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 AND

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN.
SEtith |totcs, historical anb practical.

UPWARDS OF TWO HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS.

ROBERT SCOTT BURN,

EDITOR OP
“ THE ILLUSTRATED DR A WING-BO OX,” “ MECHANICS AND MECHANISH,” “ THE STEAM-ENGINE,’’
/‘ARCHITECTURAL, ENGINEERING, AND MECHANICAL DRAWING-BOOK,” ETC., ETC.

SIXTEENTH THOUSAND.

LONDON:
WARD, LOCK, AND TYLER,
WARWICK HOUSE, PATERNOSTER ROW.
 X.02TD0VS

PRINTED BY J. OGDEN AND 00.

I 72 , 81. JOHN STBEBT, H.O.

 ©nuuncutel grafonrg,
AND

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN.

INTRODUCTION.
T ire following are designed as companion Lessons to those given in the
works in this Series, entitled The Illustrated Drawing- Book, The Architec-
tural, Engineering, and Mechanical Drawing-Book, and in the last section

of Practical Geometry. They are constructed and arranged on the same

principle adopted in those works, of beginning at the simplest and lead-

ing the pupil gradually up to the most complicated arrangement of lines

and curves ;
and, like them, are to be considered as merely introductory to
the departments of which they are illustrations. We lay no claim for the
work to be considered as an exhaustive treatise, or to any originality in
its arrangement and matter. We consider it as simply an attempt to

embody a series of lessons, and of historical and practical notes, culled

from various authorities, which may serve as the groundwork for more
complete and elaborate practice, and form an incentive to the systematic
study of the principles and practice of decorative and constructive art.

So far, however, as the nature and limits of the work admit, we have
endeavoured to make the departments as complete as possible ;
and,
by the insertion of brief historical notes, to render the descriptions
of the various architectural styles treated of, interesting to the general

reader. W e venture to hope, therefore, that, although mainly designed

as an introductory treatise, it will be found complete enough for those

who wish to acquire a general knowledge of the history, and of the
peculiar characteristics of the different styles.

To the student desirous of further extending his knowledge on these

VI ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.

points, we would recommend, as eminently fitted to convey both theo-

retical and practical information, the following works :
The Illustrated
Handbook of Architecture, by James Fergusson, M.B..I.B.A. 2 vols.
Murray. This is the most complete and satisfactory of all the
works, treating on the various styles of architecture, we have yet met
with. The descriptions are ably written ;
and the illustrations, both
for beauty and utility, remarkable, as examples of architectural drawings
The subject is philosophically treated ;
and the work abounds in aesthetic

and practical disquisitions. Rudimentary Architecture. — Orders. By W.

H. Leeds, Esq. Weale. Rudimentary Treatise on the Principles of
Design in Architecture, by G. Garbett, Architect. Weale. These two
works present a large amount of information, practical and sesthetical.

The former takes up the subject of the classical architecture and its

orders ;
the latter considers the subject of design applied to Gothic as
well as to Classical ai’chitecture. Both are lucidly written ;
and are emi-
nently calculated to make the reader think for himself, and to urge him
to examine the principles on which the most celebrated styles of the art

have been designed.

As complete treatises on Ornamental Drawing and Design, we would
recommend to the notice of the reader the following works : The
Grammar of Ornament, by Owen Jones, in 25 parts. Day and Son.
Examples of Ornament in every Style, selected by J. Cundall. Bell and

Daldy. The Guides to the various departments of the Crystal Palace

Company, published under their immediate authority, contain also many
notes and illustrations suggestive to the reader. Indeed, we con-
ceive that a resume of the principal contents of the Guides to the different
Architectural Courts, would be oi considerable value to the art- student.
If the student can have access to Durrand’s Parallel of Architecture, pub-
lished at Berlin, he will find in its fine series of plates numerous illustra-

tions, drawn to scale, of the most celebrated examples of the various

styles.

The following is the arrangement we have adopted in the work :

The First Division comprehends four sections. The first of these sections

takes up the examples of ornament in which straight lines are chiefly met
with ;
the second section, those in which circles with curved lines are
used, drawn mechanically; the third section gives examples of ornamenta-

tion of the same class, to be drawn without the use of mechanical aids

the fourth section gives illustrations of ornament as applied to the decora-

 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. VU

tion of textile fabrics chiefly. These are, in the majority of instances,

taken from the actual designs ;
and, studied in conjunction with the
remarks on “ design,” as applied to decorative art, at the end of the
section, may convey some notion of its “ true ” and “ false ” principles

how the former are to be adhered to, and the latter avoided, in practice.

They are given chiefly as examples for practice in drawing, and of textile
ornamentation as generally adopted —not as perfect designs embodying
correct principles. The reader is expected to use them by the principles
indicated by authorities, a brief digest of which we have given.
Division Second comprises historical and sesthetical notices of the
following styles of architecture : Assyrian, Egyptian, Indian, Chinese,

Grecian, Roman, Romanesque, Byzantine, and Lombardic ; Gothic, or

Pointed; Renaissance, and Arabian. These notices are illustrated as
amply as the limits of the work will admit of, the illustrations being
specially designed to convey as much practical information as possible.

The Third and last Division embraces a variety of examples of archi-

tectural plans and details, which may convey some information to the
young practitioner.
 ©rnamcnfal graining;
AND

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN,

FIRST DIVISION.

SECTION I.

Leaving to a succeeding part of our work the consideration of the prin-

ciples from which are deduced the rules or canons of “ taste in design,” we
shall proceed at once to give examples of ornamentation in which straight
lines are chiefly used; noting previously that the “ornaments” adapted
for those combinations, many of which may be considered as mere frame-
work or outlines, will be described in Section II.
Example 1, lig. 1, shows an arrangement of squares which may be
filled in with curved ornamentation, or colours, forming a pavement or

d
fit' i.

tile design. The diagram to the left shows the manner of drawing this:
a series of squares are formed in lines distan from each other, as at e or
f the side of each square being cl f

fl_'. 2 .

Example 2, fig.2, shows an arrangement of parallelograms,

forming
a series of panels, which may be decorated or coloured as required.
10 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

Example 3, fig. 3, shows a square placed diagonally. Join abed by

lines crossing in e ;
draw lines corresponding to these as e /*, f g, fig. 4

take half of c d, fig. 3, as c e, and set it off from to, fig. 4, to e, h, •

g,f join
these, and parallel to them draw the internal squares.

Example 4, fig. 5, is the “lozenge” or diamond shape. Fig. 6 shows

the manner in which it is drawn : two lines, c b, e d intersect, at a; a c,
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 11

a b, a e, a d, are each equal to half of a b, e f fig. 5 and a h, am, a g, at,

fig. 6, to half of h m, c d, fig. 5.
Example 5, fig. 7, isan open balustrade or perforated parapet in the
Gothic style, in which the principal feature is the arrangement of
squares, as in fig. 3.
Example 6, fig. 8, is another example, showing the method of filling
up the face of a pilaster or panel with squares, as in fig. 3.

Example 7, fig. 9, is an illustration of the use of squares and oblongs,

arranged as a tile (this specimen is copied from one of Minton’s encaustic
tiles). The dotted lines show the construction of the pattern. In the

;tr. io.
12 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

original design the colours are filled in as follows The dotted parts in :
—
the figure are red, those marked with a + are yellow, the parts black in
the figure being also black in the pattern.
Example 8, fig. 1 0, shows an arrangement of lozenges or diamonds as
in fig. 5 the dotted lines show the construction, the distance between
:

the diamonds, as e g h, a b c d, being equal to the distance af or d c.

f
Example 9, fig. 1 1 is an illustration of the use of this form in one of
,

Minton’s encaustic tiles, from which it is copied. The parts marked +

are black, those dotted red, and those filled in with parallel lines

fig. 11.

yellow. Lines, as i h g, a b c d f are drawn at the angle shown,

I
a -all el to each other, the distance l -ween each line being equal to a b
or b c.

Example 10, fig. 12, and

o
o o
o o o
O CUO Oe
o o u oo
O oOOOt) o
O O Q o o
'o oVo o*
o o o
20 Oe
o
5 d
fig. 13.
fig. 12.

Example 11, fig. 13, are illustrative a “ diaper” pattern, the dif-
ferent parts of the pattern forming a ser: of diamonds, as a, b, c, d. The
method of drawing
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 13

Example 12, fig. 14, is shown in fig. 15. The application of this to
he delineation of a Gothic perforated parapet shown in
is

fig. 15.

Example 13, fig, 1G.

Example 14, fig. 17 (a), is composed of two equilateral triangles, con-

shown in the diagram to the right. The two lines a b, c d,
structed as
are drawn at a distance equal to that between the bases of the triangles
in a with the distance a b, from a, b, c, d, describe arcs cutting in e f\
join df c f— a e, b e.

if

fig. 17.

Example 15, fig. 18, displays an arrangement of lines, giving a com-

bination of hexagons. First describe the hexagon abed
ef (for method
see work in tliis Series, Practical Geometry). Bisect four sides, as a b ,

erf, af ed, and through the points draw lines intersecting in g; continue
these to the points where they intersect each other, as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and
6. Each one of the sides of the internal, or central hexagon, as a b, forms
one of the sides of a series of six external hexagons ; these being formed
very speedily, by means of the lines 5 3, 4 2, 2 6, 1 5, 3 1, 4 G, each of
which forms the centre line of each of the external hexagons. Then from
14 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

h, with half of f e, as g e, set off to i m; and from h to n, with g o.

Join® i, b m, and parallel to i m, through n, draw n' n", cutting the lines

A-

6 4, 4 2. In like manner the whole series may be drawn. The starting

points being once obtained, a repetition of the pattern to any desired
extent is easily effected.
Example
16, fig. 19, is a specimen of ornamentation taken from one
of Minton’s encaustic tiles, in which the hexagon, lozenge, and equilateral
triangle are displayed. The lines i, a, b, c, cl, e, and h, g,f give the

CL he

direction of the triangles and the lozenges. The hexagons should be

drawn first, the sides of these giving the desired angle of the lines a b, c cl,
itc. The method of drawing the ornament in a,
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 15

Example 1 7, fig. shown in the diagram to the right, at b. The

20, is
square abed drawn the sides of this, a b, b d, being bisected,
is first ;

and lines drawn through the points, as e h, f g. The second square,

efgh, then formed, thereafter the internal octagon b; the comers of
is
this, as i,p, n, j, k, o, and to, being joined to the square abed.
l, The
pattern thus formed and repeated, as shown, forms one of Minton’s
encaustic tiles, from which we have copied it. Another pattern of Minton’s
tiles, in which the octagon is a distinguishing feature, is shown in

fig. 20.

Example 18, 21, the various lines of which are formed by a series
fig.

of octagons, the diagonal corners of which, as a e, b h,fc, g d, are joined

by lines, which give the basis of the lines of the points A, B. The
method of drawing the combination of squares, a, with rhomboids, b, in

fig. 21.
1G ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

19, fig. 22, is shown in fig. 23.

Example If the points 1 2, 2 3, 3 4,
4 5 6, 6 7, 7 8, are joined, an octagon will be formed, and a square by
5,
joining 9 10, 12 11. The octagon forms the basis of the combination,
and is the first thing to be drawn, which may be done as in fig. 23 by
forming a square, and thereafter an octagon (see Practical Geometry)
the side of which is equal/e, g. Draw lines, i i m, distant from each
f
other equal to the distance between the rhomboids in fig. 22. Parallel

fig. 22.

to the diagonal lines c b, a d, draw lines equal to i i. From e, one end

of the octagon side, draw a line perpendicular to c d, joining the diagonal
a d in h. From n, the end of another side of the octagon, draw parallel
to c d a line cutting the diagonal d a in o, parallel to eh, k t draw lines
p t, n s two of the rhomboids will thus be formed the remainder are
; ;

drawn in a similar way. These being obtained, the squares, as in fig. 22,
are easily drawn.

Example 20, fig. 24, shows an arrangement of figures sometimes used

for carpets and oil-cloths. The octagonal figure abed, &c., is the basis
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 17

of the arrangement, which is drawn first,and gives the lines of the other
figures, as cd,_/ j, g i, i l, l m, k n, k j, are all equal to the side e f of

fig. 24.

the octagon ; the sides l to, k n, form starting-points for the other
octagons, which may be repeated as often as required.
18 ORNAMENAL DRAWING,

SECTION II.

"We now proceed to give examples of figures in which circular and curved
lines are met with.
Example 21, fig. 25. The fig. a b c d is formed by arcs of circles,
the centres of which are found at the corners of a square, as a' b' c d\

fig. 25.

the side of which is equal to the distance between the extreme points, as
a c or b d. The radius of the larger arcs is equal to half the side, as
a A, c g, &c. The ornament known as the quatre-foil, and which forms
Example 22, fig. 26, is drawn in the manner shown by the diagram
to the left. A diagonal square, c df g, is first drawn, one side of which
js equal to the distance between the centres of the circles, as a, b, c, d.

The radii of the circles described from the points d c g is equal to half
f
the side, as dm,fn, &c. An exemplification of this is shown in the
gothic perforated parapet which forms
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 19

Example 23, fig. 27 ;

and its adaptation to encaustic tiles in

fig. 27.

Example 24, fig. 28, which is taken from one of Minton’s beautiful
specimens of the art. The simple ornament which forms

Example 25, 29, is drawn in the manner shown in the accom-

fig.

panying diagrams. Describe the square 1, 2, 7, 8 divide the sides in the;

points 4, 5, 6, 3 and from these, with radius 3, 2, describe arcs, as 1 2,

;

2 8, &c. Next describe a diagonal square, as (

ij,gm corre- abed
sponding to 7 8, 2 1), and from the points where the diagonals of i j g m,
asi m, g j, cut the sides as at e in the side c d, describe arcs with radius
equal to e c, e d from c to
; f
and from g in the side 6 c, from c to h.
Do this at all the sides, and the figure is complete. The manner of
describing the intersecting ornament in
Example 26, fig. 30, is shown in fig. 31. The curves terminating in
the points 1, 2, 3, 4 are found by describing a square, fig. 31, and abed ,

B 2
 20 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

from these points, with radius equal to c d, describing arcs cutting in the
points ef h g. The curves terminating in the points 5 G, 7 8, fig. 30,

fig. 31.

are formed in like manner, the centres of the arcs being found in a
square drawn diagonally in the first, as shown in fig. 31. The ornaments

fig 32. fig. 33.

in figs. 32 and 33 are described in the same way. The gothic parapet
forming
Example 27, fig. 34, is drawn by describing a series of circles from
various points.

By means of arcs of different radii, from points in different figures, as

squares, diamonds, triangles, &c., a vast variety of figures can be ob-
tained, in which the distinguishing feature is a combination of circular
lines. The pupil is recommended to construct a variety of these by
altering the arrangement of the figures already given.
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 21

Example 28, fig. a combination of lines and circles met with

35, is

in the arrangement of a The centres a b, c, d are placed at

“ ceiling.” ,

the corners of a square, the side of which is equal to the distance a b ;

those of the smaller circles, as g, h i, are formed at the corners of a
f

fig. 35.

diagonal square, the side of which is equal to g h ; the centre e is at

the intersection of the two diagonals of the larger square, as a c, b d.
These points being obtained, the remainder of the figure, and its repeti-
tion to any extent desired may be easily drawn.
We now present a variety of examples of ornamentation formed by
the combination of straight and circular lines.
Exa mple 29, fig. 36, is formed by a series of equilateral triangles, tho

fig. 36.

construction of which is explained in the attached diagram. A series

of intersecting squares with lozenges is given in
22 ORNAMENTAL DRAWIN

Example 30, fig. 37, the method of constructing which is also shown.
A series of squares and oblongs is shown in

Example 31, fig. 38. The figure forming

7rv
Tv ff
a
a
fig. 38.

Example 32, fig. 39, is described by somewhat the same method as

figs. 30, 31, the points, as e, being joined by straight lines in place of
arcs of circles. The method of drawing the ornament in
 AMD ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 23

Example 33, fig. 40, is shown in fig. 41. The corresponding letters
how how the points are obtained. The diagram to the left of

V-

-
7- ,d.

fig. 41.

Example 34, fig. '.2, will show how the ornament mav be sketched.
A combination of straight and circular lines is shown in

Example 35, figs. 43, 44. A series of “frets ” and ornaments is given in
24 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

Examples 36 to 43, figs. 45 to 52 b inclusive.

fig. 4'J

tiir 50.
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 25

The foregoing examples in the present Section have principally been

drawn by means of the ruler and the compasses, i.e., u mechanically.” We
now proceed to give examples of ornamentation in which combinations of
these lines, with others drawn by the aid of the eye and hand alone, are
met with. These will be given under Section III., Division I.
26 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

SECTION III.

Before attempting to delineate the finished examples winch we propose

to give towards the end of this division, the pupil must acquire a ready
facility in drawing curved lines in every variety of position, doing this,
unaided by instruments, with the eye and hand alone. By consulting
Section II. of our “ Drawing- Book,” * he will find instruction how to
proceed we confine ourselves here to giving a variety of examples of
;

curved lines, the most of which will be found in the succeeding examples.
To these the pupil may with advantage add a variety of examples taken
from some one of the numerous sketches we give in succeeding Sections
of this treatise. In copying the following examples (figs. 53 to 71
inclusive), care should be taken to draw each curve in a different posi-
tion. By referring to fig. 7 of the “ Drawing-Book,” he will find
instruction on this point, of importance to be attended to.

fig. 57.
AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN.

fig. 67.

fig. 66.
23 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

fig. 71 .

Having mastered those various curves, the pupil is now prepared to

attempt the delineation of finished examples. To aid him, however, in

?n. 771
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 20

this,we shall now and then add what we may call “analytical dia-
grams,” by which the method of laying ont the figures will be explained.
We give a sketch of the Grecian “honeysuckle ornament” in
Example 44, fig. 72 ; the curved lines in fig. 53 will be found to be
taken from this. The method of copying this will be seen by inspec-
tion of
Example 45, fig. 73.

—n ci a a

e c e
/7 ?\

y" cL if
T r yy

^ ....
<5
, a /
fa
fi* 78.

The lines forming the lesson given in fig. 54 y.ill be found to

constitute part of
Example 46, fig. 74.

The method of laying out

Example 47, fig. 75, will be found in fig. 76.
30 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

Example 48, fig. 77, maybe copied by adopting the method explained
in the diagram, fig. 7 8.

fig. 77. fig 78.

 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 31

Example 49, fig. 79, may be copied by describing the circle, and
thereafter drawing the two oblongs, as shown by the dotted lines.

Example 50, fig. 80, is part of a “fluted scroll,” being part of the
ornamentation on the capital of the Ionic Pilaster, from Priene, in Asia.

The elementary lesson in fig. 60 will be found applicable to the deli-

neation of this example.

% 81 .
32 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

Example 51, fig. 81, is a drawing of a Gothic cross, in the

“ decorated style.” The elementary lessons in
G3, 64, and 65 will
figs. be
found to form part of this example. The elementary lessons in figs. 59
and 66 form part of the outline of the “scrolls ” in
Examples 52, 53, figs. 82, 83. In like manner the lessons in figs,
67, 68, and 69 are applicable to the delineation of the scrolls in

fig. 85.
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 33

Examples 56, 57, and 58, figs. 86, 87, and 88.

<7

iig. 88.

Example 59, fig. 89. One half of an elegant scroll, well adapted for
a wall-paper pattern, may be constructed as follows : —
To the part a, fig.

00
6, join the part b, fig.89 ; and to the part d of this figure join the part
« of fig. 87 finish by joining the part g, fig. 88, with f fig. 87.
;

Example 60, fig. 90.

Example 61, fig. 91. Fig. 92 shows one method of copying this.
Example 62, fig. 93. Figs. 94, 95, show two methods of copying
this.

c
34 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

fig. 94.
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 35

Example 63, figs. 96, 97, and 98, a portion of thiee scroll patterns,

which the pupil should draw completely. In

Examples 64 to 68, figs. 99 to 103 inclusive, we give examples of

ornamentation for filling up spaces, as squares, triangles, such as we give
in Section I. In fig. 99, a is an ornament calculated to fill up a square
c 2
36 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

or circle; b for a square, and c d diamond or lozenge. In fig. 100 a and b

In 101, a, b for circles or hexagons. In
are adapted for squares. fig.

D B

fig. 97.

fig. 98.

fig. 103.

In fig. 103 the ornament js

fig.102 a is a corner-piece, b a triangle.
adapted for an oblong, or rhomboid.
 AnD ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 37

In designing combinations of the pupil will do well to bear in

lines,
mind the following remark by Mr. Owen Jones “ Harmony of form
:

appeal’s to consist in the proper balancing and contrast of the straight,

the inclined, and the curved. * * * As in colour, there can be no
perfect composition in which either of the three primary colours is want-
ing; so in form, whether structural or decorative, there can be no perfect
composition in which either of the three primary figures is wanting, and
the varieties and harmony in composition and design depend on the
various predominance and subordination of the three .”— Guide to tin
Alhambra Court, p 36.
38 ORNAMENTAL DRAWLNI*,

SECTION IY.
EXAMPLES OF ORNAMENTATION AS APPLIED TO TEXTILE FABRICS.
Figs. 104 to 120 inclusive are examples of ornamentation applied to the
decoration of printed fabrics, as calicoes, furniture-prints, dresses, &c., &c
Figs. 121 to 129 inclusive are examples of ornamentation as applica-
ble to “ ribbon ” decoration.
Figs. 130 to 133 to silk handkerchief decoration.
In 134 to 137 inclusive we give examples of “book-cover” deco-
figs.

ration; and in figs. 138 to 147 inclusive examples of “paper-hangings,”

of which figs. 139, 141, and 147 are known as “diaper” pattern, the
design being repeated, and forming a series of diagonal squares.
Decorators or ornamentists are divided into two great classes, one of
which advocates the strict following of “nature,” in the adaptation of
her own graceful and varying forms, to the purposes of decoration ; while
the other repudiates this strict adherence, and advocates the necessity of
conventionalising them before applying them to decoration. Thus, Mr.
Owen Jones, whom we may here name as an able exponent of the latter
school, lays down the following canon :
—
“ Flowers or other natural
objects should not be used as ornament, but conventional representations
founded upon them, sufficiently suggestive to convey the intended image
to the mind, without destroying the unity of the object they are em-
ployed to decorate.” At a meeting of the Society of Arts, in lecturing on
Decorative Arts, Mr. Jones brought forward historical proof to show that
as civilisation progressed conventional representations were always used;
and as art declined, a nearer approach to nature was attempted, and, as he
conceived, “with very bad results.” In passing in review the works of the
wall decorator, the paper stainer, the calico printer, the weaver, and the
potter, '“ he dwelt forcibly on the impropriety of the present fashion of
covering carpets, paper-hangings, furniture-prints, &c., with representa-
tions of natural flowers, which were always placed in false positions,
appearing in relief where flatness was most essential,” deducing from his
remarks the inference that “ all this was having a most degrading influ-
ence on the taste of the present day.” On the other hand, the “ natural
school” does not want as able and eloquent advocates as that of the
“ conventional ” of these we propose to quote Mr. Buskin, the well-
;

known and able writer on architecture and the fine arts. At a re-
cent meeting of the Society of Arts a paper was read by Mr. George
Wallis, head master of the Birmingham School of Art, on “Recent
Progress in Design as applied to Manufactures.” In the course of this
paper Mr. Wallis took the “conventional” idea with relation to the
employment of natural forms for the decoration of carpets, &c. He thus
remarked :
—
“ Some progress has been made even in carpet designs,
which, a few years ago, appeared to be hopelessly abandoned to one inces-
AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 39

u
40 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

sant ringing of the changes upon artistic pitfalls, man-traps, and floral
stumbling-blocks, in velvet pile and fabrics in wool. A manufacturer,
as also a few dealers, seem to have arrived at that point, inasmuch as a
—
carpet is a covering for a floor, it ought to look like a floor that is, a
surface to walk upon ; that a carpet is not the only article in the room ;
that its lines and colours ought rather to be subordinate to the more
prominent pieces of furniture, than to challenge attention by the bril-
liancy of its hues in masses, or the tortuosity of its lines in the boundary
of its forms. A conviction, too, has arisen that forms in projection are
inconsistent with the position of the surface upon which they are repre-
sented ; and that even granting that flowers tastefully arranged and
iudiciously treated are not unsuitable objects for the decoration of a
carpet, yet tLere is no reason why the flower-basket should be represented
too. The statement that floral designs in carpets are still preferred by
the customers, and that the ladies themselves, in spite of the best garni-
ture designs, insist upon roses done in wool, is a fair argument enough in
its commercial application, but in an artistic sense only proves that the
people lack a knowledge of principles by which to test these things.”
Mr. Ruskin, in the discussion which followed upon the reading of the
paper, stated that he could not, as Mr. Wallis did, blame the ladies “for
promoting a base manufacture of carpets, admitting the complete imi-
tation of flowers,” chiefly, as he remarked, “because he knew a most
respectable and long-established firm engaged in carpet manufacture on
an extensive scale, which conducted its business on the principle Mr.
Wallis opposed. He referred to the firms whose head partners, the
months of April and May, supplied a large part of the world with green
carpets, in which floral design was largely introduced, and he believed
generally to the satisfaction of the public. Nor could he see, since the
first thing we usually did to make the ground fit to be walked upon by
any festive procession, was always to strew flowers upon it, why we
should refuse to have flowers on our carpets, lest we should stumble over

we should knock our heads through them.” ******

them, any more than we should refuse to have pictures on our walls, lest
While
accepting of Mr. Wallis’s principles that “the material and the use of
the object to be produced should be first consulted,” and holding, also,
that “ no art production was right unless first of all serviceable for its
proper purpose,” Mr. Ruskin pleaded, “beyond this, for the direction of
the mind of the workman straight to nature, whenever he had to intro-
duce ornament at all. All the true nobleness of art had come from
people loving nature, in some way or another expressing them sentiments
about nature ; and exactly in proportion as the reference to nature
became more direct, the art became nobler.”
The following remarks by Mr. Redgrave, R.A., will afford some
suggestive hints in connection with the peculiarities of the two schools
of ornamentation we have already, under other names, referred to :

“ Omamentists may fairly be divided into two classes the traditional,

:

who superstitiously reverence the remains of past ages, and are wedded
in practice to existing styles ; and those who despise the past, and feel
themselves at liberty to adopt from the abundant sources of nature a
mode and manner for themselves, -without regard to the works of their
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 41

fig 114.
fig 113
42 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

predecessors. The first class simply seek to follow where precedent leads
them, and to be able to claim the sanction of authority for their works.
These, even when taste duly regulates their choice, are men of limited

I i

ideas and small progress. Those of the second class, who pay no defe-
—
rence to authority who think that ornament is governed by no laws,
and who see no principles by which they are to be guided, are little

likely to raise the art to the level of past times, and, still less, to advance
its aim and widen its scope. The true ornamentist would seem to be
one who seeks out the principles on which the bygone artists worked, and
 AND A ?.CHITECTU UAL DESIGN. 43

the rules by which they arrived at excellence ; and, discarding mere

imitation and reproduction of details, endeavours, by the application of
new ideas and new matter, on principles which he believes to be sound,
or which time and the assent of other minds has approved to be funda-
mental, to attain originality through fitness and truth. The antiquarian
ornamentist, however, will always have a certain reputation, and justly,
if he has the taste to select what is best from the great masters of past
times. In any case the critic must be bold who speaks against the
authority of the fathers of the art ; and praise is safe when great names
are on the side of the critic. From this class of ornamentists we may
at least demand purity of style, that marked eras should be kept distinct,
and that the adopted ornament should be fitly applied to fabrics or
manufactures of the like nature, and, as far as possible, for the like uses,
as those for which the ornament was first designed.
“ From the labours of the second class of ornamentists, united to that

constant search after novelty, at any sacrifice of true taste, for which
manufacturers are so constantly urgent, there has arisen a new species of
ornament of the most objectionable kind, which it is desirable at once to
deprecate, on account of its complete departure from just taste and true
principles. This may be called the natural or merely imitative style,
and it is seen in its worst development in some of the articles of form.
Thus, we have metal imitations of plants and flowers, with an attempt to
make them a strict resemblance, forgetting that natural objects are ren-
dered into ornament by subordinating the details to the general idea,
and that the endeavour ought to be to seize the simplest expression of a
thing rather than to imitate it. This is the case with fine art also in
:

its highest effort mere imitation is an error and an impertinence, and

true ornamental art is even more opposed to the merely imitative treat-
ment now so largely adopted. Let any one examine floral or foliated
ornament produced in metal by electrotyping the natural object, whereby
every venation and striation of the plant is reproduced, and compare it
with a well and simply modelled treatment, where only the general
features of the form are given, and all the minutest details purposely
omitted ; and if this latter has been done with a true sense of the cha-
racteristics of the plant, the meanness and littleness of the one mode will
be perfectly evident, compared with the larger manner of the other. But
this imitative style is earned much further : ormolu stems and leaves
bear porcelain flowers painted to imitate nature, and candles are made to
rise out of tulips and China-asters, while gas jets gush forth from opal
arums. Stems, bearing flowers for various uses, arise from groups of
metal leaves, standing tiptoe on their points, and every constructive
truth, and just adaptation to use, is disregarded for a senseless imitative
naturalism. In the same way, and doubtless supported by great autho-
rity, past and present, enormous wreaths of flowers, fish, game, fruits, &e.,
imitated a merveille, dangle round sideboards, beds, and picture-frames.
Glass is tortured out of its true quality to make it into the cup of a lily
or an anemone ; not that we may be supposed to drink nectar from the
flower, but that novelty may catch those for whom good taste is not
piquant enough, and chaste forms not sufficiently showy. In fabrics
where flatness would seem most essential, this imitative treatment is
44 0HNAME5TAL DRAWING*

fig 120.
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 4

often carried to the greatest excess ; and carpets ai’e ornamented with
water-lilies floating on their natural bed, with fruits and flowers poured
forth in overwhelming abundance in all the glory of their shades and
hues ;
or we are startled by a lion at our hearth, or a leopard on our rag,
his spotted coat imitated even to its relief as well as to its colour ; while
palm trees and landscapes are used as the ornaments of muslin curtains.
Though far from saying that imitative ornament is not sometimes allow-
able, still it will at once be felt that the manner wants a determined
regulation to exclude it in most of the above-mentioned cases from all
works aspiring to be considered in just taste, and to leave it to be
adopted by those only who think novelty better than chaste design, and
show preferable to truth.” Jury Report of the Great Exhibition, p. 710.
Supplementary Report on Design by Richard Redgrave R.A.
, ,

In reviewing the various opinions as to what constitutes propriety in

decorative art— —
a few only out of the many being given here one cannot
but regret that such diversity of opinion should exist in such an import-

fig. 122.

ant matter, and that some definite canons or rules could not be laid down
for the guidance of parties interested. Such an unsettled state of matters
cannot but exercise a most prejudicial influence on the mind of the young
artist. In endeavouring to obtain a knowledge of the principles of
“design,” he consults various authorities, and the more he reads the
more is he perplexed to find that there are no settled principles to guide
him, but that each theorist and practitioner inculcates his own peculiar
—
views ; some of them fortunately of this class there are few examples
dealing in vague assertion and unmeaning illustration, more anxious to
prove their own views right than to aid the progress of art. In view of
the importance of the subject, and the commercial interests involved,
the time seems approaching when it will be necessary to endeavour to
get, in the words of Mr. Ituskin, “ all men of dignity and standing in
the arts to meet and settle a few principles, and make them the goals of
art in all schools of design.” Such a proceeding would be of “ incalcu-
lable advantage.” Artists “ had to fulfil,” says the same authority, “ the
46 ORNAJIENTAL DRAWING,

duty of imparting a true taste in design, not only to the producer but
also to the consumer but this duty could never be properly performed
;

until all were agreed upon some principles which should form a basis.”
On this point the remarks of Mr. Redgrave are worthy of all attention.
“We ought,” he says, “to be very modest in selecting what are princi-
ples ; our only way was to try and collect from the choice works of the
best periods and masters, and the writings of those who had deeply
studied them, a code of laws or principles as a standard to which we
could refer. Mr. Wallis had asserted that there was an improvement in
the general taste of art applied to manufacture, this, of course, was only
the assertion of one individual, but if there were any code of laws and
rules by which to judge of this improvement, it became no longer a mere
assertion ; and we should soon be able to decide whether there was really
an advance or not until some such standard was established. They had
arrived at one or two tests this evening, in which all seemed agreed — the
test, namely, that utility was the first object to be considered they then
went on to the proper use of materials, and they thus obtained another
true principle which could go towards arriving at some code of rules, or
some standard, by which they could tell whether any advance in art, as
applied to manufactures, had been made or not ; and, thirdly they had
,

determined that there was a degree of subordination in the various objects

ornamented, by which we were to give to one more prominent decoration
than to another. As those rules became established in men’s minds, at
least some criterion as to advance or retrogression would be arrived at,
and he hoped this was advanced by the discussion that had taken place.”
— Journal of the Society of Arts, March 14th, 1856, p. 300.
As to this fitness or adaptability of ornament to various purposes,
—
Mr. Dyce has the following very suggestive remarks (See Journal of
Design, No. 3, p. 91):
“ The question is not simply whether such and such specimens of
ornament are in themselves beautiful, but whether, being so, they are
adapted to particular purposes. I do not mean whether they can be
executed by some particular process of manufacture, for that is another
question to which I shall afterwards refer ; but whether, supposing they
could be executed, they are, as ornaments, suited to particular uses, situ-
ations, or fabrics. We can hardly, indeed, over-estimate the importance
and necessity of study of this kind. I myself am thoroughly persuaded
that if we take a candid and unprejudiced view of the sort of decoration
—
which is appropriate in every case that is to say, if, unbiassed by cus-
tom, by precedent, or by the authority of great names, we were rigidly
to determine what kind of ornament best fulfilled the conditions which
ought to be had regard to in every instance, we should never fall into
any great mistake.
“ Let me illustrate this by an example or two. A landscape with
figures is in itself an agreeable object, and may, as we know, be em-
ployed ornamentally with considerable effect. But would it form an
appropriate decoration for a floor or pavement, if executed, say, in
mosaic ? Obviously not. It is plain that in the case of a floor or pave-
ment (and the same rule applies to carpets, floorcloths, and other cover-
ings of floors), the primary idea to be conveyed is that of uniform flat-
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 47

ness and solidity. If this idea is not preserved, it seems to me to matter

little what the decorations are; whatever their excellence in point of
art, however elevated in sentiment, they are out of place, the effect they
produce must be unnatural and disagreeable. In such a case as this,
then, we have to consider what sort of design is best fitted to comply

//
//
//

//
//
//
//

with the necessary conditions. If we find that the notion of flatness

cannot be preserved without a regular repetition of ornamental forms at

the pattern or design is to be confined. *****

certain intervals, such repetition becomes a rule or framework by which

“Or to take the instance of the walls of a room. If it be necessary

48 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

to preserve throughout the idea of uniform flatness and solidity, the same
treatment must be had recourse to as in the case of a floor or pavement.
But, as in architectural structures, a wall may be pierced by as many
openings as are consistent with its stability, so, in planning the decora-
tions of a wall, we are at liberty to suppose as many openings in it as
are consistent with the sentiment of stability. * * * *
“ In taking this practical view of the matter,
you will perceive that I
at once dismiss the crude and hazy notion that, as a general rule, flowers
and all other objects must undergo a conventionalising process before
they can be employed as a matter of ornament. I at once get rid of
any attempt to define generally the extent to which truth of resemblance
to natural objects is admissible in ornament. There is no general rule.
Each case must be considered by itself. Show me the instance in which
the ornament is to be applied, tell me the process by which it is to be
executed, and I will then say whether and how far it is consistent with
common sense to employ the resources of artistic imitation. In practice
the only safe rule I. know of is, that the means be strictly adapted to the
end. If it be necessary in any case to preserve the idea of flatness and
surface, it is certain that the very worst way of doing this would be to
cover the surface with a kind of imitative art which implied the absence
of surface altogether. Or, again, if we had to decorate the surface of
some fabric which, when used, would always be hung in folds, it is ob-
vious that those forms of ornament would be most appropriate which
suffer least when bent or twisted by the folding of the cloth. Or, again,
if our object were to impart a cei’tain gauze-like or semi-transparent
effect to fabrics such as those used for ladies’ dresses, does not the usual
expedient suggest itself of having, as it were, two levels for the orna-
ments, one consisting of geometrical forms and identified with the sur-
face of the cloth, the other seemingly relieved from it and consisting of
objects— —
say flowers imitated artistically?”
One of the “ Course of Lectures on the Results of the Great Exhibi-
— —
tion” was by Mr. Digby "Wyatt “An Attempt to Define the Prin-
ciples which should determine Form in the Decorative Arts.” In this
Mr. Wyatt gave the following remarks, which will be useful to the
young decorator :

“ When we turn to a consideration of the united action upon human

design of the general principles of consistency, exhibited in the works of
Nature, we find that of all qualities which can be expressed by the ob-
jects upon which our executive ability may be occupied, the noblest and
most universally to be aimed at is plain and manly truth. Let it ever
be borne in mind that design is but a variety of speech or writing. By
means of design we inscribe or ought to inscribe, upon every object of
which we determine the form, all essential particulars concerning its
material, its method of construction, and its uses ; by varying ornaments
and by peculiar styles of conventional treatment, we know that we shall
excite certain trains of thought and certain associations of ideas. The
highest property of design is that it speaks the universal language of
nature, which all can read. If, therefore, men be found to systematically
—
deceive by too direct an imitation of nature, pretending to be nature
by using one material in the peculiar style of conventionality universally
AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 49
.50 OKI1 AMENT AL DRAWING,

XT'
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 51

—
recognised as incident to another by borrowing ornaments expressive
of lofty associations, and applying them to mean objects —
by hiding the

structural purpose of the article, and sanctioning, by a borrowed form,

the presumption that it may have been made for a totally different

fig. 136 a.

object, or in a perfectly different way, —

such men cannot clear themselves
from the charge of degrading art by systematic misrepresentation, as they
52 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

Unfor-
would lower human nature by writing or speaking a
falsehood.

tunately, temptations to such pel-versions of

truth surround the growing
The debilitating effects of nearly a century’s incessant copying,
designer.
and falsifying
without discrimination, appropriating without compunction,
bind our powers in a vicious circle, from which we
without blushing, still
extraordinary stimu-
have hardly yet strength to burst the spell. Some

fig. 539.

lant could alone awaken all our energies, and that stimulant came it—
—
may not, perhaps, be impious to esteem providentially in the form of the
Great and glorious Exhibition. It was but natural that we should be
startled when we found that in consistency of design in industrial art,
those we had been too apt to regard as almost savages, were infinitely our
superiors. Men’s minds are now earnestly directed to the subject of
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 53

restoring to symmetry all that had sunk to disorder. The conventionali-

ties of form peculiar to every class of object, to every kind of material,

fig. 140.

to every process of manufacture, are now beginning to be ardently

studied ; and instead of that vague system of instruction by which puril'

were taught, that anything that was pretty in one shape was equally
pretty in another, a more correct recognition of the claims of the
54 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

various branches of special design, and the necessity of a far closer identi-
fication of the artistwith the manufacturer, in point of technical know-

ledge,have been gradually stealing upwards in public estimation. Let

us hope that success will crown exertion, and that in time the system of
design universally adopted in this country will oiler a happy coincidence

with t ose lofty principles by means of which the seals of truth and
beauty are stamped on every emanation from the creative skill of Divinity.
As a series of admirably practical hints, in connection with the
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 55

various branches of decorative design as applied to manufactures, we

take the liberty to append to this section a few extracts from the “ Sup-
plementary Report on Design,” by Richard Redgrave, R.A., given in the
—
Jury Report a paper or essay which, from its practical and interesting
nature, we should like to see reprinted in a cheap and easily accessible
form. We shall give our extracts under the heading of the article of
manufacture to which they refer.

fig. 144.

GARMENT FABRICS.
“ The great sources of errorin designing for garment fabrics, are over
ornamentation, and attracting undue attention to the ornament, which
may arise from many causes thus from the violence of contrast either of
;

light and dark, from over charging the colour, or from the ornament
being
too large for the fabric. * * * Generally speaking, however, ornament for
such fabrics should consist of small, rather than of large forms should be
;
heated flatly, and without light and shade, and inclined to subdued con-
 56 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

trasts of colour and of light and dark. A

geometrical, rather than a
dispersed (by dispersed is meant the attempt to distribute the pattern
over the ground, without any apparent arrangement) arrangement of
the forms, however, would be found the most agreeable to the eye, and
the most consistent with sound principles ; some of the best patterns
being formed by diapering sprigs, leaves, flowers, or even simple
geometrical forms regularly over the ground.”
for garment will
—
p. 742.
generally be
* * * * *
found that the
“ In designing fabrics, it
* * * It has before been said,
simplest patterns are in the best taste.

fig 145.

in designing
I that calling undue attention to the ornament is a great error
ress a
I for garment fabrics there needs in the larger masses of the
:

breadth or repose, which is only attainable

sense of what a painter calls
forms, y
by great simplicity, by flat or diapered treatment of small
and delicate tints of colour. Those diffi-
uncontrasted light and dark,
offend against the above
cult patterns of many parts are too apt to
requirements, and to cause the figure to stare upon the ground, and
destruction of the true decoration of
attract attention to itself, to the
such fabrics.” — p. 743.
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 57

PAPER AND OTHER HANGINGS.

“ If tlie use of borne in mind, the proper decoration
such materials is

for them ought to bear the same rela-

will at once be evident, since this
tion to the objects in the room that a background does to a picture. In
art, a background, if well designed, has its own distinctive features ; yet
these are to be so far suppressed and subdued as notifto invite special atten-
tion, while, as a whole, it ought to be entirely subservient to supporting
and —
enhancing the principal figures the subject of the picture. * * *

Imitative treatments are objectionable on principle, both as intruding

on the sense of flatness, and as being too attractive in their details
and colour to be sufficiently retiring and unobtrusive. Some of the
best examples, as well of paper as of silk, velvet, and other
hangings,
are treatments of texture in a self-colour as of flock on plain or satined
;

ground in paper, of tabby and satin in silk hangings, of stamped forms or

cutting in velvet, or the same contrast of pattern with the ground in
various mixed stuffs.
58 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

“ Tlie same laws wliicli ought to govern design for paper-hangings

would, therefore, appear proper to regulate hangings of other fabrics,
tapestries, &c. Although far from looking at ornament in that exclusive
spirit which would reject what is beautiful when it does not square with
the requisitions of a theory, it must be obvious that pictorial and pic-
turesque treatments for such fabrics are wrong whenever they intrude on
the domain of another^rt. Thus figures, landscapes, fruits, and flowers,
when rendered as they would be in works of fine art, are almost of neces-
sity inferior to the pictures they imitate, even when they are as skilfully
and wonderfully wrought as in the works exhibited by the national
establishment of the Gobelins, where every effort of skill and science has
been most successfully used for their manufacture and embellishment.
Indeed, it is a matter of doubt whether custom, and the authority ot
great names and of past times, are not the causes of the continued
admiration of such decorations, which perhaps we rather persuade our-
—
selves we like than are fully satisfied -with.” p. 717.

CARPETS.
“ The use of these fabrics suggests the true principle of design for
their ornamentation, which is governed by the laws before given for flat
surfaces, where the object is rather to treat the whole as a background
than to call particular attention to the ornamentation. Flatness should
be one of the principles for decorating a surface continually under the
feet ; therefore, all architectural relief ornaments, and all imitations
of fruit, shells, and other solid or hard substances, or even of flowers,
strictly speaking, are the more improper the more imitatively they are
rendered. As a field or grouhd for other objects, the attention should
hardly be called to carpets by strongly-marked forms or compartments,
or by violent contrasts of light and dark, or colour ; but graduated
shades of the same colour, or a distribution of colours nearly equal in
scale of light and dark, should be adopted ; secondaries, and tertiaries, or
neutralised primaries, being used rather than pure tints and lights intro-
duced merely to give expression to the forms. Under such regulations
as to flatness and contrast, either geometrical forms, or scrolls clothed
with foliation in any style, leaves, flowers, or other ornament, may be
used, which, with borders and compartment arrangements, and the use of
diaper treatment, leave ample room for variety and for the inventive skill
of the designer.”
The “canons” of design, issued by the Department of Science and
Art, entitled “ Principles of Decorative Art,” published by Chapman
and Hall, may be consulted with advantage by the pupil.
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 59

SECOND DIVISION.

ARCHITECTURE—THE HISTORY AND ILLUSTRATION

OF ITS STYLES.
To judge from tlie definitions met with in the works on architecture,
there seems to be great difficulty in exactly explaining what the term
conveys. Some authors define it to be merely the “art of building,”
taking thus a view of it as if it were simply a constructive art, not
one which is dependent upon the exercise of a correct taste. Others,
again, go to the opposite extreme, and, considering it in a somewhat
metaphysical point of view, claim for it a position which has little refer-
ence to its value as a useful art. Thus, while one defines architecture as
entirely a constructive, the other considers it to be chiefly a fine art,
having little in common with the materials with which it deals. There
are others who give more just views of architecture, however, and to
these we now refer. Thus, Mr. Leeds defines architecture as building
with “ something more than a view to mere utility and convenience it :

isbuilding in such a manner as to delight the eye by beauty of forms, to

captivate the imagination, and to satisfy that faculty of the mind which

H. Leeds.
—
we denominate taste” (p. 3, Rudimentary Architecture for Beginners.
W. Weale. London.) Mr. Fergusson defines it very
simply to be “ nothing more or less than the art of ornamental and
‘

ornamented construction.’ ” We have already alluded to those who look

upon architecture as altogether a fine art, to be judged of by the same
rules which are applicable to what many term the “ sister arts ” of paint-
ing and of sculpture. More difficulty, according to Mr. Fergusson, has
arisen from this attempt to refine the definition than from that which
views it merely as a constructive one at all events, it lias led to much
;

confusion. On this he veiy pointedly remarks, “ Neither painting

nor sculpture were very useful arts, except in the most barbarous times,
and by the most remote analogy. Then- object is to tell a story, to re-
produce an emotion, or to portray a scene or object of nature and ;

they effect this by a direct imitation, more or less correct and literal, of
what actually exists, either in nature or in art. Architecture, on the
other hand, was one of the useful arts, invented to provide for one of the
three great wants of man — food, clothing, and shelter. The wigwam
grew into a hut, tlje hut into a house, the house into a palace, and the
palace into a temple, by well defined and easily traced gradations but it
;

never lost the original idea of a shelter, and in its most magnificent form
it is a mere amplification of the original hut, but grown so solid that it
seems designed to last for ever, and so well proportioned and so exqui-
63 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

nltely ornamented, that, instead of being one of the most commonplace,

it ranks with one of the most beautiful productions of man’s hands. In
none of its stages is imitation an element of composition ; no true build-
ing ever was designed to look like anything in either the animal, the
vegetable, or the mineral kingdoms. In all instances it is essentially a
creation of man’s mind, and designed to subserve some practical purpose
which he has in view. A building can tell no story, and it is only by
inference that it can be made to express an emotion. It is true that
painting and sculpture may be added to any extent, and a really perfect
building is never without these adjuncts ; but they are not, or at least
never should be, essentials, and the building should always be complete
without them. * * * The fact is that architecture is in its origin as essen-
tially a useful art as weaving or shipbuilding ; but, almost alone of all her
sister arts, it is the one that has, from various concurrent circumstances,
been refined into a fine art.” ( Illustrated Handbook, of Architecture. By
James Fergusson. Murray. London vol. i, p. 20, Introduction.)
:

Mr. Garbett defines architecture as “the art of well building in :

other words, of giving to a building all the perfections of which it is

capable.”
Architecture has been termed the “ stony records of nations in the
same spint it is that Coleridge says, “ a Gothic cathedral is a petrified
religion.” Each country and each age writes “its name in stone.”
On the influence of climate upon the architecture of a country, Mi.
Buskin has peculiarly fine and exhaustive remarks. He supposes us
*.o sweep through the cloud region with the untiring wings of the stork

or of the swallow, and to imagine the Mediterranean beneath us, with

its promontories sleeping in the sun ; here an angry thunder-spot ;
there
a gray storm-stain, moving athwart the burning fields now a heaving
;

ash-girded volcano ; but, chief o’er all, a “great peacefulness of light:”

Syria, Greece, Spain, and Italy, like golden pavement in a sea of blue,
with an atmosphere redolent of perfume, and gay and glistening with
gorgeous flowers, and burning marble rocks, and porphyry, shaded by
the “gray green shadows” of the laurel, the orange, and of the
“plumy palm.” Then sweeping with untiring wing, away from the
orient colours of those lands, to the north, where a “ vast belt of rainy
green” meets the eye, we look down upon the “pastures of Swit-
zerland and the poplar valleys of France and dark forests of the Danube
and Carpathians,” seen only at intervals, for we look through clefts in
the shroud of mist that rises from the brooks meandering through the
valleys, by the side of which is heard the bleating of the sheep or the
lowing of the oxen. Still sweeping to the north, we look down upon
mother earth, now heaving into “mighty masses of leaden rock and
swarthy moor,” and midst the breakers. of the angry sea the “grisly
islands beaten by storm and chilled by icedrift, and tormented by furious
pulses of contending tide.” Still further north till “ the roots of the last
forest fail from among the hill ravines, and the hunger of the north
wind bites its peaks into barrenness, and at last the wall of ice, durable
like iron, sets, deathlike, its white teeth against us out of the polar twi-
light.” Then sweeping down nearer the earth till we see the various ani-
mals which sport on its surface, we notice the same gradation of change in
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 61

their appearance and habits as we have already witnessed in the physical

peculiarities of the globe. In India’s burning clime the woods are filled
with birds of gayest colour and most gorgeous form, while ’mid the grass
and flowers we see the serpent trail its slimy length, and from the
jungle we hear the roar of the lion or see the tiger lurk, while across the
plain the stupid zebra is seen to fly ; in northern climes the plumage of
the birds assumes a soberer aspect, more befitting our cloudy skies,
while the shaggy bear and the gaunt wolf take the place of the lion and
the tiger. Then, having seen all this, “ and submissively acknowledging
the great laws by which the earth and all that it bears are ruled through-
out their being, let us,” says Mr. Rusk in, “not condemn, but rejoice in
the expression by man of his own rest in the statutes of the lands that
gave him birth.” He then introduces the fine parallel between the
architecture of eastern countries, where the sun shines down unclouded
from day to day, and that of northern climes, whose peculiar beauties are
only brought out in times of change, when the “ smile and the tear are
there.” “ Let us watch man with reverence, as he sets side by side the
burning gems, and smooths with soft sculpture the jasper pillars that are
to reflect a ceaseless sunshine and rise into a cloudless sky; but not with
less reverence let us stand by him, when with rough strength and hur-
ried stroke he smites an uncouth imitation out of the rocks which he
has tom from among the moss of the moorland, and heaves into the
darkened air the pile of iron buttress and rugged wall, instinct with
work of imagination as wild and wayward as the northern sea crea- —
tions of ungainly shape and rigid limb, but full of wolfish life, fierce as
the winds that beat, and changeful as the clouds that shade them.”
From these remarks will be derived some slight knowledge of what
architecture is and should be ; and how that the mere reproduction of
the work of another age and another people may be a copy more or less
successful, but is not the emanation of an independent thinker — is not,
strictly speaking, a true architectural work, inasmuch as it does not em-
body the “ expression of the wants, the faculties, and the sentiments of
the age in which it is created.” Such copies, however faultlessly carried
out, cannot be taken as forming in any way part of the “stony records”
of the nation to which they owe their existence ; if they tell a tale, it is
of other times and of another people, and they convey no idea of the
peculiarities of the times in which they are produced. Hence it is that
much of modern so-called architecture is not true in its mission ; it
does not embody, as above stated, the expression of the age in which it
isbrought out.
Our remarks on this subject could be greatly extended, but we must
hasten to the consideration of other departments.

ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE.
A few years was known of Assyrian architecture could
ago, all that
be summed up two and even this was almost purely
in a sentence or ;

conjectural. In the mis-shapen mounds that reared their huge bulks on

the plains of Mesopotamia, the traveller little dreamed that there lay
C, 2 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

concealed that which, with the remains of Egyptian architecture, gave

the key to the origin of the Grecian and Latin styles. —
But thanks to
—
the discoveries of Layard and of Botta we are no longer compelled
to endeavour to picture to ourselves, from the vague descriptions
of ancient authors, what the peculiarities were of the architecture
of the great cities of the East. Now we are enabled to estimate, with
almost as much certainty and clearness, what it was, as we are that of
the Grecian or Egyptian architecture. Apart from the high interest
which the remains of Assyrian architecture possess to us, as corrobora-
tive of the truth of Holy Writ, it is difficult to estimate the value of
their discovery in an artistic point of view. “ Until,” says Mi Eergus-
-
.

son, “ the discoveries in Assyria were made, half the history of the archi-
tecture of Greece was a riddle — an inexplicable mystery. Now all is
clear. And, with Egypt on the one hand, and Assyria on the other, we
are enabled to trace every feature to its source. These two still stand,
and probably will ever remain, as the primitive styles of the human
—
race essentially distinct in all their more important features ; borrow-
ing very little from each other, but each working out its own objects
independently of the other. It seems absolutely hopeless to look for
anything anterior to the style of Egypt which can have had any influence
upon it ; and, so far as we can see, nearly as idle to attempt to find in
Asia anything that can have influenced the architectural style of the
great Assyrian empire.”
It will be interesting, therefore, to trace, as briefly as possible, the
peculiarities of these two styles — the Assyrian and the Egyptian ; styles
which carry us back to the remotest times, and from which according
to the high authority we have quoted —
have descended others which
adorn and grace the various countries of the earth.
The principal feature in Assyrian structures was the artificial plat-
form upon which they were erected. This was raised to the height of
some thirty or forty feet above the level of the surrounding ground, ana
was constructed partly of sun-dried bricks, and partly of earth and
rubbish. A solid limestone facing appears to have been used, giving a
finish and a strength to the terraces. The building which crowned
the platform was brought forward to the extreme edge, so as to com-
pletely command the Anew around ; and was approached by flights
of steps and inclined planes, made at intervals in the terrace. These
platforms, or terraces, may have had their origin in the plan adopted in
the earlier settlements in the plains — where no irregularity of surface
—
Occurred of raising their public buildings, for defence or the purposes of
religion, above the level of the ordinary habitations. It forms, liowe\r er,
whatever may have been the original cause of its adoption, a characteristic
feature in Assyrian architecture.
The buildings Avhich croAvned these huge terraces were adapted
to the climate ; and, from the unvarying uniformity Avith which their
arrangement Avas maintained, it appears to have been consecrated to
religious observances.The exterior plan of the building Avas nearly
square, and contained open courtyards, or large halls round which
;

Avere grouped oblong chambers, the length of which greatly ex-

ceeded their breadth. Thus, some chambers Avere 200 feet long and
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. A3

25 bread. These lengthy chambers either led to the terrace, or were

grouped around the internal halls or open courts. The building had
usually two facades, each having three entrances, the centre of which
was the principal, and was guarded with two colossal human-headed
bulls (see fig. 148), one on each side. “ The two side gateways in the

more splendid edifices were flanked by similar figures, and between them
and the centre entrance were pairs of the same -winged monsters, of
somewhat smaller size, placed back to back, and separated by a colossal
human figure, usually represented as strangling a lion. These inter-
vening bulls had the human head turned sideways, so as to look out-
wards from the front of the building. Each bull was, moreover, flanked
by a colossal figure of a deity or priest, presenting a pine cone. Thus,
the south-eastern front of Sennacherib’s palace at Kouyunjik consisted

fig. 148.

of two human-neaded bulls, the largest being about 19 feet high, and
of six gigantic human figures, occupying altogether a space of no less
than 180 feet. It was continued on either side by sculptured walls,
which completed the whole fagade.”* The walls of sun-dried bricks were
of extraordinary thickness, and were faced with large slabs of alabaster,
on which were carved the stony records of the history of the life, the
battles, and the sieges of their mighty kings. Where this panelling was
not employed, the walls were covered with semi-columns, placed side by
side, and separated, by means of square pilasters, into groups.
The floors of the halls and chambers were covered either with ala-
baster slabs or by large square bricks. On the bricks were sculp-
tured, as on the slabs of the walls, inscriptions, giving the titles of
the king, the extent of his dominions, or the names of the countries he

* Crystal Palace Library. The Assyrian Court. Described by Austen L&yard.

Bradbury and Evans.
64. ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

conquered. They were often, however, sculptured with scroll- work. The
under sides of the bricks contained the name of the king who founded
the edifice.
While attending to the ornaments of their buildings, the Assyrians
did not forget their sanitary requirements, for drains were earned under
all the principal parts, these being frequently arched ; and, singular to
say, amongst the arches discovered, was a pointed, or what is now termed
a “ Gothic arch.”
We have mentioned the sculptured slabs which formed the facing of the
walls and sometimes the pavement of the floors of the chambers and halls ;
these — —
the stony records of the past ages are of the greatest value and
importance. On them “ we can still trace,” says an eloquent writer,
“ the greater part of Assyrian habits and customs. We
see the king
crowned with his jewelled tiara, surrounded by his eunuchs and soldiers,
hurrying forth in his royal chariot to the battle ; the royal canopy lielq
over his head, and the standard with the winged circle beside him, and
his bow and javelin slung ready to his hand. We
follow his armies on
their red path of ambition and glory. We
see them ford rivers, their
chariots fastened in boats, the horses swimming behind, and the soldiers
floating on inflated skins. We
see the embattled walls, the archers, and
—
the slingers ; the attack the sap the storm — —
and the pillage ; the
prisoners being flayed alive, or led back bound into Assyria. Then the
tribute-bearers defile past us with their treasures ; and now a galley,
winged with oars, floats down to the ports, where revellers are drinking
the health of Sargon.”
So far as the lower part of the building is concerned, up to the level
of the sculptured slabs, the remains which have been
discovered have enabled us to restore, with singular
accuracy, the distinguishing peculiarities of Assyrian
architecture. What, however, constituted those of
—
the portions above this level if other portions there
were 1 We
can only conjecture. Mr. Fergusson is of
opinion that we have their type in the remains of Per-
sian architecture at Persepolis.
Fig. 149 is a sketch modified from one in the Guide

to theAssyrian Court Crystal Palace, showing the

,

peculiarities of one form of pillar found at Persepolis,

and adopted in the reproduction of Assyrian archi-
tecture at the Crystal Palace. “ The bull capitals are
peculiarly appropriate in an Assyrian building, where
this animal, apparently looked upon as sacred, con-
tinually occurs in the painted and sculptured decora-
tions.”
The
—
p. 47.
reader, desirous of further pursuing the subject
of the restoration of Assyrian architecture, will consult
fig. 149. with advantage the Guide of the Crystal Palace, above
noted; and the chapters on “Assyrian and Persian
Architecture,” in Fergusson’s Illustrated Handbook of Architecture, vol l
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. <35

EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE.
Mr. Fergusson divides Egyptian art into two great periods the —
one represented by the pyramids, the other by the temples at Thebes.
The pyramids are singular only from their vastness, and interest us
chiefly from being looked upon not only as the most ancient monuments
of Egypt, but probably of the world. They have little interest in an
instructive point of view.
Of the various pyramids met with in Egypt, those of Gizeh are the
most interesting, and have excited the greatest wonder. Of these, three
in number, the great pyramid —
the erection of which is attributed to
Cheops, and the date of which, according to Herodotus, is 900 b.c. is —
the most interesting. Its base is 7 00 feet square, and its height 470 ; it
covers an area of more than 1 3 acres, being, according to Mr. Fergusson,
“ twice the extent of that of St. Peter’s at Rome, or of any other building
in the world.”
All the pyramids face north a circumstance which, in conjunction
;

with the fact that the entrances slope downwards, has given rise to
numerous ingenious speculations as to the uses to which the erections
have been originally put.
In concluding a lucid description of the peculiarities and methods of
construction of the pyramids, Mr. Fergusson gives the following remarks
“ The early Egyptians built neither for beauty nor for use, but for
eternity. To this last they sacrificed every other feeling. In itself
nothing can be less artistic than a pyramid.* As examples of actual art
they are unrivalled among the works of men ; but they rank among the
lowest, if judged by the aesthetic rules of architectural art. The same
character belongs to the tombs and buildings around them. They are
low and solid, and possess neither beauty of form nor any architectural
feature at all worthy of attention or admiration.”
Of the second period of Egyptian art we now propose briefly to treat.
The city of Thebes, in which the illustrations of the period are met with,
was one of the most ancient cities of antiquity. The peculiar feature of
the period is the “ obelisk,” the oldest of which was erected in the reign
of Osirtesen I., who flourished about 1650 B.c.
With Amosis, who drove out the Phoenicians, or Shepherds, whose
invasion checked the rising prosperity of Egyptian art, “ began that great
family of Theban kings, whose buildings have so long been the wonder
of the world. Their temples and colossal statues are the models from
which the Greeks copied, while their obelisks even now grace the cities
of those nations which rose when Egypt fell.
The largest and most magnificent temple at Thebes was that of
Kamak. It was built in the reign of Rameses II., and ioined the great
temple of Luxor, built by Amunothph III., by an avenue of sphinxes.
The area covered by this vast temple is 430,000 square feet, its length
being about 1,200, and its breadth 360 feet. The grand feature in the
temple of Kamak is the “ hall of columns,” the roof of which is supported
by 134 columns ; twelve of which, forming the central avenue, are of no
• The term pyramid is derived from the Egyptian words pi-rama, “ the mountain.”
66 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

less dimensions than 12 feet in diameter, and 66 feet in height. The

others are of less dimensions, being 9 feet in diameter, and 42 high.
These latter have their shafts copied from the “ single stalk of the frail
papyrus plant,” with an unopened bud for the capital ; while the twelve
central pillars have a “ full-blown flower for their capital,” and the shaft
made up of “ single stalks of an older growth.” Of this magnificent hall,
Mr. Fergusson has the following fine remarks :
—
“ No language can con-
vey an idea of its beauty ; and no artist has yet been able to reproduce
its form, so as to convey to those who have not seen it an idea of its
grandeur. The mass of its central piers illumined by a flood of light
from the clerestory, and the smaller pillars of the wings gradually fading
into obscurity, are so arranged and lighted as to convey an idea of infinite
space ; at the same time, the beauty and massiveness of the forms, and
the brilliancy of their coloured decorations, all combine to stamp this as
the greatest of man’s architectural works ; and such a one as it would be
impossible to reproduce, except in such a climate, and in that individual
style in which, and for which, it was created.”
In Egyptian architecture, we must not omit ad-
this brief notice of
verting to the “rock-cut temples” and “tombs,” in connection with
which may be here noted the singular distinction pointed out by Mr
Eergusson, that, while in “Egypt Proper” all these excavations were
“tombs,” in Nubia they were “temples.” A
very celebrated example of
the rock-cut temples is that of Abou-SimbeL, executed in the reign of
Pameses II. The facade extremity is abour 100 feet in height, and
—
has in front four statues of the king, of colossal height from 60 to 70
feet. “ Their grandeur and beauty,” says a recent traveller, “are beyond
expression, and the delight in their lofty character of beauty quite over-

fig. 152.
 AXD ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 67

comes the natural wonder at their imagined duration for twenty or

* * * In these faces, seven feet long, is
thirty centuries.
a godlike grandeur and beauty which the Greeks never reached. They
are not only colossal blocks of stone, but the mind cannot escape the
* * * If
feeling that they were conceived by colossal minds.
a poet should enter in dreams the sacred groves of the grandest mytho-
logy, these are the forms he would expect to see, breathing grandeur and
godly grace. * * * The Greek gods are human, but these
elder figures are above humanity —
they dwell serenely in abstract per-
fection.” [Nile Notes of a Howadji. By G. W. Curtis, p. 144.) The
Directors of the Crystal Palace at Sydenham have done the public
good service by reproducing two of these colossal statues ; they give, in
conjunction with the other features of the Egyptian Court an admirable
,

idea of the peculiarities of this style of architecture. In figs. 150, 151

and 152, we give illustrations of Egyptian pillars and capitals.

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE.
We now proceed to notice very briefly the peculiarities of Indian
architecture. Until the researches of Mr. Fergusson,* who visited the
various temples and caves of those distant countries, there were no archi-
tectural remains about which so little was known as those of India. The
most striking examples of Indian architecture are to be met with in the
rock-cut temples. These were long supposed to be superior in antiquity
to any of the ancient architectural remains of other countries, so much
so as to have furnished the source of Egyptian and Persian architecture.
That the latter was derived from the Indian is inferred from the close
similarity existing between their details, as in the columns of the Perse-
politan and Hindoo temples, and in the rock-cut temples of India and
Nubia. This similarity, however, rests on very slight evidence ; more-
over, it is now established that the date of the Persian buildings is ante-
rior to that of the Indian by some ten centuries. As to the other sup-
position, that Egyptian architecture owed its origin to the Indian, it is
enough to state, in order to show its error, that there is abundant evi-
dence to prove that the earliest of the Indian caves was excavated
when Egypt’s glory had faded, and her name was erased from the list of
nations.
Indian architecture is divided into two great classes, excavated and
structural, of which the former has the highest antiquity. The excavated
—
or rock-cut temples are again divided into three classes the “ Vihara, or
Monastery,” the “ Buddhist Chaitya,” and the “ Brahminical caves to
these may be added a fourth class, which are supposed to be imitations of
structural buildings, inasmuch as, though excavated or cut out of the solid
rock, they are done in such a way as to convey the idea that they are built
of stone. Of these classes we now offer a brief description. The simplest

* Itocl-cut Temples of India, and Illustrations, with Descriptions of the Ancient

Architecture of Hindostan.
E 2
68 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

form of the Vihara, or monastery cave, was a square cell, furnished with
a porch ; indeed, the earliest forms were simply natural caves, somewhat
improved in shape by artificial means. In some the hall was large and
decorated with pillars, a recess being made to face the entrance, in which
was deposited a statue or figure of Buddha. Although the Viliaras were
designed as monasteries for the reception of the priesthood, still, in this
way, they were made to serve as temples or places of worship. For this
latter purpose, however, the second class, or Buddhist Chaitya caves
were exclusively designed, namely, to serve as temples or churches ont ;

or more of them being connected with every set of caves in Western

India. In all the forms known of this class of caves, the plan is the same,
and they are supposed, from this circumstance, to have been copies of
structural buildings. The arrangement consists of a nave, divided from
the aisles by octagonal or circular pillars. The furthest end is semi-
circular, and the pillars are carried round this. In the centre stands the
Daghopa, a plain circular drum, covered by a hemi-spherical dome ; a
niche is always provided in the Daghopa, in which is placed figures of
Buddha and his attendants.
The “Brahminical caves” resemble in great part the Viharas; but
the walls, instead of being covered with painting, as in the latter, are
provided with sculpture.
Of the cave temples of India, the most celebrated is that of Elephanta.
This is 130 feet long, by 110 wide, and 14£ high. Four rows of columns,
nine feet high, with ribbed shafts and projecting capitals of a semicircu-
lar form support the flat ceiling ; colossal human figures are ranged
along the walls, cut in high relief out of the solid rock.
Of the fourth class of excavated architectural remains of India, the
best specimen is to be met with at Ellora. This excavation is 401 feet
long by 247 feet broad, and the deepest part 104 feet ; round the area
runs a cloister, supported on square pillars, on which are sculptured sub-
jects from the Indian mythology. The sanctuary is in the centre. The
whole details are profusely ornamented.
With reference to the historical details of the constructive buildings of
India., much uncertainty prevails. From their ignorance of the arch and
the consequent necessity to support the stone roofs which they employed
by means of brackets projecting from the sides of the square capitals of the
pillars, a variety of light and shade is produced pleasing to the eye.
The structural buildings of India are generally characterised by their
great height.

CHINESE ARCHITECTURE.
From the convex form of the roofs —the prevailing characteristic of
many structures met with in China the — type of Chinese architecture is
generally allowed to have been the tent. Wood is the material most gene-
rally used. The pagoda is a very characteristic building in China; this
consists of a series of towers, diminishing as they proceed upwards, each
tower being furnished with the concave roof. The domestic buildings are
only one storey in height, and from their curiously painted trellises and
 AND architectural design. 69

framework and the oddly-shaped doors —

octagonal and circular being even
—
used they strongly resemble “ bird-cages,” to which by some they have
been likened. Like other departments in that strange country, archi-
tecture allows of no change or progressive improvement as it has been
:

for ages, so it now is and so it is likely to remain. Every detail is under

strict supervision, and no deviation from established rules, which dictate
the size of a house according to the rank or status of its occupant, is
allowed.
Chinese columns have no capitals the shaft is shaped like the frus-
;

trum of a cone, the height varying from eight to twelve times the dia-
meter at its lowest part. The base is formed of a square plinth, with,
in some instances, a moulding above it. A
pole which is passed through
an aperture at the upper end of the shaft corresponds to the architrave
in classical architecture ; this is supported by two brackets, the lower
part of which is inserted in the shaft. These are sometimes ornamented.
A series of open panels placed above this corresponds to the frieze, orna-
ments being painted in the spaces between the panels. The whole is
surmounted by the concave tent-like roof, the angles of which being
turned up, are ornamented at their extremities by representations of
heads of dragons. For a detailed account of the peculiarities of Chinese
architecture, see the Encyclopaedia Metropolitan.

GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE.
In our notes on Assyrian architecture, we adverted to the value of
modem researches, in connection with that and the Egyptian style, in
clearing up much that was previously doubtful as to the origin and pecu-
liarities of Grecian architecture. Such, however, is the obstinacy with
which recognised systems are adhered to, that there are some still met
with who consider Greece as the source of all inspiration in art, and in
their enthusiasm for everything “ classical,” will be with difficulty pre-
vailed on to admit that Greece herself owed to other countries the
first germs of the art which dignified and graced her. “That archi-
tecture and art,” says an able writer, “always have been progressive,
and have not appeared at once in full perfection, is a ti'uism that need
scarcely be advanced yet in our admiration of their perfection we do
;

not always consider the history of their progression or the sources from
whence they sprang. No style, with the exception of the Egyptian, was
the spontaneous growth of the soil in which it flourished, or proceeded
directly from the nations that practised it ; the germs of all other styles
were borrowed from people whose habits and religious customs were
totally dissimilar, and its advances or improvements were the natural
results of civilisation, caused by intercourse with other nations in times
of peace, or by the adoption of all that was worthy of imitation in con-
quered states, during the incessant wars that were earned on in the
eastern parts of the world. Thus it was with the much admired archi-
tecture and arts of Greece and Romo, so that centuries elapsed ere any-
thing worthy of these terms was to be found in either empire.” [Rudi• —
70 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

mentary Architecture. By Talbot Bury. The Styles of Various Countries.

W eale, London, p. 7.)
Tbe exigencies of the condition of the early population of Greece a
—
condition which maintained them for long as rival states demanded from
them works of defence rather than of convenience for their domestic, or
grandeur and magnificence for their religious, edifices. Hence we find
that the architecture of the earliest times of Grecian history was confined
chiefly to the construction of walls and tombs. The remains of this
—
period of art -known as Cyclopean, but more properly Pelasgic, from
—
the name of the aboriginal race give us little or no information regard-
ing the development of ornamented construction amongst those who
practised it.
The most ancient of the remains of this period are those belonging
to the cities of Tiryns, the date of which, according to Sir William Gell,
is 1379 B.c. The thickness of the walls now remaining is from 21 to
25 feet, the blocks of which they are constructed being of monstrous
dimensions. The wall contains two ranges of galleries about five feet
broad and twelve high, with sides sloping to the apex, forming a triangle.
Ho care seems to have been given to the previous preparation of the
huge blocks, these being merely laid together with some design to make
the forms fit into each other, the interstices being filled up with smaller
stones.
In the remains of Mycenae, another of the ancient cities of Greece,
the date of which is given as 1350 b.c., there is a most interesting ex-
—
ample of early Grecian art probably the most ancient in the basso- —
rehevo surmounting the gate or principal entrance to the “ Acropolis,”
and which consists of two lions facing each other, and the fore paws of
which rest on a pedestal. The subterranean building in the same city,
known as the Treasury of Atreus, has a door, the lintel of which weighs
nearly 140 tons, the width of which is 17 feet, its length 27, and thick-
ness nearly four feet. The “ Acropolis ” in the Pelasgic cities was the
portion first built, and always upon high ground ; this was used as a
citadel and as a place of security for the archives and articles of treasure.

THE GRECIAN ORDERS.

The Doric. — most ancient of all the orders, is the most dis-
This, the
and was the one to which the Greeks
tinctive of Grecian architecture,
gave most attention. “As the Homeric poems have,” says Mr. Garbett,
in Ms Principles of Design in Architecture (Weale), “triumphantly
refuted the attempts to regard them as compilations, so there is in the
Doric order, and especially in its ancient examples, that perfect consis-
tency and unity of idea that proclaims it to be, in all essential points,
the production of one mind. Like other orders and styles, it must
doubtless have received improvements from many hands, but, unlike
them, or rather in a far greater degree than any of them, does it exhibit
the marked predominance of one genius.”
We have said that the Doricwas essentially the Greek order; in-
deed, for a long period in the history of the art, it was the only style
which they adopted. In endeavouring to trace the origin of the style,
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 71

many, indeed the majority of writers, affect to recognise the first hints of
or suggestions for it in the timber huts which preceded or are presumed to
have preceded those built of stone. On this point it is sufficient to state
that the more the peculiar characteristics of the Doric order are studied,
the less tenable will this theory be found. “ Such theory, it must be
admitted, is sufficiently plausible, if only because it can be made to ac-
count very cleverly for many minor circumstances.” (The Orders
of Architecture. By W. H. Leeds, Esq. Weale, p. 9.) Thus, one
writer draws up the following plausible sketch :
—
“ The trunks of trees
set perpendicularly to support the roof, may be taken for columns ; the
tree laid upon the tops of the perpendicular ones, the architrave ; the
ends of the cross bearers which rest upon the architrave, the triglyphs ;
the tree laid upon the cross beams, as a support for the ends of the raf-
ters, the bead moulding of the cornice ; the ends of the rafters which
project beyond the bead moulding, the mutules.” “But,” as remarks
Mr. Leeds, “ all this, unfortunately, does not account at all for, or rather
is in strong contradiction to, the character of the earliest extant monu-
ments of Grecian architecture. Timber construction would have led to
very different proportions and different taste. Had the prototype or
model been of that material, slenderness and lightness, rather than pon-
derosity and solidity would have been arrived at ; and the progressive
changes in the character of the orders would have been reversed, while
the earliest of them all would have been the lightest of them all.”
As refuting this fanciful theory, Mr. Fergusson draws attention to
the fact, that the earliest examples of the Doric order resembled the
Egyptian in strength and solidity. But as time progressed, they dis-
played the “ weak and lean form of the Homan order of the same name.”
Indeed, so marked is the gradual attenuation of the shaft, that from the
relative heights and diameters of the pillars may be gathered a pretty
accurate notion of the date of their erection. Thus, the shorter the
pillar, the earlier its date. “ This fact,” says Mr. Fergusson, “ is in itself
sufficient to refute the idea of the pillar being copied from a wooden
post ; as, in that case, it would have been slenderer at first, and would
gradually have departed from the wooden form as the style advanced.
This is the case in all primitive styles. With the Doric order, the con-
trary is the case.”
Other writers, discarding the above “ wooden theory,” adopt another
as fanciful, and even still more untenable ; this is, the notion that the
orders have their proportions in accordance with those of the human
figure. Thus, the Doric is supposed to be proportioned from the develop-
—
ment of a robust male “ the manly Doric the Ionic and Corinthian
from females, of which the latter is after a more delicate model than the
former hence, the Ionic is likened to a “ stately matron.” Mr. Leeds
;

—
thus disposes of this absurd theory if, indeed, it is deserving of such a
name. “ Now, so far from there being any general similitude between a
Grecian Doric column and a robust man, their proportions are directly
—
opposite the greater diameter of the column being at its foot, while
that of the man is at his shoulders. The one tapers upwards the other
,

downwards. If the human figure and its proportions had been con-
sidered, columns would, in conformity with such type, have been wider
72 ORKAMEKTAL DEAWING,

at the top of their shafts than below. * * With regard to the other
two orders, it is sufficient to observe, that, if so borrowedat all, the idea
must have been preposterous.” ( Orders of Architecture p. 11.)

nTTBTffl

We now proceed to describe the members and proportions of the

Doric order. In fig. 153, we give a full length sketch of a pillar taken
from a Corinthian temple (reduced from a drawing in DurrancTs Parallel
of Architecture, published at Berlin), and, in fig. 154, another sketch from
the “ Temple of Concord,” reduced from the same work. As will be
observed, there is no “ base ” to this order, the shaft springing at once
from the “ stylobate.” Taking the average, the height of the column
may be given at six diameters, the diameter being at that part of the
shaft resting on the stylobate at a. The shaft, in some instances, is
plain, as in fig. 155, but in the generality of examples fluted, there being
generally twenty flutes ; these being brought to an edge, as in fig. 40,
p. 28, of The Architectural Drawing-BooJc, in this Series. In some modern
reproductions of the “ order,” the flutes are furnished with fillets between
them, as in fig. 38 of The Architectural Drawing-Book. This, however,
is considered by good authorities as an innovation not consistent with
the “ severe simplicity ” which is the principal characteristic of the style.
Not content with the reasonable idea that these flutings have been intro-
duced simply for aesthetic effect, the advocates of the “ wooden theory,”
already alluded to, conceive that in the stone pillars of a later date, they
were meant to represent the “cracks” in the boles or trunks of the trees,
which formed the pillars in the structures of an earlier era. Still more
absurdly, some hold that they were meant to act as grooves, in which
“ spears ” could be placed, so as to prevent them falling when made to
 rr •.

AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. t J

Jean against tliem ; “ tlian wliicli idea,” Mr. Leeds remarks very naively,
“ it is hardly possible for the utmost stretch of ingenuity to go further
in absurdity.” The same authority points out the “ effect ” obtained by
the use of these flutes first, “ variety,” by multiplying the surfaces of
:

the shaft ; secondly, a “ pleasing diversity of light and shade thirdly,

“ they take from the heaviness, although detracting in no way from the
strength, of the pillar and, lastly, they “ serve to render the circularity
more apparent.”
As will be observed, on referring to fig. 153, the shaft diminishes
very quickly, the proportion being one-fourth ; that is, the diameter at
the capital, d, is three-fourths of that of the base, a. This again, by the
“ wooden ” theorists, is taken as another evidence of the wooden origin
of the order. The “ taper,” however, of the best examples of the order
is much greater in proportion than the taper of trees. That it was
adopted for aesthetic reasons, we have no doubt.
Immediately beneath the capital, there will be observed an annular
cut, or groove. In some examples there are three of these horizontal
grooves. These seem to have been added to give effect, by producing
shadows, or by marking the commencement of the capital, and by adding
apparently to its proportions.
The capital is composed of two members, the “abacus,” b, consisting
merely of a square block, and the “ echinus,” or “ ovolo,” c. ; in the
under part of the latter are three “ fillets,” or “ annulets,” as they are
commonly termed, projecting from the “ ovolo,” and having correspond-
ing indentations between them. In some examples, the number of these
annulets extends to five.
At first sight there is apparently little evidence of “ design ” in the
capital, but a little consideration will show the fallacy of this notion.
The square of the “abacus,” b (fig. 154), is nearly equal to the dia-
meter of the shaft at a, while the architrave, e, is narrower in its soffit,
or under side, than b. The idea of security and repose is thus given at
once. Again we notice in the square of the abacus and the circular and
projecting form of the echinus, or ovolo, c, another evidence of the de-
sire to keep “design” in view. By its projection beyond the diminished
part of the shaft, it serves to join the latter easily with the capital, and
the whole result is variety, contrast, and harmony.
Besting on the abacus is the “arcliitrave,” e, a plain block, the height
of which, inclusive of the “fillet,” f is equal to the diameter of the
column at the capital. Underneath the “fillet,” a number of smaller
fillets are suspended, these are termed “guttse” or “drops.” These are
fancifully enough supposed by some writers to represent the drops of
rain which have trickled from above and settled on the under side of the
fillet ; while others see in them the representation of the heads of bolts
and nails, which, according to the “ wooden theory,” were used to con-
nect the various parts together. The “ frieze,” g, a characteristic feature
of the Doric order, is next to be described. This consists of alternate
projections and recesses, the latter denominated “ metopes,” the former
“triglyphs.” (See p. 41, Architectural Drawing-Book, in this Series.)
The space between the triglyplis or the metopes is decided by the height
of the triglyphs, the metopes being the square of the height of the
74 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

latter. The face of the projection, g, is diversified by channels cut in it,

termed “glyphs;” two of these are complete, while a half one is joined at
each side, thus making three in all; hence the name “triglyph.” The
“ metopes,” in some examples, are left plain, in others filled in with
^sculptured decoration. (See p. 95, Architectural Drawing-Book .)
We now come to the consideration of the cornice, h, i. The distin-
guishing feature of this is the “corona,” h, which projects considerably
over the members below it. To the under side of this are suspended
immediately over the “triglyphs,” blocks, termed “mutules,” to the un-
der side of which “guttse” or drops are attached. These blocks are not
parallel to the fillet, fbut incline, as shown, at h. The upper part of
the cornice is usually a “ cymatium,” but sometimes like the “ echinus ”
or “ ovolo ” of the capital.
The following, from a good authority, may be taken as the aveiuge
proportions of the Doric order :

“ The height of the capital is half a diameter that of the ovolo, in-
;

cluding the annulets, and that of the abacus, are each one cpiarter of the
upper diameter, the annulets together being one fifth of one of the parts.
The horizontal dimension of the abacus is six times its height. The
height of the entablature is one third of that of the column or two diame-
ters. If it be divided into eight equal parts, these are distributed between
the architrave, the frieze, and the cornice, in the proportion of 3, 3, 2 ;
thus the height of the architrave is equal to that of the frieze, and that
of the cornice is two-thirds of either. The inner edge of the triglyph in
the angle of the building, is in a vertical line with the axis of the co-
lumn the breadth of the triglyphs is three-fifths of its height, which is
;

also that of the frieze, and the breadth being divided into nine equal
parts, two are occupied by each glyph or channel, one by each semi-
glyph, and one by each of the three interglyphs or flat surfaces between
the glyphs. * * * The metopes are sqitare. The height
of the capital of the triglyph is one-seventh of its whole height, and that
of the metope one-ninth. The height of the cornice being divided into
five equal parts, the lowest is given to the fillet, the mutule, and the
drops; the next two to the corona. * * * The projection
of the cornice over the capital of the triglyph is equal to its height, and
being divided into four equal parts, three are given to the corona.”
The celebrated Parthenon at Athens was in the Doric style ; it was
built in the year 444 b.c. Phidias had the general superintendence,
and the architects were Ictinus and Callicrates. Leake estimates the
cost of the building at a sum equal to .£700,000 of our money. The
material used was marble. The dimensions were 228 feet long by 101
broad ; the extreme height, including base, 64. There were seventeen
columns at each side, and eight at each end, the height of these 34 feet,
and diameter six feet three inches. This magnificent temple was built
in honour of the tutelary goddess of Athens, Minerva ; the whole of
the decorations of the building forming one great design or sculptured
poem in her honour. “ In this temple,” says Mr. Penrose, in Murray's
Handbook to Greece “ an architecture, which had gone on through cen-
,

turies of refinement, until it culminated there, was combined with the

work of the gi’eatest sculptor Greece and the world ever produced an ;
I
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 75

unless we take into consideration this perfect union of these two arts,
we cannot do justice to Greek architecture, much less the Parthenon.”

THE IONIC ORDER.

Mr. Fergusson remarks that the recent discoveries in Assyria prove
the Asiatic origin of this order more decidedly even, than a knowledge of
Egyptian architecture proves that it is the origin of the Doric. There
issome difficulty in tracing the history of the order, the most ancient
example probably being the temple of Illusus, now no longer existing ;
the most finished perfect examples being in the Erectheum, in the
Acropolis at Athens.
The distinguishing feature of the order (see fig. 155) is the “capital,”
with its “volutes,” fancifully conjectured by some writers to represent
the curled head-dress of a female, or the twistings of a ram’s horn. The
origin of this peculiarity is exceedingly problematical, and all “theories”
must be purely conjectural. If the reader will, at early spring time,
look out for the springing “ fern,” he will have, in the peculiar form ot
the curled leaf, a very accurate resemblance of the volute of the Ionic
order. If the Corinthian capital was derived from the “ acanthus ” leaf
(see Corinthian order), may not the peculiar form of the volute of the
Ionic have been derived from such natural form as the half-developed leaf
of the fern. No one who closely examines this will fail to be struck
with the idea that the “volute” might have been designed from it.
Another peculiarity in the order is the “base.” This consists of two
tori, separated by a scotia with fillets and a square plinth, on which
the column rests. The shaft is of slenderer proportions than that of
the Doric. The necessity for the base grew out of the peculiar form of
the capital adopted, for, without it, as Mr. Leeds justly remarks, “there
would be a harshness and abruptness below in grating discord with the
graceful flow of the lines in the capital above.” The slender proportions
of the shaft, with the graceful lines of the capital, and the “swelling con-
tour of the base,” imparting, as they did, a higher degree of delicacy
than is observable in the Doric, necessitated also a modification of the
method of giving character to the shaft, thus the harshness arising from
the sharp edges or “ arrises ” of the flutes in the Doric is got rid of in
the Ionic by the addition of “ fillets ” or flat spaces between the flutes, as
shown in fig. 38, at p. 27, Architectural, Engineering, and Mechanical Draw-
ing-Book. There are twenty-four in the Ionic.
For a full and, as we think, a satisfactoiy account of the aesthetic
principles involved in the design of the Ionic capital, we refer the reader
to p. 32 of the Rudimentary Treatise on the Orders. By W. H. Leeds.
London Weale.
:

The entablature of the Ionic order has a general resemblance to that

of the Doric. The triglyphs, however, are dispensed with, the frieze
becoming but a plain surface. Some examples give the cornice orna-
mented with dentils, which are blocks placed at certain distances apart,
the spaces between them being about half the width of the blocks.
Although some look upon the dentils as the distinguishing mark of the
I mic entablature, Mr. Leeds remarks that the Greeks themselves did
76 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

not seem so to regard them. The architrave of the order is, in some
examples, a plain surface, in others it is divided into three courses, each
of which projects a little over the other. The moulding between the
architrave and frieze is deeper and has more mouldings than when the
architrave is plain.
The following may be taken as a guide in proportioning the various
parts of the entablature. “ Dividing the whole height of the order into

twenty-one parts, four of these go to the entablature.

The height is equally distributed between the architrave, the frieze, and
the cornice ; dividing the height of the architrave into four parts, one
part is due to the mouldings of the upper portion or capital ; subdividing
the capital into nine equal parts, give one to the upper fillet, three to
the cavetto, four to the ovolo, and one to the bend. Divide the height
of the frieze into six equal parts, and give the upper part to the talon
which forms the capital. Divide the cornice into three equal parts, sub-
divide the upper and lower thirds each into six parts, in the upper third
give one part to the upper fillet, four to the cyma-recta, and one to the
lower fillet, and turn one down into the middle third for the ovolo
under.”
The height of the whole order is diameters. The base is half a
diameter and the capital the same ; the taper of the shaft is one-sixth of
its diameter at base.
Fig. 155 is an illustration of the Ionic order from the Temple of
Minerva Polias, at Priene, enlarged from a drawing in Durrand’s
Parallel of Architecture.

Fig. 156 is an enlarged drawing showing the composition of the base,

and fig. 157 the entablature of the “Ionic” order, from
the portico of
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 77

the Erectheum at Athens. “ This celebrated edifice was erected in the

age of the illustrious Pericles, when taste and invention were in their
meridian among the Athenians, and when they were anxiously engaged
in restoring the temples which had been destroyed by the Persians. In
this beautiful specimen of the Ionic order, they seem to have been am-

fig. 157.

bitious of excelling their Asiatic brethren in their own peculiar order of

architecture,by the addition of new and elaborate ornaments, imagined
with the utmost originality and elegance of taste, and executed with the
sharpness of outline which it would hardly have been supposed that
marble was capable of receiving.”
Taking the mouldings of the base in fig. 156 in their order, the
following are their heights and projections. (See Architectural, Engi-
neering, and Mechanical Drawing-Book, for the mode of setting out the
order.) The height of the moulding marked 1 is 2, and its projection
from the line a b (being a continuation of the external line of shaft) 16*
moulding 2 is 7 *, projection 13; moulding 3 is 1, pro. 10; moulding 4,
height 7 *, projection, in the middle of the scotia, 6. The mouldings
from 5 to 6 take up 7*, and their projection of c and d, 6*; moulding
7 is If, its projection 3*.
Of the entablature in fig. 157, the heights are as follows, commencing
from u, 14, 14, 131, 1|, l 6 3, ,f, 2, 5, *, 2, *, 6*, 13, 2, 5, 6*, 19, 5.
The projections taken from a line which starts from the point, a, and is
a continuation of the centre line of the column, are as follows, beginning
also with a,
28f, 30, 30, 31*, 35*, 3 5*, 35f, 37*, 29, 31, 53f, 55*,
57, 571, 651, 66*.
78 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

CORINTHIAN ORDER.
The peculiar feature of this order is its capital. The following is the
tradition, as given by Vitruvius, respecting its origin if valuable fox-
;

nothing else, it is suggestive of what architects may do by looking to

nature for inspiration. “ A
Corinthian virgin, just marriageable, being
seized by a disorder, died.After her interment, the nurse collected
some vases which pleased her when living, and putting them into a
basket, carried them to her tomb, and placed
them on its top,and that they might endure
- 1
f'
longer in the open air, she covex-ed the basket
with a tile. The basket happened to be placed
on the root of an acanthus, which being depressed
in the middle, the leaves and stalks grew up in
the spring around the sides of the basket, but
being resisted by the angles on the tile on the
basket, were obliged to convolve at the extremi-
ties in the form of volutes. At that time Cal-
limachus, who, on account of his taste and skill in
sculpture, was called by the Athenians Catatech-
nos, happening to pass by this monument, obseiwed
the basket and the delicate foliage growing round
it, and being pleased with the novelty of its form,

he made some columns, from this model, near Co-

rinth, and composed the symmetry and distributed
the proportions of the Corinthian order in the
most exquisite manner.” Mr. Leeds remai-ks
that unfortunately for the credit of this beautiful
legend, the earliest examples, which should ex-
hibit the strongest resemblance to its “prototype,”
on the contrary, exhibit the “ faintest and most
vague of all. The Corinthian capital seems rather
to have developed itself gradually out of the
Doric one.”
The finest example of the Grecian Gothic is
that of the monument of Lysicrates, at Athens.
This is generally known as the Lanthom of
Demosthenes ; of this we give a sketch in
fig. 158.
It was the Romans, however, who made the
Corinthian their own, and lavished upon it all
the force and profusion of decoration which we
find among the best known examples of the style.
The reader will find illustrations of the peculiari-
ties of the Corinthian capital in the Architectural,

Engineering, and Mechanical Drawing-Book.

fig. 158. In proportioning the Corinthian, the follow-
ing arrangement may be followed. The height
of the column is equal to ten diameters, the taper of the shaft being
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 79

one-sixtli. If the whole order isdivided into five parts, give one to
the entablature, this makes itin height equal to 2£ diameters.
The base is half a diameter in height, that of the capital one and
one-sixth diameter, of which the abacus is one-sixth, the height of
the leaves being equal to a diameter. The other proportion will be
found by referring to the Architectural Drawing-Book, in this Series. In
fig. 158, a h is the centre line, c d being half a diameter; by dividing this

into thirty equal parts, the heights and projections of the various parts
will be easily ascertained. From a to e is equal to 17|~, from e to c, 19|
parts, from to g, 13f, from g to h, 26£, from h to i, 29.
f The height of
the capital, from f to j, being 811 parts ; the height of the frieze from
j to k is 50 ; the architrave from k to l, 41^, and of the cornicefrom c to b, 50.
Having now illustrated the three Grecian orders, it remains for us
briefly to glance at other points connected with Grecian architecture.
—
Antes Pilasters (see p. 52, Architectural Drawing Book). — In modern
architecture pilasters are sometimes substituted for columns. The Greeks
made a marked difference between antas and columns ; there was no
diminishing or taper, no flutes or channels were employed, while the
capital was different in design.
In in many other points of Grecian architecture, we perceive
this, as
the attention which was paid by the Greeks to design. Unlike them,
many of our modern architects blindly copy without inquiring into the
reason why such forms or arrangements were first introduced, and rarely
inquire into their aptitude for the particular work which they have in
hand. On this point the remarks of Mr. W. H. Leeds, in his Rudimen-
tary Architecture, while explaining the Grecian treatment of the antse,
may convey a lesson of some worth. “ Hardly was such marked distinc-
tion” (that between the antse and the columns with which they com-
pose) “ a mere arbitrary fashion ; it is more rational to suppose that it
was adopted for aesthetic reasons and motives ; nor is it difficult to ac-
count, according to them, for the omission of channeling in the shafts of
the antae. Upon a plain surface the arrises between the channels would
have occasioned an unpleasing harshness and dryness of effect, as is the
case with fluted Doric pilasters, and would have been attended with
monotony also, the lines being all vertical, and consequently parallel to
each other ; whereas in the column the channels diminish in breadth up-
wards, and all the lines are inclined, and, instead of being parallel, con-
verge towards each other, so that were the shaft sufficiently prolonged,
they would at last meet in a common point or apex, similar to that of a
spire. Owing to this convergency, the lines on one side of a vertical line
dividing the column, or rather a geometrical drawing or elevation of it
into two halves, instead of being parallel are opposed to each other, like
the opposite sides of an isosceles triangle, and this opposition produces
correspondence .” If our young architects would thus attempt to specu-
late upon the principles which dictated the forms and arrangements of
Grecian architecture, we should less frequently witness the anomalous
absurdities which are daily foisted on the public as classical structures.
Columniation. —
The plan of the Grecian temples was veiy formal,
being invariably in that of a parallelogram, generally twice as long as
broad. The number of columns in the fronts of the temples dictated that
of the columns at the sides; the former was always an even, the latter an
80 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

odd number ;
by ’tins arrangement a column was always placed in the
centre of the side of the temple. The rule for determining the number
of the side columns seems to have been to give twice the number of the
columns in front, these being placed between the two last columns, one
at each end. Thus the spaces between the columns at the side are
termed “ intercolumns.” Thus if there were eight columns in front of
the temple, there would be 17 at the sides, giving 16 intercolumns, or
double the number in front. Various names are given to the arrange-
ment of columns. Thus, in the earliest temples the side walls seem to
have been continued forward, their termination forming antse or pilas-
ters, a portico being formed by placing columns between these, the term
used in this case being a portico “in antis.” Where two columns
were placed between two antse, the arrangement was termed a “distyle in
antis.” In later erections the columns were brought forward, and, pro-
jecting from the main building, the arrangement was termed a “prostyle.”
The term “ amphiprostyle ” being used when the other end of the temple
was similarly trsated. The sides were, in those erections, without columns,
or “ astylar.” Suppose, then, that four columns were placed thus
o o o o
the arrangement would be termed a “tetrastyle;” while six columns, thus
o o o o o o
would be termed “ hexastyle.”
But when columns were placed round the sides of temples as well as
at the ends, the “prostyle” was merged in another arrangement, termed
“ peristylar,” or “peripteral.” We have already shown the rule which
dictated the number of columns at the sides, when those at the front
were given. Thus, when there were six columns in the front, there were
twelve intercolumns and thirteen columns. The arrangement would
thus be known as the peristylar or peripteral hexastyle, thus

1 O o o o o o
2 O o
3 O o
4 O o
5 O o
6 O o
7 O o
8 O o
9 O o
10 o o
11 o o
12 O o
13 O o o o o o
 AX'D ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN'.

columns were placed in front (octastyle), t le arrangement

'.Sphere eirriit
there wonlc,
would be known as peristylar’or peripteral octastyle; thas
and seventeen columns on the side, as follow*--.
ho sixteen intercolumns

o o o o o o o o 1
10
O o 2
15
O o 3
14
O o 4
13
O o 5
12
O o 6
11
o o 7
1)
o o 8
9
o o 9
8
O o 10
7
O o 11
6
o o 12
5
Qt o 10*
*

n o 14

o o ir.

2
O o 16
1
o o o o o o o o 17

If ten columns were placed in front, the

arrangement would be
termed peristylar or peripteral decastyle. There would he twenty inter-
columns and twenty-one columns on each side.
Intercolumniation . —
By this term is meant the space left
between the
influence which it
columns, and has reference merely to this, not to any
explained. In the
has upon the principle of columniation as above
between the columns is regulated by the triglyphs
Doric order, the space
in the entablature, —
a column being always placed beneath a triglypli, the
centre line of the latter being continued to form that of the former.
not always
But although the column is placed beneath the triglypli, it is
i.laced beneath each one. The arrangement of a column beneath each
;” between every third tri-
alternate triglyph is termed “ monotriglyph
orders is dictated
glyph, “ditriglyph.” The intercolumniation of the other
conventional rules derived from "V itruvius ; according to
by a set of
dims,
the diameters of the column, each is separate from
the other,
the intercolum-
with a distance of one diameter and a quarter, or a halt,
“thick-set; with two
niation is termed “ pycnostyle,” or “closely” or
diameters “ sy style;” two diameters and a half, “eustyle;” three dia-
82 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

meters, “diastyle;” and four diameters, “ arieostyle,” or “ thinly- set.”

For an example of a style of intercolumniation, considered as very
heterodox by some authorities, known as “ coupled columns,” see page 53

fig. 159.

of the Architectural Drawing- Boole, in this Series. For further informa-

tion on C olumniation and Intercolumniation, we refer the reader to
the Rudimentary Treatise on the Orders. (W eale.)

fig. 1G1.
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 83

Of Grecian architectural ornament the most

striking features are the “ acanthus” and the
“honeysuckle.” Of the former we give illus-
tration in figs. 159 and 160, the latter being an

oblique view; and in fig. 161 an illustration of

the latter, in an exemplification of the echinus
and honeysuckle applied to moulding decorations.
This last illustration is taken from the work of
Carlo Botticher, published at Potsdam. fig. 160.
In the work on Practical Geometry in this
,

Series, we have exemplified the method of describin the outlines of the

fig. 162.

“mouldings” used in Homan architecture. In those of the Grecian, the

curves are not struck by compasses, but form part of elliptical curves.
84 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

In fig. 162 we show the method of describing the “ echinus,” or “ovolo;”

in 163 the “scotia;” and in 164 the “cyma recta.”

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
Having, in our work in this Series on Architectural, Engineering, and
Mechanical Drawing, illustrated fully the “ orders,” as generally received,
of Roman architecture, and many of their minor details, we have in
this chapter but little more to do than trace the connection between
this, the last link of what is usually denominated “ classical architec-
ture,” and the next great epoch of the art, the Christian, or Mediaeval.

c
5g. 16. .
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 85

Before entering upon this, however, we here give a few illustrations of

Roman decoration. Figs. 165, 166, are illustrations of scroll-work from

the frieze of Trajan’s Column, taken from the Italian work of Albertolli.
Fig. 167 is an enlarged sketch of the “ modillon,” as seen in the entab-

lature, fig. 88, p. 49, Archxtectural Drawing-Book fig. 168 an end view,
and fig. 169 a halt view of the soffit, or under side; and fig. 170 a portion
of the celebrated Florentine scroll, taken from Albertolli.
 86 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

The principal feature in Roman architecture was the arch used

both for structural and decorative purposes. The application of the
arch gave to the structures in which it was used a character essen-
tially different from those of Greece, and contained the germ of
the peculiar architecture of the Christian or Mediaeval era. Com-

fi,'. 170.

paring a Grecian temple wiih the most finished and characteristic o*

the Roman structures — the Coliseum —
while admiring the vastness
and the magnificence of the Roman, we find it wanting in the unity and
completeness of design of the Grecian erection. In the Grecian temple,
its distinctive peculiarities are seen at a glance ; and such is the
unity of the
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 87

structure that it impossible to take away any one part without destroy-
is
ing the whole. On
the contrary, with the Coliseum, the eye has to
wander over tier above tier of arch before the mind can obtain an idea of
the vastness of the whole; and so much is mere repetition a part of the
arrangement, that a great part may be taken away without impairing the
general design. To use the words of an able writer, “ the Coliseum, in
the multiplied parts, wanted that true aesthetic continuity of idea which
should have welded the whole together in such a way that it could not
be separated without injuring the design. This problem was not solved
by the Bomans.”
The finest works of the Bomans were executed in the reigns of Ves-
pasian and Titus, the Coliseum being begun and finished during these
the Temples of Peace and Minerva and the Baths of Titus are also among
the most noticeable works of this era. The reign of Hadrian was also dis-
tinguished for the erection of some fine structures. Prom this period to
the reign of Constantine the art suffered a grievous decline. The con-
version of Constantine to Christianity, or, at least, the favour which he
showed it in allowing its followers to extend its worship, gave the first
impulse to its revival. Although Constantine fixed the epoch of trans-
ition from Boman to Christian architecture, it is worthy of note, as so
clearly pointed out by Mr. Fergussnn, that “ the whole history of the art
in Imperial Borne is that of a style in a state of transition, beginning
with a purely Pagan or Grecian style, in the age of Augustus, and pass-
ing into one almost wholly Christian in the age of Constantine.”
—
The Boman temple consisting chiefly of a small central building,
in which was placed the statue of the presiding deity to whose worship
it was erected, the main shelter for the worshippers being under the
—
spacious colonnades was in every way unfitted for the worship of
the Christians. Their attention was therefore naturally directed to the
Basilica;, or the Halls of Justice, as affording them ample space. These
Halls of Justice were of rectangular form, and were generally divided by
rows of columns, which gave a central and two side compartments. In
the space above the columns and their entablature rose a series of smaller
columns, which supported the roof and formed galleries above the side
compartments. In these galleries the business of the clients, &c., was
transacted. At the further extremity of the hall ran another colonnade
at right angles to the other columns, and in the centre of the wall a
semicircular recess was made, which contained the tribune, or seat of
the magistrate. It was in modifying these buildings, to adapt them to
the forms of Christian worship, that the Bomanesque or Byzantine
architecture had its origin, and displayed its peculiarities.

ROMANESQUE, OR BYZANTINE-LOMBARDIC ARCHITECTURE.

In the paragraph of the preceding chapter we pointed out the

last!

peculiarities of the Boman Basilicse, which the Christians modified for

the purposes of their worship. In the short limits of our work it is im-
possible to trace, even in the briefest manner, the various modifications
which were carried out before the structures presented all the features
necessary to suit them to their new purposes. We
can only refer the
8S ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

reader to Mr. Fergussoris work, where he will find the most ample de-
tails, both historical and structural. Of the various Basilicas so modi-
fied, the most noted is that of San Clemente ;
this displays more than
any other the peculiar arrangements required for Christian worship.
In many of these basilicas, coloured decoration was carried to a great
extent. Mosaic pavements, harmoniously coloured and beautifully
arranged, were designed originally for the decoration of the floor, and
in strict keeping with the general architectural features of the interior.
Constantine having founded a new city in the East, about 328 a.d.,
adorned it with many magnificent structures, amongst which was the
celebrated cathedral dedicated to St. Sophia. This was twice destroyed
by fire, but under Justinian it was finally rebuilt (532 a.d.). This mag-
nificent structure— —
the first of the Byzantine architecture still exists
but the worship is changed from Christian to that of Mahomet. The
grand feature of this building is the “ dome and is that which mainly
distinguishes it from the basilic®. Its plan is that of a Greek cross, the
aims of which are of equal length, and the central part is square.
Massive pillars rise from the four angles, to a height of 86 feet, support-
ing semi-circular arches. The dome, which is 115 feet in diameter, and
of which the form is a segment of a circle, springs at a level of 145 feet
from the floor. On the north and south sides square vestibules are
found, above which are galleries ; the east and west sides are provided
with semi-circular recesses, furnished with domes, resting against the
nave arches, between the massive pillars above alluded to. This style
of architecture was imported into Italy, the most brilliant example of
which is St. Mark’s, at Yenice. The plan of this splendid building is
very similar to that of St. Sophia, just described. The four arms of the
cross are roofed with semicircular vaults, supporting domes of equal
dimensions. Above the central square is the large principal dome. In
the interior, a series of columns and arches divide the church longitudi-
nally and transversely.
Of the Romanesque, the most celebrated examples «re to be met with
at Ravenna and Pisa. The cathedral of Pisa is built in the form of a
Latin cross, which differs from that of the Greek, in having one of its
arms longer than the other three. The cathedral of Pisa was one of the
oldest examples of this form of church —
a form which has been followed
in the later cathedrals of northern Europe.
all
The technical characteristics of the Romanesque architecture are
thus sketched by Dr. Whewell, in his Notes on German Churches. They
“ are a more or less close imitation of the features of the Roman archi-
tecture. The arches are small, supported on pillars, retaining traces of
the classical proportions ; the pilasters, cornices, and entablatures have a
correspondence and similarity with those of classical architecture. There
is a prevalence of rectangular faces, and square-edged projections. The
openings in the walls are small, and subordinate to the surfaces in which
they occur. The members of the architecture are massive and heavy,
—
very limited in kind and repetition the enrichments being introduced
rather by sculpturing surfaces, than by multiplying and extending com-
ponent parts. There is, in this style, a predominance of horizontal lines,
or, at least, no predominance and prolongation of vertical ones. For
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. S'J

instance, tlie pillars are not prolonged in corresponding mouldings along

the arches the walls have no prominent buttresses, and are generally
;

ornamented by a strong, horizontal tablet, or cornice.”

No writer so eloquently yet so lucidly describes the peculiar beauties
and glories of Byzantine architecture as Mr. Buskin. Witness the
following fine description of the interior decoration of St. Mark’s, at
Venice :
—
“ Under foot and over head is a continual succession of crowded
imagery ; one picture passing into another as in a dream ; forms beautiful
and terrible mixed together ; dragons, and serpents, and ravening beasts
of prey, and graceful birds, that, in the midst of them, drink from
running fountains, and feed from vases of crystal ; the passions and the
pleasures of human life symbolised together, and the mystery of its
redemption ; for the mazes of interwoven lines and changeful pictures
lead always at last to the cross, lifted and carved in every place and upon
every stone ; sometimes with the serpent of eternity wrapped I’ound it
sometimes with doves beneath its arms, and sweet herbage growing
forth from its feet.” But it is in describing the magnificent effect of the
exterior of St. Mark’s, that the language of Mr. Buskin so beautifully
befits the glories of the structure. The following may be taken as
perhaps the most complete and entrancing “ word-picture ” to be met
with in the whole of our artistic literature. Each sentence conveys a
singularly vivid representation of the objects designed to be described,
and the whole are linked together by a succession of images most beauti-
fully suggestive, until at last, as the eloquent writer approaches the
climax of his description, the reader is constrained to feel somewhat of
the ecstasies which the writer claims as the result of the proper contem-
plation of this wonderful structure. A
“ treasure heap it seems, partly
of gold, and partly of opal and mother-of-pearl, hollowed beneath into
five great porches, ceiled with fair mosaic, and beset with sculpture of
alabaster, clear as amber, and delicate as ivory ; sculpture, fantastic and
involved, of palm leaves, and lilies, and grapes, and pomegranates, and
birds clinging and fluttering among the branches, all twined together in
one endless network of birds and plants. In the midst of it the solemn
forms of angels, sceptred, and robed to the feet, and leaning to each other
across the gates, their figures indistinct among the gleaming of the golden
—
ground through the leaves beside them interrupted and dim, like the
morning light as it faded back among the branches of Eden when first its
gates were angel-guarded long ago ; and round the walls of the porches
there are set up pillars of variegated stones, jasper, and porphyry, and
deep green serpentine, spotted with flakes of snow, and marbles that half
refuse and half yield to the sunshine, Cleopatra-like, their bluest veins
‘

to kiss;’ the shadow, as it steals back from them, revealing line after
line of azure undulation, as a receding tide leaves the waved sand ; their
capitals rich with interwoven tracery, rooted knots of herbage, and
drifting leaves of acanthus and vine, and mystical signs, all beginning and
ending in the cross ; and above them, in the broad arches, rolls a con-
tinuous chain of languages of life ; angels and the signs of heaven, and
the labours of man, each in its appointed season upon the earth ; and
above these another range of glittering pinnacles, mixed with white
arches, edged with scarlet flowers ; a confusion of delight, amidst winch
90 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

the breasts of the Greek horses are seen blazing in their breadth of golden
strength ; and the St. Mark’s lion lifted in a blue field, covered with
stars, until at last, as if in ecstasy, the crests of the arches break into a
marble foam, and toss themselves far into the blue sky in flashes and
wreaths of sculptured spray, as if the breakers on the Lido shore had been
frost-bound before they fell, and the sea-nymphs had inlaid them with
coral and amethyst.”
“ Byzantine architecture,” remarks a writer, himself a great admirer
of Buskin, and who frequently approaches the style of the latter in
lucidity of explanation, energy of manner, and in a happy choice of
appropriate imagery, “ is the first attempt of a powerful, unbridled mind
to think in a new material — a mind choked up with a chaos of dis-
cordant conventions, and confused with the difficulty of blending
Paganism with a Christianity but newly embraced. It has just sought
the grave-like quiet of the cloister, and dares not venture into the
dazzling daylight of the moorland and the field to gather leaves or
flowers. It reproduces them, therefore, by imperfect recollection, with
an unskilled hand and an untrained eye. Its light and shade are of a
whirlwind, iron age, when sword-law kept the wolfs claw from men’s
throats. War-cries were still ringing in the ears of the men who carved
those bosses, and they still heard in memory the splintering of spears
and the shivering of sword-blades. * * * It presented no trans-
parent trellises such as the Moslem, no fountain-cooled quadrangles
such as the Boman loved ; it raised no Alps of mystic stone like the
Egyptian ; sculptured no idol caves such as the Nubian hollowed.
Its buildings were chequered with the very shadows of death and
eternity ; its cloisters were gloomed by the struggle of light and dark-
ness, death and life, good and evil. The Norman had no glistening
windows, such as the later monks framed, but stanchioned openings,
mere loop-holes for the arrow, or the quarrel ; apertures from which to
cry a parley, or shout defiance to the assailant. The Lombards darkened
the very glitter of their mosaics with the impending terrors of those massy
bulwarks of stone that turned every church into a consecrated fortress.
Behind them they could mock at the iron hail of crossbow bolts, or
the stones thundered from the military engines.” This is finely descriptive
writing, and gives an accurate notion of the spirit of the Byzantine arclii
tecture, from which sprung our Gothic, the peculiar glory of English art.
If, as it has been defined, architecture is the stony records of men and

nations, it is always interesting to trace the lessons which they convey to

us; instead of being, as some think, merely a conglomeration of stones,
laid together and ornamented by no guiding principle, we shall find, the
more strictly we investigate, the more clearly developed the spirit
which dictated the peculiarities of the style.
The Lombardic is generally classed with the Byzantine or Bomanesque
architecture; indeed, some writers use the term Byzantine as indicative
at once of the Bomanesque, the Byzantine, and the Lombardic. Mr. Eer-
gusson conceives the Byzantine, or Eastern Bomanesque architecture to be
essentially distinct from the Western Bomanesque and the Lombardic.
Hosts of German barbarians had, even before what is usually called the
“Gothic invasion” of Alaric, crossed the Alps, and settled in the valley
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 91

of the Po. Before their rude and restless energy the traces of the
influence of Imperial Rome gradually faded, and a change complete and
marked in the architecture of the land was Anally effected. At first the
Lombardic builders were indebted to Italian aid in erecting their struc-
tures; but they gradually adopted a style, the peculiar features of which
we have given in the last extract. The finest examples of Lombardic
architecture are met with at Pavia, Milan, Piacenza, and Verona.
We have already said that the Byzantine architecture is that from
which sprang the Gothic. It is to a brief description of its peculiarities
as developed in England that we propose to devote the next section.

GOTHIC OR POINTED ARCHITECTURE.

In pp. 102, 103, and 104 of the Architectural Drawing-Book we have ,

given illustrations of the different styles of Gothic architecture. In the

classification there adopted we have admitted the “ Norman,” or “ Semi-
circular,” of which fig. 202 is an example; this flourished in its pure state
from the time of the Conquest to the reign of Stephen, in 1136 a.d. A
branch of this style, usually known as the “ Transition,” flourished from
the latter date up to about 1190. According to other writers, the classi-
fication of Gothic styles is confined to three :
(1) the Early English,
which flourished in the reigns of John, Henry III., and Edward I.,
during a period of about a century; that is, from 1200 to 1300 a.d.
(2) Decorated, flourishing during the latter part of Edward I.’s reign,
the whole of the reigns of Edward II. and III., Richard II., Henry
IV., V., and VI., taking up a period of about a century and a half; that
is, from 1300 to 1460. (3) Perpendicular, flourishing in the reigns of
Edward IV. and V., Richard III., and Henry VI. and VII. a period —
of about eighty years, from 1460 to 1537.
In figs. 171 and 172 we give examples of mouldings in Early English
style, the former being adapted to the base, the latter to the capital of a

fig. 171. fig. 172.

92 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

column. In figs.173 and 174- we give examples of mouldings in the

“ Decorated the latter being those of the capital, the former of the

base and in figs. 175 and 176 mouldings of the Perpendicular style
:

the former base, the latter capital. The distinguishing peculiarities of

the three styles will be observed by a study of the illustrations in the

Architectural Drawing-Book, figs. 203
to 206, inclusive.
“ Of the various hypotheses,” says a graceful writer in Guide to the
Ten Chief Courts of the Sydenham Palace, “ of the derivation of the
Gothic order, some attribute the Pointed style to the imitation of the
Druidical groves, of wattled Inits, of the timber buildings of the Saxons,
or of the pyramid; while Dr. Milner considered the pointed arch was
suggested by the intersection of the round Romanesque arches, when
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 93

11.50(1 in arcade work.” This latter hypothesis is the one now generally
received. The pointed arch, however originated, began, towards the end
uf the twelfth century, to supersede the semicircular, and, during the
thirteenth century, became very general.
As before noted, there are two classifications of English Gothic archi-
tecture ; first, that which divides it into “ round arched,” and “ pointed
arched” exclusively. Where the former is retained, the Anglo-Saxon
and Norman are the exemplifications of the round arched styles ; the
pointed being the “ Early English,” the “ Decorated,” and the “ Perpen-
dicular.” Where the pointed arch is taken as the peculiarly distinctive
characteristic of the English Gothic, the Anglo-Saxon and Norman are
considered as distinct styles ; and the three classes of Gothic or Media3val
architecture are the Early English, the Decorated, and the Perpendicular.
Saxon architecture partakes of much of the Roman character, “ and
is known Toy its long and short and herring-bone work, the latter being
of a zig-zag form, and the former having quoins of hewn stones, placed
alternately flat and on end. The walls are plastered on the outside, and
ornamented with flat, vertical, stone-like pilasters, projecting slightly
from the surface, sometimes in semicircular arches and triangles; the
imposts, or points of junction between the arch and piers, are formed by
rude and massive blocks, often of plain stone; the arches are low and
ponderous; and the small windows are frequently formed by small
* * * The pillars are round and massive, the
pointed apertures.
capitals circular or square, and surrounded by spiral and reticulated
ornaments. The favourite decoration of the Norman architecture is the
zig-zag moulding, the points of the zig-zags turning in different directions,
and, in some late instances, the prominent points standing out quite free.
The richest part of a Norman church was the doorway. In the earliest
work, the head of the opening is formed by two straight pieces of stone,
leaning together at the top to produce a triangle; but they gradually
became enriched, till the increased moulding nearly equalled the breadth
* * * The mouldings are bold and powerful in
of the doorway.
effect; the capitals are frequently adorned with figures and grotesque
heads set in hollow mouldings, with projecting tongues or beaks over-
lapping a large torus or bead.”
What is called the Transition, or Semi-Norman style resulted in the
mixed tise of Saxon and Norman peculiarities ; this gave the first
approach to the pointed arch. This Transition style lasted during the
reigns of Henry II. and Richard I.; and St. Joseph’s Chapel at Glaston-
bury may be considered the finest specimen.
Of the three classes of Pointed architecture, the Early English, as
already noticed, is first in point of date. At first, the windows of this
•style were very narrow in proportion to their height, and were called
lancet-shaped; they gradually widened, and ornamentation began to be
applied. In some cases, the breadth was divided into several lights, and
the space between the termination of these and the outer pointed arch
was filled in with a light of trefoil or lozengo shape.
In process of time, the ornaments became more decided and profuse,
and the term Decorated was given to the style. The windows of this
style are wide, and divided into several compartments by “ mullions.”
94 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

These, which are slender columns, branch out, at the upper part of the
window, into tracery of various forms. When these are composed of cir-
cular curves and arcs, the style is called Geometric Decorated ; but where
curves are adopted of various kinds and of graceful forms, the style is
called Curvilinear Decorated. The Perpendicular style is distinguished
by the profuseness of itsornament, and hence it is called sometimes the
Florid Gothic. It is usually named the Perpendicular, from the lines of
division running in a straight or perpendicular direction. The reader
will find illustrations of these styles in figs. 102, 103, and 104 of the
Architectural Engineering and Mechanical Drawing-Book, in tins Series.
, ,

The principal features of Gothic architecture are the “ buttress,” the

“pinnacle,” the “spire,” and the “tower.” The buttress was used to
assist the outward thrust of the roof. The “flying buttress” was a still
more daring and ingenious device. This was used to connect the outer
buttress with the wall of the nave, which was usually of greater height
than the side aisles; thus resisting the outer thrust of the roof of the
central portion of the building. The buttresses are usually constructed
in stages, and finished with “pinnacles.” “The decorative form which
the buttress and the pinnacle,” says Mr. Humphrys, in his Ten Centwrves
“
of Art, were made to assume, under the adaptive hand of the Gothic
architect, render them not only excellent as a highly scientific expedient
in structure, but exquisitely decorative; in fact, they are made to form
one of the most original and picturesque features of the art.” Not less
striking, as evidences of the originality of conception and of daring design
of the Gothic architects, are the towers and spires which crown our beau-
tiful cathedrals. The “ spire,” the feature of Gothic ; the “ dome,” of
Byzantine, and the “arch” of Roman architecture, the writer we have
already quoted terms “the three most wonderful thoughts in archi-
tecture.”
Of the exponents of the spirit and peculiarities of Gothic archi-
all
tecture, some of them possessing afine appreciation of its beauties, and a
capability of lucidly conveying a notion of them to the reader, Mr. Ruskin
stands pre-eminent. He has made the subject entirely his own; indeed,
it is difficult to convey, without examples, any idea of the intense
spirit of his appreciation of, and admiration for, this style of architecture,
or of the wonderful force of language in which he depicts its spirit
and its beauties. In “ words that breathe and thoughts that burn,” he
carries his reader completely along with him, such is the intense force of
his style and the beauty of his imagery; he is, in short, what one of his
—
admirers has called him “the finest exponent of Gothic feeling the
world has ever known.”
The six great principles of Gothic art, as developed in England for —
Gothic art may be said to be pre-eminently the English style, our cathedrals
being to us what the pyramids are to Egypt, her palaces to Nineveh, or
— —
her statues to Greece are, according to this fine writer, (1) Savage-
ness, (2) Changefulness, (3) Naturalism, (4) Grotesqueness, (5) Rigidity,

(6) Redundance. It is impossible, in the short space at our command,

to glance even briefly at the beautiful language with which Mr. Ruskin
elucidates these great principles of the art; we can only notice the most
prominent, these, perhaps, being its Changefulness and Naturalism. Of
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN.

the former he says, in proof of the perpetual novelty of which the Gothic
forms were capable :
—
“ The pointed arch was not merely a bold varia-
tion from the round, but it admitted of variation in itself; for the
proportions of a pointed arch are changeable to infinity, while a circular
arch is always the same. The grouped shaft was not merely a bold
variation from the single one, but it admitted of millions of variations in
its grouping, and in the proportions resultant from its grouping.
* * *

Gothic architecture being undefined, can either shrink into a turret,

expand into a hall, coil into a staircase, or spring into a spire, with
undegraded grace and unexhausted energy ; and Avhenever it finds
occasion for change in its form or purpose, it submits to it, without the
slightest sense of loss, either to its unity or majesty —subtle and flexible
like a fiery serpent, but ever attentive to the voice of the charmer.”
As to the “ Naturalism,” Mr. Ruskin has the following :
—
The new
direction of mental interest marks an infinite change in the means and
habits of life. The nations whose chief support was in the chase —
whose
chief interest was in the battle —whose chief pleasure was in the banquet
would take small care respecting the shapes of leaves and flowers, and
notice little in the forms of the forest trees which sheltered them, except
the signs indicative of the wood which would make the toughest lance,
the closest roof, or the clearest fire. The affectionate observation of the
grace and outward character of vegetation is the sure sign of a more
tranquil and gentle existence, sustained by the gifts and gladdened by
the splendour of the earth. In that careful distinction of species, and
richness of delicate and undisturbed organisation, which characterise the
Gothic design, there is the history of moral and thoughtful life, influenced
by habitual tenderness, and devoted to subtle inquiry; and every dis-
criminating and delicate touch of the chisel, as it rounds the petal or
guides the branch, is a prophecy of the development of the entire body of
the natural sciences, beginning with that of medicine, of the recovery of
that of literature, and the establishment of the most necessary principles
of domestic wisdom and national peace.” Note here the fineness of the
following — “ The Gothic architecture arose in massy and mountainous
strength block heaved upon block by the monk’s enthusiasm, and the
;

soldier’s force ; and cramped and stanchioned into such weight of gi’isly Avail
as might bury the anchoret in darkness, and beat back the utmost storm of
battle, suffering but by the same narrow croslet, the passing of the sunbeam
or of the arrow. Gradually as that monkish enthusiasm became more
thoughtful, and as the sound of war became more and more intermittent,
beyond the gates of the convent or the keep, the stony pillar grew slender
and the vaulted roof grew light, till they had Avreatlied themselves into
the semblance of the summer weeds at their fairest, and of the dead
field- flowers long trodden doAvn in blood. Sweet monumental statues
Avere set to bloom for ever beneath the porch of the temple, or the canopy
of the tomb.”
The folloAving may be taken as a summary of Mr. Ruslrin’s argu-
ments in favour of Gothic architecture ; and hoAvever much avc may
differ from him in his estimate of which is called classical architecture,
all will surely agree in admiring the beauty of his descriptions, and the
amazing clearness of his style. “We have seen,” he says, “ that exactly
96 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

in the degree in which Greek and Roman architecture is lifeless, unpro-

fitable,and unchristian, in that same degree our own ancient Gothic is
animated, serviceable, and faithful. We have seen that it is flexible
to all duty, enduring to all time, instructive to all hearts, honourable and
holy in all offices. It is capable alike of all lowliness, and all dignity;
fit alike for cottage porch or castle gateway ; in domestic service familiar,

in religious sublime simple and playful so that childhood may read it

;

yet clothed with a power that can awe the mightiest, and exalt the loftiest
of human spirits ; an architecture that kindles eveiy faculty in its work-
man, and addresses every emotion in its beholder which, with every
;

stone that is laid on its solemn walls, raises some human heart a step
nearer heaven, and which from its birth has been incorporated with the
existence, and in all its form is symbolical of the faith of Christianity.”

In fig. 177 we give an illustration of an Early English buttress in

;

fig. 178 one of the “Decorated and in fig. 179 one of the “Perpen-
dicular.”
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 97

Having now briefly discussed the peculiarities ot the two great

epochs of Ancient and Mediaeval, or Christian architecture, we propose,
before giving our examples for practice ” in the concluding section of
the work, to glance very briefly at the points of the Renaissance, and
also of the Saracenic and Arabic architecture.

The term “ Renaissance ” means a “ revival,” and has reference to

that era of the art in which, leaving the Gothic or Mediaeval styles, it
returned to the classical, revising and modifying ite peculiarities. It
was in this modifying that arose the absurdities and anomalies of the
G
93 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

style. “The clustering Gothic pillars were intermingled with Corin-

thian columns, and classic scrollings of bastard acanthus usurped the
place of the oak, the rose, the thistle, and other national plants which
had been wrought into architectural decorations with such exquisite
* * * By this intro-
skill by the matchless race of Gothic carvers.
duction of classic features all congruity of style was for a moment lost,
and the grossest absurdities were practised in the attempt to introduce

fig. 181 .

perforce the Corinthian column and massive Grecian cornice.” “It

was, however,” remarks the same writer, “notwithstanding this derelic-
tion, an artistic age and, the first shock of the mongrel admixture over,
;

new styles evolved themselves, which,

if less scientific in construction,
less intricately rich
in ornamental detail, and less homogeneously com-
plete than the pure Gothic, were yet worthy the name of art in a
high degree .”
—
(Ten Centuries of Art, p. 22.) Of the Renaissance
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 99

style, the great masters were Michael Angelo, Bramante, and San Gallo,
whose great works were St. Peter's and the Farnese Palace; of Venice,
Palladio, Scammozzi and Sansovino —
their works the Library of St.
Mark’s and the Grimani Palace. Of the Florentine architects of this
style, Brunalleschi and Leo Alberti —
their works being the Duomo, the
Pitti, the Strozzi, and Pandolifini Palaces. Of the French, Delorme,
Lescot, Brellant, De Brosse, and Perrault Gabriel, their great works
being the Tuileries, the Louvre, and the Luxembourg.
In England, the Elizabethan, of which in the last section we gave
illustrations, was the result of the departure from the Gothic and the
return to “ classical architecture.” It is a mixture of the Italian and
the Gothic ;
the latter displayed in mullioned windows, the former in
its
its pilasters and columns and its The Tudor, which pre-
scroll-work.
ceded this style in England, is distinguished by its oriel and bay win-
dows and by its clustered chimney shafts.
Saracenic, or Arabian architecture, dating from the time of Moham-
med, in the seventh century, spread over the East with great rapidity
;

the form of the arch is that known as the “ horseshoe,” as illustrated in

fig. 180, which is part of the interior of a Turkish or Arab house, given

by Durrand in his work, Parallels of Architecture. It is remarkable,

however, that the most magnificent example of this style should have
been produced in Spain. This, so well known as the “Alhambra,” was

fig. 182.

o 2
100 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

the celebrated palace of the ancient Moorish kings of Gramda. In was

commenced in 1248 by Ibnu’-l-Ahmar, continued by his am, and
finished by his grandson, Mohammed III., about 1314. Figs. 181
and 182, which are drawings, modified from two given by Durrand, will
give the reader a fair idea of the style of architecture of this magnifi-
cent building. Fig. 182 is the capital of a pillar. The Mohammedans,
“ forbidden by their creed to represent the human form, were led to

adorn their temples by a style peculiar to themselves. Inscriptions from

the Koran, expressing faith while adding beauty, were interwoven with
geometrical ornaments and flowers, not drawn directly from nature,
but translated from the loom for it would seem that the Arabs, in
—
;

changing their wandering for a settled life supplanting the tent by a

—
form more solid had transferred the luxurious shawls and hangings of
their former dwellings to the new, changing the tent-pole for a marble
column and the silken tissue for gilded plaster.”
For numerous examples of the ornament of the Alhambra, and for
an investigation of the principles upon which it is founded, we refer the
reader to one of the guide books of the Crysta. Palace, entitled The
Alhambra Court in the Crystal Palace.
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 101

THIRD DIVISION.

“EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE.”

In this division of the work we give a series of drawings selected and
reduced with care from the larger works edited by us, and entitled,
Model Designs for Mansions Villas, Dwelling-houses, —
and Cottages The
—
,

Architectural Designer's Guide and The Architect's and Builder's Plan

Book. As all the examples given in these works were prepared by
practical men for practical purposes, we trust that those which we here
select may be suggestive to the student of some practical uses.
The series of these examples will comprise plans, elevations,
first
sections, and detailed drawings of houses of various classes. They are
all drawn to scale, and will require no lengthened description. For
methods of drawing them see the instructions given in our work in this
series on Architectural Drawing.
Plates I., II., and III., are drawings of a mansion or villa residence in
the Italian style, some of the details of which will be found in pages 50
and 64 of our Architectural, Engineering, and Mechanical Drawing-Book
in this Series.
In Plate I. give the “ plans” of the structure, showing the arrange-
we
ment of the rooms. Fig. 1 is the ground plan, in which h is the lobby,
g the breakfast-room, f the drawing, and e the dining-room ; c is the
kitchen, and a the back ditto ; b the wash-house, d the butler’s pantry, j
the closets for hats, ifcc., i the staircase. The first-floor or chamber plan
is in fig. 2, where e and m are the principal front bedrooms, j being the
dressing closet to the room m ;
d and i back bedrooms, g being a dress-
ing room to bedroom d. The bath-room is at h ) l is a small bedroom,
the servants’ bedroom being at a and b ; k is a linen closet, entering from
f
j c the water-closet ; the skylight which lights the staircase. In fig.
;

3 we give the “ cellar,” or basement plan c stairs beneath those at i, fig.

:

1 ; b the landing, e potato-cellar, a, d, andyj cellars for wine, beer, &c.

In Plate II. we give in fig. 1, a front elevation ; fig. 2, a side and ;

in fig. 3, a back elevation of the house.

In Plate III., in fig. 1, we give a section through the line a b in the
plan, fig. 1, plate I. In fig. 2 an end elevation ; and in fig 3 a plan of
the roof.
In Plates IV. to IX. inclusive, we give a set of working drawings of
a pair of semi-detached villas in the “ Elizabethan style.” All the plans,
sections, and elevations are drawn to a scale ci on '.-twelfth o f an inch to tlu>
foot.
102 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING.

Fig. 1.

g 3
CL d !u i

InLf
ignyr 7
l —— (qi — , r
^
h
f
Big. 2.

ll
r
b 1

c
—[j-J 1 c=
~o LJ-

f m ]

e l

Fig. .

Plate I.
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 103

m
*» imi I I
Ji
L — IS
1
SO
- FT.
I

Plate II.
104 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

Plate IIL
AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 105

IV.

Plats
106 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING

V.

PlATR
 AND AKUHITECTUHAL DESIGN. 107

In Plate IV. we give the front elevation of the two houses.

In Plate V. the basement and ground plan, of which the latter is to
the left, and the former to the right of the centre line c d.
In the basement plan, a a is the kitchen, b b the breakfast room, c c
cellar, d pantry, g stairs to ground floor, d wine cellar, f water-closet,
h coal cellar, i the larder, and j the scullery.

In the ground plan, a a is the drawing-room, b b the dining-room, jj

the library, d the china closet, e the entrance porch, g the water-closet,
e the stairs to upper floor.
In Plate VI. we give half-plans, of which that to the left of the
centre line a b is the half one pair or chamber plan ; and that to the right
the half attic plan.
108 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

In the chamber plan, a a, bb are the front bedrooms, c c the back bed-
,

room, dd dressing-room to bedroom a a, e water-closet,./ bath-room.

In the attic plan, a b are the front, c d the back bedrooms, e the
linen closet.
In Plate VII. we give the end elevation.
In Plate VIII. the transverse section through the line A B in
Plate V.
In Plate IX. we give the various details of this example, all of which
are drawn to a scale of half inch to the foot. Fig. 1 shows the “ half head

of Dormer fig. 2, the “ pinnacle fig. 3, “ patera in spandril fig. 4,

the key-stone ; fig. 5, the “ top of gable fig. 6 shows the method of

ornamenting the “ parapet of bay window fig. 7 is elevation of niche.

For these designs, in Plates I. to IX., we are indebted to the pencil of

Mr. E. S. Eyland.
In Plates X., XI., and XII., we give drawings of a row of street
houses, of which the scale is given in Plate XII.
In Plate X. we give the ground plan, in which a a are the entrance
lobbies ; b b, the stairs to chamber floor ; c c, the front sitting-room ; d d,
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 109

the back parlours ;

e e, the kitchens ; f the yard, with water-closet and
ash-pits.
In Plate XI. we give the chamber and cellar plans. In the former,
fig. 1,a a are closets above the front doors; bb the front, and cc the
back bedrooms ;
d, the servants’ bedroom. In fig. 2, the “ cellar
plan,” a a the stairs, entering from e e, fig. 1 ; c c, place for potatoes b b, ;

wash-houses, &c.

In Plate XII. we give, in fig. 1, front elevation of the whole range

in the back elevation of ditto and in fig. 3 the scale to which the
fig. 2, ;

drawings in Plates X., XI., and XII. are drawn.

In Plate XIII. we give a side elevation of a tomb, in the Gothic
and in Plate X T V. a side elevation ; and in Plate XV. a front elevation
of a conservatory, in the Tudor style, both designed by Mr. Eyland.
The latter is taken from our work, Conservatories : their Arrangement
and Construction.
110 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

IX

Plate

3.

Fig.
AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. Ill

Pl.itk
112 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

-ru

Q
i—

i
una—

XI,

n
—

Pt.atk

i°ru

lttej

ii

lstli

i
AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 113

XII.

vric

I
114 ORNAMENTAD DRAWING,

Plate XIII.

Plate XIV.
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 115

Plate XV.

The second which we now propose to

series of selected examples,
give, will comprise drawings of component parts of houses, and of sepa-
rate subjects, which may be useful.
In figs. 183 and 184 we give sketches of Elizabethan doorways; in

fig. 183. fig. 184.

116 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

fig. 1 85, a sketch of a domestic Gothic window, in the Decorated period ;

in 186, a sketch of a domestic Gothic
fig. doorway; and in fig. 187, of an
Elizabethan window, with plan.

fig 186.
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 117

fig. 188 we give a sketch of a window in the Italian style ; and

In
in 189, an elevation of a chimney, adapted for construction in brick,
fig.

of which fig. 190 is the plan; fig. 191 is an elevation of a chimney,

adapted for construction in stone, of which fig. 192 is the plan.

Figs. 193 and 194 are sketches of a Gothic barge board.

In fig. 195 we give an elevation of the pier of a gateway in the Italian
style; in fig. 196, one in the Gothic, or Tudor; and in fig. 197, another

in the Elizabethan style.

ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,
AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN, U9

fig. 19G.
120 ORNAMENTAL DRAWING,

In fig. 198 we give a sketcli of part of a design for a staircase in the

Elizabethan style; and in fig. 199, another in the Gothic.

139-

fig.

198.

fig.

197.
 AND ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 121

Eig. 200 is an elevation of a pilaster, a a, in the Italian style, with

ornamented frieze, b.

Fig. 201 is a “ pinnacle fig. 202, a range of balustrades : and figs.

203 to 208, “ trusses,” or brackets, all in the Italian style.

fig. 201.

fig. ‘-’02.
fig. 203.

fig. 204.

fig. 206.

fig. 208.
 I NDE X.

Acanthus, Grecian, 82, 83. Diamond, ornament to fill up, 36.

Alhamhra, the, 99. “Diaper” pattern, 12.
Arch, Roman, 86 “Horse-shoe,” 97.
;
Doorways, Elizabethan, 115 ;
domestio
Architecture, history and illustration of its Gothic, 116.
styles, 59 definitions of, 59
;
Assyrian,;
Doric order, the, 70 ; proportions of, 74.
61 Egyptian, 65 Indian, 67 Chinese,
; ; ;
Dyce, Mr., on the adaptation of ornament
68 Grecian orders of, 70 Roman, 84
; ; ;
to various purposes, 46.
Romanesque, or Byzantine-Lomb irdic,
87 Gothic, 92 the “ Renaissance,” 97.
; ;
Egyptian architecture, 65.
Assyrian architecture, 61. Elizabethan architecture, 99 ; doorways,
115 ; windows, with plan, 117 ; pier of
Balustrade, open, or perforated parapet, 11. a gateway, 120 staircase, 120.
;

Barge- board, Gothic, sketches of, 119. English, Early, mouldings, 91 ; Gothic, 93
;
Brackets, Italian, 122. principles of, 94.
Bulls, colossal human-headed, 63. Erectheum, the, 77.
Bury, Mr. Talbot, on Grecian architecture,
69. Fergusson, Mr. James, definition of archi-
Buttress, early English, 96 ; decorated, 96 ;
tecture, 59 on Assyrian architecture,
;

perpendicular, 96. 62 ;
on Egyptian architecture, 65, 66 ;
Byzantine-Lombardic architecture, 87. on the Doric order, 71.
“Fluted scroll,” part of, 31.
Capitals, bull, in Assyrian architecture, 64 “ Fret 8 ,” specimens of, 23 25. —
Egyptian, 66 ; Doric, 73 ; Ionic, 75 Frieze, Italian ornamented, 121.
Corinthian, 78.
Carpet, designs for, 58. Garbett, Mr., definition of architecture,
Carpets and oil-cloths, arrangement of 60 ;
on the Doric order, 70.
figures used in, 16. Garment fabrics, designs for, 55.
Chimneys, elevations of, and plans, 118. Gateway, elevation of pier of, in Italian
Chinese architecture, 68. style, 119 ; Gothic, 119
;
Elizabethan,
Climate, influence of, upon the architecture 120 .

of a country, 60. Gothic cross, in the “decorated style,” 31

Circle, ornaments to fill up, 36. architecture, 91 ; tomb, 114 ; window,
Circles, specimens of use of, 18 20 ; and — 185 ; doorway, 116 barge board, 119 ; ;

lines, combination of, 21. pier of a gateway, 119 ; staircase, 120.

Circular lines, use of, 18 ;
and straight, Grecian architecture, 69 ; orders, the, 70.
combination of, 21.
Coleridge’s definition of architecture, 60. Hangings, paper and other, designs for, 57.
Columniation, Grecian, 79. Hexagon combined with lozenge and equi-
Conservatory, side elevation of, 114 ; front lateral triangle, 14.
elevation, 115. Hexagons, combination of, 13.
Corinthian order, 78 proportions of, 78.
;
“Honeysuckle ornament,” Grecian, 28, 29,
Curved lines, use of, 18 ; specimens of, 82.
26 — 28 ;
ornaments formed by, 29, 30. Humphrys, Mr., on Gothic architecture,
94 ;
on the “ Renaissance,” 98.
“ Decorated” mouldings, 92.
Decoration,“conventional” school of, 38; Indian architecture, 67.
“natural” school of, 38. Lntercolumniation, Grecian, 81-
124 INDEX.

Ionic order, 75 proportions of, 76.

;
Romanesque architecture, 87.
Italian window, 118 pier of a gateway, ;
Ruskin, Mr., on the “natural” school of
119 pilaster, with ornamented frieze,
;
ornamentation, 45 on the influence of ;

121; “pinnacle,” 121 range of balus- ;

climate upon the architecture of a country,
trades, 121 “trusses,” or brackets, 122.
;
t 0 on Byzantine architecture, 89 ; on
;

English Gothic architecture, 94.

Jones, Mr. Owen, on combination of lines,
87 on “conventionalising” in decora-
;
Saracenic or Arabian architecture, 99.
tion, 38. Saxon architecture, 93.
Scrolls, examples of, 82 — 35.
Layard, Austen, LL.D., on Assyrian archi- Square, placed diagonally, 10 ;
ornaments
tecture, 63. to fill up, 36.
Leeds, Mr. W. H., definition of architec- Squares, arrangement of, 9 and oblongs, ;

ture, on the Doric order, 71

59 ;
on the ;
arranged as tiles, 11 combination of, ;

Ionic order, 7 5 on Corinthian ;

capital, with rhomboids, 16 intersecting, com- ;

78. bined with lozenges, 22 and oblongs, ;

Lines, combinations of, Mr. Owen Jones’s combination of 22.

directions for, 37. St. Mark’s, at Venice, Ruskin’s description
“Lozenge” or diamond shape, 10, 12. of, 89.
Staircase, Elizabethan, 120; Gothic, 120.
Mansion, plans of a, 102 ;
front and back Straight lines, use of, 9 and circular,
;

elevations, 103 sections,

;
104 end ;
combination of, 23.
elevation, 104 plan of roof, 104.
;
Street, row
ground plan of, of, 111 ;
cham-
Minerva Pollias, temple of, 76. ber and cellar plau, 112 ;
front and back
“Mouldings,” Grecian, 83 Early English, ;
elevation, 113.
91; “ decorated,” 92 perpendicular, 92. ;

Textile fabrics, examples of ornamentation

Oblong or rhomboid, ornament adapted for, for, 38—57.
36. i
Tomb, Gothic, side elevation of, 114.
Octagon, specimen of use of, 15. Transition style of architecture, 93.
Orders, the Grecian, 70. Triangles, two equilateral, construction of,

13 ;
equilateral, ornamentation formed
Parallelograms, arrangement of, 9. by, 21 ornament to fill up, 36.
;

Parthenon, the, 74. “Trusses,” Italian, 122.

Perpendicular mouldings, 92.
Pilaster, Italian, elevation of, 121. Villas, pair of semi-detached, front elevation
Pilasters, Grecian, 79. of, basement and ground plan, 106 ;
105 ;

Pillars, Egyptian, 66 ; Doric, 72 ;

in the half-plans, 107 ; end elevation, 108 ;
Alhambra, 99. transverse section, 109 various details, ;

Pointed architecture, 91. 110 .

Redgrave, Mr., on the two schools of orna- Wallis, Mr. George, on the “conventional”
mentation, 40 ; on the adaptation of idea in decoration, 38.
ornament to various purposes, 46 on ;
Whew.ll, Dr., on the technical character-
designs for garment fabrics, 55 on de- ;
istics of the Romanesque architecture. 88.
signs for paper and other hangings, 57 ;
Window, domestic Gothic, 116 Eliza- ;

on designs for carpets, 58 on Byzantine ;

bethan, with plan, 117 ; Italian, 118.
architecture, 89. Wyatt, Mr. Digby, on the principles which
“Renaissance” style of architecture, 97. should determine form in the decorative
Roman architecture, 84. arts, 48.
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