WAVE MOTION 6 Fe fe Ap ‘These waves are called ripples and propagate mainly due to surface tension. If lies between these two values both terms are included to determine the velocity. Both for very large and very small values of A, the velocity of the phase wave tends to infinity, Thus there must be wavelength of intermediate al wavelength for which velocity of water waves is minimum. value, i.e. eri 2.6 PLANE WAVES The palne wave is the simplest example of a three dimensional wave. It exists ata given time, when all z the surfaces on which a disturbance has constant phase, formsa set of planes, each generally perpendicular to the direction of propagation, That is, a plane wave is defined as a wave in which the wave amplitude is constant over all points of a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation. There are quite practical reasons for studying this sort of disturbance, one of which is that by using optical devices, we can readily produce light resembling planc waves. The mathematical expression for a plane that is perpendicular to a given vector k and that passes through some point (Xp, Yo, Zo) is rather easy to derive (Fig. 2.15). First we write the position vector in Cartesian coordinates in terms of the unit basis vectors (Fig, 2.15a) r=xityit+zk where i, j, & are unit veetor along respective axes. It begins at some arbitrary origin O and ends at the point (x, y, 2), which can, for the moment, be anywhere in space. ) Similarly, Fig. 2.18 (a) The Cartesian unit basis Pa Geet O— vectors. (b) A plane wave (Ft) = x0) + © moving in the k direction. Voli + (2 -z0)k By setting (r-1y)-k=0 (2.58) We force the vector (r ~ rp) to sweep out a plane perpendicular to k, as its endpoint (x, y, 2) takes on all allowed values. With (2.59) k= kit hit hk Equation (2.58) can be expressed in the form K(x 19) + ky (y~Yo) + k,(@ = 2) = 0 oras kxthytkz=a «..(2.60) 2.61)Ms WAVES AND OPTICS where = kyxg + kYo + hazy = constant (2.62) The most concise form of the ‘equation of a plane perpendicular to k is then just kor constant = a (2,63) The plane is the locus of all points whose Position vectors have the same projection onto the k direction, We can now construct a set of planes over which y(r) varies in space sinusoidally, namely, Var) =A sin (ker) mee Var) =A cos (k-r) wo), Wr) = Ae? (2.66) For each of these expression y(r) is constant over every plane defined by k - r = constant. Since Sve are dealing with harmonic functions, they should repeat themselves in space after a displacement of A in the direction of k. Figure 2.16 is a rather humble representation of this kind of expression, We have drawn only a few of the infinite number of planes, each having a different y(r). The planes should also have been drawn with an infinite spatial extent, since no limits were put on r. The disturbance clearly occupies all of space. The spatially repetitive nature of these harmonic functions can be expressed by wo=v(r or Ak — (2.67, al 2.67) where k is the magnitude of k and k/k is a unit vector parallel to it (Fig. 2.17). In the exponential form, this is equivalent to Perec city cathe For this to be true, we must have gt aya" Therefore, Ak =20 ae caer Fig. 2.16 Wavefronts for a harmonic The vector k, whose magnitude is the propagation iplavie wave number k, is called the propagation vector. At any fixed point in space where r is constant, the phase is constant as is y(n; in short; the Planes are motionless. To get things moving, y(r) must be made to vary in time, something we can accomplish by introducing the time dependence isan analogous fashion to that ofthe one-dineneroyal wave. Here then u(r, = dele Fen with A, @ and kas constant. As this disturbance travels along in the k-direction, corresponding to it at each point in space and time. At any given time, of equal phase are known as wavefronts. Note that wavefunction will only ifthe amplitude A has a fixed value at every point on -.(2.68) we can assign a phase the surfaces joining all points have a constant value over the the wavefront. In general, 4 is aWAVE MOTION 63 function of t and may not be constant over all space or even over a wavefront, In the latter case, the wave is suid to be homogeneous, We will not be concerned with this sort of disturbance. The phase velocity of a plane wave given by eqn. (2.68) is equivalent to the propaga of the wavettont. In Fig. 2.17, the scalar component of r in the direction of k is ry. The disturbance on a wavettont is constant, so that after time di, if the front moves along k a distance diy, we must have VO Yr tH dry C4 dt) = Yr) ...(2.69) In exponential form, this is fel PEO golly Hy FOF Od) 46h 0” ion velocity and so it must be that kdry = =F aad The magnitude of the wave velocity, dry/dr, is then dn, dt We could have anticipated this result by rotating the coordinate system in Fig, 2.17 so that k was parallel to the x-axis, For that orientation U(r, t) = Ae) (2.71) he wave has been effectively reduced to the one-dimensional disturbance, 0 + 7 to (2.70) Fig. 2.17 Plane waves since kr = kry = ka 2.7 SPHERICAL WAVES ‘Toss a stone into a tank of water. The surface ripples that originate from the point of impact spread out in two dimensional circular waves. Extending this to three dimensions, imagine a small pulsating spheres surrounded by a fluid, AS the source expands and contracts, it generates pressure variations that propagate outward as spherical waves ical waves are waves in which the surfaces of common phase are spheres and the source of waves is a central point.” Consider an ideal point source of light. The radiation originating from it streams out radially, uniformly in all directions, The source is said to be isotropic and the resulting wavefronts are again concentric spheres that increase in diameter as they expand out into the surrounding space. The obvious symmetry of the wavefronts suggests that is might be more convenient to describe them in terms of spherical polar coordinates, Fig. 2.18, In this representation the Laplacian operator is 22) af . a po — | + =| sin 8— |+ ——5- = rans (aD ( br) ain a6 Clas) Mean ocala ae x=rsin @cos $, y=rsin Osing, z=rcos 0 where r, 0, @are defined by Remember that we are looking for a description of spherical waves, waves that are spherically symmetrical (jce., ones that do not depend on @ and 9) so that yr) = wr, 8, 9) = Wr) ‘The Laplacian of y(r) is then simplyvA WAVES AND OPTICS Vion = Lota ide x5(" *) Qn) We con bain this res ‘without being familiar with eqn QD. seat with the Cartesian form of the Laplacian ee vel ae "at at ‘operate on the spherically symmetrical wavefunciton yr). ‘and convert each term 6 polar coordinates. Examining ‘only the x-dependence, we have ay _ ay ar ax Or Or 5 met} herical # ie Sie eee and ov pe vir) = wr) Using vtytee? Ce we have x: ar 198, a(4)=4 2 tar ale) rr ns rar r Now having 2/2, we form 0° y/dy" and d°y/az", and on adding get ey 20v od oon WMO" a2 tS a which is equivalent to eqn. (2.73). This result can be expressed in a slightly different form: Vy= Lew wn(2.74) ‘The differential wave equation can then be written as (2.75) ‘ @76)WAVE MOTION 65 ce that this expression is now j ; Nate fe thisexpression is now just the one-dimensional differential wave equation, where the space variable is ra wavefunction is the product (ry). The solution of eqn. (2.76) is then simply rylr,) = fr —vt) I(r -vi “a OTT) oat Soe a spherical wave progressing radially outward from the origin, at a constant speed ¥, and having an arbitrary functional form f- Another solution is given by A D) and in this case the wave is converging toward the origin. The face that this expression blows up at r= 0 is of little practical concern A special case of the general solution ve.p=¢, £249 .¢ 4 «..(2:78) the harmonic spherical wave ie A yr, )= (4) cosk(r Fut) (2.79) or yr. = (4) cam! «.. (2.50) r wherein the constant A is called the source strengih. At any fixed value of time, this represents a cluster of concentric spheres filling all space. y(-) Each wavefront, or surface of constant phase, \ is given by kr Notice that the amplitude of any spherical wave isa function of r, where the term | serves san attenuation factor. Unlike the plane wave a spherical wave decreases in amplitude, thereby changing its profile, as it expands and moves out form the origin, Figure 2,19 illustrates this graphically by showing a “multiple exposure” ofa spherical pulse at four different times. The pi, a 19 Aare coast meg ise pulse has the same extent in space at any point The outgoing spherical wave emanati As a spherical waveftont propagates wavefront will closely resemble a portion along any radius r, that is, the width of the pulse a point are idealization. In actuality, light out, its radius i is radius increases. Far enough p55 999 The flattening of spherical waves with dis- ofa plane wave Fig. 2.20 constant along the r-axis is a constant. ing from a point source and the incoming wave converging to only approximates spherical waves, as it also only approximates plane waves. away from the source, a small area of the tHe.6 WAVES AND OPTICS 2.8 WAVE INTENSITY os Sepals today recch | =eoytionalat aes 10 the direction of travel is called the intensity of the wave. | wirslaes Althea cong Hoe oa rcs San es el cf ngs v wil poe emia wtseeeet ina column of the medium of unit cross section he rien owns ice pepo oval a ers ela PBS ony coy Fa, aay oporionl tothe pea of teamed a ft am ny: To prove this proposition for sine waves in a medium, it is necessary only to determine ibrational energy of a single particle executing simple harmonic motion. ‘ ‘The displacement of the particle executing simple harmonic motion is given by eqn.(2.6) y= asin (et— ix) Where kis the wave number and athe angular frequency of particle escillations. It is further expressed as y™asin(@r- a) Where otis the value of kx for that particle. The velocity of the particle is & = co cos (ae - 2 @ when y= i ine vanishes and the coving has ts maximum valve. Then the velocity becomes - ox, and the maximum kinetic energy VfoP lt (SL 7s Since this is alo the total energy ofthe particle and is proportional to the it follows that nny Ow wa vote, Encegy density ~ ofa! A281) The intensity,» times this quantity, wil then abo be proportional i a ang In spherical waves, the intensity decreases asthe inveme square of ‘This law follows directly theft hat, provided there is no converion of tae HO the source Somer trier afin cle ee ae aes me ‘MOM the source, cr tne increases as the square of its radius, the energy per unit area at a distaney intensity, will vary as I/r°. | »WAVE MOTION o. Evaluating these definite integrals, we find he «-.(2.82) 2.21 is plot of the intensity against thickness This is called the exponential law of absorption. Fi according to this law for a medium having @ = 0.4 per em. The wave equations may be modified to take account of absorption by multiplying the amplitude by the factor e %*%, since the amplitude varies with the square root of the intensity. For light, the intensity can be expressed in ergs per square centimeter per second, Full sunlight, dl for example, has an intensity in these units of about 1.4 x 10% Here it is Fig. 2.21 Decrease of intensity in an absorbing medium important to realize that not all this energy flux affects the eye, and not all that does is equally efficient. Hence the intensity as defined above does not necessarily correspond to the sensation of brightness, and it is more usual to find light flux expressed in visual units 10) 2 2 3 348 4 8 x 0 14 2.9 DISTINCTION BETWEEN PROGRESSIVE AND STATIONARY WAVES Progressive Waves: 1. This is an advancing wave which moves in the medium continuously with a finite velocity. 2. Energy flows across every plane in the direction of propagation of the wave. Each particle of the medium executes simple harmonic motion about its mean position with same amplitude. 4, No particle of the wave is permanently at rest. 5, The phase of vibration varies continuously from point to point. 6. All the particles do not pass through their mean positions or reach their outermost positions simul- taneously. Stationary Waves. 1. There is no advancement of the wave in any direction. 2, There is no flow of energy across any plane. 3. Except nodes, all the particles of the medium execute simple harmonic motion with varying ampli- tudes. 4. Nodes are permanently at rest. 5. All the points between any pair of nodes vibrate in the same phase, but the phase suddenly reverses at each nede, 6. All the particles pass through their mean positions or reach their outermost positions simultaneously twice in periodic time.