Spectrum arc lamps, overloading,

power disturbances to
converters appliances
Voltage Flicker Frequency of Arc furnaces, Human health,
Occurrence, arc lamps irritation,
Modulation headache,
Frequency migraine
Voltage Intermittent Load Changes Protection
Fluctuations malfunction,
light intensity
changes
Power Faults, Damage to
Frequency disturbances in generator and
Variations isolated turbine shafts
customer-owned
systems and
islanding
operations

1.7 Concepts of Transients

Transient over voltages in electrical transmission and distribution networks result
from the unavoidable effects of lightning strike and network switching operations. Response
of an electrical network to a sudden change in network conditions.
Oscillation is an effect caused by a transient response of a circuit or system. It is a
momentary event preceding the steady state (electronics) during a sudden change of a circuit.
An example of transient oscillation can be found in digital (pulse) signals in computer
networks. Each pulse produces two transients, an oscillation resulting from the sudden rise in
voltage and another oscillation from the sudden drop in voltage. This is generally considered
an undesirable effect as it introduces variations in the high and low voltages of a signal,
causing instability.
Types of transient:
1. Impulsive transient
2. Oscillatory transient
1.7.1 Impulse Transient
A sudden, non power frequency change in the steady state condition of voltage or
current that is unidirectional in polarity as shown in figure 1.1.

Introduction to Power Quality Page 19

 Fig. 1.1 Impulse Transient
1.7.2 Oscillatory Transient
A sudden, non power frequency change in the steady state condition of voltage or
current that is bidirectional in polarity as shown in figure 1.2.

Fig. 1.2 Oscillatory Transient

1.8 Short duration variations – Interruption
The complete loss of voltage on one or more phase conductors for a time less than 1
min as shown in figure 1.3.

Fig. 1.3 Short Duration Interruption

1.9 Long duration variations – Sustained Interruption
The complete loss of voltage on one or more phase conductors for a time greater than
1 min.

Fig. 1.4 Long Duration Interruption

1.10 Sags and Swells
1.10.1 Voltage Sag
A voltage sag or voltage dip is a short duration reduction in RMS voltage which can
be caused by a short circuit, overload or starting of electric motors. Voltage sag happens
when the RMS voltage decreases between 10 and 90 percent of nominal voltage for one-half
cycle to one minute. Some references define the duration of sag for a period of 0.5 cycles to a
few seconds, and longer duration of low voltage would be called “sustained sag" as shown in
figure 1.5.
There are several factors which cause voltage sag to happen:
 Since the electric motors draw more current when they are starting than when they are
running at their rated speed, starting an electric motor can be a reason of voltage sag.
 When a line-to-ground fault occurs, there will be voltage sag until the protective
switch gear operates.
 Some accidents in power lines such as lightning or falling an object can be a cause of
line-to-ground fault and voltage sag as a result.
 Sudden load changes or excessive loads can cause voltage sag.
 Depending on the transformer connections, transformers energizing could be another
reason for happening voltage sags.
  Voltage sags can arrive from the utility but most are caused by in-building equipment.
In residential homes, we usually see voltage sags when the refrigerator, air-
conditioner or furnace fan starts up.

Fig. 1.5 Voltage Sag

1.10.2 Voltage Swell

Swell - an increase to between 1.1pu and 1.8pu in RMS voltage or current at the power
frequency durations from 0.5 to 1 minute. In the case of a voltage swell due to a single line- to-
ground (SLG) fault on the system, the result is a temporary voltage rise on the un-faulted
phases, which last for the duration of the fault. This is shown in the figure 1.6,

Fig. 1.6 Voltage Swell

Instantaneous Voltage Swell Due to SLG fault
 Voltage swells can also be caused by the deenergization of a very large load.
 It may cause breakdown of components on the power supplies of the equipment,
though the effect may be a gradual, accumulative effect. It can cause control problems
and hardware failure in the equipment, due to overheating that could eventually result
to shutdown. Also, electronics and other sensitive equipment are prone to damage due
to voltage swell.
 Voltage Swell Magnitude Duration
Instantaneous 1.1 to 1.8 PU 0.5 to 30 cycles
Momentary 1.1 to 1.4 PU 30 cycles to 3 sec
Temporary 1.1 to 1.2 PU 3 sec to 1 min

1.10.3 Voltage Imbalance

In a balanced sinusoidal supply system the three line-neutral voltages are equal in
magnitude and are phase displaced from each other by 120 degrees as shown in figure 1.7.
Any differences that exist in the three voltage magnitudes and/or a shift in the phase
separation from 120 degrees is said to give rise to an unbalanced supply as illustrated in
Figure 1.8.

Fig. 1.7 Balanced System

Fig. 1.8 Unbalanced System

The utility can be the source of unbalanced voltages due to malfunctioning

equipment, including blown capacitor fuses, open-delta regulators, and open-delta
transformers. Open-delta equipment can be more susceptible to voltage unbalance than closed-
delta since they only utilize two phases to perform their transformations. Also, voltage
unbalance can also be caused by uneven single-phase load distribution among the three
phases - the likely culprit for a voltage unbalance of less than 2%. Furthermore, severe cases
(greater than 5%) can be attributed to single-phasing in the utility‟s distribution lateral
feeders because of a blown fuse due to fault or overloading on one phase.

1.10.4 Voltage Fluctuation

Voltage fluctuations can be described as repetitive or random variations of the voltage
envelope due to sudden changes in the real and reactive power drawn by a load. The
characteristics of voltage fluctuations depend on the load type and size and the power system
capacity.
Figure 1.9 illustrates an example of a fluctuating voltage waveform. The voltage
waveform exhibits variations in magnitude due to the fluctuating nature or intermittent
operation of connected loads. The frequency of the voltage envelope is often referred to as
the flicker frequency. Thus there are two important parameters to voltage fluctuations, the
frequency of fluctuation and the magnitude of fluctuation. Both of these components are
significant in the adverse effects of voltage fluctuations.

Fig. 1.9 Fluctuating Voltage Waveform

Voltage fluctuations are caused when loads draw currents having significant sudden
or periodic variations. The fluctuating current that is drawn from the supply causes additional
voltage drops in the power system leading to fluctuations in the supply voltage. Loads that
exhibit continuous rapid variations are thus the most likely cause of voltage fluctuations.
 Arc furnaces
 Arc welders
  Installations with frequent motor starts (air conditioner units, fans)
 Motor drives with cyclic operation (mine hoists, rolling mills)
 Equipment with excessive motor speed changes (wood chippers, car shredders)

1.10.5 Waveform Distortion

Waveform distortion is defined as a steady-state deviation from an ideal sine wave of
power frequency principally characterized by the spectral content of the deviation. There are
five primary types of waveform distortion:
 DC offset
 Harmonics
 Inter harmonics
 Notching
 Noise
a) DC Offset: The presence of a dc voltage or current in an ac power system is termed
dc offset. This can occur as the result of a geomagnetic disturbance or asymmetry of
electronic power converters. Incandescent light bulb life extenders, for example, may
consist of diodes that reduce the RMS voltage supplied to the light bulb by half-wave
rectification. Direct current in ac networks can have a detrimental effect by biasing
transformer cores so they saturate in normal operation. This causes additional heating
and loss of transformer life. Direct current may also cause the electrolytic erosion of
grounding electrodes and other connectors.
b) Harmonics: Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are
integer multiples of the frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate
(termed the fundamental frequency usually 50 or 60 Hz). Periodically distorted
waveforms can be decomposed into a sum of the fundamental frequency and the
harmonics. Harmonic distortion originates in the nonlinear characteristics of devices
and loads on the power system.
c) Inter harmonics: Voltages or currents having frequency components that are not
integer multiples of the frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate
(e.g., 50 or 60 Hz) are called inter harmonics. They can appear as discrete frequencies
or as a wideband spectrum. The main sources of inter harmonic waveform distortion
are static frequency converters, cycloconverters, induction furnaces and arcing
devices. Power line carrier signals can also be considered as inter harmonics.

Introduction to Power Quality Page 25

 d) Noise: Noise is defined as unwanted electrical signals with broadband spectral
content lower than 200 kHz superimposed upon the power system voltage or current
in phase conductors, or found on neutral conductors or signal lines.
Noise in power systems can be caused by power electronic devices, control
circuits, arcing equipment, loads with solid-state rectifiers, and switching power
supplies. Noise problems are often exacerbated by improper grounding that fails to
conduct noise away from the power system. Basically, noise consists of any unwanted
distortion of the power signal that cannot be classified as harmonic distortion or
transients. Noise disturbs electronic devices such as microcomputer and
programmable controllers. The problem can be mitigated by using filters, isolation
transformers, and line conditioners.

1.11 Power Frequency Variations

Power frequency variations are a deviation from the nominal supply frequency. The
supply frequency is a function of the rotational speed of the generators used to produce the
electrical energy. At any instant, the frequency depends on the balance between the load and
the capacity of the available generation as shown in figure 1.10.
A frequency variation occurs if a generator becomes un-synchronous with the power
system, causing an inconsistency that is manifested in the form of a variation. The specified
frequency variation should be within the limits ±2.5% Hz at all times for grid network.

Fig. 1.10 Frequency Variation

1.12 International Standards of Power Quality
a) IEEE Standards
 IEEE power quality standards: Institute Of Electrical and Electronics Engineer.
 IEEE power quality standards: International Electro Technical Commission.
  IEEE power quality standards: Semiconductor Equipment and Material
International.
 IEEE power quality standards: The International Union for Electricity
Applications
 IEEE Std 519-1992: IEEE Recommended practices and requirements for
Harmonic control in Electric power systems.
 IEEE Std 1159-1995: IEEE Recommended practices for monitoring electrical
power
 IEEE std 141-1993, IEEE Recommended practice for electric power distribution
for industrial plants.
 IEEE std 1159-1995, IEEE recommended practice for Monitoring electrical power
quality.
b) IEC Standards
 Definitions and methodology 61000-1-X
 Environment 61000-2-X
 Limits 61000-3-X
 Tests and measurements 61000-4-X
 Installation and mitigation 61000-5-X
 Generic immunity and emissions 61000-6-X

1.13 CBEMA and ITI Curves

One of the most frequently employed displays of data to represent the power quality is
the so-called CBEMA curve. A portion of the curve adapted from IEEE Standard 4469 that
we typically use in our analysis of power quality monitoring results is shown in figure 1.11.
This curve was originally developed by CBEMA to describe the tolerance of
mainframe computer equipment to the magnitude and duration of voltage variations on the
power system. While many modern computers have greater tolerance than this, the curve has
become a standard design target for sensitive equipment to be applied on the power system
and a common format for reporting power quality variation data.
The axes represent magnitude and duration of the event. Points below the envelope
are presumed to cause the load to drop out due to lack of energy. Points above the envelope
are presumed to cause other malfunctions such as insulation failure, overvoltage trip, and

Introduction to Power Quality Page 27

over excitation. The upper curve is actually defined down to 0.001 cycle where it has a value
of about 375 percent voltage.
We typically employ the curve only from 0.1 cycles and higher due to limitations in
power quality monitoring instruments and differences in opinion over defining the magnitude
values in the sub cycle time frame. The CBEMA organization has been replaced by ITI, and a
modified curve has been developed that specifically applies to common 120-V computer
equipment as shown in figure 1.12. The concept is similar to the CBEMA curve. Although
developed for 120V computer equipment, the curve has been applied to general power quality
evaluation like its predecessor curve.
Both curves are used as a reference in this book to define the withstand capability of
various loads and devices for protection from power quality variations. For display of large
quantities of power quality monitoring data, we frequently add a third axis to the plot to
denote the number of events within a certain predefined cell of magnitude and duration.

Fig. 1.11 A portion of the CBEMA curve commonly used as a design target for equipment
And a format for reporting power quality variation data
 Fig. 1.12 ITI curve for susceptibility of 120-V computer equipment

1.14 Summary
Recently, power quality has become an important subject and area of research
because of its increasing awareness and impacts on the consumers, manufacturers, and
utilities. There are a number of economic and reliability issues for satisfactory operation of
electrical equipment. As power quality problems are increasing manifold due to the use of solid-
state controllers, which cannot be dispensed due to many financial benefits, energy
conservation, and other production benefits, the research and development in mitigation
techniques for power quality problems is also becoming relevant and important to limit the
pollution of the supply system. In such a situation, it is quite important to study the causes,
effects and mitigation techniques for power quality problems.

1.15 Review Questions

Short Answer Questions
1. What is power quality?
2. What are the power quality problems in AC systems?
3. Why is power quality important?
 4. What are the causes of power quality problems?
5. What are the effects of power quality problems?
6. What is a nonlinear load?
7. What is voltage sag (dip)?
8. What is voltage swell?
9. What are the harmonics?
10. What are the inter harmonics?
11. What are the sub harmonics?
12. What is the role of a shunt passive power filter?
13. What is the role of a series passive power filter?
14. What is an active power filter?
15. What is the role of a shunt active power filter?
16. What is the role of a series active power filter?
17. What is the role of a DSTATCOM?
18. What is the role of a DVR?
19. What is the role of a UPQC?
20. What is a PFC?
21. What is an IPQC?
22. Why is the excessive neutral current present in a three-phase four-wire system?
23. How can the excessive neutral current be eliminated?
24. Which are the standards for harmonic current limits?
25. What are the permissible limits on harmonic current?
Essay Questions
1. Define Power quality. Explain the reasons for increased concern in power quality.
2. What are the major power quality issues? Explain in detail.
3. Explain briefly about international standards of power quality.
4. What are various terms used in power quality? Explain them in detail.
5. Distinguish between power quality, voltage stability and current quality.
6. Explain the different terminologies used in power quality.
7. Explain the need for power quality standardization and the causes for PQ
deterioration. Hence explain the methods for improving it.

Introduction to Power Quality Page 30

 UNIT – II
VOLTAGE SAG AND INTERRUPTION
TOPICS COVERED: Introduction – Sources of Sags and Interruptions – Estimating
Voltage Sag Performance – Area of Vulnerability – Equipment Sensitivity to Voltage
Sags – Voltage Sags due to Induction Motor Starting – Estimation of the Sag Severity –
Mitigation of Voltage Sags – Motor Generator Set – Active Series Compensators –
Static Transfer Switches – Fast Transfer Switches.

2.1 Introduction
Voltage variations, such as voltage sags and momentary interruptions are two of the
most important power quality concerns for customers. Voltage sags is the most common type
of power quality disturbance in the distribution system. It can be caused by fault in the
electrical network or by the starting of a large induction motor. Voltage sag is a reduction in
voltage for a short time. A voltage sag or voltage dip is a short duration reduction in RMS
voltage which can be caused by a short circuit, overload or starting of electric motors.

Fig. 2.1 Voltage sag caused by an SLG fault (a) RMS waveform for voltage Sag event. (b)
Voltage sag waveform
2.2 Sources of Sags and Interruption
A sudden increase in load results in a corresponding sudden drop in voltage. Any
sudden increase in load, if large enough, will cause a voltage sag in,
 Motors
 Faults cause the voltage sag.
 Switching operation
Since the electric motors draw more current when they are starting than when they are
running at their rated speed, starting an electric motor can be a reason of voltage sag. When a
line-to-ground fault occurs, there will be voltage sag until the protective switch gear operates.
Some accidents in power lines such as lightning or falling an object can be a cause of line-to-
ground fault and voltage sag as a result.
Sudden load changes or excessive loads can cause voltage sag. Depending on the
transformer connections, transformers energizing could be another reason for happening
voltage sags. Voltage sags can arrive from the utility but most are caused by in-building
equipment. In residential homes, we usually see voltage sags when the refrigerator, air-
conditioner or furnace fan starts up.

2.3 Estimating Voltage Sag Performance

It is important to understand the expected voltage sag performance of the supply
system so that facilities can be designed and equipment specifications developed to assure the
optimum operation of production facilities. The following is a general procedure for working
with industrial customers to assure compatibility between the supply system characteristics
and the facility operation,
 Determine the number and characteristics of voltage sags that result from
transmission system faults.
 Determine the number and characteristics of voltage sags that result from distribution
system faults (for facilities that are supplied from distribution systems).
 Determine the equipment sensitivity to voltage sags. This will determine the actual
performance of the production process based on voltage sag performance calculated
in steps 1 and 2.
 Evaluate the economics of different solutions that could improve the performance,
either on the supply system or within the customer facility.

Introduction to Power Quality Page 32

2.3.1 Area of Vulnerability
The concept of an area of vulnerability has been developed to help evaluate the
likelihood of sensitive equipment being subjected to voltage lower than its minimum voltage
sag ride-through capability. The latter term is defined as the minimum voltage magnitude a
piece of equipment can withstand or tolerate without disoperation or failure. This is also
known as the equipment voltage sag immunity or susceptibility limit. An area of vulnerability
is determined by the total circuit miles of exposure to faults that can cause voltage
magnitudes at an end-user facility to drop below the equipment minimum voltage sag ride-
through capability. Figure 2.2 shows an example of an area of vulnerability diagram for
motor contactor and adjustable-speed-drive loads at an end-user facility served from the
distribution system. The loads will be subject to faults on both the transmission system and
the distribution system.

Fig. 2.2 Illustration of an area of vulnerability

2.3.2 Equipment Sensitivity to Voltage Sags

Equipment within an end-user facility may have different sensitivity to voltage sags.
Equipment sensitivity to voltage sags is very dependent on the specific load type, control
settings, and applications. Consequently, it is often difficult to identify which characteristics
of a given voltage sag are most likely to cause equipment to misoperate. The most commonly
used characteristics are the duration and magnitude of the sag. Other less commonly used
characteristics include phase shift and unbalance, missing voltage, three-phase voltage
unbalance during the sag event, and the point-in-the-wave at which the sag initiates and
terminates. Generally, equipment sensitivity to voltage sags can be divided into three
categories,
a) Equipment sensitive to only the magnitude of voltage sag.
b) Equipment sensitive to both the magnitude and duration of voltage sag.
c) Equipment sensitive to characteristics other than magnitude and duration.

2.3.2.1 Equipment Sensitive to only the Magnitude of Voltage Sag

This group includes devices such as under voltage relays, process controls, motor
drive controls, and many types of automated machines (e.g., semiconductor manufacturing
equipment). Devices in this group are sensitive to the minimum (or maximum) voltage
magnitude experienced during a sag (or swell). The duration of the disturbance is usually of
secondary importance for these devices.

2.3.2.2 Equipment Sensitive to both the Magnitude and Duration of Voltage Sag
This group includes virtually all equipment that uses electronic power supplies. Such
equipment misoperates or fails when the power supply output voltage drops below specified
values. Thus, the important characteristic for this type of equipment is the duration that the
RMS voltage is below a specified threshold at which the equipment trips.

2.3.2.3 Equipment Sensitive to characteristics other than Magnitude and Duration

Some devices are affected by other sag characteristics such as the phase unbalance
during the sag event, the point-in-the wave at which the sag is initiated, or any transient
oscillations occurring during the disturbance. These characteristics are more subtle than
magnitude and duration, and their impacts are much more difficult to generalize. As a result,
the RMS variation performance indices defined here are focused on the more common
magnitude and duration characteristics.
For end users with sensitive processes, the voltage sag ride-through capability is
usually the most important characteristic to consider. These loads can generally be impacted
by very short duration events, and virtually all voltage sag conditions last at least 4 or 5
cycles (unless the fault is cleared by a current-limiting fuse). Thus, one of the most common
methods to quantify equipment susceptibility to voltage sags is using a magnitude-duration
plot as shown in figure 2.3. It shows the voltage sag magnitude that will cause equipment to
misoperate as a function of the sag duration.

Introduction to Power Quality Page 34

 The curve labeled CBEMA represents typical equipment sensitivity characteristics.
The curve was developed by the CBEMA and was adopted in IEEE 446. Since the
association reorganized in 1994 and was subsequently renamed the Information Technology
Industry Council (ITI), the CBEMA curve was also updated and renamed the ITI curve.
Typical loads will likely trip off when the voltage is below the CBEMA or ITI curves.
The curve labeled ASD represents an example ASD voltage sag ride through
capability for a device that is very sensitive to voltage sags. It trips for sags below 0.9 pu that
last for only 4 cycles. The contactor curve represents typical contactor sag ride-through
characteristics. It trips for voltage sags below 0.5 pu that last for more than 1 cycle.
The area of vulnerability for motor contactors shown in Fig. 2.5 indicates that faults
within this area will cause the end-user voltage to drop below 0.5 pu. Motor contactors
having a minimum voltage sag ride-through capability of 0.5 pu would have tripped out when
a fault causing a voltage sag with duration of more than 1 cycle occurs within the area of
vulnerability. However, faults outside this area will not cause the voltage to drop below 0.5
pu.

Fig 2.3 Typical equipment voltage sag ride through capability curves

2.3.3 Transmission system sag performance evaluation

The voltage sag performance for a given customer facility will depend on whether the
customer is supplied from the transmission system or from the distribution system. For a
customer supplied from the transmission system, the voltage sag performance will depend on