UNIT V

PART-A
1. What is meant by computer control of power system?
The use of computers now days encompass all phases of power system operation
Planning
Forecasting
Scheduling
Security and
Power system control
Within the power stations, automation is taking over to a large extent. Self-tuning regulators
using personal computers are being installed for more effective control and improved efficiency. The
use of modern personal computers for power system control function in a control room is also being
advocated, because of their reliability and high functional content. This is known as computer control
of power system.
2.Define Energy Control Centre.
When the power system increases in size, their operation and interaction become more
complex. So, it becomes essential to monitor this information simultaneously for the total system
which is called Energy Control Centre.
3. What are the functions of energy control centers? Or What are the major functions that are
carried out in an operations control centre? (Apr 2008)
A typical control centre can perform the following functions
 Load forecasting
 System planning
 Unit commitment
 Maintenance scheduling
 State estimation
 Economic dispatch
 Load frequency control
4. What is meant Energy Management Systems (EMS)? (May 2009)
Energy Management is the process of monitoring , coordinating and controlling the
generation , transmission and distribution of electrical energy. It is performed at centers called
„system control centres‟,by a computer system called Energy Management System(EMS).Data
acquisition and remote control is performed by the computer system called SCADA, which forms the
front end of EMS. The EMS communicates with generating , transmission and distribution systems
through SCADA systems.
5.What are the functions of Energy Management Systems (EMS)?(Nov 2009,May 2009)
The functions of Energy Management Systems (EMS) are,
1) System Load forecasting - Hourly energy ,1 to 7 days
2) Unit commitment - 1- 7 days
3) Fuel scheduling to plants
4) Hydro –thermal scheduling – upto 7 days
5) MW interchange evaluation – with neighboring systems
6) Transmission loss minimization
7) Security constrained dispatch
8) Maintenance scheduling
9) Production cost calculation
6.Denote the hierarchical levels used in Energy Management Systems.
 System control centre.
 Area control centre
 Remote terminal unit
7. Mention four types of SCADA systems and its application area.
Type 1: Small distribution systems, small hydro stations, HVDC links.
Type 2: Medium sized power systems, power stations, HVDC link distribution systems.
Type 3: Regional control centre
Type 4: National and Regional control centers
8. What is meant by SCADA system?(Nov 2012)
SCADA- Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition system
SCADA system is an arrangement which consists of many types of equipment which performs
controlling and monitoring of a power system or a part of a power system.
9. List the functions of SCADA system.(Nov 2013, Nov 2008, Nov 2007)
Or What SCADA plays in electrical power systems?(Apr 2015)
The functions of SCADA system are,
 Monitoring
 Alarm
 Control and indication of AGC
 Data logging
 Data acquisition
 Control ON / OFF, RAISE / LOWER
 Display
The following additional functions are provided with SCADA systems for National Load Control
Centers
1. Interactive studies
2. Security assessment calculations contingency
3. Training simulator
4. Network modeling
5. Energy Management Systems(EMS)
10. What is the substation control functions arranged through SCADA systems?

The following main functions are arranged on SS level:

1. man machine communication system(Key Board, Visual Display Unit)
2. Remote Control Interface
3. Synchronizing
4. Disconnector Interlocking
5. Bus Bar Protection System
6. Fault Annunciation
7. Automatic Network Restoration
8. Automatic Switching Sequences
9. Load shedding
10. Voltage Control
11. Compiling of energy and other reports
12. Sequential events recording
11. What are the objectives of Automatic Generation Control?(May 2014)
The objectives of Automatic Generation Control are:
(i) To hold frequency at or very close to a specified nominal value.
(ii) To maintain the correct value of interchange power between control areas
(iii)To maintain each unit‟s generation at the most economic value.
12. What is network topology? (Nov 2012,Nov 2007)
In order to run the state estimation , we must know how the transmission lines are connected
to the load and generation buses. This information is called network topology.
13. Define state estimation.(Nov 2013,Apr 2011,May 2009)
State estimation plays an important role in monitoring and control of modern power system.
State estimation is the process of assigning a value to an unknown system state variable based
on measurements from that system according to some criteria. i.e minimizing the sum of the squares
of the differences between the estimated and true values of a function.
14. List the main objectives of maintenance scheduling
Preventive maintenance involves regular routine or plant check- ups and repair on generating
equipment to prevent failures and to increase the process of scheduling the planned maintenance
outages of the generation equipment over a given period in such a manner the maintenance is
performed.
The main objectives of maintenance scheduling are
 Minimization of the total cost to the utility.
 Maximization of the system reliability.
15. Define power system security. or What is meant by power system security?
(Nov 2014)
“The ability of a power system to operate in normal state even with occurrence of specified
contingencies is called power system security.” Another definition of power system security is “the
ability of the system to keep operating in stable condition during and after specified failure without
cascade tripping and overall blackout.”
16. Define security monitoring.
Security monitoring is defined as an online process using real-time data for analyzing the
effects of a series of outages contingencies on the steady state performance of the system.
17. What are the functions of security monitoring?
The functions of security monitoring are,
 Data acquisition
 Alarm Processing
 Status processing
 Reserve monitoring
 State estimation
19. What are the different modes of operating states of the power system?
The five operating states are
 Normal state
 Alert state
  Emergency State
 In extremis (Islanding ) state
 Restorative state
20. What is meant by RTU?
RTU- Remote Terminal Unit
It records the transmitted / received data. The function of RTU is to record and check signals,
measured values and meter readings, before transmitting commands, set point values and other signals
to the switchgear and actuators.
21. What is meant by Data Logger?
The equipment which makes a log (record) of the reading of instruments.
1. Input Scanning
2. A/D Conversion
3. Display
4. Signal amplification
5. Recording
6. Programming
22. What are the main functions of security control?
There are four main functions in security control.
1. System monitoring and Data acquisition
2. State estimation
3. Security Assessment and
4. Security Enhancement
23. What is meant by contingency analysis?
Contingency analysis allows the system to be operated defensively. Many of the problems which
occur in the power system can cause serious trouble within a very short time that the operator could
not take any fast action. Therefore, modern computers are equipped with contingency analysis
programmes, which model the power system and are used to study outage events and alert the
operators of potential overloads or over voltages.
24.List out the conditions for normal operations of a power system.(Apr 2011)
A system is said to be in normal state if both load and operating constraints are satisfied. It is one
in which the total demand on the system is met by satisfying all the operating constraints
25.What is emergency state?(Nov 2009)
The system is said to be emergency state if one or more operating constraints are violated, but
the load constraint is satisfied. In this state, the equality constraints are unchanged. The system will
return to the normal or alert state by means of corrective actions , i.e. disconnection of faulted section
or load shedding.

26.Write importance of state estimation in power system.(Nov 2008)

To obtain the best possible values. i.e. “best estimate “of the bus voltage magnitude and angles
by processing the available network data. The complex bus voltages V serve as the state variables
of the power system.
27. What do you understand by security constraints?(Apr 2008)
(i) If there is no outage , then all the constraints must be satisfied.
(ii)Even with one outage , constraints may not be satisfied.
Line by line outages should be considered , based on this results proper security system is to be
provided.
28.Define restorative state.(May 2014)
From this state, the system may be brought back either to alert state or secure state. Hence, in
certain cases, the system is brought back to alert state and then to the secure state. This is done using
restorative control state.
 PART –B
1. What is EMS? What are its major functions in power system operation and control? (Nov
2013)
EMS:
Energy Management is the process of monitoring, coordinating and controlling the generation
, transmission and distribution of electrical energy. It is performed at centers called „system control
centres‟,by a computer system called Energy Management system(EMS).Data acquisition and remote
control is performed by the computer system called SCADA, which forms the front end of EMS. The
EMS communicates with generating, transmission and distribution systems through SCADA systems.
The functions of Energy Management Systems (EMS) are,
1) System Load forecasting - Hourly energy ,1 to 7 days
2) Unit commitment - 1- 7 days
3) Fuel scheduling to plants
4) Hydro –thermal scheduling – upto 7 days
5) MW interchange evaluation – with neighboring systems
6) Transmission loss minimization
7) Security constrained dispatch
8) Maintenance scheduling
9) Production cost calculation
The hierarchical levels used in Energy Management Systems are,
 System control centre.
 Area control centre
 Remote terminal unit
2. Explain the concept of energy control centre or load dispatch centre. Also discuss its
functions.(Nov 2014)
Or Briefly discuss the various functions of energy control centre. (Nov 2013,Nov 2009, Nov
2008)
Or What are the functions of a modern power system control centre? (May 2009)
Or Briefly discuss the various functions of energy control central.(Nov 2007)
Energy Control Centre.
When the power system increases in size, their operation and interaction become more
complex. So, it becomes essential to monitor this information simultaneously for the total system
which is called Energy Control Centre.
A typical control centre can perform the following functions
1. Load forecasting
2. System planning
3. Unit commitment
4. Maintenance scheduling
5. state estimation
6. Economic dispatch
7. Load frequency control
1. Load forecasting:
The load on their power systems should be estimated in advance. This estimation in advance
is known as load forecasting. Load forecasting based on the previous experience without any
historical data.
Classification of Load forecasting :
Forecast Lead Time Application

Real time control , Real time

Very short term Few minutes to half an hour
security evaluation

Allocation of spinning reserve,

Short Term Load
Half an hour to a few hours unit commitment , maintenance
Forecasting
scheduling
Medium Term Load Planning or seasonal peak winter,
Few days to a few weeks
Forecasting summer

Long Term Load To plan the growth of the

Few months to a few years
Forecasting generation capacity

Need for system load forecasting

 To meet out the future demand.
 Long term Load Forecasting is required for preparing maintenance schedule of the generating
units , planning future expansion of the system.
 For day to day operation , short term load forecasting is needed in order to commit enough
generating capacity for the forecasting demand and for maintaining the required spinning reserve.
 Medium Term Load Forecasting is needed for predicted monsoon acting and hydro availability
and allocating spinning reserves.
The following methods are used for load Forecasting

i) Extrapolation technique
ii) End use method
iii) Parabolistic extrapolation method
iv)Correlation method
2. Power system planning
The load, generation and transmission now continuously. The long range and short term planning
are essential for;
 Planning of generation
 Planning of transmission and distribution
The planning should aim at excess capacity ie., installed capacity should be more than predicted
demand.
The overall planning is divided into the following categories
1. Generation planning considering alternative source of energy.
2. Transmission planning including planning of inter connections.
3. Distribution planning of load centers.
3. Unit commitment :
To select the generating units that will supply the forecasted load of the system over a required
period of time at minimum cost as well as provide a specified margin of the operating reserve , known
as the spinning reserve. This procedure is known as unit commitment.
The constraints of the unit commitment are
1.Spinning reserve
2. Thermal unit constraints
iv. Minimum up time.
v. Minimum down time
vi. Crew constraints
3. Hydro constraints
4. Fuel constraints
4. Maintenance scheduling
Preventive maintenance involves regular routine or plant check- ups and repair on generating
equipment to prevent failures and to increase the process of scheduling the planned maintenance
outages of the generation equipment over a given period in such a manner the maintenance is
performed.
The main objectives of maintenance scheduling are
1. Minimization of the total cost to the utility.
2. Maximization of the system reliability.
Generally the second objective is applied as a constraint to keep the reliability above
certain level.
5. Security monitoring
Security monitoring is defined as an online process using real-time data for analyzing the
effects of a series of outages contingencies on the steady state performance of the system. Continuous
monitoring of security and appropriate corrective actions for improving security is called security
control.
6. State estimation
State estimation is the process of estimating the state of the power system. State estimation
based on system monitoring data produces best estimate of latest power system condition.
The functions of state estimator are
1. Augment the tele -metered real time measurements to a reliable information base of the
system.
2. Detection, identification and suppression of bad measurement
3. Provide the data base for a more reliable security analysis.
7. Economic dispatch
The function of economic dispatch is to distribute the load among the generating units
connected in the system in such a manner as to minimize the total cost of the system.
8. Load frequency control
In an interconnected system with two or more independently controlled areas, in addition to
control of frequency, the generation within each area has to be controlled so as to maintain scheduled
power interchange. The control of generation and frequency is commonly referred to as Load
Frequency Control (LFC).
4. With a neat block diagram explain the SCADA hardware configurations and explain the
application of SCADA in monitoring and control of power system.(Nov 2013,
Apr 2008)
Or Explain the hardware components and functional aspects of SCADA system using a
functional block diagram.(May 2014)
Or With a neat diagram explain the SCADA hardware configurations.(Nov 2009)
Or Illustrate SCADA with the typical schematic.(May 2009)
SCADA consists of master station and RTUs linked by communication channel. The
hardware components can be classified into:
1. Process computer and associated hardware at the Energy control Centre.
2.RTUs and the associated hardware at remote stations.
3.Communication equipment that links the RTUs and process computer at the master
stations .
SCADA system hardware configuration
SCADA allows a few operators to monitor the generation and HV transmission system.
Consistent with principles of high reliability and fail safe features ,electric utilities have almost
universally applied a redundant set of dual digitals computers for the functions of remote data
acquisition control , energy management and system security. Both computers their have own core
memory and drive an extensive number of input and output devices.
Usually one computer, the on line units, is monitoring and controlling the power system. The
backup computer may be executing off line batch programs such as load forecasting or hydro thermal
applications. The on line computer periodically updates a disk memory shared between the two
computers.
 Upon a fail over or switch in status command ,the stored information of the common disk is
inserted in the memory of the on line computer. The figure shows the detailed block diagram of a
typical digital computer control and monitoring for power system.

Failover
disk Short circuit
ON LINE COMPUTER BACK-UP COMPUTER
Security Functions System Support

Alarms,AGC,State Logging,Load flow,

Estimation,EDC Load forecasting,Unit
Commitment Stability

s
I II
SCADA SCADA COMPUTER
CRT
COMPUTER Or
displays
Keyboard Or Microprocessors Other systems
cursors Microprocessors scans the data point
scans the data

Remote data Acquisition system, Status of Breakers ,KW flows

,KVAR flows, Volts, Transformer Taps etc..

All of the peripheral equipment is interfaced with the computer through input and output
microprocessors that have been programmed to communicate , as well as preprocess the analog
information , check for limits , convert to another system of units so on.
The microprocessor can transfer data in and out of computer memory without interrupting the
CPU.As a result of these precautions , for all critical hardware functions , there is often a guaranteed
99.8% or more availability.
Besides hardware , new digital code to control the system may be complied and tested in the
backup computer ,then switched to on-line status.
Various types of SCADA systems
Type 1 : Small distribution systems, small hydro stations, HVDC links.
Type 2: Medium sized power systems , power stations, HVDC link distribution systems.
Type 3 : Regional control centre
Type 4: National and Regional control centers
5. Discuss the functions of SCADA in power system operation.(Nov 2012)
Functions of SCADA systems
1. Monitoring
2. Alarm
3. Control and indication of AGC
4. Data logging
5. Data acquisition
6. Control ON / OFF, RAISE / LOWER
7. Display
The following additional functions are provided with SCADA systems for National Load Control
Centers
1. Interactive studies
2. Security assessment calculations contingency
3. Training simulator
4. Network modeling
5. Energy Management Systems(EMS)
Features of SCADA systems
1. Data collection (Data Acquisition)
2. Data Transmission (Telemetry)
3. Scanning, Indication, Monitoring, Logging
4. Execution of operation commands: ON / OFF, RAISE/LOWER
5. Network, supervision, Alarms and report any uncommon changes of state.
6. Control and Indication
7. Ensure Sequential events
8. Data presentation, display, reporting
1. The Data
The data consists of electrical and mechanical variables, ON/OFF states, analogue quantities,
and digital quantities, change of state, sequence of events, time of occurrence and several other data
which the control room operator would like to know.
2. Data Collection (Acquisition)
The power system data is collected through P.T, C.T and transducers. These data are
converted in digital quantities by A/D convertor5s and stored in memory. This data collection is
performed by “Data Loggers”.
3. Data Logger
The equipment which makes a log (record) of the reading of instruments.
 Input Scanning
 A/D Conversion
 Display
 Signal amplification
 Recording
 Programming
4. Data transmission
The data transmitted from the process location to the control room and form the control
room to the control centre.
5. Supervision
It is the process of checking whether all equipments are functioning correctly and whether the
system is at its normal state, by comparing the system data with reference data.
6. Indication
Abnormal situation is indicated by means of alarm or through other indicating devices.
7. Execution of operating commands
The execution of operating commands is done under 2 conditions
a. Normal Condition
According to the load curves of the power station, the generation of each unit has
to be adjusted. This adjustment can be done by raise/lower command.
b. Emergency condition
During fault condition, the CB‟s are opened.
8. Data Presentation
Any data or variation regarding a particular system variable can be obtained from the SCADA
system in the form of print outs and displays.
Special Function
There are special programmes available to perform special functions. If these programmes are
executed by the computer in the SCADA system, Special functions can be achieved such as
1. AGC
2. Contingency
3. Online load flow analysis
4. Economic Dispatch
5. Relaying
6. Load shedding
7. Unit commitment
Sub Station control functions arranged through SCADA systems
1. Alarm functions
2. Control and Indication
3. Data Collection, recording and display
4. Sequential operation of devices with predetermined time ad conditions for operation of various
devices.
6.Explain the Security monitoring using state estimation with necessary diagrams. (Nov
2013,Nov 2009)
Security Monitoring
The functions of a security monitoring system is shown fig.a.
Effective operation of power system required that critical quantity be measured and the values
of measurements be transmitted to a central location. Such systems of measurements and data
transmission are called telemetry system.
Telemetered data and information regarding breaker position received from the system are
processed first by the state estimator. The output of the state estimator is then fed into the security
analyzer. Other information like contingencies to be evaluated and associated constraints is also fed
into the security analyzer. The security analyzer evaluates the impact of the above contingencies with
the help of fast load flow techniques .Thus, real time data are processed in the control centers and are
scanned by the security analyzer to ascertain whether the operating condition is secured.
 Electric List of
energy components
system in service

List of
Telemetrical Security
contingencies
Data` analyzer

Electric Security
energy constraints
system

Alarm CRT display

Suggested
actions
Fig .Practical security monitoring system
System monitoring provides the operator of the power system with pertinent up to date
information on the current conditions of the power system. Power system monitoring is essential part
of maintaining system security. Security monitoring system has several software program. The
security monitoring functions are given in table

Function Function performed

1. Data acquisition  To process message from RTUs
 To check analogue measurements against normal value.
 To check status values against normal values
 To send alarm conditions to alarm processor

2. Alarm Processor  To send alarm messages.

 To transmit messages according to priority.

3. Status processor To determine status of each substation for proper connection

4. Reserve monitor To check generator MW output on all units against unit limits.
5.State estimator  To determine system state variables
 To detect presence of bad measurement
 To identify location of bad measurements
 To initialize network model for other application program

Security monitoring is defined as an online process using real time data for analyzing the effect of
a series of outage contingencies on the steady state performance of the system. Each contingency is
solved approximately as a steady state ac power flow problem.
The results of each solution are checked against predetermined constraints. If a contingency
cause a constraint violation or if a solution for a contingency is impossible, this information is
transferred from the security monitor to another function in the control center.
1. Network Data
The passive network is modeled by the nodal admittance matrix which is developed from a
detailed list of basic network components including transmission lines, transformers, capacitors and
reactors. It is essential to have real time information on the state of these components at the beginning
of each solution cycle. A solution cycle is the solution checking of results for all contingent outages
in a specified contingency list. The change of the state of every network component is transmitted to
the control computer and whenever a component is switched in or out, its effect is reflected by a
change in the admittance matrix.
2. System monitoring
System monitoring provides up to date information about conditions in the power system.
3. State Estimation
The state estimation is the process of estimating the „state‟ of the power system.
4.Contingency analysis
Contingency analysis allows the system to be operated defensively. Many of the problems which
occur in the power system can cause serious trouble within a very short time that the operator could
not take any fast action. Therefore , modern computers are equipped with contingency analysis
programmes, which model the power system and are used to study outage events and alert the
operators of potential overloads or over voltages.
5. Corrective Actions
The corrective action allows the operator to take appropriate corrective action in the event of a
contingency such as certain outage or certain overload. A simple form of corrective action involves
shifting generation from one station to another station. Such a shift causes flow to change and this can
bring about change in the loading overloaded lines.
7. Enumerate the various operating states and the control strategies of a power system. (Nov
2012)
or Explain the various operating states of a power system with transition diagram.
(Nov 2013,Apr 2011, May 2009, Nov 2008, Apr 2008)
or Explain the various operating states of power system. Also discuss the state transition and
control strategies .(Nov 2014,Apr 2015)
Operating States
In general power system conditions may be described by five operating states. The five
operating states are
1. Normal state(Secure state)
2. Alert state
3. Emergency State
4. In extremis (Islanding ) state
5. Restorative state
The five operating states and their transitions are shown below.

Normal State

(Secure state)
Preventiv
e
control
Restorative Alert
state Restorative control
Correctiv
e
action
extremis
(Islanding ) state Emergency
State
Emergency
control
i) Normal state:
In the Normal operating state all constraints are satisfied. Generation is adequate to make
demand .Reserve margin is sufficiently high to meet the system well secured but when the system
security level falls below certain level or the probability of disturbance increase the system may be in
Alert state.
ii) Alert state:
A normal state of the system is said to be in alert state if one or more of the postulated
contingency states , consists of the constraints limits violated. but when the system security level falls
below certain level or the probability of disturbance increase the system may be in Alert state.
Though in this state all constraints are satisfied, reserve margin may not be sufficient to deal
with the disturbance. In the events of the presence of the disturbance the system may not have all the
inequality conditions satisfied. But corrective action taken in time may bring back the system to its
normal state. In case before this measure is taken, if a sever disturbance occurs the system is pushed
into Emergency state. To bring back the system to secure state, preventive control action is carried
out.
iii) Emergency state:
The system is said to be in emergency state if one or more operating constraints are violated ,
but the load constraints is satisfied. In this state ,the equality constraints are unchanged. The system
will return to the normal or alert state by means of corrective action.
iv) Extremis state:
In this state the system is totally insecure. Inequality constraints are violated. However, with
the system still intact with emergency control action. It may be possible to bring the system at least to
alert state. In the extreme case in the absence of any corrective action taken in time. It is the severity
of disturbance system may start disintegrating. Then the system may be termed as In extremis.
v)Restorative state:
In this state neither equality or nor inequality constraints are satisfied. Emergency control
action whenever exercised should be with a motive to bring back the portion of the system into the
main stream of operation. When this restorative procedure starts following the total collapse, the
system may be referred to be in the restorative state. From this state system may reach alert state or
normal operating state depending upon the security level.
Control Strategies:
If the disturbance is large, it is possible that operator actions such as generation rescheduling
or element switching may b required for a return to the normal state. To achieve high power security ,
the control room should have data collection system and computerized power system analysis
program software , called EMS. The control room operator may take various actions to maintain
adequate power system security.
Action by operator Variables to be adjusted
Unit commitment Generation on/off status
Economic dispatch Generation MW output schedule
Generator bus voltage Unit exciter setting
Network configuration Substation CB open/close
Load shedding Distribution feeder CB
Phase shifting transformer Tap position
On load tap changing transformer Tap position
Tie line system interchange Interchange schedule

8. Explain various controls for secure operation(Nov 2014)

After estimating the current system state, security assessment studies have to be carried out.
First all quantities of interest such as line flows, transformer loadings, generator loading, bus voltages
etc. are computed from the estimated values of the state variables.
The calculated values then compared with their permissible limits. If all the values are within
their acceptable limits, the system is said to be in a secure operating mode. If one or more of the
acceptable limits are violated the system is in an insecure operating mode.
If the system is found to be insecure, security assessment studies are terminated and security
enhancement studies are initiated to eliminate overloads and to improve the bus voltages. This
provides the best possible corrective strategy which is implemented through supervisory control, to
enhance the quality of power system. This analysis should be done within a very short time.
Corrective Action Required to Improve the Load Bus Voltages
There are several ways to improve the load bus voltages. A few methods are
1. The voltages of all generator buses are so increased simultaneously, that the load bus voltage
are improved. This must be done adjusted to give more voltage to have to supply large
reactive power and will be operated at low power factor.
 2. Synchronous condensers, capacitor banks and shunt reactors nearer to the load buses are
switched on to improve the load bus voltages.
3. The tap positions of selected transformers are adjusted in such a way to improve the bus
voltages.
Corrective Action Required to Eliminate the Over Loads
There are several ways to eliminate the over loads.
A few methods are
1. The power flow in a transmission line mainly depends the difference of voltage angles of
terminal buses.

P i j
ij
Xij
The power flow can be controlled by adjusting any one of the bus voltage angles. If the line has a
phase shifting transformer than the power flow depends the phase angles introduced by phase shifting
transformers in addition to terminal bus voltage angles.
Pij ( i ) j

Where is phase angle introduced by the phase shifting transformers. The power can be
controlled by adjusting the phase angle of the phase shifting transformers. Therefore by adjusting the
phase shifting transformers suitably, the overload in that line can be eliminated. It does not require
any computerized analysis and this method is rarely used, because each and every line in the power
system cannot be equipped with a phase shifting transformers.
2. The power flow in any line can be controlled by shifting generations from one bus to another
and thus shifting of generation is generally used of eliminate over loads. The shifting of generation
should be done in such a manner that it should not create any new overload in any other lines and at
the same time it should satisfy the load demand and the new generation should not violate respective
upper and lower limits of generators.
3. The interchange may be adjusted to modify the power in the tie lines and thereby the
power flows in the lines and hence correction may be achieved. It is not always possible because it
will have to be done with reference to previous agreement, to maintain the power flow at some limits.