A – not inheritable
}
}
class Main{
ET
public static void main(String args[]){
B obj=new B();
obj.set_xy(10,20);
C
obj.add();
}
SV

}
In this example since y is declared as private, it is only accessible by its own class mem-
bers. Subclasses have no access to it.
2.2 Using Super
The super keyword refers to immediate parent class object. Whenever you create the in-
stance of subclass, an instance of parent class is created implicitly which is referred by super
reference variable.
• It an be used to refer immediate parent class instance variable when both parent and
child class have member with same name
• It can be used to invoke immediate parent class method when child class has overridden
that method.
• super() can be used to invoke immediate parent class constructor.
Use of super with variables: 
When both parent and child class have member with same name, we can use super key-
word to access mamber of parent class.

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 7

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

Example:
class SuperCls
{
int x = 20;
}
/* sub class SubCls extending SuperCls */
class SubCls extends SuperCls
{
int x = 80;
void display()
{
System.out.println(“Super Class x: “ + super.x); //print x of super class
ET
System.out.println(“Sub Class x: “ + x); //print x of subclass
}
}
C
/* Driver program to test */
class Main
SV

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
SubCls obj = new SubCls();
obj.display();
}
}
Sample Output:
Super Class x: 20
Sub Class x: 80
In the above example, both base class and subclass have a member x. We could access x
of base class in sublcass using super keyword.

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 8

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

Use of super with methods:

The super keyword can also be used to invoke parent class method. It should be used if
subclass contains the same method as parent class (Method Overriding).
class SuperCls
{
int x = 20;
void display(){ //display() in super class
System.out.println(“Super Class x: “ + x);
}
}
/* sub class SubCls extending SuperCls */
class SubCls extends SuperCls
{
ET
int x = 80;
void display() //display() redefined in sub class – method overriding
{
System.out.println(“Sub Class x: “ + x);
C

super.display(); // invoke super class display()

}
SV

}
/* Driver program to test */
class Main
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
SubCls obj = new SubCls();
obj.display();
}
}
Sample Output:
Sub Class x: 80
Super Class x: 20

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 9

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

In the above example, if we only call method display() then, the display() of sub class gets
invoked. But with the use of super keyword, display() of superclass could also be invoked.
Use of super with constructors:
The super keyword can also be used to invoke the parent class constructor.
Syntax:
super();

• super() if present, must always be the first statement executed inside a subclass
constructor.
• When we invoke a super() statement from within a subclass constructor, we are
invoking the immediate super class constructor
Example:
class SuperCls
{
ET
SuperCls(){
System.out.println(“In Super Constructor”);
}
C
}
/* sub class SubCls extending SuperCls */
SV

class SubCls extends SuperCls

{
SubCls(){
super();
System.out.println(“In Sub Constructor”);
}
}
/* Driver program to test */
class Main
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 10

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

SubCls obj = new SubCls();

}
}
Sample Output:
In Super Constructor
In Sub Constructor
2.3 Order of Constructor Invocation
• Constructors are invoked in the order of their derivation
• If a subclass constructor does not explicitly invoke a superclass constructor using
super() in the first line, the Java compiler automatically inserts a call to the no-
argument constructor of the superclass. If the superclass does not have a no-argument
constructor, it will generate a compile-time error. 
Example:
ET
class A
{
A(){
C
System.out.println(“A’s Constructor”);
}
SV

}
/* sub class B extending A */
class B extends A
{
B(){
super();
System.out.println(“B’s Constructor”);
}
}
/* sub class C extending B */
class C extends B{
C(){
super();

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 11

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

System.out.println(“C’s Constructor”);
}
}
/* Driver program to test */
class Main
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
C obj = new C();
}
}
Sample Output:
ET
A’s Constructor
B’s Constructor
C’s Constructor
C
Invoking Superclass Parameterized Constructor
To call parameterized constructor of superclass, we must use the super keyword as shown
SV

below.
Syntax:
super(value);
Example:
class SuperCls{
int x;
SuperCls(int x){
this.x=x; // this refers to current invoking object
}
}
class SubCls extends SuperCls{
int y;
SubCls(int x,int y){

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 12

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

super(x); // invoking parameterized constructor of superclass

this.y=y;
}
public void display(){
System.out.println(“x: “+x+” y: “+y);
}
}
public class Main
{
public static void main(String[] args) {
SubCls obj=new SubCls(10,20);
obj.display();
ET
}
}
Sample Output:
C
x: 10 y: 20
The program contains a superclass and a subclass, where the superclass contains a param-
SV

eterized constructor which accepts a integer value, and we used the super keyword to invoke
the parameterized constructor of the superclass.
2.4 The Object Class
The Object class is the parent class of all the classes in java by default (directly or indi-
rectly). The java.lang.Object class is the root of the class hierarchy. Some of the Object class
are Boolean, Math, Number, String etc.
Object

Boolean Character Number Math String StringBuffer

Byte Short Integer Long Float Double

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 13

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

Some of the important methods defined in Object class are listed below.
Object class Methods Description
boolean equals(Object) Returns true if two references point to the same object.
String toString() Converts object to String
void notify()
void notifyAll() Used in synchronizing threads
void wait()
void finalize() Called just before an object is garbage collected
Returns a new object that are exactly the same as the current
Object clone()
object
int hashCode() Returns a hash code value for the object.
Example:
public class Test
{
ET
public static void main(String[] args)
{
/*hashcode is the unique number generated by JVM*/
C
Test t = new Test();
System.out.println(t);
SV

System.out.println(t.toString()); // provides String representation of an Object

System.out.println(t.hashCode());
t = null; /*calling garbage collector explicitly to dispose system resources, perform
System.gc(); clean-up activities and minimize memory leaks*/

System.out.println(“end”);
}
protected void finalize() // finalize() is called just once on an object
{
System.out.println(“finalize method called”);
}
}

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 14

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

Sample Output:
Test@2a139a55
Test@2a139a55
705927765
end
finalize method called
In the above program, the default toString() method for class Object returns a string con-
sisting of the name of the class Test of which the object is an instance, the at-sign character
`@’, and the unsigned hexadecimal representation of the hash code of the object. 
2.5 Abstract Classes And Methods
Abstract class
A class that is declared as abstract is known as abstract class. It can have abstract and
non-abstract methods (method with body). It needs to be extended and its method imple-
mented. It cannot be instantiated.
ET
Syntax:
abstract class classname
{
C

}
Abstract method
SV

A method that is declared as abstract and does not have implementation is known as ab-
stract method. The method body will be defined by its subclass.
Abstract method can never be final and static. Any class that extends an abstract class
must implement all the abstract methods declared by the super class.
Note:
A normal class (non-abstract class) cannot have abstract methods. 
Syntax:
abstract returntype functionname (); //No definition
Syntax for abstract class and method:
modifier abstract class className
{
//declare fields
//declare methods

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 15

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

abstract dataType methodName();

}
modifier class childClass extends className
{
dataType methodName()
{
}
}
Why do we need an abstract class?
Consider a class Animal that has a method sound() and the subclasses of it like Dog Lion,
Horse Cat etc. Since the animal sound differs from one animal to another, there is no point to
implement this method in parent class. This is because every child class must override this
method to give its own implementation details, like Lion class will say “Roar” in this method
ET
and Horse class will say “Neigh”.
So when we know that all the animal child classes will and should override this method,
then there is no point to implement this method in parent class. Thus, making this method
abstract would be the good choice. This makes this method abstract and all the subclasses
C
to implement this method. We need not give any implementation to this method in parent
class.
Since the Animal class has an abstract method, it must be declared as abstract.
SV

Now each animal must have a sound, by making this method abstract we made it compul-
sory to the child class to give implementation details to this method. This way we ensure that
every animal has a sound.
Rules
1. Abstract classes are not Interfaces.
2. An abstract class may have concrete (complete) methods.
3. An abstract class may or may not have an abstract method. But if any class has one or
more abstract methods, it must be compulsorily labeled abstract.
4. Abstract classes can have Constructors, Member variables and Normal methods.
5. Abstract classes are never instantiated.
6. For design purpose, a class can be declared abstract even if it does not contain any
abstract methods.
7. Reference of an abstract class can point to objects of its sub-classes thereby achieving
run-time polymorphism Ex: Shape obj = new Rectangle();

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 16

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

8. A class derived from the abstract class must implement all those methods that are
declared as abstract in the parent class.
9. If a child does not implement all the abstract methods of abstract parent class, then the
child class must need to be declared abstract as well.
Example 1
//abstract parent class
abstract class Animal
{
//abstract method
public abstract void sound();
}
//Lion class extends Animal class
public class Lion extends Animal
ET
{
public void sound()
{
C

System.out.println(“Roars”);
}
SV

public static void main(String args[])

{
Animal obj = new Lion();
obj.sound();
}
}

Output:
Roars
In the above code, Animal is an abstract class and Lion is a concrete class.

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 17

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

Example 2
abstract class Bank
{
abstract int getRateOfInterest();
}
class SBI extends Bank
{
int getRateOfInterest()
{
return 7;
}
}
ET
class PNB extends Bank
{
int getRateOfInterest()
C
{
return 8;
SV

}
}
public class TestBank
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Bank b=new SBI();//if object is PNB, method of PNB will be invoked
int interest=b.getRateOfInterest();
System.out.println(“Rate of Interest is: “+interest+” %”);
b=new PNB();
System.out.println(“Rate of Interest is: “+b.getRateOfInterest()+” %”);
}
}

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 18

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

Inheritance and Interfaces    2.19

Output:
Rate of Interest is: 7 %
Rate of Interest is: 8 %
Abstract class with concrete (normal) method
Abstract classes can also have normal methods with definitions, along with abstract
methods.
Sample Code:
abstract class A
{
abstract void callme();
public void normal()
{
System.out.println(“this is a normal (concrete) method.”);
ET
}
}
public class B extends A
C
{
void callme()
SV

{
System.out.println(“this is an callme (abstract) method.”);
}
public static void main(String[] args)
{
B b = new B();
b.callme();
b.normal();
}
}
Output:
this is an callme (abstract) method.
this is a normal (concrete) method.

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 19

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

Observations about abstract classes in Java

1. An instance of an abstract class cannot be created; But, we can have references
of abstract class type though.
Sample Code:
abstract class Base
{
abstract void fun();
}
class Derived extends Base
{
void fun()
{
System.out.println(“Derived fun() called”);
ET
}
}
public class Main
C

{
SV

public static void main(String args[])

{
// Base b = new Base(); Will lead to error
// We can have references of Base type.
Base b = new Derived();
b.fun();
}
}
Output:
Derived fun() called

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 20

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

2. An abstract class can contain constructors in Java. And a constructor of ab-

stract class is called when an instance of a inherited class is created.
Sample Code:
abstract class Base
{
Base()
{
System.out.println(“Within Base Constructor”);
}
abstract void fun();
}
class Derived extends Base
{
ET
Derived()
{
System.out.println(“Within Derived Constructor”);
C
}
void fun()
SV

{
System.out.println(“ Within Derived fun()”);
}
}
public class Main
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Derived d = new Derived();
}
}
Output:
Within Base Constructor
Within Derived Constructor

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 21

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

3. We can have an abstract class without any abstract method. This allows us to create
classes that cannot be instantiated, but can only be inherited.
Sample Code:
abstract class Base
{
void fun()
{
System.out.println(“Within Base fun()”);
}
}
class Derived extends Base
{
}
ET
public class Main
{
public static void main(String args[])
C

{
SV

Derived d = new Derived();

d.fun();
}
}
Output:
Within Base fun()
4. Abstract classes can also have final methods (methods that cannot be
overridden).
Sample Code:
abstract class Base
{
final void fun()
{

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 22

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

System.out.println(“Within Derived fun()”);

}
}
class Derived extends Base
{
}
public class Main
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Base b = new Derived();
b.fun();
ET
}
}
Output:
C
Within Derived fun()
2.6 Final Methods and Classes
SV

The final keyword in java is used to restrict the user. The java final keyword can be ap-
plied to:
• variable
• method
• class
Java final variable - To prevent constant variables
Java final method - To prevent method overriding
Java final class - To prevent inheritance
Figure: Uses of final in java

Java final variable

The final keyword can be applied with the variables, a final variable that have no value
it is called blank final variable or uninitialized final variable. It can be initialized in the con-
structor only. The blank final variable can be static also which will be initialized in the static
block only.

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 23

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

Sample Code:
A final variable speedlimit is defined within a class Vehicle. When we try to change the
value of this variable, we get an error. This is due to the fact that the value of final variable
cannot be changed, once a value is assigned to it.
public class Vehicle
{
final int speedlimit=60;//final variable
void run()
{
speedlimit=400;
}
public static void main(String args[])
{
ET
Vehicle obj=new Vehicle();
obj.run();
}
C

}
Output:
SV

/Vehicle.java:6: error: cannot assign a value to final variable speedlimit

speedlimit=400;
^
1 error
Blank final variable
A final variable that is not initialized at the time of declaration is known as blank final
variable. We must initialize the blank final variable in constructor of the class otherwise it will
throw a compilation error.
Sample Code:
public class Vehicle
{
final int speedlimit; //blank final variable
void run()

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 24

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

{
}
public static void main(String args[])
{
Vehicle obj=new Vehicle();
obj.run();
}
}
Output:
/Vehicle.java:3: error: variable speedlimit not initialized in the default constructor
final int speedlimit; //blank final variable
^
ET
1 error
Java Final Method
A Java method with the final keyword is called a final method and it cannot be overridden
in the subclass.
C

In general, final methods are faster than non-final methods because they are not required
to be resolved during run-time and they are bonded at compile time.
SV

Sample Code:
class XYZ
{
final void demo()
{
System.out.println(“XYZ Class Method”);
}
}
public class ABC extends XYZ
{
void demo()
{

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 25

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

System.out.println(“ABC Class Method”);

}
public static void main(String args[])
{
ABC obj= new ABC();
obj.demo();
}
}
Output:
/ABC.java:11: error: demo() in ABC cannot override demo() in XYZ
void demo()
^
ET
overridden method is final
1 error
The following code will run fine as the final method demo() is not overridden. This shows
that final methods are inherited but they cannot be overridden.
C

Sample Code:
SV

class XYZ
{
final void demo()
{
System.out.println(“XYZ Class Method”);
}
}
public class ABC extends XYZ
{
public static void main(String args[])
{

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 26

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

ABC obj= new ABC();

obj.demo();
}
}
Output:
XYZ Class Method
Points to be remembered while using final methods:
• Private methods of the superclass are automatically considered to be final.
• Since the compiler knows that final methods cannot be overridden by a subclass, so
these methods can sometimes provide performance enhancement by removing calls
to final methods and replacing them with the expanded code of their declarations at
each method call location.
• Methods made inline should be small and contain only few lines of code. If it grows
ET
in size, the execution time benefits become a very costly affair.
• A final’s method declaration can never change, so all subclasses use the same method
implementation and call to one can be resolved at compile time. This is known
as static binding.
C
Java Final Class
• Final class is a class that cannot be extended i.e. it cannot be inherited.
SV

• A final class can be a subclass but not a superclass.

• Declaring a class as final implicitly declares all of its methods as final.
• It is illegal to declare a class as both abstract and final since an abstract class is incomplete
by itself and relies upon its subclasses to provide complete implementations.
• Several classes in Java are final e.g. String, Integer, and other wrapper classes.
• The final keyword can be placed either before or after the access specifier.
Syntax:
final public class A public final class A

{ {
OR
//code //code

} }

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 27

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

Sample Code:
final class XYZ
{
}

public class ABC extends XYZ

{
void demo()
{
System.out.println(“My Method”);
}
public static void main(String args[])
ET
{
ABC obj= new ABC();
obj.demo();
C
}
}
SV

Output:
/ABC.java:5: error: cannot inherit from final XYZ
public class ABC extends XYZ
^
1 error
Important points on final in Java
• Final keyword can be applied to a member variable, local variable, method or  class
in Java.
• Final member variable  must be initialized at the time of declaration or inside the
constructor, failure to do so will result in compilation error.
• We cannot reassign value to a final variable in Java.
• The local final variable must be initialized during declaration.
• A final method cannot be overridden in Java.
• A final class cannot be inheritable in Java.

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 28

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

• Final  is a different than  finally  keyword which is used to  Exception handling in
Java.
• Final should not be confused with finalize() method which is declared in Object class
and called before an object is a garbage collected by JVM.
• All variable declared inside Java interface are implicitly final.
• Final and abstract are two opposite keyword and a final class cannot be  abstract in
Java.
• Final methods are bonded during compile time also called static binding.
• Final variables  which are not initialized during declaration are called blank final
variable and must be initialized in all constructor either explicitly or by calling
this(). Failure to do so compiler will complain as “final variable (name) might not be
initialized”.
• Making a class, method or variable final in Java helps to improve performance because
JVM gets an opportunity to make assumption and optimization.
ET
2.7 Interfaces
An interface is a reference type in Java. It is similar to class. It is a collection of abstract
methods. Along with abstract methods, an interface may also contain constants, default meth-
ods, static methods, and nested types. Method bodies exist only for default methods and static
C
methods.
An interface is similar to a class in the following ways:
SV

• An interface can contain any number of methods.

• An interface is written in a file with a .java extension, with the name of the interface
matching the name of the file.
• The byte code of an interface appears in a .class file.
• Interfaces appear in packages, and their corresponding bytecode file must be in a
directory structure that matches the package name.
Uses of interface:
• Since java does not support multiple inheritance in case of class, it can be achieved
by using interface.
• It is also used to achieve loose coupling.
• Interfaces are used to implement abstraction.
Defining an Interface
An interface is defined much like a class.

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 29

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

Syntax:
accessspecifier interface interfacename
{
return-type method-name1(parameter-list);
return-type method-name2(parameter-list);
type final-varname1 = value;
type final-varname2 = value;
// ...
return-type method-nameN(parameter-list);
type final-varnameN = value;
}
When no access specifier is included, then default access results, and the interface is only
ET
available to other members of the package in which it is declared. When it is declared as pub-
lic, the interface can be used by any other code.
• The java file must have the same name as the interface.
• The methods that are declared have no bodies. They end with a semicolon after the
C
parameter list. They are abstract methods; there can be no default implementation of
any method specified within an interface.
SV

• Each class that includes an interface must implement all of the methods.
• Variables can be declared inside of interface declarations. They are implicitly final
and static, meaning they cannot be changed by the implementing class. They must
also be initialized.
• All methods and variables are implicitly public.
Sample Code:
The following code declares a simple interface Animal that contains two methods called
eat() and travel() that take no parameter.
/* File name : Animal.java */
interface Animal {
public void eat();
public void travel();
}

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 30

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

Implementing an Interface
Once an interface has been defined, one or more classes can implement that interface. To
implement an interface, the ‘implements’ clause is included in a class definition and then the
methods defined by the interface are created.
Syntax:
class classname [extends superclass] [implements interface [,interface...]]
{
// class-body
}
Properties of java interface
• If a class implements more than one interface, the interfaces are separated with a
comma.
• If a class implements two interfaces that declare the same method, then the same
ET
method will be used by clients of either interface.
• The methods that implement an interface must be declared public.
• The type signature of the implementing method must match exactly the type signature
specified in the interface definition.
C

Rules
• A class can implement more than one interface at a time.
SV

• A class can extend only one class, but can implement many interfaces.
• An interface can extend another interface, in a similar way as a class can extend
another class.
Sample Code 1:
The following code implements an interface Animal shown earlier.
/* File name : MammalInt.java */
public class Mammal implements Animal
{
public void eat()
{
System.out.println(“Mammal eats”);
}
public void travel()

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 31

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

{
System.out.println(“Mammal travels”);
}
public int noOfLegs()
{
return 0;
}
public static void main(String args[])
{
Mammal m = new Mammal();
m.eat();
m.travel();
ET
}
}
Output:
C
Mammal eats
Mammal travels
SV

It is both permissible and common for classes that implement interfaces to define ad-
ditional members of their own. In the above code, Mammal class defines additional method
called noOfLegs().
Sample Code 2:
The following code initially defines an interface ‘Sample’ with two members. This inter-
face is implemented by a class named ‘testClass’.
import java.io.*;
// A simple interface
interface Sample
{
final String name = “Shree”;
void display();
}

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 32

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

// A class that implements interface.

public class testClass implements Sample
{
public void display()
{
System.out.println(“Welcome”);
}
public static void main (String[] args)
{
testClass t = new testClass();
t.display();
System.out.println(name);
ET
}
}
Output:
C
Welcome
Shree
SV

Sample Code 3:
In this example, Drawable interface has only one method. Its implementation is provided
by Rectangle and Circle classes.
interface Drawable
{
void draw();
}
class Rectangle implements Drawable
{
public void draw()
{
System.out.println(“Drawing rectangle”);
}

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 33

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

}
class Circle implements Drawable
{
public void draw()
{
System.out.println(“Drawing circle”);
}
}
public class TestInterface
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
ET
Drawable d=new Circle();
d.draw();
}
C
}
Output:
SV

Drawing circle
Nested Interface
An interface can be declared as a member of a class or another interface. Such an inter-
face is called a member interface or a nested interface. A nested interface can be declared as
public, private, or protected.
Sample Code:
interface MyInterfaceA
{
void display();
interface MyInterfaceB
{
void myMethod();
}

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 34

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

}
public class NestedInterfaceDemo1 implements MyInterfaceA.MyInterfaceB
{
public void myMethod()
{
System.out.println(“Nested interface method”);
}
public static void main(String args[])
{
MyInterfaceA.MyInterfaceB obj= new NestedInterfaceDemo1();
obj.myMethod();
}
ET
}
Output:
Nested interface method
C
Differences between classes and interfaces
Both classes and Interfaces are used to create new reference types. A class is a collection
SV

of fields and methods that operate on fields. A class creates reference types and these refer-
ence types are used to create objects. A class has a signature and a body. The syntax of class
declaration is shown below:
class class_Name extends superclass implements interface_1,….interface_n
// class signature
{
//body of class.
}
Signature of a class has class’s name and information that tells whether the class has in-
herited another class. The body of a class has fields and methods that operate on those fields.
A Class is created using a keyword class.
When a class is instantiated, each object created contains a copy of fields and methods
with them. The fields and members declared inside a class can be static or nonstatic. Static
members value is constant for each object whereas, the non-static members are initialized by
each object differently according to its requirement.

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 35

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

Members of a class have access specifiers that decide the visibility and accessibility of
the members to the user or to the subclasses. The access specifiers are public, private and pro-
tected. A class can be inherited by another class using the access specifier which will decide
the visibility of members of a superclass (inherited class) in a subclass (inheriting class).
An interface has fully abstract methods (methods with nobody).  An interface is syntacti-
cally similar to the class but there is a major difference between class and interface that is a
class can be instantiated, but an interface can never be instantiated.
An interface is used to create the reference types. The importance of an interface in Java
is that, a class can inherit only a single class. To circumvent this restriction, the designers of
Java introduced a concept of interface. An interface declaration is syntactically similar to a
class, but there is no field declaration in interface and the methods inside an interface do not
have any implementation. An interface is declared using a keyword interface. 
Aspect for
Class Interface
comparison
An interface can never be instanti-
A class is instantiated to create
Basic
ET ated as the methods are unable to
objects.
perform any action on invoking.
Keyword class Interface
Access The members of a class can be The members of an interface are
specifier private, public or protected. always public.
C

The methods of a class are defined The methods in an interface are

Methods
to perform a specific action. purely abstract.
SV

A class can implement any num- An interface can extend multiple

inheritance ber of interfaces and can extend interfaces but cannot implement
only one class. any interface.
Inheritance
extends implements
keyword
An interface can never have a
A class can have constructors to
Constructor constructor as there is hardly any
initialize the variables.
variable to initialize.
class class_Name Interface interface_Name
{ {
//fields Type var_name=value;
Declaration
//Methods Type method1(parameter-list);
Syntax
} Type method2(parameter-list);
..
}

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 36

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

The following example shows that a class that implements one interface:
public interface interface_example
{
public void method1();
public string method2();
}
public class class_name implements interface_example
{
public void method1()
{
..
}
ET
public string method2()
{
…
C
}
}
SV

Inheritance between concrete (non-abstract) and abstract classes use extends keyword.

It is possible to extend only one class to another. Java does not support multiple inheri-
tance. However, multilevel inheritance i.e., any number of classes in a ladder is possible. For
example, in the following code class C extends the class B, where the class B extends class
A.
class A {}
class B extends A { }
class C extends B { }
Inheritance between classes (including abstract classes) and interfaces, use implements
keyword. 
To support multiple inheritance, it uses interfaces. So after implements keyword, there
can be any number of interfaces. For example, in the following code, class B extends only
one class A and two interfaces I1 and I2.

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 37

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

interface I1 {}
interface I2 {}
class A
class B extends A implements I1, I2
{
}
Inheritance between two interfaces, is possible with the use of extends keyword only.
For example, in the following code, interface I2 extends the interface I1.
interface I1 { }
interface I2 extends I1{ }
2.8 Object cloning
Object cloning refers to creation of exact copy of an object. It creates a new instance of
ET
the class of current object and initializes all its fields with exactly the contents of the corre-
sponding fields of this object. In Java, there is no operator to create copy of an object. Unlike
C++, in Java, if we use assignment operator then it will create a copy of reference variable
and not the object. This can be explained by taking an example. Following program demon-
strates the same.
C

// Java program to demonstrate that assignment operator creates a new reference to same
object.
SV

import java.io.*;
class sample
{
int a;
float b;
sample()
{
a = 10;
b = 20;
}
}
class Mainclass
{

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 38

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

public static void main(String[] args)

{
sample ob1 = new sample();
System.out.println(ob1.a + “ “ + ob1.b);
sample ob2 = ob1;
ob2.a = 100;
System.out.println(ob1.a+” “+ob1.b);
System.out.println(ob2.a+” “+ob2.b);
}
}
Output:
10 20.0
ET
100 20.0
100 20.0
Creating a copy using clone() method
C
The class whose object’s copy is to be made must have a public clone method in it or in
one of its parent class.
SV

• Every class that implements clone() should call super.clone() to obtain the cloned
object reference.
• The class must also implement java.lang.Cloneable interface whose object clone
we want to create otherwise it will throw CloneNotSupportedException when clone
method is called on that class’s object.
• Syntax:
• protected Object clone() throws CloneNotSupportedException
import java.util.ArrayList;
class sample1
{
int a, b;
}
class sample2 implements Cloneable
{

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 39

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

int c;
int d;
sample1 s = new sample1();
public Object clone() throws CloneNotSupportedException
{
return super.clone();
}
}
public class Mainclass
{
public static void main(String args[]) throws CloneNotSupportedException
{
ET
sample2 ob1 = new sample2();
ob1.c = 10;
ob1.d = 20;
C
ob1.s.a = 30;
ob1.s.b = 40;
SV

sample2 ob2 = (sample2)ob1.clone();

ob2.d = 100; //Change in primitive type of ob2 will not be reflected in ob1 field
ob2.s.a = 300; //Change in object type field will be reflected in both ob2 and
ob1(shallow copy)
System.out.println(ob1.c + “ “ + ob1.d + “ “ +ob1.s.a + “ “ + ob1.s.b);
System.out.println(ob2.c + “ “ + ob2.d + “ “ +ob2.s.a + “ “ + ob2.s.b);
}
}
Types of Object cloning
1. Deep Copy
2. Shallow Copy

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 40

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

Shallow copy 
Shallow copy is method of copying an object. It is the default in cloning. In this method
the fields of an old object ob1 are copied to the new object ob2. While copying the object type
field the reference is copied to ob2 i.e. object ob2 will point to same location as pointed out
by ob1. If the field value is a primitive type it copies the value of the primitive type. So, any
changes made in referenced objects will be reflected in other object.
Note:
Shallow copies are cheap and simple to make.
Deep Copy
To create a deep copy of object ob1 and place it in a new object ob2 then new copy of any
referenced objects fields are created and these references are placed in object ob2. This means any
changes made in referenced object fields in object ob1 or ob2 will be reflected only in that object
and not in the other. A deep copy copies all fields, and makes copies of dynamically allocated
memory pointed to by the fields. A deep copy occurs when an object is copied along with the
ET
objects to which it refers.

//Java program for deep copy using clone()

import java.util.ArrayList;
C
class Test
{
SV

int a, b;
}
class Test2 implements Cloneable
{
int c, d;
Test ob1 = new Test();
public Object clone() throws CloneNotSupportedException
{
// Assign the shallow copy to new refernce variable t
Test2 t1 = (Test2)super.clone();
t1.ob1 = new Test();
// Create a new object for the field c
// and assign it to shallow copy obtained,

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 41

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

// to make it a deep copy

return t1;
}
}
public class Main
{
public static void main(String args[]) throws CloneNotSupportedException
{
Test2 t2 = new Test2();
t2.c = 10;
t2.d = 20;
t2.ob1.a = 30;
ET
t2.ob1.b = 40;
Test2 t3 = (Test2)t2.clone();
t3.c = 100;
C
t3.ob1.a = 300;
System.out.println (t2.c + “ “ + t2.d + “ “ + t2.ob1.a + “ “ + t2.ob1.b);
SV

System.out.println (t3.c + “ “ + t3.d + “ “ + t3.ob1.a + “ “ + t3.ob1.b);

}
}
Output
10 20 30 40
100 20 300 0
Advantages of clone method:
• If we use assignment operator to assign an object reference to another reference
variable then it will point to same address location of the old object and no new copy
of the object will be created. Due to this any changes in reference variable will be
reflected in original object.
• If we use copy constructor, then we have to copy all of the data over explicitly i.e.
we have to reassign all the fields of the class in constructor explicitly. But in clone
method this work of creating a new copy is done by the method itself. So to avoid
extra processing we use object cloning.

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 42

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

2.9 Nested Classes

In Java, a class can have another class as its member. The class written within another
class is called the  nested class, and the class that holds the inner class is called the  outer
class.
Java inner class is defined inside the body of another class. Java inner class can be de-
clared private, public, protected, or with default access whereas an outer class can have only
public or default access. The syntax of nested class is shown below:
class Outer_Demo {
class Nested_Demo {
}
}
Types of Nested classes
There are two types of nested classes in java. They are non-static and static nested classes.
ET
The non-static nested classes are also known as inner classes.
• Non-static nested class (inner class)
○○ Member inner class
○○ Method Local inner class
C

○○ Anonymous inner class

• Static nested class
SV

Type Description
Member Inner Class A class created within class and outside method.
Anonymous Inner Class A class created for implementing interface or extending class.
Its name is decided by the java compiler.
Method Local Inner Class A class created within method.
Static Nested Class A static class created within class.
Nested Interface An interface created within class or interface.
2.10 Inner Classes (Non-static Nested Classes)
Inner classes can be used as the security mechanism in Java. Normally, a class cannot be
related with the access specifier private. However if a class is defined as a member of other
class, then the inner class can be made private. This class can have access to the private mem-
bers of a class.

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 43

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

2.44    Object Oriented Programming

The three types of inner classes are

• Member Inner Class
• Method-local Inner Class
• Anonymous Inner Class
Member Inner Class
The Member inner class is a class written within another class. Unlike a class, an inner
class can be private and once you declare an inner class private, it cannot be accessed from
an object outside the class.
The following program is an example for member inner class.
class Outer_class {
int n=20;
private class Inner_class {
public void display() {
ET
System.out.println(“This is an inner class”);
System.out.println(“n:”+n);
}
C

}
void print_inner() {
SV

Inner_class inn = new Inner_class();

inn.display();
}
}
public class Myclass {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Outer_class out= new Outer_class();
out.print_inner();
}
}
Output:
This is an inner class

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 44

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

Method-local Inner Class

In Java, a class can be written within a method. Like local variables of the method, the
scope of the inner class is restricted within the method. A method-local inner class can be
instantiated only within the method where the inner class is defined. The following program
shows how to use a method-local inner class. The following program is an example for Meth-
od-local Inner Class
public class Outer_class {
void Method1() {
int n = 100;
class MethodInner_class {
public void display() {
System.out.println(“This is method inner class “);
System.out.println(“n:”+n);
ET
}
}
MethodInner_class inn= new MethodInner_class();
C
inn.display();
}
SV

public static void main(String args[]) {

Outer_class out = new Outer_class();
out.Method1();
}
}
Output:
This is method inner class
n: 100
Anonymous Inner Class
An inner class declared without a class name is known as an anonymous inner class. The
anonymous inner classes can be created and instantiated at the same time. Generally, they are
used whenever you need to override the method of a class or an interface. The syntax of an
anonymous inner class is as follows –

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 45

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

abstract class Anonymous_Inner {

public abstract void Method1();
}
The following program is an example for anonymous inner class.
public class Outer_class {
public static void main(String args[]) {
Anonymous_Inner inn = new Anonymous_Inner() {
public void Method1() {
System.out.println(“This is the anonymous inner class”);
}
};
inn.Method1();
ET
}
}
Output:
C

This is the anonymous inner class

SV

Static Nested Class

A static inner class is a nested class which is a static member of the outer class. It can
be accessed without instantiating the outer class, using other static members. Just like static
members, a static nested class does not have access to the instance variables and methods of
the outer class. Instantiating a static nested class is different from instantiating an inner class.
The following program shows how to use a static nested class.
public class Outer_class {
static class inner_class{
public void Method1() {
System.out.println(“This is the nested class”);
}
}
public static void main(String args[]) {

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 46

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

Outer_class.inner_class obj = new Outer_class.inner_class();

obj.Method1();
}
}
Output:
This is the nested class
Advantage of java inner classes:
There are basically three advantages of inner classes in java. They are as follows:
• Nested classes represent a special type of relationship that is  it can access all the
members of outer class including private.
• Nested classes are used to develop more readable and maintainable code because it
logically group classes and interfaces in one place only.
ET
• It provides code optimization. That is it requires less code to write.
2.11 ArrayList
ArrayList is a part of collection framework. It is present in java.util package. It provides
us dynamic arrays in Java. Though, it may be slower than standard arrays but can be helpful
C
in programs where lots of manipulation in the array is needed.
• ArrayList inherits AbstractList class and implements List interface.
SV

• ArrayList is initialized by a size; however the size can increase if collection grows or
shrink if objects are removed from the collection.
• Java ArrayList allows us to randomly access the list.
• ArrayList cannot be used for primitive types, like int, char, etc.
• ArrayList in Java is much similar to vector in C++.
Java ArrayList class
Java ArrayList class extends AbstractList class which implements List interface. The List
interface extends Collection and Iterable interfaces in hierarchical order.

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 47

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

ET
Java ArrayList class uses a dynamic array for storing the elements. It inherits AbstractList
class and implements List interface.
The important points about Java ArrayList class are:
C
• Java ArrayList class can contain duplicate elements.
• Java ArrayList class maintains insertion order.
SV

• Java ArrayList class is non synchronized.

• Java ArrayList allows random access because array works at the index basis.
• In Java ArrayList class, manipulation is slow because a lot of shifting needs to be
occurred if any element is removed from the array list.
ArrayList class declaration
public class ArrayList<E>  extends AbstractList<E>  implements  List<E>,  RandomAc-
cess,  Cloneable,  Serializable  
Constructors of Java ArrayList
Constructor Description
ArrayList() It is used to build an empty array list.
ArrayList(Collection c) It is used to build an array list that is initialized with the
elements of the collection c.
ArrayList(int capacity) It is used to build an array list that has the specified initial
capacity.

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 48

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

Methods of Java ArrayList

Method Description
void add(int index, Object It is used to insert the specified element at the specified
element) position index in a list.
boolean addAll It is used to append all of the elements in the specified
(Collection c) collection to the end of this list, in the order that they are
returned by the specified collection’s iterator.
void clear() It is used to remove all of the elements from this list.
int lastIndexOf(Object o) It is used to return the index in this list of the last occurrence
of the specified element, or -1 if the list does not contain this
element.
Object[] toArray() It is used to return an array containing all of the elements in
this list in the correct order.
Object[] toArray It is used to return an array containing all of the elements in
ET
(Object[] a) this list in the correct order.
boolean add(Object o) It is used to append the specified element to the end of a list.
boolean addAll(int index, It is used to insert all of the elements in the specified
Collection c) collection into this list, starting at the specified position.
C
Object clone() It is used to return a shallow copy of an ArrayList.
int indexOf(Object o) It is used to return the index in this list of the first occurrence
SV

of the specified element, or -1 if the List does not contain this

element.
void trimToSize() It is used to trim the capacity of this ArrayList instance to be
the list’s current size.
import java.util.*;
class Arraylist_example{
public static void main(String args[]){
ArrayList<String> a1=new ArrayList<String>();
a1.add(“Bala”);
a1.add(“Mala”);
a1.add(“Vijay”);
ArrayList<String> a2=new ArrayList<String>();
a2.add(“kala”);
a2.add(“Banu”);

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 49

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

2.50    Object Oriented Programming

a1.addAll(a2);
Iterator itr=a1.iterator();
while(itr.hasNext()){
System.out.println(itr.next());
}
}
}
2.12 Java String
In general string is a sequence of characters. String is an object that represents a sequence
of characters. The java.lang.String class is used to create string object. In java, string is basi-
cally an object that represents sequence of char values. An array of characters works same as
java string. For example:
Java String class provides a lot of methods to perform operations on string such as com-
ET
pare(), concat(), equals(), split(), length(), replace(), compareTo(), intern(), substring() etc.
The java.lang.String class implements Serializable, Comparable and CharSequence in-
terfaces. The CharSequence interface is used to represent sequence of characters. It is imple-
mented by String, StringBuffer and StringBuilder classes. It means can create string in java
C
by using these 3 classes.
The string objects can be created using two ways.
SV

1. By String literal
2. By new Keyword
String Literal
Java String literal is created by using double quotes. For Example:
1. String s=”welcome”;  
Each time you create a string literal, the JVM checks the string constant pool first. If the
string already exists in the pool, a reference to the pooled instance is returned. If string doesn’t
exist in the pool, a new string instance is created and placed in the pool. For example:
String s1=”Welcome”;  
String s2=”Welcome”;  
In the above example only one object will be created. Firstly JVM will not find any string
object with the value “Welcome” in string constant pool, so it will create a new object. After
that it will find the string with the value “Welcome” in the pool, it will not create new object
but will return the reference to the same instance. To make Java more memory efficient (be-
cause no new objects are created if it exists already in string constant pool).

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 50

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

2. by new keyword
String s=new String(“Welcome”);
In such case, JVM will create a new string object in normal (non pool) heap memory and
the literal “Welcome” will be placed in the string constant pool. The variable s will refer to
the object in heap (non pool).
The java String is immutable i.e. it cannot be changed. Whenever we change any string,
a new instance is created. For mutable string, you can use StringBuffer and StringBuilder
classes.
The following program explains the creation of strings
public class String_Example{
public static void main(String args[]){
String s1=”java”;
char c[]={‘s’,’t’,’r’,’i’,’n’,’g’};
ET
String s2=new String(c);
String s3=new String(“example”);
System.out.println(s1);
C
System.out.println(s2);
System.out.println(s3);
SV

}}
Java String class methods
The java.lang.String class provides many useful methods to perform operations on se-
quence of char values.
Method Description
char charAt(int index) returns char value for the particular index
int length() returns string length
static String format(String format, returns formatted string
Object... args)
static String format(Locale l, String returns formatted string with given locale
format, Object... args)
String substring(int beginIndex) returns substring for given begin index
String substring(int beginIndex, int returns substring for given begin index and
endIndex) end index
boolean contains(CharSequence s) returns true or false after matching the se-
quence of char value

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 51

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

2.52    Object Oriented Programming

static String join(CharSequence delim- returns a joined string

iter, CharSequence... elements)
boolean equals(Object another) checks the equality of string with object
boolean isEmpty() checks if string is empty
String concat(String str) concatinates specified string
String replace(char old, char new) replaces all occurrences of specified char
value
String replace(CharSequence old, Char- replaces all occurrences of specified CharSe-
Sequence new) quence
static String equalsIgnoreCase(String compares another string. It doesn’t check
another) case.
String[] split(String regex) returns splitted string matching regex
String[] split(String regex, int limit) returns splitted string matching regex and
limit
String intern() returns interned string
ET
int indexOf(int ch) returns specified char value index
int indexOf(int ch, int fromIndex) returns specified char value index starting
with given index
int indexOf(String substring) returns specified substring index
C
int indexOf(String substring, int fro- returns specified substring index starting
mIndex) with given index
String toLowerCase() returns string in lowercase.
SV

String toLowerCase(Locale l) returns string in lowercase using specified

locale.
String toUpperCase() returns string in uppercase.
String toUpperCase(Locale l) returns string in uppercase using specified
locale.
String trim() removes beginning and ending spaces of this
string.
static String valueOf(int value) converts given type into string. It is over-
loaded
The following program is an example for String concat function:
class string_method{
public static void main(String args[]){
String s=”Java”;

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 52

SRI VIDYA COLLEGE OF ENGG & TECH Lecture Notes

Inheritance and Interfaces    2.53

s=s.concat(“ Programming”);
System.out.println(s);
}
}
Output:
Java Programming

ET
C
SV

CS8392 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 53