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SQL FOR Data Science

 Content:
● Introduc on to Database
● Introduc on to SQL (Structured Query Language)
● SQL Commands : DDL, DML, DCL, TCL, DQL
● DDL (Data De ni on Language)
1. CREATE
2. ALTER
3. TRUNCATE
4. DROP
● DML (Data Manipula on language) + DQL (Data Query Language)
CRUD OPERATIONS
1. INSERT
2. SELECT
3. UPDATE
4. DELETE
● SQL CONSTRAINTS:
1. NOT NULL
2. UNIQUE
3. PRIMARY KEY
4. FOREIGN KEY
5. CHECK
6. DEFAULT
7. AUTO_INCREMENT
● SQL CLAUSES
1. WHERE:
OPERATORS IN SQL
2. DISTINCT
3. LIMIT
4. ORDER BY
5. GROUP BY
6. HAVING:
AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS IN SQL
7. UNION & UNION ALL

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Corporate Training Centre Pune.

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 ● SUBQUERIES
● SQL JOINS
1. INNER JOIN
2. LEFT JOIN
3. RIGHT JOIN
4. FULL JOIN
● ANALYTICAL FUNCTIONS
1. ROW_NUMBER ()
2. LEAD ()
3. LAG ()
4. RANK
5. DENSE_RANK ()

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 DATABASE:
• A database is an organized collec on of data, stored in a computer system.
• It is an electronic system that makes data access, manipula on, retrieval, storage, and
management very easy.

DBMS:
DBMS is the set of applica on program used to access, update and manage the data.
The goal of DBMS is to provide an environment that is both convenient and e cient to use
for :
• Storing data into the database.
• Retrieving data from the database

RDBMS:
• It is a database management system based on a rela onal model. It facilitates you to store,
access, and manipulate the data stored in rela onal databases.
• Rela onal database stores the data in the collec on of tables.
• Examples of rela onal database management systems are MySQL, SQL Server, Oracle,
PostgreSQL, etc.

DATABASE TABLES:
Data in rela onal databases is stored in the form of tables. A database o en contains one or
mul ple tables. Each table is de ned with a unique name and contains rows and columns.

Example - Employee table:

Emp_id emp_name Salary Location
1001 Aditya 50000 Mumbai

1002 Rahul 450000 Pune

1003 Rohit 40000 NULL

1004 Saurav 60000 Chennai

1005 Manish 30000 Mumbai

The table above contains 5 rows/records (one for each employee) and 4 columns (emp_id,
emp_name, salary, loca on ).

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 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL):

• SQL is a non procedural programming language designed for managing data in rela onal
database management systems (RDBMS).
• SQL was originally developed by IBM for querying, de ning and altering rela onal
databases.
• SQL is not case-sensi ve. Generally, SQL keywords are wri en in upper case.
• Using SQL, we can query our database in several ways using English like statements, every
SQL statement is called SQL Query.
• SQL follows some unique set of rules and guidelines called syntax.
• every SQL query ends with a semicolon (;). It is a standard way in a database system in
which more than one SQL statement is used in the same call.
• All RDBMS like MySQL, Oracle, SQL Server, Sybase, PostgreSQL, and SQL Server use SQL as
a standard database language

What can SQL do?

• SQL can execute queries against a database
• SQL can retrieve data from a database
• SQL can insert records in a database
• SQL can update records in a database
• SQL can delete records from a database
• SQL can create new databases and database objects
• SQL can set permissions on tables and views

• Using Comments in SQL

Using comments in the SQL script is important to make the script easier to read and
understand.
In SQL we can use 2 di erent kinds of comments:
• Single-line comment
• Mul ple-line comment

1. Single-line comment
We can comment one line at the me using “--” before the text you want to comment out.
Syntax: -- text_of_comment

2. Mul ple-line comment

We can comment several line using “/*” in the start of the comment and “*/” in the end of
the comment.
Syntax:
/* text_of_comment text_of_comment */

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 SQL COMMANDS:
SQL commands are instruc ons. these are used to communicate with the database and
perform CRUD opera ons (Create, Read, Update, Delete).

Types of SQL commands:

There are ve types of SQL commands as below:

1. DDL (Data De ni on Language):

The Data De ni on Language (DDL) manages the structure.

DDL Commands: CREATE, ALTER, TRUNCATE ,DROP

SQL Description
CREATE Creates a database and database objects like tables and views

DROP Deletes an object from a database

TRUNCATE Deletes the en re data from a table

Modi es the structure of an exis ng object in various ways, ex. Adding a
ALTER
column

2. DML (Data Manipula on Language):

These commands are used to manipulate/modify the data stored in a database.

DML Commands: INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE

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 3. DCL (Data Control Language):

These commands are used to grant or revoke database access. Only database administrators
have the access to perform these ac vi es.
DCL Commands : GRANT, REVOKE

4. TCL (Transac on Control Language):

These commands are used to manage a database transac on. A transac on is a group of
tasks that can have mul ple INSERTs, DELETEs, and UPDATEs.
TCL Commands : COMMIT, ROLLBACK, SAVEPOINT

5. DQL (Data Query Language):

This command is used to read data from database.
DQL Command : SELECT

1. DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE (DDL):

1.1. CREATE:
Create command is used to create database, and database objects like tables and views.

1.1.1. CREATE DATABASE:

Syntax:
CREATE DATABASE Database_name;

Example: CREATE DATABASE db_dev;

To start using this database created above, we need to use below syntax:
Syntax:

USE database_name;

Example:
USE db_dev;

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 1.1.2. CREATE TABLE:

CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a table with its de ned structure.
CREATE TABLE Table_name
(
Column1 datatype,
Column2 datatype,
…);

The column parameter speci es the name of the columns/ elds in the table.
The datatype parameter speci es the type of data a column can hold (e.g. varchar, char, int,
date, etc)

Example:
The following example creates an employee table that contains four columns emp_id,
emp_name, salary & loca on.

CREATE TABLE employee

(emp_id int,
emp_name varchar(10),
salary int,
loca on varchar(20));

An empty employee table will now look like below:

Table name: employee

Emp_id emp_name Salary Location
Amir

To check the structure of any database table, we can use DESC command.
DESC stands for describe. This basically gives the structural details of an exis ng table

Syntax:
DESC Table_name;

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 Example: DESC employee;

Output:
FIELD TYPE NULL KEY DEFAULT EXTRA
Emp_id Int YES NULL

emp_name varchar(10) YES NULL

Salary Int YES NULL

Location varchar(20) YES NULL

Below query will help us get the de ni on of exis ng database table

SHOW CREATE TABLE Table_name;

Example:
SHOW CREATE TABLE employee;

Output:
CREATE TABLE `employee` (
`emp_id` int DEFAULT NULL,
`emp_name` varchar(10) DEFAULT NULL,
`salary` int DEFAULT NULL,
`loca on` varchar(20) DEFAULT NULL
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=u 8mb4 COLLATE=u 8mb4_0900_ai_ci

1.2. ALTER:

• ALTER statements can be used to modify the exis ng table structure.

• Modi ca ons, like adding, renaming, and dele ng a column or modifying column’s
datatype can be done using this command.

1.2.1. ADD COLUMN:

Syntax: To ADD COLUMN at the end of the table

ALTER TABLE table_name ADD COLUMN column_name datatype;

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 Syntax: To add column as the rst column of the table, use below syntax
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD COLUMN column_name datatype FIRST;

Syntax: To add a column a er a speci c column in a table, use below syntax :

ALTER TABLE table_name ADD COLUMN column_name datatype AFTER
exis ng_column_name;

1.2.2. MODIFY COLUMN

Syntax: To change the data type of a column in a table

ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY COLUMN column_name new_datatype;

1.2.3. RENAME COLUMN

Syntax: To rename a column ,use below syntax:

ALTER TABLE table_name RENAME COLUMN exis ng_column_name TO
new_column_name;

1.2.4. DROP COLUMN

Syntax: To remove a column from table, use below syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name DROP COLUMN column_name;

1.3. TRUNCATE:
The TRUNCATE statement can be used to DELETE all rows from table/empty the table.
Syntax:
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

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 1.4. DROP:

A DROP statement is used to delete/drop a database or other database objects completely.

Syntax:
DROP DATABASE database_name;

DROP TABLE table_name;

2. DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE (DML) + DATA QUERY LANGUAGE(DQL):

CRUD Opera ons:

The acronym CRUD refers to all of the major func ons that need to be
implemented in a rela onal database.
Operation SQL Description

CREATE INSERT
Insert data into database
DATA INTO

READ SELECT Retrieve/read data from database

UPDATE UPDATE Updates data from a database

DELETE DELETE Deletes data from a database

CRUD stands for CREATE(INSERT INTO), READ(SELECT), UPDATE, and DELETE

statements in SQL.

2.1. INSERT:

INSERT command is used to insert data into the table.

It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in di erent ways given below:

2.1.1. Specify both the column names and the values to be inserted:
Syntax:
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3,…) values(value1,
value2, value3,…);

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 Example:
INSERT INTO employee
(emp_id, emp_name, salary, loca on)
VALUES
(1001, 'Aditya', 50000,'Mumbai');

2.1.2. You do not need to specify the column names in the SQL query If you are adding
values for all the columns of the table,
however, make sure the order of the values is in the same order as the
columns in the table.

Syntax:
INSERT INTO table_name values(value1, value2, value3,…);

Example:
INSERT INTO employee
VALUES
(1002,'Rahul', 45000,'Pune');

2.1.3. We can also insert mul ple records using a single INSERT INTO query.
Syntax:
INSERT INTO table_name
(column1, column2, column3,…)
values(value1, value2, value3,…)
(value1, value2, value3,…);

Example :
INSERT INTO employee (emp_id, emp_name, salary, loca on)
VALUES
(1003,'Rohit',40000,NULL),
(1004,'Saurav',60000,'Chennai'),
(1005,'Manish',30000,'Mumbai');

2.2. SELECT:
SELECT command is used to read data from database.

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 Syntax:
SELECT * FROM table_name;

Example:
SELECT * FROM employee;

Output:
Emp_id emp_name Salary Location
1001 Aditya 50000 Mumbai

1002 Rahul 45000 Pune

1003 Rohit 40000 NULL

1004 Saurav 60000 Chennai

1005 Manish 30000 Mumbai

Here, * represents all columns from a table.

FROM clause is used to specify a data source, which can either be a table, view or a
subquery.

To read speci c columns from a table, use below syntax:

SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_name;

Example:

SELECT emp_id, emp_name, salary FROM employee;

Output:
Emp_id emp_name Salary
1001 Aditya 50000

1002 Rahul 45000

1003 Rohit 40000

1004 Saurav 60000

1005 Manish 30000

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 2.3. UPDATE:

The UPDATE statement is used to modify the exis ng data from a table.

Syntax:
UPDATE table_name
SET column_name1=new_value,
column_name2=new_value;

Example:
The following SQL query update the employee table with a new Loca on for all rows.
UPDATE employee SET loca on = Benguluru;

Table Before update:

Emp_id emp_name Salary Location
1001 Aditya 50000 Mumbai

1002 Rahul 45000 Pune

1003 Rohit 40000 NULL

1004 Saurav 60000 Chennai

1005 Manish 30000 Mumbai

Table A er update:
Emp_id emp_name Salary Location
1001 Aditya 50000 Benguluru

1002 Rahul 45000 Benguluru

1003 Rohit 40000 Benguluru

1004 Saurav 60000 Benguluru

1005 Manish 30000 Benguluru

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 CASE Statement:
The CASE statement goes through condi ons and return a value when the rst condi on is
met (like an IF-THEN-ELSE statement). So, once a condi on is true, it will stop reading and
return the result.
• If no condi ons are true, it will return the value in the ELSE clause.
• If there is no ELSE part and no condi ons are true, it returns NULL.
• Else, will have the original column value.Syntax:
UPDATE table_name SET column_name=
CASE column_name
WHEN condi on THEN result1
WHEN condi on THEN result2
ELSE result
END;

Example:
The following SQL query update the employee table with a di erent Loca on for all rows
based on a condi on.
The rows which does not sa sfy any of these condi ons, will have original loca on value.

UPDATE employee SET loca on=

CASE empid
WHEN 1001 THEN 'Chennai'
WHEN 1003 THEN 'Mumbai'
WHEN 1005 THEN 'Benguluru'
ELSE loc
END;

Table before update:

Emp_id emp_name Salary Location
1001 Aditya 50000 Mumbai

1002 Rahul 45000 Pune

1003 Rohit 40000 NULL

1004 Saurav 60000 Chennai

1005 Manish 30000 Mumbai

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 Table a er update:
Emp_id emp_name Salary Location
1001
Aditya 50000 Chennai

1002 Rahul 45000 Pune

1003 Rohit 40000 Mumbai

1004 Saurav 60000 Chennai

1005 Manish 30000 Benguluru

2.4. DELETE:

The DELETE statement is used to DELETE rows from a table.

Syntax:
DELETE FROM table_name;

Example:
The following DELETE statement will delete all rows from an employee table.

DELETE FROM employee;

Table a er delete:
Emp_id emp_name Salary Location

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 CONSTRAINTS:

SQL constraints are used to specify rules for the data in a table.
• SQL constraints are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table.
• This ensures the accuracy and reliability of the data in the table.
• If there is any viola on between the constraint and the data ac on, the ac on is aborted.

Constraint Description

NOT NULL Ensures that a NULL value can not be stored in a column

UNIQUE This constraint makes sure that all the values in a column are di erent

CHECK This constraint ensures that all the values in a column satisfy a speci c
condition
DAFAULT This constraint consists of default value for a column when no value is
speci ed
PRIMARY Ensures that the column value in every row is unique and has no null
KEY value

FOREIGN Helps to form parent child relationship between tables

KEY

The following constraints are commonly used in SQL:

1. NOT NULL

The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to NOT accept NULL values.

Syntax:
CREATE TABLE Table_name
(
Column1 datatype NOT NULL,
Column2 datatype NOT NULL,
Column3 datatype,
…);

The following SQL ensures that the roll_no and address column will NOT accept NULL values
when the "Student" table is created:

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 Example:
CREATE TABLE student
(
roll_no int NOT NULL,
stud_name varchar(20),
address varchar(25) NOT NULL );

To apply NOT NULL constraint on an exis ng database table, use below syntax
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY COLUMN column_name data_type NOT
NULL;

Example:
Below query is used to add a NOT NULL constraint on emp_id column of employee table:

ALTER TABLE employee MODIFY COLUMN emp_id int NOT NULL;

This constraint can be dropped using below syntax:

ALTER TABLE employee MODIFY COLUMN column_name data_type;

Example:

ALTER TABLE employee MODIFY COLUMN emp_id int ;

2. UNIQUE KEY

• The UNIQUE KEY constraint ensures that all values in a column are dis nct.
• UNIQUE Constraint allows NULL values.
• Each table can have mul ple UNIQUE Constraints.

Syntax:
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype UNIQUE,
Column2 datatype UNIQUE,
Column3 datatype);

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 The following SQL ensures that the roll_no column will not accept duplicate values when the
"Student" table is created:

Example:
CREATE TABLE student (
roll_no int UNIQUE,
stud_name varchar(20),
address varchar(25));

To apply UNIQUE KEY constraint on an exis ng database table, use below syntax.
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY COLUMN column_name data_type
UNIQUE;

Example:
Below query is used to add a UNIQUE KEY constraint on emp_id column of employee table:

ALTER TABLE employee MODIFY COLUMN emp_id int UNIQUE;

This constraint can be dropped by below syntax:

ALTER TABLE employee DROP INDEX UNIQUE_KEY_COLUMN_NAME;

Example:
ALTER TABLE employee DROP INDEX emp_id;

3. PRIMARY KEY
• The PRIMARY KEY constraint is a combina on of a NOT NULL and UNIQUE.
• PRIMARY KEY uniquely iden es each row in a table
• Primary keys must contain UNIQUE values, and cannot have NULL values.
A table can have only ONE PRIMARY KEY but a single primary key can contain one or
mul ple columns

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 Syntax:
CREATE TABLE table_name
(
column1 datatype PRIMARY KEY,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
…);

Example:
CREATE TABLE student
(roll_no int PRIMARY KEY,
stud_name varchar(20),
address varchar(25));

We can apply a PRIMARY KEY constraint on an exis ng database table using below syntax:
ALTER TABLE employee MODIFY COLUMN Column_name Data_type
PRIMARY KEY;

Example:
ALTER TABLE employee MODIFY COLUMN emp_id int PRIMARY KEY;

This constraint can be dropped by below syntax:

ALTER TABLE employee DROP PRIMARY KEY;

Example:
ALTER TABLE employee DROP PRIMARY KEY;

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 4. FOREIGN KEY
• A FOREIGN KEY is a eld in one table, that refers to the PRIMARY KEY in another table.
• It is used to de ne a rela on between two or mul ple database tables.
• We can have more than one FOREIGN KEYs in a table .
• The table with the FOREIGN KEY is called the child or referencing table, and the
table with the PRIMARY KEY is called the parent or referenced table.

Relationship

roll_no stud_name Address course_id course_name roll_no

101 Snehal pune 10 Data Science 101

102 sneha mumbai 10 Data Science 102

103 Nikhil mumbai

Foreign Key
Primary Key

Syntax:
CREATE TABLE child_table_name
(column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
FOREIGN KEY (column_of_child_table) references
parent_table(parent_table_primary_key)
ON DELETE CASCADE,
ON UPDATE CASCADE
);

Example:
Below query can be used to de ne roll_no as the FOREIGN KEY in course table which refers
to the PRIMARY KEY of student table we have used above.

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 CREATE TABLE course

(course_id int,
course_name varchar(15),
Address varchar(25),
roll_no int,
FOREIGN KEY (roll_no) REFERENCES student(roll_no)
ON DELETE CASCADE
ON UPDATE CASCADE
);

The FOREIGN KEY constraint prevents invalid data from being inserted into the foreign key
column, as it has to be one of the values contained in the parent table.

ON_DELETE_CASCADE : It is used with foreign key de ni on to cascade the parent table

deletes in child table

ON_UPDATE_CASCADE: It is used with foreign key de ni on to cascade the parent table

updates in child table

We can apply a FOREIGN KEY constraint on an exis ng database table using below syntax:

ALTER TABLE Table_name ADD FOREIGN KEY(child_table_column_name)

references Parent_table(Parent_Table_PK);

This constraint can be dropped by below syntax:

ALTER TABLE table_name DROP FOREIGN KEY Foreign_key_name;

Here, we can get the name of foreign key from create table statement .
To get the create table statement, use below syntax:
SHOW create table table_name;

5. CHECK
• The CHECK constraint is used to limit the value range that can be placed in a column.
If you de ne a CHECK constraint on a column it will allow only certain values for this
column.

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 Syntax:
CREATE TABLE table_name (column1 datatype, column2 datatype,
CHECK(Condi on));

Example:
Below query will create a table that will restrict the roll_no column to have values > 100.

CREATE TABLE student

(roll_no int,
stud_name varchar(20),
address varchar(25),
CHECK(roll_no>100));

We can apply a Check constraint on an exis ng database table using below syntax:
ALTER TABLE Table_name MODIFY COLUMN Column_name data_type
CHECK(condi on);

This constraint can be dropped by below syntax:

ALTER TABLE table_name DROP CONSTRAINT Check_constraint_name;

Here, we can get the name of constraint from create table statement .

6. DEFAULT
• The DEFAULT constraint is used to set a default value to a column.
• The default value will be added to all new records, if no other value is speci ed.

Syntax:
CREATE TABLE table_name
(column1 datatype DEFAULT value,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype);

Example:
Below query can be used to set a default value for address column as pune in student table

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 CREATE TABLE student

(
Roll_no int,
stud_name varchar(20),
Address varchar(25) DEFAULT 'pune'
);

We can apply a DEFAULT constraint on an exis ng database table using below syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY COLUMN column_name data_type
DEFAULT value;

To drop default constraint ,use below syntax:

ALTER TABLE table_name ALTER column_name DROP DEFAULT;

7. AUTO_INCREMENT:

• The AUTO_INCREMENT a ribute can be used to generate a unique iden ty for new rows.
• It is mandatory to de ne a column as key to auto_increment it .

Syntax:
CREATE TABLE table_name (column1 datatype primary key
Auto_increment, column2 datatype, column3 datatype);

Example:
Below query can be used to apply auto_increment on roll_no column of Student table

CREATE TABLE student

(
Roll_no int AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY,
stud_name varchar(20),
Address varchar(25)
);

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 SQL CLAUSES:
The sequence of execu on of sql clauses

1. WHERE:

• WHERE clause is used to lter the data.

• It helps us SELECT, UPDATE or DELETE only records that ful ls a speci ed
condi on.
• If we omit where clause , it will a ect all rows of a table.

1.1. WHERE with SELECT:

WHERE clause can be used with SELECT statement to read par cular rows sa sfying the
lter condi on

Syntax:
SELECT * FROM table_name where condi on;

Example:
Below statement can be used to read details about an employee with emp_id=1001.

SELECT * FROM employee WHERE emp_id=1001;

Output:
Emp_id emp_name Salary Location
1001 Aditya 50000 Mumbai

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 1.2. WHERE with UPDATE:

WHERE clause can be used with UPDATE statement to UPDATE only records sa sfying a lter
condi on.
Syntax:
UPDATE table_name SET column_name=new_value where condi on;

Example:
Below statement will UPDATE the loca on value where it is NULL:

UPDATE employee SET loca on='Chennai' WHERE Loca on IS NULL;

Table before update:

Emp_id emp_name Salary Location
1001 Aditya 50000 Mumbai

1002 Rahul 45000 Pune

1003 Rohit 40000 NULL

1004 Saurav 60000 Chennai

1005 Manish 30000 Mumbai

Table a er update:

Emp_id emp_name Salary Location

1001 Aditya 50000 Mumbai

1002 Rahul 45000 Pune

1003 Rohit 40000 Chennai

1004 Saurav 60000 Chennai

1005 Manish 30000 Mumbai

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 1.3. WHERE with DELETE:

WHERE clause can be used with DELETE statement to DELETE only speci c records.
Syntax:
DELETE FROM table_name where condi on;

Example: Below statement is used to DELETE a record where emp_id is 1005:

DELETE FROM employee WHERE emp_id=1005;

Table before delete:

Emp_id emp_name Salary Location
1001 Aditya 50000 Mumbai

1002 Rahul 45000 Pune

1003 Rohit 40000 NULL

1004 Saurav 60000 Chennai

1005 Manish 30000 Mumbai

Table a er delete:
Emp_id emp_name Salary Location
1001 Aditya 50000 Mumbai

1002 Rahul 45000 Pune

1003 Rohit 40000 NULL

1004 Saurav 60000 Chennai

The di erence between DELETE and TRUNCATE here is,

We can delete speci c records using delete with where condi on.
Whereas, truncate can only be used to empty the table .you cannot use the where condi on
with truncate.

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 • OPERATORS IN SQL:

WHERE clause can be combined with the below operators to fetch the required result in SQL
Operator Descrip on

= Equal To

!= Not Equal To

> Greater than

< Less than

>= Greater than equal to

<= Less than equal to

BETWEEN Between an inclusive range

IN Equal to mul ple values

LIKE Search for a pa ern

IS NULL Checks for NULL values

AND Used to combine mul ple where condi ons

OR Used to combine mul ple where condi ons

LIKE Used to specify a pa ern

1. OR and AND
The AND and OR operators are used to lter records based on more than one condi on:
• The AND operator displays a record if all the condi ons separated by AND are TRUE.
• The OR operator displays a record if any of the condi ons separated by OR is TRUE.

1.1. OR
It is a SQL statement used to access records which sa s es either condi on combined using
OR.

Syntax:
SELECT column1, column2 from table_name where Condi on1 OR
Condi on 2;

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 Example:

The following SQL statement selects all elds from employee where emp_id=1001 or
emp_name = Saurav

SELECT * FROM employee WHERE emp_id= 1001 OR emp_name='Saurav';

Output:
Emp_id emp_name Salary Location
1001 Aditya 50000 Mumbai

1004 Saurav 60000 Chennai

1.2. AND

It is a SQL statement used to access records which sa s es both condi on

Syntax :
SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_name WHERE Condi on1 AND
Condi on 2;

Example :

SELECT * FROM employee WHERE emp_id=1001 AND emp_name = Aditya;

Output :
Emp_id emp_name Salary Location
1001 Aditya 50000 Mumbai

2. LIKE

• The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a speci ed pa ern in a column.
• There are two wildcards o en used with the LIKE operator:
The percent sign (%) represents zero, one, or mul ple characters
The underscore sign (_) represents one, single character

Syntax:
SELECT * FROM table_name WHERE column LIKE pa ern;

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 Example1: query to fetch all rows WHERE emp_name starts with R.

SELECT * FROM employee WHERE emp_name LIKE 'R%';

Output :
Emp_id emp_name Salary Location
1002 Rahul 45000 Pune

1003 Rohit 40000 NULL

Example 2: SELECT all records WHERE the value of the emp_name column does NOT start
with the le er "A".

Syntax :
SELECT * FROM table_name WHERE column NOT LIKE pa ern;

Example3: Query to display records where emp_name is not having A

SELECT * FROM employee WHERE emp_name NOT LIKE 'A%';

Output :
Emp_id emp_name Salary Location
1002 Rahul 45000 Pune

1003 Rohit 40000 NULL

1004 Saurav 60000 Chennai

1005 Manish 30000 Mumbai

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 Example4: select all records where the value of the column starts with le er ‘a’ and ends
with the le er ‘a'

Example:

SELECT * FROM employee WHERE emp_name LIKE 'a%a';

Output :
Emp_id emp_name Salary Location
1001 Aditya 50000 Mumbai

Example 5: SELECT all records where the emp_name contains the le er "a".

SELECT * FROM employee WHERE emp_name LIKE '%a%';

Output:
Emp_id emp_name Salary Location
1001 Aditya 50000 mumbai

1002 Rahul 45000 Pune

1004 Saurav 60000 Chennai

1005 Manish 30000 mumbai

3. IN and NOT IN

These operators allows you to specify one or mul ple values in a WHERE clause.
Syntax:
SELECT * FROM table_name
WHERE Column IN/NOT IN (Value1, Value2, Value3...)

Example1 :
The following SQL statement selects all rows where emp_name is in "Rohit", “Saurav":

SELECT * FROM employee WHERE emp_name IN ('Rohit','Saurav');

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 Output:
Emp_id emp_name Salary Location
1003 Rohit 40000 NULL

1004 Saurav 60000 Chennai

Example2:

The following SQL statement selects all employees except "Rohit", "Saurav":

Example :

SELECT * FROM employee WHERE emp_name NOT IN (Rohit, Saurav);

Output:
Emp_id emp_name Salary Location
1001 Aditya 50000 Mumbai

1002 Rahul 45000 Pune

1005 Manish 30000 Mumbai

4. BETWEEN

• The BETWEEN operator selects values within a given range. The values can be numbers,
text, or dates.
• Here, start and end values are included in the output.

Syntax :
SELECT * FROM table_name WHERE Column_name BETWEEN Value1 AND
Value2;

Example :

SELECT * FROM employee WHERE salary BETWEEN 40000 AND 50000;

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 Output:
Emp_id emp_name Salary Location
1001 Aditya 50000 Mumbai

1002 Rahul 45000 Pune

1003 Rohit 40000 NULL

NOT BETWEEN Example :

To display the records outside the given range , use NOT BETWEEN:

Syntax :
SELECT * FROM table_name WHERE Column_name NOT BETWEEN Value1
AND Value2;

Example :
SELECT * FROM employee WHERE salary NOT BETWEEN 40000 AND 50000;
Output :
Emp_id emp_name Salary Location
1004 Saurav 60000 Chennai

1005 Manish 30000 Mumbai

2. DISTINCT :
DISTINCT clause is used to fetch the UNIQUE values from a column of a table.

Syntax:
SELECT DISTINCT column_name FROM table_name;

Example: Below query can be used to fetch UNIQUE loca on values FROM employee table

SELECT DISTINCT loca on FROM employee;

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 Output:
Location
Mumbai

Pune

NULL

Chennai

To fetch unique rows from a table, use below syntax:

SELECT DISTINCT * FROM table_name;

3. LIMIT:
LIMIT clause is used to limit the number of records to return.

Syntax:
SELECT * FROM table_name LIMIT OFFSET, NUMBER OF ROWS

Here,
OFFSET parameter speci es the number of rows to skip from top.
NUMBER OF ROWS parameter speci es the number of rows to read.

Example:
Below statement will skip 2 rows from top and return next 2 rows in the output.

SELECT * FROM employee LIMIT 2,2;

Output:
Emp_id emp_name Salary Location
1003 Rohit 40000 NULL

1004 Saurav 60000 Chennai

We can also use limit clause like below:

SELECT * FROM employee LIMIT 2;

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 Here, when we pass only one parameter to limit clause, it is the number of rows to read.
OFFSET value becomes 0 in this case. This statement will read top 2 rows from a table

Output:
Emp_id emp_name Salary Location
1001 Aditya 50000 Mumbai

1002 Rahul 45000 Pune

4. ORDER BY :
• ORDER BY clause is used to sort the data in an ascending or descending order.
• The ORDER BY keyword sorts the records in ascending order by default.
• To sort the records in descending order, use the DESC keyword.

Syntax:
SELECT * FROM table_name ORDER BY column1, column2;

Example: Below statement will sort the data of employee table in ascending order of
emp_name:

SELECT * FROM employee ORDER BY emp_name;

Output:
Emp_id emp_name Salary Location

1001 Aditya 50000 Mumbai

1005 Manish 30000 Mumbai

1002 Rahul 45000 Pune

1003 Rohit 40000 NULL

1004 Saurav 60000 Chennai

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 Below statement will sort the data of employee table in descending order of emp_name:

SELECT * FROM employee ORDER BY emp_name DESC;

Output:
Emp_id emp_name Salary Location
1004 Saurav 60000 Chennai

1003 Rohit 40000 NULL

1002 Rahul 45000 Pune

1005 Manish 30000 Mumbai

1001 Aditya 50000 Mumbai

ALIAS :
• SQL aliases are used to give a table, or a column in a table, a temporary name. Aliases are
o en used to make column names more readable.
• An alias only exists for the dura on of that query. An alias is created with the AS keyword.

Syntax to use alias for a column name :

SELECT column_name AS alias_name FROM table_name;

Syntax to use alias for a table name:

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name AS alias_name;

Example:
The following SQL statement creates two aliases, one for the calculated column and one for
the table:
SELECT emp_id, emp_name, salary, 0.25*salary as per_salary FROM employee as e;
Output:
Emp_id emp_name Salary per_salary
1001 Aditya 50000 12500.00

1002 Rahul 45000 11250.00

1003 Rohit 40000 10000.00

1004 Saurav 60000 15000.00

1005 Manish 30000 7500.00

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 • AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS:
• An aggregate func on performs calcula ons on a set of values and returns a single value.

1. MIN(): It returns minimum value in the selected column except null

2. MAX(): Will returns Maximum value in the selected column except null
3. SUM(): Sum of all Non-Null Values of a numeric column.
4. AVG(): This func on returns average value of a numeric column - It will apply for Non-Null
Values

Syntax:
SELECT MIN(column name),MAX(column name),SUM(column
name),AVG(column name) FROM table_name;

Example:

SELECT MAX(salary),MIN(salary),SUM(salary),AVG(salary) FROM employee;

Output:
Max(salary) Min(salary) sum(salary) Avg(salary)
60000 30000 225000 45000.0000

5. COUNT():
• Returns total number of records when used with * or any constant number
• Returns total number of Non-Null Values of a column when used with a speci c column
Syntax:
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM Table_name;
SELECT COUNT(1) FROM Table_name;
SELECT COUNT(column_name) FROM table_name;
Example:

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employee;

Output:
count(salary)
5

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 5. GROUP BY :
• The GROUP BY statement groups rows that have same values into summary rows.
• The GROUP BY statement is o en used with aggregate func ons like (COUNT(), MAX(),
MIN(), SUM(), AVG()
• It returns a single row for each group

Syntax:
SELECT
Column,
AGGREGATE FUNCTION(Column)
FROM table_name
WHERE condi on
GROUP BY Column;

Example: Below query will create groups based on loca on values and will calculate the
number of employee, sum of salary, avg of salary for each group

SELECT loca on, count(emp_id), sum(salary) , avg(salary) FROM employee GROUP BY

loca on;
Output:
Location count(emp_id) sum(salary) avg(salary)
Mumbai 2 80000 40000.0

Pune 1 45000 45000.0

NULL 1 40000 40000.0

Chennai 1 60000 60000.0

6. HAVING :
• The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword cannot be used with
aggregate func ons.
• It is used with group by and aggregate func ons to lter out grouped data.

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 Syntax :
SELECT
Column,
AGGREGATE FUNCTION(Column)
FROM table_name
WHERE condi on
GROUP BY Column
HAVING Condi on;

Example: Below query will fetch loca ons where employee count>1

SELECT loca on, count(emp_id) FROM employee GROUP BY loca on HAVING

count(emp_id)>1

Output:
Location Count(emp_id)
Mumbai 2

7. UNION and UNION ALL:

These are used to append the data from di erent SELECT statements.
• Every SELECT statement within UNION must have the same number of columns
• The columns must also have similar data types
• The columns in every SELECT statement must also be in the same order

Syntax:

SELECT col_name FROM table_name

Union/union all
SELECT col_name FROM table_name;

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 Student table:
roll_no stud_name Address

101 Snehal pune

102 sneha mumbai

103 Nikhil mumbai

104 nikita pune

105 Shubham pune

Course table:
course_id course_name roll_no

10 Data Science 101

10 Data Science 102

20 java 106

20 java 107

Example: below statement will append the result of both select queries
SELECT roll_no FROM student
union all
SELECT roll_no FROM course;

Output:
roll_no
101

102

103

104

105

101

102

106

107

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 below statement will append the result of both select queries.

Union will remove the duplicate values

SELECT roll_no FROM student

union
SELECT roll_no FROM course;

Output:
Roll_no

101

102

103

104
105

106

107

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 • SQL JOINS

• Joins are used to combine the data from two or more database tables
• Join is an SQL statement it is used to join two or more tables based on the column having
similar values in the tables being joined.

Types of JOINS

1. INNER JOIN
• The INNER JOIN keyword selects records that have matching values in both tables.
• Inner join is a SQL statement which is use to show records in columns which are related to
common values

Syntax :
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

NOTE : Refer student and course table used above.

Below statement can be used to join student table with course table on the basis of roll_no
values, which will give you common students present in both the tables.

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 SELECT student. roll_no, stud_name, address, course_id, course_name

FROM
student
INNER JOIN
course
ON student.roll_no=course.roll_no;

Output:
roll_no stud_name Address course_id course_name

101 Snehal pune 10 Data science

102 sneha mumbai 10 Data science

2. LEFT JOIN/ LEFT OUTER JOIN

• The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all records from the LEFT table (table1), and the matching
records from the right table (table2).
• The result is 0 records FROM the right side, if there is no match.

Syntax:
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1 LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

Example :
SELECT student.roll_no, stud_name, address, course_id, course_name
FROM
student
LEFT JOIN
course
ON student.roll_no=course.roll_no;

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 Output:
roll_no stud_name Address Course_id Course_name

101 Snehal pune 10 Data science

102 sneha mumbai 10 Data science

103 Nikhil mumbai NULL NULL

104 nikita pune NULL NULL

105 Shubham pune NULL NULL

3. RIGHT JOIN / RIGHT OUTER JOIN

• The RIGHT JOIN keyword ,returns all records from the RIGHT table(Table2) and the
matching records from the LEFT table (table1).
• The result is 0 records FROM the le side, if there is no match.

Syntax :
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1 RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

Example :
SELECT student.roll_no, stud_name, address, course_id, course_name
FROM
student
RIGHT JOIN
course
ON student.roll_no=course.roll_no;

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 Output :
roll_no stud_name Address course_id course_name

101 Snehal Pune 10 Data science

102 Sneha Mumbai 10 Data science

NULL NULL NULL 20 java

NULL NULL NULL 20 java

4. FULL JOIN / FULL OUTER JOIN

• MySQL does not support FULL JOIN, so you have to combine RIGHT JOIN, UNION and LEFT
JOIN to get an equivalent.

Syntax :
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1 LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name
UNION
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1 RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

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 Example :
select s.roll_no, stud_name, address, course_id, course_name
from student s
right join
course c
on s.roll_no=c.roll_no
union
select s.roll_no, stud_name, address, course_id, course_name
from student s
le join
course c
on s.roll_no=c.roll_no;

Output :
Roll_no stud_name Address course_id course_name
101 Snehal pune 10 data science

102 sneha mumbai 10 data science

NULL NULL NULL 20 java

103 Nikhil mumbai NULL NULL

104 nikita pune NULL NULL

105 Shubham pune NULL NULL

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 SUBQUERIES:
A Subquery is an inner query that is placed within an outer SQL query using di erent SQL
clauses like WHERE and FROM.

Types of subqueries:

1. Scalar Subqueries: the type of subqueries where inner query returns only single value

1.1.Scalar subquery in WHERE clause:

Syntax:
SELECT * FROM table_name WHERE col_name=(inner query)

Example:
Below query will fetch the details of an employee having max salary

SELECT * FROM employee WHERE salary=(SELECT max(salary) FROM employee);

Output:
Emp_id emp_name Salary Location
1004 Saurav 60000 Chennai

1.2. Scalar subquery in FROM clause:

When we use a subquery with FROM clause, the result set returned is considered as a
temporary table and thus it is mandatory to give an alias to this derived table.
Syntax:
SELECT
column1, column2 FROM
(select column from table_name where condi on ) SQ Where condi on;

Example: Fetch the name and salary of an employee having salary equal to avg salary
SELECT emp_id, emp_name, salary, sal
FROM employee e
Inner join
(SELECT avg(salary) as sal from employee ) as avg_sal
On e.salary=avg_sal.sal;

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 Here, AVG_SAL is the alias given to the derived table or an inner query. It is mandatory when
we use query in a from clause.
Output:
Emp_id emp_name Salary Sal
1002 Rahul 45000 45000.0000

2. Mul -row subquery : The type of subquery where inner query returns more than one
value
Syntax:
SELECT * FROM table_name WHERE column_name IN/NOT IN (inner query)

Example: 1. Fetch roll_no from student which are not present in course table
SELECT roll_no, stud_name, address
FROM student s
where roll_no NOT IN (
SELECT dis nct roll_no from course) ;

Output:
roll_no stud_name Address

103 Nikhil Mumbai

104 Nikita Pune

105 Shubham Pune

2. Calculate the count of records returned from union all query

SELECT COUNT(*) as total_rows
FROM
(SELECT roll_no FROM student
union all
SELECT roll_no FROM course) A;

Here, A is an alias for a subquery

Output:
Total_rows
9

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ANALYTICAL FUNCTIONS:
• A window func on performs a calcula on across a set of table rows that are somehow
related to the current row.
• This is comparable to the type of calcula on that can be done with an aggregate func on.
But unlike regular aggregate func ons, use of a window func on does not cause rows to
become grouped into a single output row — the rows retain their separate iden es.

Sample table emp:

emp_id emp_name dept_name Salary

101 Mohan Admin 4000

102 Rahul HR 3000

103 Akbar IT 4000

104 Dorvin Finance 6500

105 Rohit HR 3000

106 Rajesh Finance 5000

107 Preet HR 7000

108 Maryam Admin 4000

109 Sanjay IT 6500

110 Vasudha IT 7000

111 Melinda IT 8000

112 Komal IT 10000

113 Gautham Admin 2000

114 Manisha HR 3000

115 Chandni IT 4500

116 Satya Finance 6500

117 Adarsh HR 3500

118 Tejaswi Finance 5500

119 Cory HR 8000

120 Monica Admin 5000

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 1. ROW_NUMBER():

It is an analy cal func on used to return a sequen al number to each row of the par on

OVER: It is an helping clause used with window func ons to de ne par on and sort order
PARTITION_BY: Used to divide data into par ons and perform computa on on each subset of
par oned data.
ORDER BY: Used to sort the data within de ned par on
Syntax:
SELECT column,
ROW_NUMBER() OVER
(PARTITION BY column name
ORDER BY column name
) FROM table_name;
Example: Display oldest 2 employees from each department(consider min emp_id is the
oldest emp)
select * from(
select *,
row_number() over (par on by dept_name order by emp_id) as rn from emp
) SQ
where rn<3;
Here,SQ is an alias which used for the inner query
rn is al alias used for the column calculated using row_number() func on.

Output:
Empid emp_name dept_name Salary Rn
101 Mohan Admin 4000 1

108 Maryam Admin 4000 2

104 Dorvin Finance 6500 1

106 Rajesh Finance 5000 2

102 Rahul HR 3000 1

105 Rohit HR 3000 2

103 Akbar IT 4000 1

109 Sanjay IT 6500 2

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 2. LEAD() AND LAG ():

• It can o en be useful to compare rows to preceding or previous rows.
• You can use LAG or LEAD to create columns that pull values from other rows—all you need
to do is enter which column to pull from and how many rows away you would like to do
the pull.
• LAG pulls from previous rows and LEAD pulls from preceeding rows:
expression It is a column name or any built-in function whose value return by the
function.
o set It contains the number of rows succeeding from the current row. It
should be a positive integer value. If it is zero, the function evaluates
the result for the current row. If we  omit  this, the function uses 1 by
default.
default_value It is a value that will return when we have no subsequent row from the
current row. If we omit this, the function returns the null value.
OVER OVER It is responsible for partitioning rows into groups. If it is empty,
the function performs an operation using all rows.
PARTITION BY It split the rows in the result set into partitions to which a function is
applied. If we have not speci ed this clause, all rows treated as a
single row in the result set.
ORDER BY It determines the sequence of rows in the partitions before the
function is applied.

LEAD:
SELECT column,
LEAD(expression, o set, default_value) OVER
(PARTITION BY column name
ORDER BY column name
) FROM table_name;

LAG:

SELECT column,
LAG(expression, o set, default_value) OVER
(PARTITION BY column name
ORDER BY column name
) FROM table_name;

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 Example :
SELECT *,
LEAD(salary,1,0) over () as next_sal,
LAG(salary,1,0) over () as prev_sal from emp;

Output:
Empid emp_name dept_name Salary next_sal prev_sal
101 Mohan Admin 4000 3000 0

102 Rahul HR 3000 4000 4000

103 Akbar IT 4000 6500 3000

104 Dorvin Finance 6500 3000 4000

105 Rohit HR 3000 5000 6500

106 Rajesh Finance 5000 7000 3000

107 Preet HR 7000 4000 5000

108 Maryam Admin 4000 6500 7000

109 Sanjay IT 6500 7000 4000

110 Vasudha IT 7000 8000 6500

111 Melinda IT 8000 10000 7000

112 Komal IT 10000 2000 8000

113 Gautham Admin 2000 3000 10000

114 Manisha HR 3000 4500 2000

115 Chandni IT 4500 6500 3000

116 Satya Finance 6500 3500 4500

117 Adarsh HR 3500 5500 6500

118 Tejaswi Finance 5500 8000 3500

119 Cory HR 8000 5000 5500

120 Monica Admin 5000 0 8000

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 3. RANK() and DENSE_RANK():

It is mandatory to sort the data within par on to assign rank and dense_Rank to them

RANK : Rank of current row within its par on ,with gap

SELECT column,
RANK() OVER
(PARTITION BY column name
ORDER BY column name
) FROM table_name;

DENSE_RANK : Rank of current row within its par on, without gaps
SELECT column,
DENSE_RANK() OVER
(PARTITION BY column name
ORDER BY column name
) FROM table_name;

Example :
SELECT emp_id, dept_name, salary,
rank() OVER (PARTITION BY dept_name ORDER BY salary DESC) as rnk
,dense_rank() OVER (PARTITION BY dept_name ORDER BY salary DESC) as dense_rnk
FROM emp;

Output:
emp_id dept_name Salary rnk dense_rnk
120 Admin 5000 1 1

101 Admin 4000 2 2

108 Admin 4000 2 2

113 Admin 2000 4 3

104 Finance 6500 1 1

116 Finance 6500 1 1

118 Finance 5500 3 2

106 Finance 5000 4 3

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119 HR 8000 1 1

107 HR 7000 2 2

117 HR 3500 3 3

102 HR 3000 4 4

105 HR 3000 4 4

114 HR 3000 4 4

112 IT 10000 1 1

111 IT 8000 2 2

110 IT 7000 3 3

109 IT 6500 4 4

115 IT 4500 5 5
103 IT 4000 6 6

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