DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL
SCIENCES
Visca, Baybay City, Leyte PHILIPPINES
Telefax: +63 53 563-7536; Local 565-0600 loc. 1019
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.vsu.edu.ph
Biol127 Development Biology
Kristofer E. Balais
BS Biology (Zoology) – 3
Assignment:
Article Review on “How do PGCs of hermaphroditic animals decide whether to enter mitosis or
meiosis? Or to become sperm or egg?”
Primordial germ cells (PGCs) are the embryonic cells that produce sperm and egg in
sexually reproducing animals. PGCs are specified early in development and migrate to the
developing gonads, where they differentiate and mature. Depending on the sex and
species of the animal, PGCs may enter mitosis or meiosis at different times and under
different conditions. Mitosis is a cell division that produces identical daughter cells, while
meiosis is a cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half and generates
genetic diversity. In some animals, PGCs can produce both sperm and egg in the same
individual, a phenomenon known as hermaphroditism.
Hermaphroditism is a reproductive strategy that increases the chances of producing
offspring. Hermaphroditism can be simultaneous or sequential. Simultaneous
hermaphrodites have both male and female reproductive organs at the same time and
can produce both sperm and egg simultaneously or alternately. Sequential
hermaphrodites start their life as one sex and change to the other sex later in response to
environmental or social cues.
The molecular and cellular mechanisms that regulate PGC fate and function in
hermaphroditic animals are diverse and complex, and they involve interactions between
genetic, epigenetic, hormonal, and environmental factors. Here, we will focus on three
well-studied model systems: the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, the snail Biomphalaria
glabrata, and the fish Kryptolebias marmoratus.
C. elegans is a simultaneous hermaphrodite that produces both sperm and oocytes in a
single gonad. The switch from spermatogenesis to oogenesis is controlled by a balance
between two signaling pathways: the Notch pathway that promotes spermatogenesis and
the GLP-1 pathway that promotes oogenesis. The levels of these pathways change during
development and along the gonad arm, such that germ cells switch from spermatogenesis
to oogenesis as they move away from the stem cell niche and toward the sheath cells
(Kimble & Crittenden, 2007; Ellis et al., 2014).
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL
SCIENCES
Visca, Baybay City, Leyte PHILIPPINES
Telefax: +63 53 563-7536; Local 565-0600 loc. 1019
Email:
[email protected] Website: www.vsu.edu.ph
B. glabrata is a simultaneous hermaphrodite that produces both sperm and oocytes in
separate gonads: a testis and an ovotestis. The switch from spermatogenesis to oogenesis
is controlled by a balance between two hormones: serotonin and dopamine. Serotonin
stimulates spermatogenesis, while dopamine inhibits spermatogenesis. The levels of these
hormones change during development and in response to environmental factors, such as
temperature, food availability, and population density. Thus, germ cells switch from
spermatogenesis to oogenesis as they move away from the serotonin source and toward
the dopamine source along the ovotestis follicle (Pila et al., 2016; Pila et al., 2017).
K. marmoratus is a sequential hermaphrodite that starts its life as a male and changes to a
female later in response to social cues. It is also capable of self-fertilization, as it can
produce both sperm and oocytes in a single gonad. The sex change from male to female
is triggered by the absence of a dominant male in the social group, which induces a rise in
estrogen levels and a decline in testosterone levels. The sex change involves a remodeling
of the gonadal structure, such that some lobules become ovarian-like and others remain
testicular-like. The switch from spermatogenesis to oogenesis is controlled by a balance
between two transcription factors: Dmrt1 and Foxl2. Dmrt1 promotes spermatogenesis,
while Foxl2 promotes oogenesis. The levels of these transcription factors change during sex
change, such that germ cells switch from spermatogenesis to oogenesis as they move from
the testicular-like lobules to the ovarian-like lobules along the gonad (Liu et al., 2017;
Valdivia et al., 2018).
In summary, PGCs of hermaphroditic animals decide whether to enter mitosis or meiosis, or
to become sperm or egg, by integrating various signals from their internal and external
environment. These signals include hormones, transcription factors, cell–cell interactions,
chromatin modifications, and gene expression. The mechanisms that regulate PGC fate
and function in hermaphroditic animals are diverse and complex, and they reflect the
evolutionary adaptations of each species to its ecological niche.
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL
SCIENCES
Visca, Baybay City, Leyte PHILIPPINES
Telefax: +63 53 563-7536; Local 565-0600 loc. 1019
Email:
[email protected] Website: www.vsu.edu.ph
References:
Ellis R.E., Stanfield G.M., Kimble J., 2014. Soma-germline interactions that influence germline
proliferation in Caenorhabditis elegans. Genetics 198:1539–1561.
https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.114.169821
Kimble J., Crittenden S.L., 2007. Controls of germline stem cells, entry into meiosis, and the
sperm/oocyte decision in Caenorhabditis elegans. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 23:405–433.
https://doi.org/10.1002/dvdy.22268
Mourabit, S., Edenbrow, M., Croft, D. P., & Kudoh, T. (2011). Embryonic development of the self-
fertilizing mangrove killifish Kryptolebias marmoratus. Developmental Dynamics, 240(7), 1694–
1704. https://doi.org/10.1002/dvdy.22668
Pila E.A., Gleason F.H., Hanington P.C., 2017. Neuroendocrine control of reproduction in
hermaphroditic freshwater snails: mechanisms and evolution. Gen Comp Endocrinol 246:3–
13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2010.00167
Pila E.A., Sullivan J.T., Wu X.Z., Fang J., Rudko S.P., Gordy M.A., Hanington P.C., 2016. Haematopoiesis
in molluscs: a review of haemocyte development and function in gastropods, cephalopods
and bivalves. Dev Comp Immunol 58:119–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dci.2015.11.010
Valdivia K., Escobar-Aguirre S., Concha M.I., Allende M.L., 2018. Gonadal differentiation in zebrafish
is regulated by the canonical Wnt signaling pathway. Biol Res 51:11. https://doi.org/
10.1095/biolreprod.113.110874
