CALCULUS with Multiple Variables Essential Skills Workbook 2 ee { f ne dx dy x=0 y=4 o eo Chris McMullen, 1 Ph.D. 3 In(x + y)Calculus with Multiple Variables Essential Skills Workbook Includes Vector Calculus and Full Solutions Chris McMullen, Ph.D. Copyright © 2021 Chris McMullen, Ph.D. www.improveyourmathfluency.com www.monkeyphysicsblog.wordpress.com www.chrismemullen.com Zishka Publishing Allrights reserved. ISBN: 978-1-941691-37-3 Textbooks > Math > Calculus Study Guides > Workbooks > Math Education Math > CalculusContents Introduction 1 Partial Derivatives 2 The Chain Rule with Multiple Variables 3 Extreme Values with Multiple Variables 4 Vectors 5 Scalar and Vector Products 6 Polar Coordinates 7 Spherical Coordinates 8 Cylindrical Coordinates 9 The Gradient 10 The Divergence 11 The Curl 12 Normal and Tangent Vectors 13 Line Integrals 14 Surface and Volume Integrals 15 Center of Mass and Moment of Inertia Solutions 11 15 19 29 35 41 47 53 ¥ 63 67 77 87 101 411Introduction This workbook is designed to help practice a variety of practical calculus skills that i i ia Ieul involve multiple variables, including vector ca topic, like how to apply the gradient operator or how to perform a center of mass tus. Each chapter focuses on one main integral. eee ie Prerequisites: The student should already be fluent in derivatives and integrals of polynomials, basic trig functions, exponentials, and logarithms. Every chapter begins with a concise explanation of pertinent concepts, followed by a few examples. Every example is fully solved step-by-step with explanations. The examples should serve as a handy guide for how to solve the practice exercises. Every exercise is fully solved at the back of the book. A variety of multivariable calculus skills are covered. This workbook begins with partial differentiation and finishes with various multivariable integrals. Students will learn: * how to takea partial derivative. * how to find the minimum and maximum values of a function of two variables, * basic properties of vectors, including the scalar and vector product * essential properties of polar, spherical, and cylindrical coordinates * how to apply the gradient, divergence, and curl operators, * how to integrate an expression over a path, * how to perform double and triple integrals. * how to perform surface and volume integrals, * how to perform center of mass integrals, * how to perform moment of inertia integrals. May you (or your students) find thi is workbook useful and becom a these essential multivariable calculus skills, oe1 Partial Derivatives When taking a partial derivative of a function with respect to one variable, treat the other independent variables as if they are constants. The symbol d is used (instead of the letter d) to represent a partial derivative. For example, 2 represents a partial derivative of the function f with respect to the variable x. (In contrast, represents a total derivative. See Chapter 2.) Example. Given z = 4x%y®, find and ©. When finding %, treat the independent variable y as if it were a constant. 4y?(Bx?) = 12x7y? : | az ; _ Similarly, when finding %, treat the independent variable x as ifit were a constant. az_ a a OF _ 8 4852 = 4x3 —y? = 4x3(2y) = Bx? ay ne” 4x ay” 4x9 (2y) = 8x*y Example. Given f = 3xsint, find and x When finding, treat the independent variable t as ifit were a constant 0; a a a Saxsint= 3sint 57x = 3sint (1) = 3sint Similarly, when finding %, treat the independent variable x as ifit were a constant rag qeaysinee 3x0 t) =3xcost Few gat sint = 3x5-sint = 3x(cost) = 3xcos To find a second partial derivative, take one partial derivative at atime. For example, a, ntti a) 2 can be found as 2 (2), Note that a “mixed” partial derivative is possible, such as a ap ‘ a (ar ers i as a . % wr to—— Sepp Which means 2 (®. For most common standard functions, 25, is equal t0 5,9, except near discontinuities, in accordance with Clairaut’s theorem.Chapter 1 - Partial Derivatives - az Example. Given z = 6x*y?, find <=. First find %, treating the independent variable y as if it were a constant. m Ozu 8) pgs B10 Via calla ay Mee Cab Aer = 6y? xt = 6y?(4x?) = 24xy BE, pe Or et aaprasoe Now find & (22), treating the independent variable y as ifit were a constant. Nae, ez 8 (az a aye 2 a 3 2 2) 22 —=—(—) =— = 24y?— 23 = 24y?(3x?) = 72x’ Sat = aa ae) 7 ae = 29 Ze ue a ne a ar ar Example. Given f = x°y + x?y?, find ae and say" When finding treat the independent variable y as if it were a constant. of a 3. Bay?’ a 3 2 a 2 2) 2, 2. 2 woe pet —x? =y(B 2x) = 3x2y +2 Bx ae ITY) HV ae ty? ax? = yx?) + y*(2x) = 3x%y + 2xy’ Similarly, when finding a treat the independent variable x as if it were a constant Odea arta nd Oh. aga a ates 2 2 oe are y+. x2y?) =x ayes a = x3(1) + x4(2y) = x3 + 2x2y Now find the mixed second derivatives. defen or/ony é a =—() =— (3x2 ye pe ne eg dyax aie ay te age ay ea = 3x?(1) + 2x(2y) = 3x? + 4xy af asafy a a a on (OD) not ee a Ola Bray aly) ag © + 24*y) = x + 2y x? = 8x? + 2y(2x) = 3x? + dry Interpretation of partial derivatives: The equation z = f(x,y) represents a surface S. The point (a, b,c) lies on S if c = f(@b). The intersection of the vertical plane x = a and the surface Sis the curve C, (which is called the trace of S in the plane x = a) and the intersection of the vertical plane y = band the surface S is the curve Cz (whichis called the trace of S in the plane y = b). The partial derivatives 2” and 2f evaluated at i : Ox ay (qb) give the slopes of the tangent lines of the traces C, and C, at the point (a, b,) in the planes x = a andy = b.Calculus with Multiple Variables Essential Skills Workbook Chapter 1 Exercises - Part A Directions: Perform each partial derivative with respect to the indicated variable. a =y* az oz ‘A a az az @ Given z= find Sana = @ Given z = 5 find and =. oi) oh 4 nb aw aw @ Given f = x7, find 4 and 5. @ Given w = sint cos, find and 5. “+ Check your answers at the back of the book. a EEE eee 7Chapter 1 - Partial Derivatives Chapter 1 Exercises - Part B Directions: Perform each partial derivative with respect to the indicated variable. @ Given g =e” nx, find $2 ana 22 QO Given z = x4 + 2x?y?, find 5% and 3 @ Given u = /p? = @, find Seand Given h = In(¢? + ew), find Sands 2. * Check your answers at the back of the book.Calculus with Multiple Variables Essential Skills Workbook Chapter 1 Exercises — Part C Directions: Perform each partial derivative with respect to the indicated variable. poe 5: eed O Given f = 5, find Stand rae @ Given w = ¢? sinu, find and =. are on out * Check your answers at the back of the book.Chapter 1 - ar Chapter 1 Exercises - Part D Directions: Perform each partial derivative with respect to the indicated variables, a ae find Zana @ Givenz = 2 axay’ @civenz = 6%”, find 2 ang 2. ayae May Check your answers at the back of the b @ book,2 The Chain Rule with Multiple Variables First, recall the chain rule for a function of a single variable. If f is a function of u and if w is a function of ¢, then a derivative of f with respect to t may be found using the chain rule for a function of a single variable: df dfdu dt dude For example, the chain rule may be applied to Zsin(3t?) by identifying u = 3c? and f= a = sin. In this example, the chain rule gives: SE sin(3e?) = a. = (Zein x) (3) = (cosu)(6t) = 6¢ cos(3t?) For a function of two variables, the chain rule is more involved. If f is a function of two independent variables, f = f(x,y), and if these independent variables, x and y, are themselves functions of two other independent variables, x = x(s,t) and y = y(s,t), then partial derivatives of f with respect to s and t may be found using the chain rule for a function of two variables: af _ofax afay of _afax afay Qs dxds*dyds ’ Ot dxdt dyat Ifthere are three or more variables, the chain rule may be generalized by adding more terms. For example, the chain rule for a function of three variables is: af _ofax , fay Afaz af _af ax, af ay | af az Qs dxds dyds 020s ’ Ot Oxdt Oydt dz0t af _afax afay af az au axdu dydu dzdu Example. Given z = x*y4, x = scost, andy = s sin ¢, find and Apply the chain rule: az_dzdx dzdy_ (a “)(2 a ake ds. dros ayes” ee y ) ee t+ (5 y +) (sssin¢) az 7 (3x?y*)(cos t) + (4x3 y?)(sin t) = 3x24 cost + 4x%y3 sint Now plugin x = scost andy = ssint.Chapter 2 - The Chain Rule with Multiple Variables + 3 4 = 3(scost)2(ssint)* cost + 4(s cos t)*(ssint)” sint 5 + 3 % — 366s ecos? e+ ds sin®£008° = Ss Similarly, apply the chain rule for: az 0 azax dzdy (8 4 “(2 ) (Z 3 *) (Zssine) ee ee —scost) + ny at ax at dyat eas y ) aes © ay a = Bety*)Cssint) + 4x99) (Sc05 4) = ~Sety's sine + Ax"y"s cost Now plugin x = scost and y = ssint. ~3(s cos t)2(ssint)*s sint + 4(s cos t)3(ssint)*s cost az ; 7 3s’ sin t cos? t + 457 sin t cos* ¢ We can check the answers by plugging x = scost and y = ssint into z = x*y* at the beginning and then taking each partial derivative directly. z= x*y* = (scost)*(ssint)* = s3 cos? ts* sint t = s7 sintt cost a a 5-87 sin* tcos*t = sin*t cos? t—s as Os 7s° sin* t cos? ¢| az q a >= =s’sin* t cos* t = s’—sin*t cos? t = ot Ot at 3s” sin® t cos? t + 457 sin® t cos*t The last step used the product rule, © Pa = rf +q @ and single-variable chain rule. The total derivative and total differential are based on the chain rule. For example, the total derivative and total differential for a function of two variables are: af _ofdx | of dy a a aE papel cts dt dxdt aydt ax OF Example. Givenz = ¢* cosy, x = 3t + 2,andy = 4t2, find Apply the formula for the total derivative. We are not finding % a dz _dzdx , azdy é€ ig 4 de~ ax ae ayaa ~ Cox") Lae + 9 + + Goto) (ae) = e* cos y (3) — e* siny (Bt) = |3e***? =. We are finding =. Cos(4t*) — Bte"*? sin(4z2) "Do 12Calculus with Multiple Variables Essential Skills Workbook Chapter 2 Exercises - Part A Directions: Apply the multivariable chain rule to perform each partial derivative, eeeey Be ae een om Vy x =s'+t?, andy = s*—¢*, find=-and > Ocivenz @ Given f = Inxcosy, x = p3q?, andy = p74, find 4 and 2 s : ow ow © Given w = xy?23, x = scostsinu, y = ssintsinu, and z= scosu, find eine ow and= * Check your answers at the back of the book. 13Chapter 2 - The Chain Rule with Multiple Variables Chapter 2 Exercises — Part B Directions: Perform the indicated total derivative. ,x = sint, and y = cost, find =, @ Given z = secxtany,x =1+ ¢?, andy = 2, find &, ae @ Given w = e%e Inz,x=t? +3t,y = t? +02, and z = 322, find ™, find =. + Check your answers at the back of the book. 144, 2. _ 3 Extreme Values with Multiple Variables To find the relative extrema for a function of two variables, f(x,y), follow these steps (illustrated by the example that eee Take the first partial derivatives, 2 rand Set both first partial derivatives equal to zero: a =0 and = 0. (Why? The slope of the tangent plane is zero at a relative minimum or cae maximum.) Solve for the values of x and y that make the first partial derivatives zero. Call these x, and y,. These are the critical points. (Technically, points where first partial derivatives do not exist are also considered to be critical points.) ¥ |. ‘Take the second partial derivatives, 24,4 &f and! Ox? ay” axay7 “" Dyan" . Evaluate the second partial derivatives at each pair (x,y) from Step 3 (where the tangent plane is horizontal). err as as as . Evaluate D = ais apd ovey oseF at each pair (x,,y-) from Step 3. (Note that D a a a, is the determinant of the matrix formed by Ea = AB = Fan sf) . Classify each critical por (%¢, Ye) based on the second derivative test: ° D>0 and > Oat (%»¥c), then f (xc, Yc) is a local minimum. ° IfD>0 and 22 Le Oat (x,, Ye), then f (x-, yc) is a local maximum. ° IfD< eee ) is a saddle point. * IfD =O, the second derivative test alone is not enough to classify the critical point, It could be a local minimum, local maximum, or a saddle point. More information is needed to classify the critical point. . Evaluate the function at each critical point corresponding to a local minimum or local maximum. These are the relative (or local) minima and maxima. |. To find the absolute extrema over a specified region, find the extreme values of the function on the boundary of the region. The absolute extrema include the largest and smallest values from Steps 8-9. 15‘iables Chapter 3 - Extreme Values with Multiple Varial F = x? — 6x — By + y2, Example. (A) Find the relative extrema and saddle points of 2 = * {ap ‘ a2 or First set = = set $= and = each equal to zero. dz 0a 2 -6=0 — 6x — By + y2) = 2x oF a — (x? — 6x - By + oz e 0 —6x -8y + -8 + 2y ae ay eae 6x — 8y +?) = The solutions to these equations are x = 3 and y = 4, respectively. The critical point is (3,4). Now find the oo partial derivatives. 3? z 02m a Gi ed 2 == (2x - 6) = 0 Oe Hex Bay Sak ndvaad avn az az_ a —=—(- = —=—(-8+2y) =2 axa a 8+2y)=0 , ay? iy 'y) Compute D (which is the determinant of the second partial derivative matrix). af a2 arf a2, fof _ OF OF _ (y2)- (yo) =4-0=4 ~ Ox2 dy? Oxdy Oyox Evaluate D at each critical point. In this example, D = 4 is a constant; D equals 4 at every point (x, y), including the critical point (3,4). Now apply the second derivative test. In this example, D = 4> 0 and 2% = 2 > 0. This shows that the critical point (3,4) corresponds to a local minimum (or relative minimum). Plug x = 3 and y = 4 into the given function to find the value of the local minimum. Zmin = 3? — 6(3) — 8(4) + (4)? = 9-18 - 32 +16 = —25 The function z(x,y) has a local minimum of —25 at the point (3,4, —25). (B) Find the absolute extrema over the square 0 < x < Sand0 Check your answers at the back of the book. 184 Vectors Ayector is a quantity that has both a magnitude anda direction. The magnitude of the vector indicates how much of the quantity there is, while the direction of the vector indicates which way it points. An example of a vector is force. IF you exert a force, you can measure both how hard you push or pull (the magnitude of the force) and which way you push or pull (the direction of the force), Some other common vectors include velocity, acceleration, displacement, and electric field. Ascalar is a quantity that has only a magnitude. A scalar does not have a direction. An example of a scalar is mass. The amount of matter contained in an object does not have a direction; it only has a magnitude. Some other common scalars include energy and distance. An arrow is used to represent a vector visually. The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector and the orientation of the arrow indicates the direction of the vector. A vector is not fixed in position. Two arrows that have the same length and the same direction represent equivalent vectors, even if the arrows are drawn in different positions. If a vector is translated (which means to move it without rotating it or changing its length), it is the same vector. Placing an arrow above a quantity, like A, indicates a vector. (In a textbook, boldface is often used instead of the arrow.) Placing double bars (or in some text: ingle bars) around the vector, like |[Al], indicates the magnitude of the vector. The magnitude of a vector is sometimes indicated by simply removing the arrow, such that A and ||Al| are equivalent. A (Al The null vector (or zero vector), 0, is a vector with zero magnitude. The null vector does not have a specific direction. 19Chapter 4 - Vectors Avector can be resolved into Cartesian components by projecting the vector onto the x-,y-,and z-axes. The subscripts on A,, Ay, and A, indicate that these are components of vector A. For a vector that lies in the xy plane, Ay=Acos@ , Ay =Asin@ where @ is the angle of the vector counterclockwise from the +x-axis. The magnitude and direction of a 2D vector can be found from its components by: = A. a iy = tan72(— A=|(All= Jaz+43 , @=tan (2) Look at the signs of A, and Ay to put @ in the correct quadrant. For a 3D vector, the magnitude of the vector is related to its components by: A= All = [Az + a3 + 42 The direction ofa 3D vector is specified using the two angles of spherical coordinates (Chapter 7). The above formula follows from the 3D distance formula: G2 — x)? + 02 - yn)? +24)? A vector may be expressed in terms of its components as A = (A,,,) if it lies in the xy plane or asA = (Ax, Ay, A) ifithas three components. For example, the vector ae (7,2) has components A, = 7 and Ay = 2. Alternatively, a vector may be expressed in terms of Cartesian unit vectors i,j, and Ras A = 4,i+ Ayj-+ A.k. A unit vector hase magnitude equal to one unit. The caret (*) above the vector indicates that it is a unit vector. The Cartesian unit vector and k point one unit along the x-, y-, and z-axes =(1,0,0) , f=(0,1,0) , K=(0,0,1) Visually, vector addition joins vectors together tip-to-tail to form a resultant vectoy For example, A + B = R means that when A and B are joined tip-to-tail, the resultant vector R extends from the tail of one vector to the tip of the other. According to the 20Calculus with Multiple Variables Essential Skills Workbook parallelogram law, if A and B are placed on the sides of a parallelogram, R lies along the diagonal. A B Z B A Given the magnitudes and directions of two or more vectors that lie in the xy plane, to find the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector, follow these steps: 1, First find the components of the given vectors. Ay=AcosO, , By=BcosO, , etc Ay=Asin@, , By=Bsin@, , etc 2. Add the respective components together. Ry=Agt Beto) Ry=Ay t+ By to 3. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant from its components. Look at the signs of R,, and R, to put Oy in the correct quadrant. 5 Ry R=|fR|= {e248} , 9 = tan*(Z) . In principle, the law of cosines could be used to add vectors. However, the method described above is more efficient when adding three or more vectors together. To add vectors in component form, simply add respective components together: (Ay, Ay, Az) + (By, By, Bp) = (Az + By, Ay + By, Az + Bz) Working with unit vectors is equivalent: (Aci + Ayj + Ack) + (B+ Byj + BR) = (Ay + By)i+ (Ay + By)j + (Az + BER The negative of a vector, A, has the same magnitude and the opposite direction. To find the negative of a vector, simply negate each component: ~A = (—Ax, —A,, —A,). To multiply a vector by a scalar, simply multiply each component by the scalar: cA = {cA,, cAy,cA,). Vectors satisfy the following properties: , A+(B+0)= (+B) +C=G+O +8 A+O=A , A+(-A)=0 , 1A=A , (bc)A=Dd(cA) c(A+B)=cA+cB , (b+c)A=bA+cA 21Chapter 4 — Vectors To find a unit vector in the same direction as a given vector, divide the vector by its magnitude: ir Recall that a unit vector has a magnitude of one unit: ||Al| = 1. 4 vector can be expressed as its magnitude times its unit vector: A = ||A||A = AA (since A = ||All). Look closely to distinguish between a vector A and a unit vector A. In general, a vector may be a function, meaning that its components may be functions of one or more variables. For example, A(x,y) = (Ax(x, y), Ay(,¥),4z(x, y)) means that A,, Ay, and A, are each (different) functions of x and y. As another example, Bt) = 4t?i — 3¢j has components B,(t) = 4¢? and B, (t) = —3t. Vector fields, like electric field or magnetic field, are functions of the coordinates. Calculus may be applied to vector functions as follows: d ae cA(x) = d— d ~ ay ol d— ACO» GS@AGC) = AG) BIO +f) TA) d ae d— ne a. oS d AG + Be] = GAO + BQ). TAUCOl= patron) lo f f f f [Rae=ifacdesifajae+kf aa i i i The position vector, #, is a special vector function in that the components of the position vector are the Cartesian coordinates: # = xi + yj + zk. In general, the coordinates are time-dependent: x = x(t), y = y(t), andz = z(t). The velocity can be found by taking a derivative of the position vector with respect to time: ¥ =“ The acceleration ig a derivative of velocity with anes i ity respect to time: d= 7° = 777 Integrating acceleration oye, time results in the change in velocity: avo4 [aac Henge 120 b Similarly, integrating velocity over time results in net displacement, Af which ig u change in the position vector; itis a straight line from the initial point to the fina, Poinge t it): OF= a foe ey 2Calculus with Multiple Variables Essential Skills Workbook Example. Given A = (—3, 73), find the magnitude and direction of A. Use the equations that relate the magnitude and direction of a vector that lies in the xy plane to its components. Note that Ay = —3 and Ay = V3. A= |All = [43 +43 = |(-3)? + (v3) = V943 = Viz = (@@) = V3 = [203 6 = tan (2) = tan (5) = Ea = [5e Note that @ lies in Quadrant II because A, < 0 and Ay > 0. We factored the perfect square 4 out of y72 to put the answer in standard form: V2 = 2V3. Example. A has a magnitude of 4 and a direction of 60°, and B has a magnitude of 8 and a direction of 300°. Find the magnitude and direction of R, where R = A+B. Apply the formulas for vector addition where the vectors lie in the xy plane. 1 A, = Acos @, = 4cos 60° = 4(5) =2 By = B cos 0 = 8c0s 300° = B, = B sin, = 8 sin300° = a( Ry = Ay + By =24+4=6 Ay + By = 2V3— 4v3 = —2V3 R= |[R| = [ez +3 = Jo? + (-2v3) = (364 OB = VB = (GO@ = R, —2y3 v3 7 6p = tan“? ) = can( *) = tan? (5) =|-4]- E30 xy Note that @, lies in Quadrant IV because R, > 0 and R, <0. It is instructive to v3| = compare the inverse tangents in this and the previous example. We factored the perfect square 16 out of V48 to put the answer in standard form: 48 = 43. 2Chapter 4 — Vectors Example. Given A = 5i+2j + kandB = 31-4) + 6k find 3A — 2B. Multiply each component of A by 3 and each component of B by 2, and then subtract respective components. 3A — 2B = 3(5i + 2+) — 2(31- 4) + 6k) 3A — 2B = 1514 6 + 3k (61 - 8§ + 12k) 3A — 2B = (15-6) + [6 - (-8)j + @ - 12)k 3A — 2B =|91+ 14] - 9k Example. Find the magnitude of A = 31- 12] + 4K Also find a unit vector parallel to A. Use the 3D distance formula. For the unit vector, divide A by its magnitude. A= |All = [az +43 +43 = (3? + Clay + # = V9 4 144 + 1 = Vi00 = [3 qu A 3c +4k_G uae 4 z 5 Ale te Tote e [13 es Example. The velocity of an object is given by ¥ = t?{ — 6}. Find the acceleration at t = 3 and the net displacement from t = 0 to t = 2. Take a derivative with respect to time to find ae dy di, eae ae) = 5, = g (7i- i) = fei 6 = 2ti- Oj = 2¢i a(3) = 2(3)1 = [all Integrate velocity to find net displacement. t 2 2 2 Ar= fvar= |@i-6)ae=i Jea-a fa to eo to ile] 3 AF=il-| — 6jlc]?., =i 3 t=0 es c=0 —~ * Beene ~ 62-0) = gi 129 24Calculus with Multiple Variables Essential Skills Workbook Chapter 4 Exercises - Part A Directions: Determine the indicated quantities. @ Find the magnitude and direction of A. A= (-v2,-v2) @ Find the magnitude and direction of B. +jv3 © Chas a magnitude of 6 and direction of 210°, Find the x- and y-components of €. * Check your answers at the back of the book. 25Chapter 4 - Vectors Chapter 4 Exercises — Part B Directions: Determine the indicated quantities. @ Find the magnitude of D. Also find a unit vector parallel to D. D = 21+ jv5-4k @ Express the resultant of E and F in component form. E=(7,-46) , F=(5,9,-8) @ Express 2G — 5H in terms of Cartesian unit vectors. G=4i+2j-3k , H=3i-k Check your answers at the back of the book. 26Calculus with Multiple Variables Essential Skills Workbook Chapter 4 Exercises - Part C Directions: Determine the indicated quantities. @ Anas a magnitude of 6 and a direction of 150°, and B has a magnitude of 12 and a direction of 270°. Find the magnitude and direction of R, where R = A+B. @ Chas a magnitude of 4 and a direction of 210°, and D has a magnitude of 4V3 and a direction of 180°. Find the magnitude and direction of S, where S = D-@ * Check your answers at the back of the book. 27Chapter 4 — Vectors Chapter 4 Exercises — Part D Directions: Determine the indicated quantities. © The position vector for an object is # of the object att = 4. ivt — 2j, Find the velocity and acceleration @ The acceleration of an object is given by 4 = 6tj. The initial velocity at t = 0 is 41. Find the velocity at t = 2 and the net displacement from t = 0 to t = 2. @ The velocity of an object is given by ¥ = Sisin(2t) — 4j. Find the acceleration at and the net displacement from t = 0 tot = . 4 Check your answers at the back of the book. 285 Scalar and Vector Products ‘The scalar product (also called the dot product) between two vectors is: A-B= A,B, + AyBy + A,B, = |[A|||[B|| cos @ = AB cos 0 where @ is the (smallest) angle between the two vectors. The notation |[A]|||Bl| cos @ emphasizes that ||Al| and |[B|| are the magnitudes of the vectors, while AB cos @ means the exact same thing. The answer to the scalar product is always a scalar (which is a number that does not have any direction). If two vectors are perpendicular, the scalar product is zero. Note that0 < 6 | B, B z By Bz eaBS Bey By) AxB = (A,B, — A,By)i— (A,B, — A;By)j + (AyBy — Ay By) AXB = (A,B, ~ A,By)i + (42By — AyB,)j + (AvBy — AyBy ie Ax B = (A,B, — A,By, AzBy — AyBz,AxBy — AyB,) The answer to the vector product is always a vector with components (equivalent to amagnitude and a direction). The vector product of any vector with itself equals zero: Ax A = 0. If two vectors are parallel (or antiparallel), the vector product is zero. The magnitude of the vector product is: |[A x Bl| = [[4||||Bl| sino = aB sing where @ is the (smallest) angle between the two vectors. Note that 0 < @ Check your answers at the back of the book. 33Chapter 5 - Scalar and Vector Products Chapter 5 Exercises - Part C Directions: For each set of three vectors, find A (B x C) and A x (B x €). @A= 4-254 3k, B = 2i-3f- & and € = -374 4k. @A = (6,2,-4), B = (4,0, -4), and € = (8, —4,2). “+ Check your answers at the back of the book. 346 Polar Coordinates Any point P in the plane can be expressed using 2D polar coordinates (r, @) as follows: ¢ ris the distance from the origin to point P. ¢ @ is the angle counterclockwise from the +x-axis to r. 0< Given 2D polar coordinates, Cartesian coordinates (x, y) can be found by: x=rcos@ , y=rsin@ Given Cartesian coordinates, 2D polar coordinates can be found by: =Ve 47 , o=tan(*) Some notable cases of 2D polar coordinates include: * r= Ocorresponds to the point at the origin for any value of @. r = ais the equation for a circle with radius a centered about the origin. 6 = aisa semi-infinite ray (for r = 0) or an infinite line if r is unrestricted. r = aos 9 is the equation for a circle with radius $ centered about (,0). . r = acos(k8), where k is an integer, is the equation for a rose with k petals if kis odd or 2k petals if k is even. © 1r=1+sin6 orr =1+cos6 is the equation fora (heart-shaped) cardioid. © r=ad : a simple Archimedean spiral. conic section, eccentricity oe 0 8 the equation fora where e is the and £ is the semi-latus rectum (which is the perpendicular distance from the major axis): e > Lisa hyperbola, e = 1 isa parabola, 0 < e < 1isanellipse, ande = Ois a circle with radius @. The 2D polar unit vectors are f and 6. At point P, if a circle centered about the origin is drawn through P, the radial unit vector F points one unit outward away from the origin and 6 points one unit tangent to the circle in a counterclockwise sense. 35,Chapter 6 - Polar Coordinates isin@ +jcos@ The top equation follows from the fact that the position vector (Chapter 4), which is ¥ = xi + yjin Cartesian coordinates, is simply f = rf in 2D polar coordinates. Set these equal to get rf = xi + yj, divide by r to get f= =1+2j, and then use x = rcos @ and y = rsin 6. The second equation is easy to obtain by remembering that 6 = a 30 A 2D vector function (Chapter 4) that has the form A(x, y) = Ax y)i+ Ay (x, y)fin Cartesian coordinates can be expressed in the form A(r, 0) = Ar(r, 8 + Ag(r, 8)0in 2D polar coordinates, where the polar components and Cartesian components of the vector function are related by: Ax =A, cos —Agsin@ , Ay =A,sin@ + Ay cos For a function of 2D polar coordinates f(r, 6), when taking a partial derivative with respect to r, hold @ constant, and when taking a partial derivative with hold r constant. To find a partial derivative of f(r, 8) with respect to x o a partial derivative of g(x,y) with respect tor or 6, apply the multivaria (Chapter 2). Since x = r cos @ and y = rin 8, it follows that: respect to 6, ry, orto take ble chain rule =F cos = cos6 Xr = c089(1) = cos0 % =F sing = smo = sin@ (1) = sind & Srcose =rZeost =r(-sin@) = —rsing & - Fr cing =rAsind = revse 36Calculus with Multiple Variables Essential Skills Workbook Example. Convert the point (6, ) from polar coordinates to Cartesian coordinates. Use the formulas for x and y. Note that r = 6 and 6 = = rad. 3 z r= rosé = 6cosy = 6(: y=rsind = 6sins= 6 ( Example. Convert the point (—5, —5) from Cartesian coordinates to polar coordinates. Use the formulas for r and @, Note that x = y = —S. ra xt ty? = (C5)? + 5) = VOB + 25 = V50 = f(25)(2) = [52] ) 6 = tan @) = tan" =) = tn) =o faa 4 Note that @ lies in Quadrant III because x < Oand y < 0. Example. Express the 2D polar equation r = esc(26) in Cartesian coordinates. Apply the trig identities csc @ = = and sin(20) = 2sin®@ cos @. 1 i T= Jn(28) — 2sindcos@ Since x = rcos8, it follows that cos 8 = Sand +; = 5 Similarly, 55 = apry (ry _ 7? aay) Gazal Divide both sides by r and multiply both sides by 2xy. axy=r i z+ y?, any = fe ty? Use the equation r = Square both sides. dey =x ty? 37Chapter 6 - Polar Coordinates Example. Express the equation x? + y? = 9 in polar coordinates. Describe the curve, Use the equations x = rcos @ and y = r'sin9. 7? cos? @ +1? sin? 6 =9 r?(cos?@ + sin? @) =9 Apply the trig identity cos? @ + sin? 6 = 1. r2=9 Square root both sides. Take the positive root. r=[3 The equation r = 3 represents a circle with a radius of 3 centered about the origin. Example. Express the 2D polar vector A = rf — r6 in Cartesian coordinates. ‘0s 9 +jsin@ and 6 = —isin@ +jcos@. A=r(icos@ +jsin@) —r(—isin 8 +jcos@) A=ircosé +jrsiné +irsin@ —jrcosd Now use x = rcos@ andy = rsin@. A=xitvitvi-g=[@+Wi+ Crt yl Alternatively, use the equations to transform a vector function from polar to Cartesian coordinates. Compare the given equation A A, — Ag to see that A, = rand Ag = -r. = rf —r@ with the general formula A = Ax = Ay cos @ — Ag sin @ = rcos@ —(—r)sin@ =x +y Ay = A, sin 8 + Ag cos @ = rsin@ + (—r) cos@ = y — x A=4i+4,j=[@+yi+ Crt iCalculus with Multiple Variables Essential Skills Workbook Chapter 6 Exercises — Part A Directions: Convert each point from polar coordinates to Cartesian coordinates. 0(12) 0(85) Directions: Convert each point from Cartesian coordinates to polar coordinates. @(\2,-1) 0 (0,-3) Directions: Express each equation in Cartesian coordinates. Describe or sketch the curve. @r = cos(26) @r=1+sing @r=1+rcosé = tan@ sec * Check your answers at the back of the book. 39Chapter 6 - Polar Coordinates Chapter 6 Exercises - Part B Directions: Express each equation in polar coordinates. Describe or sketch the curve. 2 2 Oy= Directions: Express each 2D polar vector function in Cartesian coordinates @A=rFsind +778 cosé secO — 6 csc se Check your answers at the back of the book. 407 Spherical Coordinates ‘Any point P can be expressed using spherical coordinates (r, 6, y) as follows: e risthe distance from the origin to point P. ¢ Gis the azimuthal angle counterclockwise from +x to the projection of r onto the xy plane, basically the same way that @ is defined in 2D polar coordinates. e gisthe polar (orzenith) angle between r and +z. Note: 0 < gs zand0 <6 < 2z. Notation: Most math textbooks and instructors use @ and g backwards to most physics textbooks and instructors. Since this is a math workbook, this workbook is using the common math notation. If you take a physics course, @ and ¢ will probably be used opposite to the way they are being used in this book and in most math textbooks. Most students who take advanced math and physics courses simultaneously experience this inconvenience. Also, the order of the angles can differ and some texts use p instead of r. Zz Given spherical coordinates, Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z) can be found by: x=rcos@sing , y=rsinésing , z=rcosp Given Cartesian coordinates, spherical coordinates can be found by: -1(¥ zB: = fetty? +22 = tan! (= =cos7# (= £ x2+y2+22 , @ () » Q=cos (¢) A few special cases of spherical coordinates include: * r=ais the equation for a sphere with radius a centered about the origin. * 6@=a isa semi-infinite plane containing the z-axis. * gs The spherical unit vectors are f, 6, and @. The radial unit vector f points one unit is the equation for a semi-infinite cone with its apex at the origin. outward away from the origin, 6 is tangent to a circle parallel to the xy plane and Centered about the z-axis ina counterclockwise sense (just as in 2D polar coordinates), and @ is tangent to a circle centered about the origin with a diameter on the z-axis, 41Chapter 7 - Spherical Coordinates The spherical unit vectors are related to the Cartesian unit vectors by: # = {cos 6 sing +jsin@ sing + kcos@ 6= @ = icos 4 cos p +]sind cos p — ksing The top equation follows from the fact that the position vector (Chapter 4), which is F = x4 + yj + af in Cartesian coordinates, is simply F = rf in spherical coordinates, Set these equal to get rf = xi + yj + zk, divide by r to get F= Sp42j+ 2k, and then 2 -ising +jcos@ use x = rcos@sing, y =rsin@ sing, and z= 7 cos P- The other equations are easy to obtain by remembering that 6 = 2# (with @ = 3 since we project down onto the xy plane in order to define 6) and @ = = Remember, in this book, @ is the polar angle. A vector function (Chapter 4) that has the form A = Axi + Ayj + A,& in Cartesian coordinates, where A,, Ay, and A; are each functions of x, y, and z, can be expressed in the form A = A,# + Ag6 + 4g@ in spherical coordinates, where: Ax = A, cos 0 sin p — Ag sin + Ay cos 8 cos p Ay = A, sind sing + Ag cos @ + Ay sin@ cos p A, =A, cos@ — Ag sing For a function of spherical coordinates f(r, 8,9), when taking a partial derivative with respect to one of these three variables (r, 8, or g), hold the other two constant To find a partial derivative of f(r, 6, 9) with respect to x, y, or z, or to take a partial derivative of g(x,y,z) with respect to r, 8, or 9, apply the multivariable chain rule (Chapter 2). Since x = r-cos 8 sing, y = rsin@ sing, and z = r cos @, it follows that: ax F oy r Se Ge ee ene , Or ay Sind sing = sin sing az 9 ax pe aK? » 30 agt cosOsing = —rsing sing CVema ade ; oz _ 9 De eee FP Be ~ 97 oS =° ax 0 —=— 8 = Wend mamma este reosdcosp , Fo = ap nOsing =r sind cose oz a ap Open hie —rsing 42Calculus with Multiple Variables Essential Skills Workbook In 3D space, the direction of a vector can be specified using the two angles of spherical coordinates. For example, the vector (Ay, Ay, A,) has a magnitude of JAZ + Aj + AZ irecti cifi = tan? (2 = cos72 (42 and adirection specified by @ = tan“ (2) and g = cos (4) Example. Convert the point (4,,") from spherical to Cartesian coordinates. Note: In this book, the first angle (@) is azimuthal and the second angle (¢) is polar. Use the formulas for x, y, and , Note that r = 4, = Zrad, and y = Frad. not x =rcos@sing = 4cos—sin= = 4 3 613 oe 1y (v3 sings =4sinzsing = 4(5)(—=) = y=rsin@sing = 4sin¢sinz 4Q)(5) V3) ee ele z= reosp = 4005 = 4(5) = Example. Convert the point (—1,0, V3) from Cartesian to spherical coordinates. Use the formulas for r, @, and g. Note that x = —1, y = 0,andz = V3. r=/eryre= (-1)? +024 (V3) = V14043 =V4=f2 0 @ =tan? @ = tan“? (=) = tan“1(0) = [i] = [T80" 30° 2 e=cos* © = cos™* EXE t Note that @ = 180° because x < 0 andy = 0. Example, Express the spherical equation r = tan 0 sec y in Cartesian coordinates, Note that2 = tan@ and = —— = secg. : 2 se r ee tan OSeC eee xz x2 Divide both sides of r = = by r and multiply both sides by z. z=2 fa 43Chapter 7 - Spherical Coordinates Example. Express the equation x? + y? = 2? in spherical Eouidinates i Sincer? = x? + y? + 2’, itis helpful to. add z” to both sides to getx ty? +27 = 222 Ze ~ which becomes r? = 22”, Divide by r? on both sides to get 1 = 27> Since z = rcosp, z ee 62 it follows that= = cos g, such that the equation 1 = 2 becomes 1 = 2 cos? 9. Example. Express the spherical vector A = rf + r@ sin g in Cartesian coordinates. Use f = icos@ sin p +jsin@ sing + Keosy and @ = —isin 0 + jcos 8. A= r(icos@ sing +jsin sing + Kcosg) + rsing (-isin@ +jcos 0) A= ircos@ sing +jrsind sing +Krcosp —irsind sing +]rcos 8 sing Now use x = rcos@ sing, y = rsin@ sing, and z Tcos@. Raaityj+ck-ylt aj Wit &+ yj + zk Alternatively, use the equations to transform a vector function from polar to Cartesian coordinates. Compare the given equation A = rf +r@sin @ with the general formula A= A,? + Ag8 + A,@ to see that A, =r, Ag = sing, and Ay =0 Ay = A, cos8 sing ~ Ag sin 8 + Ay cos @ cos@ = r-cosé sing —rsingsing +0 Ax = 1 c080 sing —rsinO sing =x—y Ay = A, sin8 sing + 4g cos 6 + Ay sin cos. p =rsin@sing +rsingcose + 0 Ay =rsin@sing +rcosésing =x+y Az = Ar cos — Ay sing = rcosp —0 A, =rcosp =z A= Ayit Ayj+ Ak (x-y)it @ +t zkCalculus with Multiple Variables Essential Skills Workbook Chapter 7 Exercises — Part A Directions: Convert each point from spherical coordinates to Cartesian coordinates. Note: In this book, the first angle (@) is azimuthal and the second angle () is polar. In physics texts, these angles may be swapped and/or the order may be different. 009.0) = (8-55) O09.9)[email protected]) Directions: Convert each point from Cartesian coordinates to spherical coordinates. (v3,-3,-2) Directions: Express each spherical equation in Cartesian coordinates. = cos? @ sin? + cos” p @tanég =secp * Check your answers at the back of the book. 45Chapter 7 - Spherical Coordinates Chapter 7 Exercises — Part B Directions: Express each equation in spherical coordinates. @v+y 2 Ox +27 =25 Directions: Express the spherical vector function in Cartesian coordinates. Note: In this book, @ is the azimuthal angle and ¢ is the polar angle (or zenith angle). @A=1?Fcosd sing +r?@sind sin* g + Or? sing + Check your answers at the back of the book. 468 Cylindrical Coordinates Any point P can be expressed using cylindrical coordinates (r,, 0, z) as follows: * Tc isthe distance from the z-axis to point P. Note that the cylindrical coordinate r; is different from the spherical coordinate r in that r, is measured from the z-axis (not the origin), © @ is the angle counterclockwise from the +x-axis, basically the same way that @ is defined in 2D polar coordinates. ¢ zis the same in cylindrical coordinates as it is in Cartesian coordinates. Notation: Textbooks and instructors are not consistent with the notation for spherical and cylindrical coordinates. Some use p for spherical and r for cylindrical, others use r for spherical and p for cylindrical. Occasionally, the same symbol r is used for both. Ifyou use more than one book, instructor, or article, pay close attention to the notation. Given cylindrical coordinates, Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) can be found by: x=7,c0s8 , y=rsind , z=z Given Cartesian coordinates, cylindrical coordinates can be found by: waver . o=0t@) , 2 ‘A few special cases of cylindrical coordinates include: * r=ais the equation for an infinite right-circular cylinder with radius a coaxial z with the z-axis. © 0 =aisa semi-infinite plane containing the z-axis. * z=arzisthe equation for a semi-infinite cone with its apex at the origin. Cylindrical unit vectors are f, and 6, At point P, ifa circle centered about the z-axis is drawn through P, the radial unit vector F, points one unit outward away from the z- axis, 0 points one unit tangent to the circle in a counterclockwise sense, and & points one unit along the +z-axis (which is the same as it does in Cartesian coordinates). The cylindrical unit vectors are related to the Cartesian unit vectors by: f= icos@ +jsind § =-isin@ +jcos@ k=k a7Chapter 8 - Cylindrical Coordinates The top equation follows from the fact that the position vector (Chapter 4), which ig ¥ = xi + yj t zk in Cartesian coordinates, is # = refe + zk in cylindrical coordinates, xe, ye Set these equal to get -f, = xi + yj, divide by 7; to get f, = ml + ne and then use x = r, cos @ and y = 1; sin 6. The second equation is easy to obtain by remembering that a ag 6= Sh. A vector function (Chapter 4) that has the form A = A,i + Ayj + A,K in Cartesian coordinates, where A,, Ay, and A, are each functions of x, y, and z, can be expressed in the form A = A,,f, + A,@ + A, fein cylindrical coordinates, where: A, = Ay, C08 6 — Ag sin® Ay = A,, sin @ + Ag cos 6 A, =A, For a function of cylindrical coordinates tie 4,2), when taking a partial derivative with respect to one of these three variables (7, 9, or z), hold the other two constant. 9,2) with respect to x or derivative of g(x, y,z) with respect to 7% (Chapter 2). Since x = r, cos 8 and y ax 0 8 Ary 7 By C99 = CSOT = 0080 (1) a a = agen = sin@=-n = sin (1) = sing To find a partial derivative of f(r, ¥ or to take a partial or @, apply the multivariable chain rule Sin 8, it follows that; =cos@Calculus with Multiple Variables Essential Skills Workbook Example. Convert the point (24, 3) from cylindrical to Cartesian coordinates. use the formulas for x, y, and z. Note that r, = 2,6 3. 2 1 COS 0 =.2. cos T rsin@ = 2sin== - sing z=\|3 Example. Convert the point (1, —1, V5) from Cartesian to cylindrical coordinates. Use the formulas for r,, 8, and z. Note that x = 1,y = —1,andz = V5. re = Vx +y? = f1? + 1)? = VIF 1 = [v2 Sent(2)= (2) = Fico = |e tant () = tan G =tan“(-1) = z=[8] Note that 6 lies in Quadrant IV because x > 0 andy < 0. The answer could alternatively be expressed as = or 315°. + =[-45° eal Example. Express the cylindrical equation 7, = z tan in Cartesian coordinates. Note that = tan@ andr, = fx? +? y Ppt a(S Vxttyt=z @) Square both sides: x? + y? = 2-2. Multiply by x? on both sides: e"-+ x8)? = y?a? Example. Express the equation x? + y? = 42? in cylindrical coordinates. Since 12 = x? + y?, this is 172 = 427. Square root both sides: [r, = 2|z||, This is the equation for an infinite double cone. 49Chapter 8 - Cylindrical Coordinates Example. Express the cylindrical vector A = 7:8 + zk in Cartesian coordinates, First use @ = —isin® +jcos@. isin +jcos@) +zk Dl pl " =-Insind +jr.cos 0 + zk Now use x = rcos@ andy =rsin@. A=|-yit xj + zk Alternatively, use the equations to transform a vector function from polar to Cartesian : coordinates. Compare the given equation A = 1,0 + zk with the general formula A= A, c+ Ao® + A,kc to see that A, = 0, Ag = 7%, and Az = z. Ax = A,, cos @ — Ag sin@ = Ocos@ — 7, sind = Ay = Ay, sin @ + Ag cos = Osin® +7, cos@ = x Ap=z A= 4i+A,j+ 2k =[-yi +x tokCalculus with Multiple Variables Essential Skills Workbook Chapter 8 Exercises - Part A Directions: Convert each point from cylindrical coordinates to Cartesian coordinates. 0 (4,-2.6) e(:.4,-2) 313" 3: Directions: Convert each point from Cartesian coordinates to cylindrical coordinates. (-2.0,2) 0 (6.2.3) Directions: Express each cylindrical equation in Cartesian coordinates. Oz=7 @ztang=1 * Check your answers at the back of the book, 51Chapter 8 - Cylindrical Coordinates Chapter 8 Exercises — Part B Directions: Express each equation in cylindrical coordinates. Orty42=9 0 x2 ty? = 22 Oxy? + yt = x22? Directions: Express the cylindrical vector function in Cartesian coordinat nates, @A = r8,cos 6 — 26 sing + 2k “ Check your answers at the back of the book. 529 The Gradient The gradient operator, V, is a vector that has partial derivatives as components: ue a k a ax Jay * kay The gradient operator acts on a multivariable function to make the gradient vector: Of | of Vay at ka In spherical coordinates, the gradient vector is (where is polar and 0 is azimuthal): Of mat voF Lof +6——+9-— ar * *rsing ae * *ra9 Note: Recall that 6 and g are often backwards in math compared to physics. In cylindrical coordinates, the gradient vector is: af .1ef of ant Sx aet Bae ‘The different forms of the gradient vector in different coordinate systems are related by transformations of coordinates, unit vectors, and partial derivatives. For example, f= icos@ sing +jsinO sing + kos ¢ relates the spherical unit vector f to Cartesian unit vectors. To transform the partial derivatives, use the multivariable chain rule a of @: of 8: Of a: (Chapter 2). For example, 22 = 245 + 0% 4 OF (see Chapter 7). One way to remember the gradient in each coordinate system is to note that the arc lengths in spherical coordinates are dr (radially outward), r sing 8 (a horizontal circle made by projecting r down onto the xy plane), and rd (a vertical circle), and that the arc lengths in cylindrical coordinates are dr, (away from the a-axis), rd0 (a i i op Of , oF horizontal circle), and dz (vertical). In any coordinate system, Vf = aaa me 8 OF where u,, Ur, and us are the coordinates, é;, 62, and 6, are the unit vectors, and hh Ous' oF hy = |=, ‘vector. For example, # = rf in spherical and? = 7,f, + zk in cylindrical. 4, and h3 = g | are the arc length factors, where f is the position 2 he 53biel. | k= ES een ane Chapter 9 - The Gradient Interpretation of the gradient vector: The significance of the gradient vector, Vf, is that it gives both the rate and the direction of the fastest increase of the function f. The direction of Wf at a point (xo, Yo, 20) is perpendicular to the level surface (where f equals a constant) of f at (x9, Yo, Zo)- This property of the gradient vector will be utilized in Chapter 12 (see page 71). A directional derivative, D;/, is the scalar product of the gradient and a unit vector in a lat Make sure that you use the unit the direction of A. Recall from Chapter 4 that A = vector, A, and not the vector itself, A, in the formula below. Df =Vf-A Example. Find the gradient of f(x,y,z) = z? — xy. Use the formula for the gradient vector in Cartesian coordinates. Zee afar ae lay koe a a od ae plete Di oes Re ™+iz, © ay) +ky @? xy) Vf= xj + 2zk Example. Find the gradient of g(r,6, 9) =r? sin@. Use the formula for the gradient vector in spherical faeiglaate, a eeoa ak ln elena = 5 Va="5, + OF ingad | rap ar” "sind +0 sind +922 sind os * rcosd Vg =2rPsino +2 Tiny = Prtsino + Fo Example. Find the directional derivative of h = x?yz in the direction of 3i- The magnitude of A = 3i— 4j is ||Al| = (AZ + 43 +z = VTE EO = = calle = ¥25 = 5, such that a unit vector along Ais A ae Sie ,oh a2). i tat ae, 3 4a ee gh = =x? yz — = x2yz + 0 = |-xyz -=x?2| Dyh = =a xtye Say xyz wine 54Calculus with Multiple Variables Essential Skills Workbook Chapter 9 Exercises - Part A Directions: Determine the indicated quantity for each function. Note: In this book, in spherical coordinates, 6 is azimuthal and 9 is polar. @ Given f = xSy?, find Gf. O Given f = O Given f = yvx, find Vf. O Given f =r cos? y, find Vf. @ Given f =r? cos@ sine, find Vf. @O Given f = 12 —y2c08 0 + z*, find UF. x? — y?, find the directional derivative in the direction of j + j. OGivens + Check your answers at the back of the book, EE —————eeeee 55Chapter 9 - The Gradient Chapter 9 Exercises — Part B Directions: Evaluate the indicated quantity at the specified point for each function. Note: In this book, the first angle (@) is azimuthal and the second angle (¢) is polar. In physics texts, these angles may be swapped and/or the order of the angles may differ, O Given f == evaluate Vf at (2,4). @ Given f = x*y?z*, evaluate Vf at (3,3,2), @ Given f = rtan6, evaluate Uf at O Given f = G55 evaluate Vf at (—2, -2,9). @ Given f = 1223, evaluate Uf at ® Given f = (3,2,4). @ Given f = x? + xyz +23, evaluate the directional derivative in the direction of 101 — 5] + 10K at (2, -1,2). ‘+ Check your answers at the back of the book. 5610 The Divergence ‘The divergence of a vector function is the scalar product (Chapter 5) of the gradient operator and the vector function: V- A. The divergence operates on a vector function and results in a scalar function (whereas the gradient operates on a scalar function and results in a vector function). 37 04. 4/0 = OA, , OA, ae (iS RS). ye) oes Vv Ia tig tk (Axi + Ayj + Azk) = Fay oF In spherical and cylindrical coordinates, the divergence is: led ‘iy. Ag ek teyid) Vii Bei ailigs Por Sr nain@ oes 00 *enpaper 10 at 1046 | dA, ror re Te 88 Note: Recall that @ and @ are often backwards in math ee to physics. In this book (which uses math notation), in spherical Pe aeala * is polar (measured from +z) and @ is azimuthal. The important point is that —— 2 (dy sing) has a partial ranpar 249 has a partial derivative derivative with respect to the polar angle (), while —— with respect to the azimuthal angle (8). Note: The product rule, © pq = p 2 + q $2 isinvolved in->(r74,) and ind (Ag sing). The general form of the divergence is ¥- A = é@ a sams [ogy ets) + 2 Chshtn Aa) + a F Fog MirltAs)], where wy, u2,and us are the coordinates and hy |, hy = 24] are the arc length factors, where is the position vector (see Chapter 9). 2 Interpretation of the divergence: The significance of the divergence, WA, is that it provides a measure of the net flux of field lines radiating outward from a point, which indicates how much of the source of the field is contained at the point. The divergence is positive if there is a net outward flux, negative if there is a net inward flux, and zero 57Chapter 10 - The Divergence if the net flux is zero (or balanced). For example, in physics a positive charge is a Source of electric field, creating electric field lines that radiate outward from it. As anothe; example, in fluid flow there is a negative divergence of field lines at a sink, where the fluid radiates inward. If¥ + A = 0, then A is incompressible. The Laplacian, V?, is the divergence of the gradient: V?= V: V. The Laplacian operator may be applied to a scalar function f (x,y,z) or a vector function A(x, y,z). a Or Oey Ooh Of aOf\ Off) 02f .07F Pyar (igttg G) (Ge geo) =F SS Tat Vics (ae bay (a2)! ax oy ag) = ont * ay? * ant VA=V4 1+ 074, j+V7AK In spherical or a coordinates, the Laplacian of a scalar function is: 2 of Tee wl 0 of v2 Melis ae = ( Paar in? y 002 * 7@sing ap (snes) erm Owe deh. cach, Vera +) pucdalin 227f, lara (« Ore) * ae? * Ba? Note: Again, ¢ is the polar angle and @ is the azimuthal angle in common math notation. For common physics notation, swap @ and 6 in spherical coordinates, Example. Find the divergence of A = x*yi + xy2j + xyzk, Use the formula for the divergence in Cartesian coordinates, OAz , AAy | OA, are a = eee ae hay DE ae? Yt Gy" + ao aye V-A= 2xy + 2xy + xy =[Bxy oa Example. Find the divergence of B = rf +r? sin sin 6 + 7? cosa @, Use the formula for the divergence in spherical coordinates. a eAe OB ea ta -B=——(r?, —$ — +$ ——_— B= 397 (7B) + ing 00 * rsinod@ we a bl a ft “B= ——(r?r? — Q — B=550'r Re sin8 sing) +55 2 cos8 a aed 2, qisin 90) aii eee a Par’ * sing 06 Tsing a9 aie cos @ sin y) = 58Calculus with Multiple Variables Essential Skills Workbook 0s 8 1 re adr’ +1005 8+ 4r +r cos +r cos 0 cotp Example. Find the Laplacian of f (x, y,z) = x?y3z?. Use the formula for the Laplacian in Cartesian coordinates. ot ore Ox? * ay? * az? = Ox? Vrs) yer?) ae?) Nef oe Beatty eye ji Fergie) +5 Gatytat) +5 0x92) cos p vB 2 vera niet peo 2yiz2 4 2 x2y?z? ay? Oz? ve =[2y3z? + 6x?yz2? + 2x7y% Example. Find the Laplacian of g(r,,0,z) = 72 cos 0. Use the formula for the Laplacian in cylindrical coordinates. 1a / a9), 189 , 0°9 Se ee aml Tae W208? az? 1a. @ 10/0 aa Be es oe a7 realm 12.088) + + S550 Beos8) +5, bs rd.0s8) veg = n(n e058) + a6 2 sina) +20) 0058 2 ; Vg = a 2 ae EF cone) +0 8 vg 8 oe = 4c0s@ — cos@ = [3cos8) 59Chapter 10 - The Divergence Chapter 10 Exercises — Part A Directions: Find the divergence of each vector function. Note: In this book, in spherical coordinates, @ is azimuthal and ¢ is polar. @A= 814 x2yf 4 xy OB = x4yi- xP yft x7y?23k OC = ie 4+ jor — xehkew Od=(yinx, =, oo E= (x? + yz,xy —22,y? eS @E = (x? + yz,xy —22,y? + x2) 280050 + 128sing QG= 17% +rtand6+rcosdcoty@ +7? cos 8 cos p6 + 73 ing sind @ * Check your answers at the back of the book. 60Calculus with Multiple Variables Essential Skills Workbook Chapter 10 Exercises - Part B Directions: Find the Laplacian of each scalar function. Note: In this book, in spherical coordinates, 0 is azimuthal and 9 is polar. 2 Ofy,2) = x8y3z Ostv.2= z Oh(wy,z) =x? ty? +2? © pO, 6,z) = 122? sind © a(r,0,9) =r? cosésing Ow, 0,9) =r tan cote * Check your answers at the back of the book. 61Chapter 10 - The Divergence Chapter 10 Exercises - Part C ions: In the problems below, F = xi+ yj + zk = rf is the Cee ae (see eT u + find the indicated quantity by working eae sp! ie ase ed the indicated quantity by working exclusively in Cartesian ae tae r = [ltl]. Two of the exercises involve the gradient (Chapter 9). coordinates. i = lll. ir Ov: over OV-Gi ee ov) * Check your answers at the back of the book. 6211 The Curl The curl ofa vector function is the vector product (Chapter 5) of the gradient operator and the vector function: V x A. The curl operates ona vector function and results ina vector function (whereas the divergence results in a scalar function). ee OL ce shone aa => = a a a Lie as Sore ee te) UR lee By pla iley | -iJox dz] +klox ay FAM RONEN 4 ANN eae | ees ae Ay Ay z soy (042 OAy\. (0A, OA,\. (Oy 04x) VicA Se oe -(¢-& Sees a (4 ta) aves ee aaa ya 21 OAw OAS Vy) ORE OA (Ody BAR s oe i+ (G-Star) In spherical and cylindrical coordinates, the curl is: - endae t 9 8 # re rOsino) |—— ——— = 2 suo FFE (EE 3p 8 We = : ae a a8 tay Tag snp A, TAg rAgsing a 1 04, @ a aA,\ 5 i . =—\9 OS i Ag)P+ Ges 30 or rae) @+ 5 Gr Te al a for ck #720) : e Ca es sel Omer Elias oaks VAST lima z i = = Or, Ag A 5 Ar, tAe Az! Me de Ae Be aa. ot eamoa er conan aAn\ MeAc (Coe at)ht Qe Ore) © * ane 8 ae) Note: Recall that ¢ is the polar angle and @ is the ae angle in common math on physics notation, swap @ and @ in spherical coordinates. notation. For comm: Note: The product rule, Epa = pa a one ae, is involved in Ae sin g, for example.Chapter 11 - The Curl hyO, hg@2 has Sxke fi The general form of the curlis V X A= >>| ju, aug , where the symbols highzhg| vy ua hyA, h2Az h3A3 are defined according to Chapters 10-11. Interpretation of the curl: The significance of the curl, ¥xA is that it provides a measure of the net circulation of field lines at a point. An example of circulating field lines occurs in magnetism, where a long straight current-carrying conductor creates magnetic field lines that circulate around the wire. IfV x A = 0, then A is irrotational. The cur] of the gradient of a scalar function is zero, V x (Vf) = 0, and the divergence of the curl of vector function is zero, V- (¥ x A) = 0, provided that the second-order “ee ee are continuous (so that f satisfies Clairaut’s theorem, which means Se ea aay Dy OeF that 535 ar ~ ayax! 0x02 ~ 9203" 9M" axaz — azax Example. Find the curl ofA = xyi — xy?j + xyzk Use the formula for the curl in Cartesian coordinates. a. ¢ fOAs Oay\ 1 peAz a (Ay aA Pee (o a) Ge ae) (ee ae a —-—(-xy? —x2y —-— ive x xy i+ (Sxty aed eae. a aa leo | Vx A= (xz + 01+ (0-yz)j+ (-y? — xR = yz) ~ (e? + yy Example. Find the curl of B = r? cos@ @. Use the formula for the curl in spherical coordinates. i 0 +2( 1 GB, a 17a ¥xB=——(,- or cor aB,) 98 = rang Open? zat) Sing 39 ~ 77782) @+=(Srp, ~)g a é VxB= Tsing ome" volte? area ar roles; Free Foe a ‘1; 1a 98-2 (-Z zr 2 cos) P+ “(sr cos) 8 aaah sina) +2 Pea ir sin @ Vx B=|_—F + 376 cos@ gCalculus with Multiple Variables Essential Skills Workbook Chapter 11 Exercises - Part A Directions: Find the curl of each vector function. Note: In this book, in spherical coordinates, @ is azimuthal and ¢ is polar (or zenith). QA=yaitrxzjt uk OB = xy x7y9j OE = 6? — 221+ 2-294 OF? - 7D Q@D=rsinasing® “ Check your answers at the back of the book. 65Chapter 11 - The Curl Chapter 11 Exercises — Part B Directions: Find the cur! of each vector function. OA = xyit yz7jt 27k OB = x3y?27i + x7 y327j + x*y222k @C =7,f,cos@ + 7,Osind Check your answers at the back of the book. oe eee 6612 Normal and Tangent Vectors Orthogonal vectors are perpendicular to one another. The angle between orthogonal vectors is 90°. A normal vector is orthogonal to a plane. The symbol i represents a normal vector, while the symbol fi represents a unit normal (which is a unit vector in the direction of fi). A tangent vector is tangent to a curve or surface at a particular point. The symbol T represents a tangent vector, while the symbol T represents a unit tangent (which is a unit vector in the direction of T). The unit normal and unit tangent are related to the corresponding vectors by fi = (Chapter 4). ‘The scalar product and vector product (Chapter 5) relate to normal vectors as follows: © Since A-B = |[Al||[B|| cos 6, if two vectors are orthogonal, their scalar product is zero: A-B = 0. © The vector product A x B is orthogonal to both A and B, (but A and Bare not necessarily orthogonal). Given two vectors, one way to find a third vector that is orthogonal to both vectors is to find the vector product. ‘Two lines lying in the xy plane are orthogonal if their slopes are related by mm, = =1 For example, y = —4 + 5 is orthogonal to y = 2x + 3 because (- 2) (2)=-1.In 3D space, the symmetric equations? = —* (a, b,c), where a, b, and c are the direction numbers of the line. Two lines along vectors (a,b,c) and (d, e, f) are orthogonal if (a, b,c) (d,e, f) = 0. representa line along the vector ‘The vector (a, b,c) is normal to the plane with linear equation ax + by +cz+d =0 "if andi, represent two position vectors lying in the plane, thenif -(F — Fp) = 0, where Hi = (ash, c). This may also be expressed as H-# = iio, If (d,e,f) and (p,q,7) lie in the plane, then fi = (d,e,f) * (p,q.r) is orthogonal to the plane. The angle between two planes equals the (acute) angle between their normal vectors. Specifically, |i: * tial = ||ii|I[Itig|] cos 8, where @ is the angle between the planes. If the normal vectors for two planes are parallel, meaning that @ = 0° then the planes are parallel. TE eee ee 67Chapter 12 — Normal and Tangent Vectors If two planes intersect, the vector product of their normal vectors, fi; X Tiz, is a vector Parallel to the line of intersection. The distance from a point to a plane is: |axp + byo + cz +d] Var+ bP + ce where (Xo, Vo, Zo) are the coordinates of the point and ax + by +cz +d =0 is the equation for the plane. The distance between two parallel planes equals the distance from one plane to any point in the other plane. IfT(O) is a vector function of the parameter ¢, its derivative 4#(¢) is tangent to the curve traced out by F(t). Note that #(¢) is not tangent to the vector at time t, but is tangent to the curve that is formed by f’s tip as increases. The unit tangent is T = a Teor The curvature ofthe curver(e) is = | {| since # = || 4#(e |, the curvature a él _ fel may be expressed as K = EI it (For the case where represents the position st ‘acl vector and the parameter tis time, the equation & = ||4(¢)|| states that the speed of an object equals the magnitude of its velocity.) The curvature may also be expressed a3 del ask = El For example, if an object travels in a counterclockwise circle in the xy lar plane centered at the origin with constant speed (this is called uniform circular motion) starting on the +x-axis at t = 0, the position of the object as a function of time is F(¢) = Rol cos(we) + Roj sin(wt), where Ro is the radius and w is the angular speed in radians per second. The velocity is ¥(t) = F(t) = —Rywi sin(we) + Roafcos(wt), the speedis|i¥()I| = | ZrO] = (Roo sin(OOF + [Roa cos@OP = Row (using the ORE aa Fs identity sin? 6 + cos? @ = 1), the acceleration is 4(¢) = [¥(t) = —Row7i cos(wt) — WON Ry Kthis is Row*jsin(wt), the magnitude of the acceleration is |a(¢)|| = Row? called centripetal acceleration, and applies when velocity changes direction), a unit __ ~Rowlsin(wt)+Rowieos9 _ _isin(we) + jcos(wt), and tangentis Roe 68the curvature is: x = fe = liltisinwe rfeostwo]] _ [otcos(at)-ofsinw] o_o lel Wo a Foo Reoamihst ‘The greater the curvature at a particular point on a curve, the more rapidly the curve changes dliection at that point. For a cirele, the curvature equals the reciprocal of the radius: k = —. cA circle with a smaller radius has a larger value of curvature, while a circle with a Hie radius has a smaller value of curvature. For a straight line, the curvature is exactly zero. For the special case where the magnitude of the vector function f(t) happens to be constant, the scalar product f - a is zero, showing that the vector F and its derivative & are orthogonal if #() is constant. Here, #(e) isa vector function (not necessarily the position vector). As mentioned previously, © is tangent to the path that the tip of ? sweeps out as the parameter t increases (but is not necessarily tangent to the vector itself). In the special case that |l?(¢)|| happens to be constant, & is orthogonal to the vector f, When the vector function is a unit vector, its magnitude equals one (and is therefore constant) for all values of ¢, which means that the derivative ofa unit vector with respect to ¢ is orthogonal to fe unit vector. For example, the unit tangent T is at always orthogonal to its derivative,“ © meaning that T+ ae = 9: Beware that although : 5 eat at Tisaunit vector, a isnot necessarily a unit vector. Since T and £* are orthogonal and since Tis tangent to the path swept out by i's tip as ¢ increases, it follows that N == isa normal vector (it is called the principal normal vector). The principal normal unit 2T/at_ Since f x N is orthogonal to both T and N, the vector B = TN Wet vache 7 XN (called the binormal unit vector) is orthogonal to both TandQ. The unit vectors Nand Bare both normal unit vectors. (There are actually an infinite number of unit vectors perpendicular to the path swept out by the tip of f, since an infinite number vector is N of vectors are perpendicular to a curve atany point on the curve. The normal vectors Nand Bare two special normal unit vectors that are easy to find.) The vectors N and 69Chapter 12 - Normal and Tangent Vectors B define the normal plane for a point along the curve swept out by the tip of f, while the vectors f and N define the osculating plane. The osculating circle lies within the osculating plane, is tangent to the curve, lies on the concave side of the curve (as i 1 indicated by the principal normal unit vector N), and has radius ~ Fora plane curve y = y(x), the curvature is x = —“~ and the osculating plane is the xy plane. For the case where f(t) is the position vector and t represents time, the first derivative is the velocity vector, ¥ = = and the second derivative is the acceleration vector, a = 2 A z a <> (Chapter 4). In this case, the unit tangentis T = = = = (where v = |[¥ll is the aw at speed), such that the velocity may be written as ¥ = vT. The acceleration is @ = jjeny) any lel = lal such that Lut = T2+ v4 (using the productrule). The curvature is r = iT ir such that = |] ie] ae = Hae adv T+ xv?N, which shows that (21 = kv. The principal normal unit vector is N «uN. The acceleration can then be expressed as 4 av the acceleration has a tangential component a, = az (Which describes how the speed changes) anda centripetal component ay = kv? (which describes how the direction of the velocity changes). The scalar product between the velocity and acceleration vectors is ¥- a =v, such that the tangential component of acceleration is ap = “2 4 pee gar lateral i wae since k = - the normal (or centripetal) component of acceleration is ay = ll » yey lal va the distinction is that ay involves a scalar product (ar = **) whereas ay (also called dé In these forms, ay and ay have similar forms; ac ; cect) a = = xv?, such that « ) a) involves a vector product (aw = 70Calculus with Multiple Variables Essential Skills Workbook For the level surface f (x,y,z) = k, where k is a constant, the gradient vector vf evaluated at a point (xp, yo, Zp) lying on the surface is perpendicular to the surface at (Xo. Yo. Zo), meaning that the gradient is orthogonal to the tangent plane at (%, Yo, Zo)+ ‘The gradient is normal to the level surface. An equation for the tangent plane at the point (Xo, Yo Zo) lying on the surface is of of af x05, +0-y)5| +(@- 20) 5, =0 © Ox sevoz0 © ols BZl zoo where 24 means to evaluate the partial derivative at the point (Xo, Yo, 20). AN : =[a- | varearae =| |G) +r] = J (2) +7240 c c @=0 Plugin the given equation, r = sin 6. nz i n/2 fe = i (sino) +(sinoyeda = [ i cos? O + sin? 6 dO = id ao =F Example. Evaluate {,F + d8 for F = x2yi + x*yj from the origin to (1,2) along the line y = 2x and also along the route (0,0) > (1,0) > (4,2). Is F conservative? Express the scalar product in terms of the components F, = xy? and Fy = [ta [rect [Ray = [years [yay c c c ¢c c To perform these integrals, we need to write each integrand as a function of a single variable that matches the differential element. For the path y = 2x, use this equation to replace y with 2x in the first integral and to replace x with 2 in the second integral. Going from (0,0) to (1,2), x varies from 0 to 1 and y varies from 0 to 2. 1 ‘ 2 eae 3 1 fF-a- [ Pentar+ J® ydy = 2 [tarey J ty 2: 8 ‘i a G x=0 x=0 4 Z = (5 05) £25 = oF =, 0°) +45 @ 0°) 8 5 For the second path, y = 0 from (0,0) to (1,0), while x = 1 going from (1,0) to (1,2). I i if : 3 oat eras i [Fa= | A0tae+ [vyay=t [ro-F =5(@-0) =5) = ce oe Be yea ly=0 80Calculus with Multiple Variables Essential Skills Workbook since the line integral equals : for the first path and 2 for the second path, Fis clearly nonconservative. Although this suffices to show that a field is nonconservative, if the two line integrals had been the same, it wouldn't be satisfactory to show that the field was conservative. One would need to integrate over every possible path, for which there are an infinite number. The partial derivative test can be used in that case, F is nonconservative because = = ax 2y? = 2x2y doesn’t equal 5 & = Zxty = BNA: Example. Evaluate ¢, F - ds for F = yi + xf along (0,1) > (1.1) > (0,2) > (0,1). Perform the integral along each path: y = 1 from (0,1) to (1,1), y = —x + 2 from (1,1) to (0,2) since m = 2" = + = —1 and they-interceptis 2, and x = 0 from (0,2) to (0,1). Since F = yi + xj, in this example F, = y and F, = x. fF i et | ety eth th a a c coy C2 Cy 3 i fF d= [race Jaars Jose lee fous fow x=0 yet rt Be ‘The integrals where the lower and upper limits are the same equal zero, ae the last integral is zero because the integrand is zero. For the second De use the equation of the line to replace Pe with —x + 2 or to replace x with x = 2 — fF ds= frdrsos fc —x+2)dx+ jee x=0 x=L yal Pay close attention to the limits, as x goes from 1 to 0 in the second path. ais a fF-as= itteo +[-5 +24 e E Be: y Sea oe 2 2 2 =1-0-7+7 +20) 2(B)t B02) rai2) cto ya oF, a OFy Inthis example, = 2 y = 1 equals Ze = ¥ = 1 such that Fis conservative, which is why §.F- ds = 9, se ee 81Chapter 13 - Line Integrals Example. Given F = xy2i + (x2y — 2y)j,findascalar function f (x, y) such that = jp Comparing the given expression, F = aytt + (x2y — 2y)j, with the definition of the gradient from Chapter 9, F = Vf = iz + 1% gives the following equations: af ay Integrate = xy? over the variable x, treating y as ifit were a constant. (Why? When = xy —2y we take the partial derivative °£ with respect to x, we treat the independent variable y as if it were a constant. Therefore, we do the same thing when we integrate both sides of an equation that has one first-order partial derivative.) oy f@y)=>- +90) The “constant” of integration, g(y), is not necessarily a constant; it may be a function of y because we treated y as if it were a constant when we integrated. Next, take a partial derivative of the above expression for f(x, y) with respect to y. oF dg axy+s ay ui dy Compare this to the previous expression = x?y — 2y. By comparison, fe =-2y. Integrate both sides of {2 = ~2y to determine that g = ~y? + c, where the constant of integration ¢ really is a constant. Our final answer for f (x, y) is: age y fay) =F -y te Tip: It is easy to check the answer. Verify that the gradient (Vf) is equal to F. Note: If F has three components, when integrating both sides of x the “constant” of integration may have two variables, g(y, z). Next, integrating both sides of asecond “constant” of integration may have one variable, h(z). Apply the partial derivatives and 5 to narrow g(y,z) and h(z) down to a constant (similar to this example). Note: One application of this technique is used in physics to find potential energy. IfF represents a conservative force (like gravitational force, but unlike friction which is nonconservative), there exists a potential energy (U) such that F = Ju. 82