Methods of Neuropsychological Assessment Es
Methods of Neuropsychological Assessment Es
of Neuropsychological Assessment Oxford Handbooks
Oxford Handbooks Online
Methods of Neuropsychological Assessment
Susan Homack
The Oxford Handbook of Child Psychological Assessment
Edited by Donald H. Saklofske, Cecil R. Reynolds, and Vicki Schwean
Abstract and Keywords
While the field of pediatric neuropsychology is young, neuropsychological assessment of children has much to
offer toward understanding the functional systems of the brain and the mechanisms involved in learning. Child
neuropsychology provides a theoretical framework for understanding patterns of strengths and weaknesses, and
the extent to which patterns may remain stable over time. Once the clinician identifies the assessment needs of
the individual child, he or she must make decisions regarding the appropriate assessment measures for exploring
the dimensions of behavior. When an evaluation is complete, understanding the strengths and weaknesses of a
child provides the neuropsychologist with needed information to recommended appropriate interventions. When
communicating results, the clinician must remember that the audience includes caregivers who need straight
forward, easily understood information. Of paramount importance, clinicians must recognize that providing
useful, scientifically supported conclusions that contribute to the treatment of the child is the ultimate purpose of
assessment.
Keywords: neuropsychology, child assessment, test selection
Introduction
Neuropsychology is the study of brain–behavior relationships that uses the theories and methods of both
neurology and psychology. The underlying premise of neuropsychological assessment is that different behaviors
and abilities involve differing neurological structures or functional systems (Luria, 1980). Unlike CT or MRI
scans, which show abnormalities in the structure of the brain, or EEG, which shows electrical abnormalities of
the brain, neuropsychological assessment is used to show the ways in which a person can or cannot perform
certain functions or tasks that are dependent upon brain activity. A neuropsychological evaluation typically
involves assessment with a group of standardized tests that are sensitive to the effects of brain damage or
differences in brain functioning. The standardized tests used in a neuropsychological evaluation typically assess
functioning in the following areas: cognitive functioning, attention, memory, problemsolving, visual spatial
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functioning, language, and motor skills. Assessment of academic skills and emotional functioning are often
assessed as well.
While neuropsychology has origins dating at least as far back as the 19th century, it is during the past 25 to 30
years that neuropsychology has been widely recognized and accepted as a formal professional specialty area
(Hartlage & Long, 2009). The field of neuropsychology has rapidly matured since the early empirical work of
Ralph M. Reitan (1955) and other important contributors (please see FitzhughBell, 1997, for a review of the
early history of clinical neuropsychology). Historically, neuropsychology has been used for the assessment and
diagnosis of adults with brain injury or other forms of central nervous system (CNS) dysfunction. Due (p. 475) to
recent advances in neuroimaging techniques, the use of neuropsychological tests for the primary diagnosis of the
presence or absence of CNS damage has declined (Mayfield, Reynolds, & FletcherJanzen, 2009). However, a
rise in the use of neuropsychological testing has occurred for determining functional deficits. An assessment of
strengths and weaknesses using a neuropsychological assessment is necessary because neuroimaging techniques
cannot specify the true functional implications of any visualized abnormality or damage. As more became known
about brain–behavior relationships, theories and findings also were applied to the understanding of learning and
behavior problems in adults where brain injury was not evident.
With the increasing recognition that learning and other neuropsychological functions could be evaluated in
adults, researchers and clinicians became interested in determining whether research gleamed from adults could
be applied to children. The increased interest and emphasis in the application of neuropsychology to children
may be due to a variety of factors, including: the development of neuropsychology as a specialty area,
knowledge obtained from localized brain damage in childhood and adolescence, advances in technology (e.g.,
functional imaging) that are providing exciting new information regarding brain development and function, and
continued research using neuropsychological assessment data to gain more information regarding specific
problems encountered by children (Riccio & Reynolds, 1998).
Child neuropsychology provides a framework for understanding patterns of strengths and weaknesses and the
extent to which these patterns remain stable or change over the course of development (Temple, 1997). Children
in general have always posed special problems in clinical assessment due to their rapid and often uneven
development in the areas of language and motor acquisition, attention, memory, and problemsolving. As the
extent of disability increases, accurate assessment becomes more challenging (Reynolds & Mayfield, 1999). A
minor variant of normal development need not be a cause for alarm; however, a significant problem should not
be ignored.
An increased understanding of a child’s strengths and weaknesses is useful for many reasons. Neuropsychological
testing can help establish the presence of a cognitive disorder. In having a better understanding of the ways in
which neurological conditions impact learning and behavior, clinicians are able to recommend compensatory
strategies that may be provided by the school, at home, or within the community. Children can be reevaluated
over time to assess progress and determine whether there may be changing symptomatology. The effectiveness of
interventions can be evaluated and altered as necessary based on the child’s functioning.
As a result of the growing interest in child neuropsychology, the knowledge available regarding the developing
brain has increased dramatically since the 1980s (Riccio & Reynolds, 1998). A great deal of information has
been obtained regarding child development and neuropsychological functions (e.g., Miller & Vernon, 1996;
Molfese, 1995). Furthermore, advances in educational areas have been made that facilitate the understanding of
learning disabilities (Riccio, Gonzalez, and Hynd, 1994; Riccio & Hynd, 1996), traumatic brain injury (Dennis,
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Wilkinson, Koski, & Humphreys, 1995; Yeates & Taylor, 1997), the impact of cancer treatment on CNS
function (Kerr, Smith, DaSilva, Hoffman, & Humphries, 1991; Seidel et al., 1994), and the sequelae in children
with prenatal or perinatal difficulties (Aylward, 2002; Daniel, Lim, & Clark, 2003).
This chapter will provide an overview of the neuropsychological assessment process for children, both
historically and in the context of current practices and future trends. Areas covered in this chapter include
neurodevelopmental considerations and approaches to test selection in the assessment of children. An overview of
the domains for assessment including examples of frequently used tests is provided. Finally, a description of the
general organization of the neuropsychological assessment of children and adolescents is described.
Neurodevelopmental Considerations in the Assessment of
Children
Due to the demand for neuropsychological testing of children and adolescents, traditional adult
neuropsychological batteries such as the HalsteadReitan Neuropsychological Battery (Reitan, 1955; Reitan &
Davison, 1974) and the LuriaNebraska Neuropsychological Battery (Golden, 1981; Plaisted, Gustavson,
Wilkening, & Golden, 1983) were modified for use with children (Hartlage & Long, 1997). This involved
altering or adding some tasks to the batteries that were more suitable for children. Another option involved
collecting normative data on children for existing tests. Both of these attempts were based on the assumption that
tasks for adults could measure the same constructs when used with children.
A pitfall of using adult tests with children results when neurodevelopmental differences that exist as a
(p. 476)
result of the age of the child are not taken into consideration. If one directly applies norms from adult tests to
children, then one completely ignores what is known about changes in the functional organization of the brain of
growing children. Rapid growth takes place during childhood and adolescence and occurs at different rates for
individual children. Infancy and childhood are the times of the greatest breadth and depth of change throughout
one’s lifetime.
According to Luria (1980), neurodevelopment follows an ontogenetic course, with primary cortical zones
generally maturing by birth, and secondary and tertiary areas continuing to develop after birth. Secondary and
tertiary areas include systems involved in learning, memory, attention, emotion, cognition, language, and
association. The association areas are the last of these areas to develop and myelinate (Goldman & Lewis, 1978).
According to Spreen, Risser, and Edgell (1995), the developmental sequence for the formation of neural
pathways and myelination of specific locations corresponding to specific behaviors have been identified;
however, these sequences do not correspond directly to models of cognitive development.
Research suggests that traumatic brain injury (TBI) as well as other brain insults can disrupt the
neurodevelopmental process of children, especially in young children (Kriel, Krach, & Panser, 1989). The
impact of an injury is influenced by the child’s age as well as by its location in the brain, and the nature of the
injury. The theory of neural plasticity (Harris, 1957) has been used to explain the potential for recovery of
function seen in children that is not observed in adults. It has been suggested that the young brain undergoes
“reorganization” of brain function. For example, brain damage occurring in infants and toddlers may produce
very different behavioral effects than in adults because early injury has also altered fundamental brain
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organization. The insult does not affect the function of only the brain areas that are damaged directly but also
disrupts other neuroanatomical sites and circuitry that are dependent on intact structures (Kolb & Fantie, 2009).
Interestingly, researchers (Brink, Garrett, Hale, WooSam, & Nickel, 1970; Kriel et al., 1989) found that
children over 10 years of age at the time of brain insult were likely to have a better prognosis than those under
age six, regardless of the injury’s severity. According to Riccio & Reynolds (1999), this may be due to the
difference in neurodevelopmental status of children in these age groups. Alternatively, it may be because older
children have spent more time in school, and many of the functions assessed by standard measures correlate
highly with the number of years spent in school (Ryan, LaMarche, Barth, & Boll, 1996).
Evaluation of children and adolescents with acquired injury or neurodevelopmental disorders is complex because
of the neurodevelopmental nature of abilities. When assessing these children, the evaluation not only evaluates
skills that should already be acquired, but also requires followup evaluations to assess how well laterdeveloping
skills do indeed develop.
Approaches to Test Selection with Children
Nomothetic Approach
The fixed battery, or nomothetic approach, uses the same assessment battery for all children being assessed,
regardless of their referral questions (Sweet, Moberg, & Westergaard, 1996). This approach may be either
empirically or theoretically based. Using an empirical approach, the test battery is selected according to its ability
to separate groups, while theoretically based batteries are founded on a theory of development as it relates to
broad or narrow dimensions of behavior (Fennell & Bauer, 2009). Clinicians utilizing a fixed battery approach
often use a published neuropsychological battery in conjunction with an IQ and achievement test. The published
neuropsychological batteries most frequently used with schoolaged children are the Luria Nebraska
Neuropsychological Battery–Children’s Revision (Golden, 1986) and the HalsteadReitan Neuropsychological
Test Batteries for Children (Reitan & Wolfson, 1985). The batteries contain numerous subtests that are
considered crucial for understanding brain–behavior relationships in children and adolescents. Research has
indicated that both batteries are effective in detecting the presence, lateralization, and localization of brain
dysfunction (Bauer, 1994).
There are several advantages to using a fixed battery approach to assessment. A large number of functions are
assessed using standardized procedures and objective measures and clinicians rely on cutoff scores for the
determination of the presence of brain damage. In order to prevent the referral question from dictating the
measures used, a “blind” assessment may be preferred (Goldstein, 1997). Additionally, by adhering to a fixed
battery approach, it is possible for clinicians to develop (p. 477) impressive research databases that provide
interpretation of large numbers of clinical groups (Hartlage & Telzrow, 1986).
While there are advantages to using a fixedbattery approach, there are also disadvantages. A standardized battery
may not take into account variables such as age, education, and other important idiopathic considerations. The
standardized battery may not answer the referral question. Finally, while a certain number of functions need to
be evaluated with any child, rarely do clinicians have the time to evaluate areas that do not appear compromised.
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The use of a fixedbattery approach to neuropsychological assessment appears to be declining (Sweet et al.,
1996).
Idiopathic Approach
In contrast to the nomothetic or fixedbattery approach, the idiographic approach tailors the assessment battery to
the referral question and the child’s test performance on initial measures administered (Christensen, 1975, Luria,
1973). Rather than providing a comprehensive evaluation in all areas of functioning, this approach is intended to
isolate the neurobehavioral mechanisms that underlie the difficulties of the individual being assessed. With the
idiopathic approach, the primary goal is to answer the referral question, rather than provide a comprehensive
assessment. With no uniformity across evaluations, this approach requires that the clinician have substantial
clinical knowledge regarding brain–behavior functioning in order to determine the appropriate assessment tools
necessary to meet this goal.
While this approach appears to be the most costeffective of the methods described due to the small number of
domains assessed (Goldstein, 1997), the major drawback of the idiopathic approach relies on the limited research
base generated and the inability to study the efficacy of this method compared to the other approaches (Riccio &
Reynolds, 1998). Furthermore, information regarding the neuropsychological functions and organization of
behaviors in children and adolescents with various disorders is limited at this time (Baron, Fennell, & Voeller,
1995). As a result, the individualized approach is less frequently used than the other approaches (Fennell, 1994).
Flexible Approaches
The flexible battery involves choosing specific instruments based on the presenting issues or neurobehavioral
mechanisms that underlie the difficulties of a child, rather than administering a predetermined
neuropsychological battery. In order to meet this goal, the clinician administers a core set of standardized tests to
all children in order to provide a comprehensive assessment. The clinician then supplements the battery with a
selected set of additional tests designed to answer specific referral questions (p. 478) (Rourke et al., 1986) or to
further examine potential areas of weakness that are detected while using the core battery (Bauer, 1994).
Consistent with the fixed battery approach, the flexible battery approach may be either empirically or
theoretically based. While the core set of tests may be empirically based, the components of the flexible battery
often reflect the theoretical position of the clinician with regard to which behavioral performance reflects brain
pathology (Bauer, 1994).
The major advantage of the flexible battery is that both a nomothetic and an ideographic approach to
neuropsychological assessment are applied. This method allows for the assessment of a broad range of functions
as well as specific areas related to the referral question. Clinicians generally agree that this approach more
accurately identifies specific deficits. As such, the flexible approach is the method preferred by most
neuropsychologists working with adult and child populations (Sweet & Moberg, 1990, Sweet et al., 1996).
The Boston Process Approach (Kaplan, 1988) is a good example of the use of the flexible battery. A core set of
tests with low specificity is initially used to assess various neuropsychological constructs. In addition to core
tests, several “satellite tests” are used to clarify particular problem areas and to confirm the hypotheses developed
from observations of the individual. According to Milberg, Hebben, and Kaplan (1986), the only limits to the
procedures that are employed are the examiner’s knowledge of available tests of cognitive function and his or her
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ingenuity in creating new measures for particular deficit areas. With the Process Approach, there is less focus on
the results of standardized testing and more focus on the presentation of symptoms, strategy used in task
completion, and error analysis. The Process Approach uses standardized measures, experimental measures, and
“testing the limits” that often involve procedural modifications in order to gain insight into brain–behavior
relationships (Kaplan, 1988; Milberg, Hebben, & Kaplan, 1986). While the Boston Process Approach shows
great promise, there is concern regarding the questionable reliability of scores obtained on measures where the
standardized procedures have been compromised (Rourke et al., 1986). In response to these concerns, the
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for ChildrenFourth Edition–Integrated (WISCIVIntegrated; Wechsler et al., 2004)
and DelisKaplan Executive Function System (DKEFS; Delis, Kaplan, & Kramer, 2001) were designed so that
changes to input modality were normed.
Domains for Assessment
Cognitive Functioning
A neuropsychological evaluation should include measures of the child’s cognitive skills. To accomplish this task,
a comprehensive IQ test is used to measure general intellectual ability (g). Using an intellectual test with a strong
measure of g provides a solid baseline for the interpretation of other domains. However, interpretation of a
child’s performance on cognitive measures is complicated by the fact that no two tests conceive of intelligence in
the same way. In fact, cognitive instruments that attest to measure the construct of intelligence can differ
substantially from one another (Kamphaus, 2005).
The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fourth Edition (WISCIV; Wechsler, 2003) and the Kaufman
Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition (KABCII; Kaufman & Kaufman, 2004) are two measures
frequently used with children. The WISC measures are a downward extension of the Wechsler’s adult measure,
the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. The most recent version, the WISCIV was designed for use with children
and adolescents six to 16 years old. According to Wechsler (2003), the neurocognitive models of information
processing provide the basis for the structure of the WISCIV. While the WISCIII adhered to the traditional
verbal IQ/performance IQ dichotomy, the WISCIV provides four index scores: Verbal Comprehension (VCI),
Perceptual Reasoning (PRI), Working Memory (WMI), and Processing Speed (PSI). The fullscale IQ score is
derived from the 10 subtests included in the four indices. Unlike previous versions of the WISC, the WISCIV
includes the working memory and processing speed subtests in calculating the fullscale IQ.
The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fourth Edition–Integrated (WISCIVIntegrated; Wechsler et al.,
2004). is based on the Boston Process Approach and assists clinicians in better understanding the cognitive
processes involved in the performance of core or supplemental WISCIV subtests. While the WISCIV
Integrated provides the same four indices and overall fullscale IQ score as the WISCIV, an extended array of
16 subtests is available to complete the core components of the WISCIV. Based on the Boston Process
Approach, the WISCIV Integrated subtests use standardized approaches to modifying the input modality or item
content in order to better understand the underlying cognitive processes that are involved in the performance of
core or supplemental WISCIV subtests.
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The KABCII was normed for children three to 18 years old and is composed of four required scales and one
optional scale. The Simultaneous, Sequential, Planning, Learning, and Knowledge (optional) scales make up the
Mental Processing Index, FluidCrystallized Index, and Nonverbal Index. The KABCII was influenced by both
the Lurian model and CattellHornCarroll (CHC) model. The Kaufmans define simultaneous processing as
referring to the child’s mental ability to integrate input simultaneously in order to a solve a problem correctly.
Sequential processing, on the other hand, emphasizes the arrangement of stimuli in sequential or serial order for
successful problemsolving (Kaufman & Kaufman, 1983). Sequential skills are tied to lefthemisphere, stepby
step logical analysis, while simultaneous skills were believed to assess righthemisphere abilities. With an
emphasis on processing rather than content, the KABCII is far less dependent on prior learning and exposure to
cultural experiences than many of the other mainstream intelligence measures.
Academic Achievement
Assessment of basic academic skills, including reading, mathematics, and written language, is important in
determining the need for classroom modifications or special education support. A standardized battery such as
the WoodcockJohnson Psychoeducational Battery–Third Edition–Tests of Achievement (WJIII; Woodcock,
McGrew, & Mather, 2001) or the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test–Third Edition (WIATIII; Wechsler,
2009) can provide information on the child’s current functioning in major academic areas. According to
Goldstein and Schwebach (2009), the WJIII is the most comprehensive, welldeveloped assessment of academic
skills. Subtest analysis of the WJIII often reveals patterns of verbal, visual, rote, or conceptual weaknesses.
Because one of the most common complaints of parents of children who have sustained a TBI is slowed
processing speed, the WJIII is the academic assessment tool of choice when evaluating children with TBI. The
WJIII provides timed reading, math, and writing fluency subtests that evaluates a child’s ability to work
(p. 479)
quickly and accurately.
In the absence of a comprehensive battery such as the WJIII or the WIATIII, a neuropsychologist may use
other basic achievement data. In the area of reading, a measure should be used to assess phonetic skills, sight
word reading, and comprehension. The Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (CTOPP; Wagner,
Torgesen, & Rashotte, 1999) provides assessment of phonetic awareness, phonological memory, and rapid
naming. The Gray Oral Reading Test–Fifth Edition (GORT5; Wiederholt & Bryant, 2012) can provide
clinicians with information regarding reading rate, accuracy, fluency, and comprehension. In the area of spelling,
the Wide Range Achievement Test–Fourth Edition (WRAT4; Wilkinson & Robertson, 2006) provides estimates
of phonetic ability and sight word memory. The WRAT4 measures an individual’s ability to count, identify
numbers, solve simple arithmetic problems, and calculate written math problems. In the area of written language,
the Story Writing subtest of the Test of Written Language–Fourth Edition (TOWL4; Hammill & Larsen, 2009)
provides information regarding vocabulary, grammar, punctuation, sentence composition, and thematic
organization.
Attention
Problems with attention are inherent in a multitude of disorders in children, including TBI, stroke, cancer, and
developmental disorder, but they are most frequently noted in conjunction with attentiondeficit/hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD). Problems arising from symptoms of ADHD constitute the largest single source of referrals to
mental health centers (Barkley, 1981); more recently, it has been suggested that children with ADHD may
account for as many as 40 percent of referrals to child guidance clinics (Barkley, 1998). By definition, children
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with ADHD display difficulties with attention relative to normal children of the same age and sex. However,
attention is a multidimensional construct that can refer to alertness, arousal, selective or focused attention,
distractibility, and sustained attention, among others (Barkley, 1998; Mirsky, 1996). According to Douglas
(1983), children with ADHD most likely have their greatest difficulties with sustaining attention to tasks,
persistence to effort, and vigilance.
While a large number of children are referred to clinics, the development of a normreferenced, psychometric
assessment battery specifically designed to assess attention has been an elusive goal for clinicians (Goldstein,
1999). Computerized assessment of behaviors associated with attention problems represents an effort to
incorporate reliable and objective assessment into evaluations. These techniques were born from concern about
the degree to which diagnostic decisions were founded upon subjective measures and clinical judgment.
Currently, the determination of attention problems is made primarily from anecdotal information from parents
and teachers report. One problem with using scores from parents and teachers reports is the lack of congruence
often found between these measures. As noted by Sattler (1990), a lack of reliability between these measures is
primarily related to varying expectations and tolerance on the part of parents and teachers.
Computerbased measures allow the clinician to incorporate data into the assessment that is derived from a
child’s actual behavior. Unlike other clinical techniques, computerbased measures generate objective data about
a child’s ability to perform in situations tailored to assess the characteristic weaknesses of a child with attention
problems (Gordon, 1986a). One venture for a computerized measure included the development of continuous
performance tests (CPTs). The CPT is one group of paradigms used for the evaluation of attention and the
response inhibition component of executive control. The CPTs are frequently used to obtain quantitative
information regarding an individual’s ability to sustain attention over time; the duration of the task varies, but is
intended to be sufficient to measure sustained attention. The CPT involves selective attention or vigilance for an
infrequently occurring target or relevant stimulus. The CPT paradigm is generally characterized by rapid
presentation of continuously changing stimuli with a designated target stimulus or target pattern (Riccio,
Reynolds, & Lowe, 2001).
The Gordon Diagnostic System (Gordon, 1983) was the first commercially available CPT and has probably been
the most frequently used CPT in research studies (Riccio, Reynolds, & Lowe, 2001). The GDS is a
microprocessor unit, as opposed to a computer software program, that generates 11 tasks. There are three basic
paradigms: the delay task, the distractibility task, and the vigilance task. Of the three paradigms, the
distractibility and vigilance tasks are CPTs. More than one version of the distractibility and vigilance tasks are
available (Gordon, 1986a, 1986b; Gordon & Mettelman, (p. 480) 1988; Gordon Systems, Inc., 1991). The
Gordon uses numbers as stimuli. The children’s standard version of the vigilance task, for ages six to 16 years,
lasts nine minutes and requires the child to press a button every time a twonumber target combination (a 1
followed by a 9) is presented. The numerals for the children’s version are displayed for 200 milliseconds, with a
1000millisecond interstimulus interval (ISI). The distractibility task incorporates the twonumber target
presentation, but simultaneously includes the display of digits on either side of the target stimulus to assess
whether the individual can selectively attend to the target stimuli (Gordon Systems, Inc., 1991). In addition to
the vigilance and distractibility tasks, the GDS includes a delay task (lasting nine minutes) that is designed to
measure impulse control. On this task, the child earns points for inhibiting a response.
Information provided in the technical manual (Gordon Systems, Inc., 1987) indicated that the GDS children’s
standard version provides moderate to high testretest reliability for a clinical and nonclinical population. Test
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retest reliability estimates for nonclinical population ranged from 0.67 to 0.85, while estimates for the clinical
sample ranged from 0.68 to 0.94. Validity studies included in the 1987 manual supported the use of the GDS in
the diagnosis of attention problems with approximately 70 percent agreement with parent and teacher ratings of
children with ADHD depending on the age, the rater, and the scale.
The Conners’ Continuous Performance Test (2nd ed.; CPTII: Conners, 2000) is a visual paradigm used for the
evaluation of attention as well as the response inhibition component of executive control. The standard version of
the CPTII can be administered to children six years of age and older and takes approximately 14 minutes to
complete. Unlike traditional CPTs that require the individual to press a computer key after an X is presented, the
CPTII requires individuals to press the computer key immediately after every letter except the X. Conners
(2000) asserted that this format ensured a greater number of responses and therefore decreased chance error. For
four and fiveyearolds, the Conners’ Kiddie CPT (KCPT) may be used; this version is shorter in duration and
uses pictures instead of letters as the stimuli. The updated version of the CPTII (Conners, 2000) differs from
previous versions of the CPTII (Conners, 1992, 1995) in that it provides a validity test to identify invalid
administrations, a confidence index (CI) score to assess the likelihood that the examinee’s responses fit those
given by individuals with ADHD, new theory and methods for computing signal detection theory statistics, and
new and expanded norms.
The CPTII standard paradigm consists of six blocks, with each block divided into three subblocks. The targeted
and nontarged stimuli (letters) are randomly shown for 250 milliseconds, with the interstimulus interval (ISI)
varying within each block. For the three subblocks within a block, the ISI may be 1, 2, or 4 seconds; the order
of the three difference ISIs subblocks varies from block to block (Conners, 2000). Examination of results by
block allows for the assessment of vigilance. By varying the ISI, it is possible to assess the examinee’s ability to
adjust to changing tempo and task demands.
Conners (2000) provided reliability information obtained from the original standardization sample (Conners,
1994). Splithalf reliabilities across variables appeared adequate and ranged from 0.66 and 0.95. Test retest
reliability estimates ranged from 0.05 to 0.92, indicating that some of the variables do not produce good
consistency across administrations. In one validity study using the original standardization sample (Conners,
1994) the ADHD group responded more slowly, had greater variability of reaction times, made more omission
and commission errors, and was more affected by changes in the ISI than the group with a variety of other
clinical diagnoses. In a similar analysis using updated CPTII data (Conners, 2000), no significant differences
were observed between the ADHD and nonclinical groups on the commissions variable; for all other variables, a
significant difference between the groups was evident, with the ADHD group performing more poorly on all
variables.
The Test of Variables of Attention is an XCPT available in separate visual (TOVA; Greenberg, 1988–1999) and
auditory (TOVAA; Greenberg, 1996–1999) versions. The TOVA is composed of both a clinical version and a
preschool version. The TOVA and TOVAA require an individual to press a microswitch every time the target
stimulus is presented. The target stimulus consists of a colored square with a smaller square contained within and
adjacent to the top edge of the larger square. In contrast, the nontarget stimulus has a smaller inscribed square
adjacent to the bottom edge of the larger square. For the TOVAA, two audible tones are used as stimuli, one as
the target and one as the nontarget. Supporters of the TOVA and TOVAA argue that by virtue of being non–
languagebased tests, these measures serve as “purer” measures of inattentiveness and executive control,
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For both the TOVA and TOVAA, the target and nontarget stimuli are presented randomly for 100 ms with an
ISI of 2000 ms. The clinical versions are composed of four intervals. During the first half of the test (intervals 1
and 2), the target stimulus is randomly displayed on 22.5 percent of the trials. This condition is called the
“stimulusinfrequent condition,” and it is believed to create a situation in which an individual who is inattentive
is less likely to respond and therefore will make omission errors. As such, the stimulusinfrequent state is used to
assess the individual’s attention. During the second half of the test (intervals 3 and 4), the target stimulus is
shown on 77.5 percent of the trials. This stimulusfrequent condition creates a strong response set in which an
individual who has an impulse control problem is more likely to respond and make commission errors. This
stimulusfrequent condition is used to assess the individual’s impulsivity (Greenberg & Crosby, 1992; Leark,
Dupuy, Greenberg, Corman, & Kindschi, 1996).
Testretest reliability studies indicated that the stability of performance across time (4 months) ranged from 0.51
to 0.82 (Llorente et al., 2000). Llorente and colleagues concluded that omission and commission error variables
were the least stable, and reaction time and reaction time variability were the most stable. No testretest study of
the TOVAA was found. Results of a factor analysis indicated a threefactor solution for the TOVA consistent
with the premise that the task is measuring attention, disinhibition, and processing speed. For the TOVAA, five
factors emerged including the processing speed of the TOVA and separate attention and disinhibition factors for
both the targetfrequent and targetinfrequent conditions. Results of a clinical validity study of children with
ADHD and normal controls indicated that false positive rates of 80 and 90 percent were obtained, depending on
the cutoff scores used (Leark, et al., 1996).
The Integrated (or Intermediate) Visual and Auditory Continuous Performance Test (IVA; Sandford & Turner,
1994–1999) is a 13minute CPT that uses both auditory and visual stimuli within the same task. Of the CPTs
discussed here, this is the only one that requires an individual to shift modalities within the same task. On the
IVA, the individual is to press a mouse button in response to a visual or auditory target stimulus (the number 1)
and to refrain from pressing the mouse button when the nontarget stimulus (the number 2) is presented either
visually or verbally. The target and nontarget stimuli are presented in a random pattern with a 1500 ms ISI for
500 trials (Sandford & Turner, 1995). The IVA varies the frequency of the target. During the test, the IVA’s
target to nontarget ratio is altered by blocks to elicit omission and commission errors. Under the frequenttarget
condition, a response set is created such that the dominant response is to press the mouse button. As such, an
individual who is impulsive is more likely to make commission errors. During the infrequenttarget condition,
vigilance and response inhibition are assessed.
Testretest reliability correlations across auditory and visual variables of the IVA ranged from a low of 0.18 to
0.88 (Sandford & Turner, 1995). These findings show that the temporal stability of some variables is adequate,
whereas the stability of other variables is low. Results of a validity study using the IVA indicated that the IVA
results were in agreement with group membership (ADHD or normal controls) in 92 percent of the cases.
In reviewing the above CPTs, it is important to point out that CPTs are not identical assessment tools. Different
CPTs may measure different facets of attention and executive functioning. According to Conners (1992, 1995),
CPTs are not a unitary measure, but rather a family of measures with differing parameters and scoring indices.
Little is known about how the differences in measures affect diagnostic considerations.
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Executive Functioning
Executive functions are a set of cognitive processes that guide goaldirected behaviors. They do not refer to an
individual’s knowledge or skills, but to the mental processes that direct whether and how these are applied to
accomplish a goal. While a child may demonstrate an IQ and achievement abilities within the average range, he
or she may struggle with executive functioning. Executive processes include control of attention, inhibition of
impulses, cognitive flexibility, working memory, planning, organization, selfmonitoring, and emotional
regulation. From a brain–behavior relationship perspective, executive processes are related to the frontal and
prefrontal areas. Because the frontal lobes constitute a complex neurological and functional system (Luria, 1966;
Welsh & Pennington, 1988), both discreet and diffuse damage resulting from TBI can cause children to have
difficulty with (p. 482) self regulation and problemsolving. Children with neurodevelopmental disorders (e.g.,
ADHD, autism spectrum disorder) also tend to have problems with executive functioning.
While the umbrella of executive functioning may include a variety of constructs, including attention, self
regulation, and working memory, the “executive” processes focus on strategic planning, effortful and flexible
organization, and proactive reasoning (Denckla, 1994). Because the frontal and prefrontal areas continue to
develop and mature throughout adolescence, it is difficult to assess executive functioning in children. Most
executive function measures used with children are downward extensions of adult measures (Riccio & Reynolds,
1999), and many lack adequate normative data. Below is a review of measures used to assess executive
functioning.
The Trail Making Test (TMT), parts A and B, is one of the most widely used screening instruments in current
neuropsychological practice (Moses, 2004). It was originally developed by Partington in 1938 to serve as a
model of “divided attention” (Partington & Leiter, 1949). While this test is an excellent global screening
measure sensitive to the integrity of cognitive performance, it was not well normed, and there is not a set of
current norms that matched the United States population.
In order to provide a revision and extension of the TMT, Reynolds (2002) developed the Comprehensive Trail
Making Test (CTMT) that consists of five timed trials that are designed to highlight and isolate specific
components of performance. On the first “trail,” the examinee connects numbers in order. This task assesses
sustained attention, as well as basic sequencing and visualspatial scanning skills. On CTMT Trails 2 and 3, the
examinee is again required to sequence numbers; however, simple empty circles (Trails 2) and complex, busy
circles (Trails 3) are added to the visual array. The subject must sustain and focus attention despite the
distracters. On the CTMT Trail 4, both numerical and lexical numbers are presented in a random alternating
sequence. On the CTMT Trail 5, the examinee must connect numbers and letters in an alternating sequence,
while also being presented with empty distracter circles.
The CTMT is appropriate for administration to individuals from age 11 years 0 months to age 74 years 11
months. More recently, Reynolds provided norms that extend to those aged 8 years 0 months to 11 years 0
months so that the test can be administered to younger children. In the areas of reliability and validity, the
CTMT meets rigorous standards. All internal consistency values for the five CTMT trails meet or exceed a value
of 0.70, and the reliability value of the Composite Index score is 0.92. Testretest reliability values for the five
trails of the CTMT range from 0.70 to 0.78, which are quite high for a speeded measure. Preliminary studies are
provided in the manual that establish the test’s construct, concurrent, and content validity. Results of a more
recent study (Armstrong, Allen, Donohue, & Mayfield, 2008) indicated that the CTMT did a good job of
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correctly classifying adolescents with traumatic brain injury and controls; however, some variability in
classification accuracy was present among various trails.
The DelisKaplan Executive Function System (DKEFS; Delis, Kaplan, & Kramer, 2001) represents the first set
of executive tests conormed on a large and representative national sample and designed exclusively for the
assessment of executive functions, including flexibility of thinking, inhibition, problem solving, planning,
impulse control, concept formation, abstract thinking, and creativity. The DKEFS is composed of nine tests that
provide a standardized assessment of executive functions in children and adults between the ages of 8 and 89.
Utilizing a “cognitiveprocess approach,” the DKEFS tests allow examiners to systematically generate and
evaluate relevant clinical hypotheses on executive functioning of a given examinee by comparing and contrasting
performance on multiple testing conditions and using contrast measure scores and error analyses. The DKEFS is
composed of the following nine standalone tests that can be individually or group administered: Trail Making
Test; Verbal Fluency Test; Design Fluency Test; ColorWord Interference Test; Sorting Test; Twenty Questions
Test; Word Context Test; Tower Test; and Proverb Test.
One of the important objectives of designing the DKEFS was to provide psychologists with a large,
comprehensive collection of executivefunction tests for the assessment of complex and multifactorial domains of
frontal lobe functioning. The authors noted that most of the existing executivefunction tests were developed in
the 1940s. As such, the authors indicated that the designs of these extant tests have not benefited from the
knowledge that has accrued over the past 60 years of research and clinical practice. The authors sought to
incorporate the principles and procedures from this extensive body of knowledge into a new set of executive
function tests by employing several unique approaches. By (p. 483) embracing a “cognitiveprocess approach,”
the component functions of higherlevel cognitive tasks can be assessed. The authors indicate that most existing
clinical instruments of higherlevel cognitive functions yield a single score for each task, which is problematic
because such tests typically tap a host of fundamental and higherlevel cognitive skills. Several DKEFS tests
allow the examiner to assess the relative contributions of multiple fundamental and higherlevel cognitive
functions to overall performance on each executivefunction test by using multiple testing conditions and
providing “contrast measures.” In using modifications of the traditional tests, it was possible to add features and
testing conditions that would increase the sensitivity of the tests to mild brain damage.
Each DKEFS test includes primary and optional measures and provides between six and 34 scores. In addition,
five DKEFS tests provide several primary or optional “contrast” measures. Some tasks measure similar
cognitive functions but under somewhat different conditions. Separate normative scores are derived for each of
the testing conditions. In addition, a total achievement score that reflects the examinee’s ability at the task across
the testing conditions is computed. The clinician can be flexible in terms of administering only some of the D
KEFS tests or conditions within a test. The selection of conditions or tests to be administered depends on the
assessment needs of the specific examinee or the time constraints of the examiner.
Test developers presented correlations between the DKEFS tests and other measures to provide evidence for
adequate convergent and discriminant validity. Exploratory factoranalytic results were not provided, because
factor scores derived from normative or mixedclinical populations often mask critical cognitive distinctions,
especially on processoriented tests (Delis et al., 2003). Evidence of validity is provided in studies indicating that
tests from the DKEFS have reasonable sensitivity in distinguishing many different types of clinical groups (e.g.,
fetal alcohol exposure, focal frontal lesions, etc.) from controls. Many overall achievement scores of the tests
have adequate to good reliability coefficients; however, some of the optional process measures have low
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reliability coefficients. A review of its administration, scoring and interpretation, test construction,
standardization, and technical adequacy indicate that the DKEFS holds much promise, not only as a clinical
instrument, but also as a research tool for increasing knowledge of the frontallobe functions.
The NEPSYII: A Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment (NEPSYII: Korkman, Kirk, and Kemp,
2007) is the revision of the original NEPSY (Korkman, Kirk, and Kemp, 1998) and can be used with children
three to 16 years of age. The NEPSYII assesses six domains of functioning. In addition to the executive
functioning/attention domain, the NEPSYII also measures language, memory and learning, sensorimotor
functioning, visuospatial processing, and social perception, the last of which is a new domain specific to the
NEPSYII. While the original NEPSY required a fixed administration of subtests to obtain domain scores, the
NEPSYII does not require a set administration of subtests and does not provide domain scores. Rather, the
clinician is allowed to create a tailored assessment of subtests across the six domains and interpret individual
subtest scores. The NEPSYII also provides a greater array of subtests from which the examiner can select. The
computerized scoring program provides an electronic “decision tree” that assists the clinician in selecting subtests
based on the child’s presenting history.
One of the greatest strengths of the NEPSYII is the comprehensive standardization of the measure using 1200
children and adolescents, which closely approximates the demographics of the United States population based on
2003 census data. The NEPSYII manual provided evidence that the NEPSYII has good internal reliability;
however, construct validity appears questionable in some areas. Although most subtests appear to have adequate
reliability and validity, some of the subtests may not provide consistent and accurate scores. The Design Fluency,
Oromotor Sequence, Manual Motor Series, and Route Finding subtests appear to have lower reliablity. Animal
Sorting, Narrative Memory, and Visuomotor Precision subtests should be interpreted with care since they do not
appear to measure the same construct as other subtests in these domains. According to D’Amato and Hartlage
(2008), there is general support for the clinical usefulness of the NEPSYII in distinguishing between various
neuropsychological disorders. Specific group studies by Korkman et al. (2007) reported lower functioning on
subtests across all domains in groups of 23 autistic children. Severe deficits were evident in the areas of
executive functioning, language, and memory. Children with AttentionDeficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder generally
exhibit lower scores than control groups on Phonological Processing, Speeded Naming, Visuomotor Precision,
Arrows, and (p. 484) Geometric Puzzles subtests (Korkman, Kirk, & Kemp, 2007). Select subtests are
particularly useful in diagnosing ADHD, autism spectrum disorder, and learning disabilities.
Learning and Memory
We rely on memory to carry out most daily activities (Reynolds & Bigler, 1997). Unfortunately, nearly every
CNS disorder associated with disturbances of higher cognitive functions presents with some form of memory
problems (FletcherJanzen & Reynolds, 2003; Lezak, Howieson, Loring, Hannay, & Fischer, 2004). Memory
difficulties are the most common complaint in individuals with traumatic brain injury (D’Amato, Fletcher
Janzen, & Reynolds, 2005). According to Reynolds and Voress (2009), TBI produces the least predictable forms
of memory loss, with the exception of increased forgetting curves. Furthermore, recovery of memory after a TBI
is less predictable than improvement in general cognitive functioning and may be due to concurrent difficulties
with attention. Some of the more frequently occurring disorders in which memory and learning are likely to be
compromised in children include: attention deficithyperactivity disorder (ADHD), learning disabilities, mental
retardation, autism and other developmental disorders, cancer and iatrogenic memory disorders (secondary to
chemotherapy), cerebral palsy, Down syndrome, extremely low birthweight, fragile X chromosome,
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hydrocephalus, inborn errors of metabolism (e.g., PKU), in utero toxic exposure, meningitis, seizure disorders,
and many more (Reynolds & Voress, 2009).
Surprisingly, the assessment of memory in children and adolescents has only recently become common practice
for clinicians. As pointed out by Reynolds & Voress (2009), the major texts on child neuropsychology of the
1970s and 1980s do not discuss the assessment of memory in children. However, by 1995, assessment of memory
function in children was routinely discussed in key textbooks.
The Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning (WRAML; Sheslow & Adams, 1990) was the first
memory assessment tool designed for use with children. This test consisted of nine subtests that yielded a verbal
memory and visual memory score with normative data from children ages five to 17 years. Delayed recall trials
could be given for four of the subtests. Four summary indices were provided for interpretation, including the
General Memory, Verbal Memory, Visual Memory, and Learning Index. The Verbal, Visual, and Learning
Indices were composed of three subtests each and were derived on the supposition that the dimensions of
memory as assessed by the WRAML. While subsequent studies supported the verbal and visual dichotomy as a
valid subdivision of the WRAML, data supporting the Learning Factor were equivocal (Aylward, Gioia,
Verhulst, & Bell, 1995; Gioia, 1998) with several studies questioning whether subtests may tap into
attention/concentration (Burton, Mittenberg, Gold, & Drabman, 1999; Haut, Haut, Callahan, & Frazen, 1992).
The Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning–Second Edition (WRAML2; Sheslow & Adams, 2003)
now spans the age range of five to 85+ years. The WRAML2 comprises six core subtests as well as optional
subtests. The screening battery takes approximately 20 minutes to administer, while the administration of the full
test to a child takes about 75 to 90 minutes (Hartman, 2007). Administration is flexible, as the authors did not
develop the test with an expectation that the entire test would be used. In designing the test in this manner, the
authors have satisfied clinicians who adhere to either the fixed or flexible battery (subtestspecific) approach to
assessment. The WRAML2 is composed of three factors: verbal, nonverbal, and attention/concentration. While
scores on WRAML2 subtests contain high reliability coefficients, scores continue to contain error variance.
Small studies are cited in the WRAML2 manual, involving learningdisabled children, suggesting that the
WRAML2 is sensitive to this influence.
The Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL; Reynolds & Bigler, 1994) consisted of 10 core subtests (five
verbal and five nonverbal) that yielded verbal and nonverbal memory scale scores in addition to a composite
memory score. The delayed recall index was composed of both verbal and visual subtests. It was also possible to
compare the student’s learning curve with that of a standardized sample. While some of the subtests appeared
similar to other memory measures, additional supplemental indices (e.g., sequential recall
attention/concentration, and learning) were unique to this measure and provided useful information. Reynolds
and Bigler (1996) examined the latent structure of the TOMAL and found that factor solutions were highly
stable across age groups. Interestingly, none of the solutions obtained matched a verbal/nonverbal dichotomy
usually represented by the two scales of the TOMAL. Instead, what emerged were components representing
various levels of complexity (p. 485) in memory tasks and processing demands that cut across modalities.
Alternative methods of interpretation based on factoranalytic results were provided (Reynolds & Bigler, 1996).
In contrast to many neuropsychological measures that combine the forward and backward recall measures, the
TOMAL provided separate scores for forward and backward digit and letter recall. The TOMAL included
studies of ethnic and gender bias, and items showing cultural bias were eliminated.
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The TOMAL2 (Reynolds and Voress, 2007) is the revised edition of the original TOMAL. The TOMAL2 can
be administered to individuals aged five to 59. For adults ages 55–89, a shorter battery is available.
Demographics of the normative sample correspond to 2002 Census Bureau statistics to provide the most updated
comparison with the U.S. population. The TOMAL2 has the broadest range of memory tasks available in a
standardized memory battery (Hartman, 2007). The TOMAL2 consists of eight core and six supplementary
subtests. There are two subtests that evaluate delayed verbal memory. There is no index of nonverbal delayed
recall; nonverbal recall indices could not be computed due to lower reliability and restriction of range (Reynold
and Voress, 2007). The TOMAL2 reportedly takes less time to administer than the original TOMAL, and the
core battery can be given within 30 minutes for most examinees. Results of factor structure studies indicated that
there is a clear congruence across the TOMAL and the TOMAL2, demonstrating the factorial equivalence of the
two editions of the TOMAL (Reynolds & Voress, 2009). Results suggested that memory as assessed by the
TOMAL and TOMAL2 is more processdriven than contentdriven. Consistently with the original TOMAL,
care was taken to control for cultural bias. Following positive feedback from the original TOMAL, forward and
backward digit and letter recall scores are computed separately.
The Children’s Memory Scale (CMS, Cohen 1997) was developed with connections to the Wechsler Intelligence
Scale for Children–Third Edition (WISCIII) built into the standardization process. The CMS consists of six
core subtests representing verbal memory, attention/concentration, and visual memory, as well as three
supplemental subtests. Subtests allow for evaluation of a student’s immediate and delayed recall in both verbal
and visual areas. There is a total of seven index scores calculated to examine the differences between
immediate/delayed recall, verbal/visual memory, learning, recognition, and attention/concentration. Results of
factoranalytic studies of the standardization sample indicated that a threefactor solution
(attention/concentration, verbal memory, and visual memory) provided the “best fit” (Cohen, 1997). To date, the
Children’s Memory Scale has not been revised.
Language/Communication Abilities
Language depends on the integrity of the association cortex of both cerebral hemispheres; however, the main
language areas are generally located in the left hemisphere for most humans. Broca’s area is primarily
responsible for planning speech (expressive language) and is located in the inferior temporal lobe. Wernicke’s
area is involved in representing and recognizing sound patterns of words (receptive language) and resides in the
superior temporal lobe. When evaluating the integrity of brain–behavior functioning, both regions should be
assessed. While cognitive measures provide languagebased measures of general intelligence, information
obtained does not provide an adequate measure of listening comprehension that is independent of verbal
expression. For this reason, it is imperative to include a measure of receptive vocabulary as part of the
neuropsychological evaluation. If language issues appear problematic, a measure of expressive vocabulary may
also provide additional useful information.
The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test–Fourth Edition (PPVTIV: Dunn & Dunn, 2007) is designed to assess
receptive vocabulary by having the examinee select one of four pictures that best represents a target word. The
test is untimed and does not require reading ability. The starting and stopping points for the PPVTIV are
determined by the individual’s chronological age and basal and ceiling rules. The PPVTIV is appropriate for
individuals ages 2½ to over 90 years of age. The PPVTIV is the first release that includes colorillustrated
pictures. There are two parallel forms of the PPVTIV. Although the PPVTIV is limited to the assessment of
receptive vocabulary, it is useful in establishing the level of verbal comprehension when expressive
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communication is not required. The PPVTIV is conormed with the Expressive Vocabulary Test–Second Edition
(EVTII: Williams, 2007). The EVTII evaluates expressive vocabulary and word retrieval in Englishspeaking
individuals age 2½ to over 90 years. Reliability and validity scores reported in the examination manuals ranged
from the .80s to .90s.
The Oral and Written Language Scales Second Edition (OWLSII: CarrowWoolfolk, 2011) is an individually
administered assessment of receptive (p. 486) and expressive (oral and written) language for individuals aged
three through 21 years old. The OWLSII consists of four scales: Listening Comprehension, Oral Expression,
Reading Comprehension, and Written Expression, which assess listening, speaking, and writing skills,
respectively. The Listening Comprehension Scale is designed to measure one’s understanding of spoken
language. The examinee is required to look at four colorful pictures and select the picture that best depicts the
verbal stimulus. The test is untimed, does not require reading ability, and the starting and stopping points are
determined by the individual’s chronological age and basal and ceiling rules. As the task becomes more difficult,
items increase in length, linguistic complexity, and semantic content. Verbal logic, humor, and figurative
language are also introduced into items.
To administer the Oral Expression Scale of the OWLSII, the examinee answers questions, finishes sentences,
and generates sentences in response to visual or oral prompts. Due to the recency of the OWLSII publication,
limited research is available; however, the OWLSII is similar to the original OWLS that exhibited sound
psychometric properties.
Perceptual/Sensory and Motor Functioning
Visual perception and motor functions are complex processes involving many different aspects of brain
functioning. The assessment of visual perception is useful in determining the extent to which visual and tactile
kinesthetic information is received and integrated. When clinicians evaluate a child’s motor functioning, they
usually assess fine motor control and dexterity. The following measures are examples of tests that evaluate visual
perception and motor functions.
The BeeryBuktenica Developmental Test of VisualMotor Integration–6th Edition (VMI; Beery & Beery, 2010)
involves copying a sequence of 24 increasingly complex geometric figures. This measure is normed for
individuals age two to 100 years old, and takes approximately five to 15 minutes to administer. The VMI
measures the extent to which an individual can integrate visual and motor abilities; however, if an individual has
difficulties on this measure, it is not possible to ascertain whether it was due to visual, motor, or visualmotor
integration problems. As such, if it is determined that further testing is warranted, optional visual perception and
motor coordination subtests are available and help compare relatively pure visual and motor performance.
The Developmental Test of Visual Perception–Second Edition (DTVP2; Hammill, Pearson, & Voress, 1993)
and the Developmental Test of Visual Perception–Adolescent and Adult (DTVPA; Reynolds, Pearson, and
Voress, 2002) are comprehensive measures of visual perception that reliably differentiate visual perception
problems from visualmotor integration difficulties. The DTVP2 is designed to be used with children ages four
to 10 years and consists of seven subtests, including VisualMotor Speed, Position in Space, Eye–Hand
Coordination, Copying Spatial Relations, FigureGround, Visual Closure, and Form Constancy. Subtests are
grouped into either the MotorReduced Visual Index or the VisualMotor Integration Index. A General Visual
Perception Quotient is also generated. The DTVPA may be used with individuals 11 to 74 years old and consists
of six subtests: Copying, FigureGround, VisualMotor Search, Visual Closure, VisualMotor Speed, and Form
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Constancy. Consistent with the DTVP2, MotorReduced Visual, VisualMotor Integration, and General Visual
Perception Index scores are obtained. The DTVP2 and DTVPA are especially useful in the evaluation of
children and adolescents who have suffered a TBI or stroke where right hemisphere function may be
compromised. These measures are well normed and have good internal consistency and validity.
The Children’s HalsteadReitan Neuropsychological Battery (CHRNB; Reitan & Wolfson, 1992) for children
nine to 14 years, and the ReitanIndiana Test Battery (RINB; Reitan, 1969) for children ages five to eight are
two children’s batteries based on the adult version of the HalsteadReitan Neuropsychological Battery (Halstead,
1947; Reitan & Wolfson, 1985). These batteries contain numerous measures necessary for understanding brain
behavior relationships, including assessment of sensory abilities, motor speed, and dexterity. In addition, abilities
in the areas of concept formation, attention/concentration, verbal abilities, and memory are evaluated. Both the
CHRNB and the RINB provide examination of overall performance, patterns of performance, rightleft
differences, and pathognomic signs (Reitan, 1986, 1987). The Luria Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery–
Children’s Revision (LNNBCR: Golden, 1984) was developed according to neurodevelopmental stages and
provides information specific to motor, rhythm, tactile, visual, verbal (receptive and expressive) and memory
functioning. Interpretation of the LNNBCR focuses predominantly on scale patterns (p. 487) as opposed to levels
of performance or pathognomonic signs.
Emotional/Behavioral Functioning
Children who present with compromised CNS functioning or neurodevelopmental disorders often exhibit
problems with emotional or behavior status. In order to adequately provide recommendations in regard to
intervention planning, parent and teacher rating scales are often completed that provide information regarding
functioning at home and school in a variety of areas. The assessment of emotional and behavior status has lagged
behind the methods available for assessing other domains of functioning (Martin, 1988). However, during recent
years, the publication of new instruments with improved psychometric properties has emerged.
The Conners’ Rating ScaleThird Edition (CRS3: Conners, 2008) is a widely used behavior rating scale used to
assess children aged six to 18 years. The CRSIII was redefined with a focus on ADHD in schoolaged children
and a strengthened connection with the Diagnostic and Statistical ManualFourth Edition Text Revision (DSM
IVTR). Parent, teacher, and selfreport measures are available. The selfreport measure can be used with
adolescents aged eight to 18 years. There are short and long forms available for each of the three rating scales.
The long form consists of the following scales: general psychopathology, inattention, hyperactivity/ impulsivity,
learning problems, executive functioning, aggression, peer relations, family relations, ADHD Inattentive,
ADHD HyperactiveImpulsive, ADHD Combined, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder. The
Conners 3 Global Index is a measure of general psychopathology. The Conners’ ADHD Index 10item index
may be used for screening large groups of children to see if further assessment of ADHD is warranted.
The Behavior Assessment System for Children–Second Edition (BASCII: Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2004)
includes not only teacher and parent forms that can be used from ages two to 25, but also offers a structured
observation system (SOS), and for children eight years old and older, a selfreport measure that can effectively
assess emotional and behavioral status. The primary scales assessed using the Parent and Teacher rating scale
include: Adaptability, Activities Of Daily Living, Aggression, Anxiety, Attention Problems, Atypicality,
Conduct Problems, Depression, Functional Communication, Hyperactivity, Leadership, Learning Problems,
Social Skills, Somatization, Study Skills, and Withdrawal. Composite score indices are presented for the
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following: Emotional Symptoms, Inattention/Hyperactivity, Internalizing Problems, Personal Adjustment, and
School Problems. The SOS can be used with direct observation that may be more appropriate for monitoring
small and gradual changes. Direct observation also provides an objective measure without the potential bias of
raters, and can be especially useful when raters (e.g., parents and teacher) disagree in their portrayals of the
child. The BASC2 revision included many improvements from the original BASC that was published in 1992,
including improved reliability and standardization the addition of more scales, updated norms, and the age range
was expanded to use up through age 21. The BASC2 also was designed to facilitate differential diagnoses. When
adaptive behavior is an identified concern, completion of an adaptive behavior scale such as the Vineland
Adaptive Behavior Scales (VABSII: Sparrow, Cicchetti, & Balla, 2005) or the Adaptive Behavior Assessment
System–Second Edition (ABAS: Harrison & Oakland, 2003), may be particularly helpful for intervention
planning.
General Organization of the Neuropsychological Assessment of the Child
The neuropsychological evaluation of a child focuses more directly on CNS functioning, rather than on the
identification of strictly neurological disorders. However, assessment can be useful in the diagnosis and
identification of subtler conditions (e.g., ADHD, learning disabilities). A neuropsychological assessment of a
child differs from that of an adult in that educational considerations are of paramount importance. Furthermore,
information obtained from parent and teacher report often provides useful information regarding behavioral
functioning.
A thorough history is an important part of a child neuropsychological evaluation. Information about gestation,
delivery, postnatal period, and early speech and motor development are important. The length of time and
functional changes since the trauma or the disease onset, premorbid levels of functioning, and family history of
related problems provide information that will affect how information is interpreted. A review of school records
including any special education records, standardized test scores, grades, and information regarding behavioral
difficulties will provide additional useful information. If a child has had a previous psychological evaluation, the
neuropsychologist must obtain a (p. 488) copy of that assessment if possible. Once information is obtained from a
thorough clinical interview with a parent and school records are reviewed, there are nine guidelines, derived
from a variety of sources (Reynolds & Mayfield, 1999; Riccio & Reynolds, 1998; Rourke, Bakker, Fisk, and
Strang, 1983), that should be considered in the organization of a neuropsychological assessment.
1. It is crucial to assess all, or at least a significant majority, of the child’s educationally relevant cognitive skills
or higherorder information processing skills. General intellectual functioning via a comprehensive IQ test such
as the Wechsler Individual Assessment of Children–Fourth Edition (WISCIV; Wechsler, 2003) or Kaufman
Assessment Battery for ChildrenSecond Edition (KABCII; Kaufman & Kaufman, 2004) is necessary. Strong
measures of g that evaluate the efficiency of mental processing provide a baseline for interpreting all other
aspects of the assessment (Riccio & Reynolds, 1998). Other areas to be assessed include memory, attention,
concentration, and new learning as these are the most common of all complaints following any CNS compromise
as well as neurodevelopmental disorders (e.g., ADHD, learning disabilities). Assessment of basic academic skills
including reading, mathematics, and written language provide a performancebased measure of learning.
2. Testing should assess the efficiency of the right and left hemispheres of the brain. Different brain systems that
impact treatment are involved in each hemisphere. In the righthanded majority, languagerelated processes are
usually leftlateralized. The left hemisphere processes rapid sequential recognition, recall and recognition of
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order information, and the planning of motor and conceptual action skills. Visualspatial processes, including
facial recognition, arousal, and emotional perception, are righthemisphere functions. Comprehending inferences,
metaphors, and humor are also righthemisphere abilities (Kinsbourne, 2009). Neuropsychological tests,
including the Children’s HalsteadReitan Neuropsychological Test Battery (Reitan & Davison, 1974; Reitan &
Wolfson, 1992), ReitanIndiana Test Battery (Reitan, 1969; Reitan & Davison, 1974), and the LuriaNebraska
Neuropsychological Children’s Battery (Golden, 1986) are useful in the assessment of brain systems.
3. Testing should assess both anterior and posterior regions of brain function. The anterior portion of the brain is
generative and regulatory, while the posterior region is principally receptive (Riccio & Reynolds, 1998). Sensory
perception should be evaluated. In the area of language, receptive and expressive vocabulary tests may evaluate
the posterior and anterior regions, respectively. When care is taken to systematically evaluate both hemispheres
as well as anterior and posterior regions, information can be gleamed from all major quadrants of the neocortex.
4. Testing should determine the presence of specific deficits. In contrast to many psychological tests,
neuropsychological tests tend to be less gloaded and have greater specificity of measurement. This is beneficial
when the goal is to determine whether specific functional problems exist. In working with children and
adolescents with traumatic brain injury (TBI), strokes, tumors, seizures, or chronic medical disorders, very
specific changes in neocortical function are sometimes best addressed by a neuropsychological assessment.
5. Determine the acuteness versus the chronicity of any present weaknesses. The duration of a problem is
important when formulating a diagnosis and planning treatment interventions. Following an evaluation of a
child, a neuropsychologist is called to the task of integrating information from the clinical interview, school
records, behavior observations, and testing data. When a comprehensive evaluation is undertaken, it is possible to
distinguish chronic neurodevelopmental disorders (e.g., learning disabilities, ADHD) from acute problems
resulting from trauma, stroke, or disease with reasonable certainty. The age of the child and the acuteness or
chronicity of the problem are important factors to consider when planning treatment or rehabilitation strategies.
6. The evaluation should locate intact complex functional systems. While it is imperative in the assessment
process to locate weaknesses that are likely to represent permanent or chronic difficulties in functioning, it is
even more important to locate the strengths or intact systems of a child. In doing so, it is possible to enhance the
probability of designing successful treatments. By identifying intact systems, parents and teachers are provided
with useful information to help a child, rather than fostering low expectations. For example, if a child exhibits a
weakness with verbal memory but her visual memory is fairly intact, the neuropsychologist can recommend
strategies to use in the classroom that draw on her area of strength.
7. Testing should assess mood, personality, and behavioral functioning. Neuropsychologists need to be careful
not to ignore changes in mood, personality, and behavior that affect a child or adolescent’s (p. 489) functioning.
Some of these changes will be temporary, while others will be more permanent. Changes can be directly a result
of the CNS compromise at the cellular and systematic levels and others will be more indirect (i.e., the reaction to
a loss or change in function, or to how others respond to and interact with the individual). A thorough history
can assist in determining direct versus indirect effects. At times, it will likely be an interaction between direct
and indirect effects that cause mood disturbances. In adolescents with TBI, anger, and emotional lability are
common complaints from six months to a year postinjury. Changes in frontal lobe functioning as a result of the
injury, coupled with academic difficulties, social problems, and safety restrictions (i.e., no sports, no driving),
collaboratively have an impact on mood and behavioral functioning.
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The Behavior Assessment System for Children–Second Edition (BASC2; 2004) or the Conners’ Rating Scales–
Third Edition (CRS3; 2008) contain behavior rating scales and personality inventories that are useful in
planning interventions. When planning interventions, it will be necessary to determine whether behavior changes
are a direct or indirect result of brain insult or whether premorbid behaviors were evident (Reynolds & Mayfield,
1999).
8. Evaluations should be written with the primary audience, the school setting, in mind. Children and adolescents
need to be able to function within a school or educational setting, regardless of whether they exhibit a
neurodevelopmental disorder or have sustained a brain insult. Results of an evaluation should be presented so that
academic and behavior concerns are addressed, as these are primary concerns for educators. Recommendations
should provide guidance in determining appropriate services (i.e., special education, content mastery, or a 504
Accommodation Plan) necessary for them to successfully learn. Specific, simple recommendations regarding
teaching to a child’s strengths through the utilization of intact functional systems will be useful. If behavioral
problems are evident, the clinician will need to explain how to best anticipate and diffuse negative situations. A
behaviormanagement plan is often recommended in order to provide positive reinforcement for favorable
behavior. Many educators have not had previous experiences with a child who has sustained a TBI, stroke, or
other neurological insult. It is the neuropsychologist’s role to explain academic and behavioral sequelae so that
educators can better understand how to teach these children. For a child with TBI, rapid recovery takes place
during the first six months postinjury, with slower, subtler improvements noted up to two years following
insult. Neuropsychologists need to explain this rapid improvement and the need for schools to wait six months
before conducting an assessment. It is also necessary to explain that children may not show deficits immediately
following their injury but may develop difficulties over time as the demand for new skills emerges (Gronwall,
Wrightson, & McGinn, 1997; Taylor & Alden, 1997).
9. When working directly with the school, the evaluation processes should be efficient. School districts often do
not have a neuropsychologist on staff. Furthermore, they rarely have the time, assessment measures, or funding
to provide a comprehensive neuropsychological evaluation. If a neuropsychologist is used to consult with a
school to evaluate a child, care should be taken to conduct an evaluation in an efficient manner. The school, with
permission from the parents, can provide school records and access to any prior evaluations. Recent intellectual
and academic testing by the school district can be incorporated with neuropsychological findings. Behavior rating
forms or classroom observations provided by the school may also be obtained and interpreted by the clinician.
Conclusions
While the field of pediatric neuropsychology is relatively young, neuropsychological assessment of children and
adolescents has much to offer toward understanding the functional systems of the brain and the mechanisms
involved in learning. Child neuropsychology provides a theoretical framework for understanding patterns of
strengths and weaknesses, and the extent to which these patterns may remain stable or change over time (Temple,
1997). Once the clinician identifies the assessment needs of the individual child, he or she must make decisions
regarding the most appropriate assessment measures for exploring the dimensions of behavior. In choosing
appropriate measures, neurodevelopmental considerations and psychometric properties must be considered. Once
an evaluation is completed, understanding the strengths and weaknesses of a child provides the neuropsychologist
with needed information to recommended appropriate school modifications and community intervention. When
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writing neuropsychological reports, the clinician must remember that the audience includes parents, teachers, and
other medical professions who are in need of straightforward information that is easily understood and applied.
Of paramount importance (p. 490) is that clinicians must recognize that providing useful, scientifically supported
conclusions that contribute to the treatment of the child is the ultimate purpose of assessment. The goal of this
chapter is to provide the clinician with the knowledge necessary to make informed choices when evaluating
children.
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