PLC (PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROL) CONTROLLERS
The development of programmable logic controllers (PLCs) was driven primarily by the of
automobile manufacturers, who constantly changed their production line control requirements
systems to accommodate their new car models. In the past, this required extensive rewiring of
banks of relays – a very expensive procedure. In the 1970s, with the emergence of solid-state
electronic logic devices, several automobile companies challenged control manufacturers to
develop a means of changing control logic without the need to totally rewire the system. The
PLC evolved from this requirement.
PLCs are designed to be relatively user-friendly so that electricians can easily make the
transition from all-relay control to electronic systems. They give users the capability of
displaying and troubleshooting ladder-logic that shows the logic in real time. The ladder-logic
can be "rewired" (programmed) and tested, without the need to assemble and rewire banks of
relays.
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A PLC is a computer with a single mission. It usually lacks a monitor, a keyboard, and a mouse,
as normally it is programmed to operate a machine or a system using only one program. The
machine or system user rarely, if ever, interacts directly with the program in the PLC. When it is
necessary to either edit or create the PLC program, a personal computer is usually (but not
always) connected to it.
The information from the PLCs can be accessed by supervisory control and data acquisition
(SCADA) systems and human–machine interfaces (HMIs), to provide a graphical representation
of the status of the plant. The figure below is a schematic of the PLC control network resident in
industrial systems.
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Schematic of the PLC control network_Figure6.1
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PLC Components and Architectures
A PLC is actually an industrial microcontroller system (in more recent years we meet
microprocessors instead of microcontrollers) with hardware and software that are specifically
adapted to the industrial environment. A block schema with the typical components that a PLC
consists of is shown in the figure below. Special attention needs to be given to input and
output, because most PLC models feature a vast assortment of interchangeable I/O modules
that allow for convenient interfacing with virtually any kind of industrial or laboratory
equipment. The program unit is usually a computer used for writing a program (often in a
ladder-logic diagram).
Basic elements of a PLC controller _Figure 6.2
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(1) Central Processing Unit (CPU)
This unit contains the "brains" of the PLC, often referred to as a microprocessor or scheduler.
The basic instruction set is a high-level program, installed in read-only memory (ROM). The
programmed logics are usually stored in electrically erasable permanent read-only
memory (EEPROM). The CPU will save everything in memory, even after a power loss.
Since it is "electrically erasable," the logic can be edited or changed as the need arises. The
programming device is connected to the CPU whenever the operator needs to monitor,
troubleshoot, edit, or program the system, but it is not required during normal operations.
(2) Memory
System memory (today mostly implemented in Flash technology) is used by a PLC as a process
control system. Aside from this operating system, it also contains a user program translated
from a ladder-logic diagram to binary form. Flash memory contents can be changed only
when the user program is being changed. PLC controllers were used before Flash memory, with
EPROM instead of Flash memory which needs to be erased with a UV lamp and programmed
on programmers. The use of Flash technology has greatly shortened this process and allows
reprogramming via a serial cable in an application development program.
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User memory is divided into blocks, which have special functions. Some parts are used for storing
input and output status. The real status of an input is stored either as "1" or as "0" in a specific
memory bit. Each input or output has one corresponding bit in memory. Other parts of the memory
are used to store variables in user programs, for example, timer value or counter value.
(3) Communication Board
Every brand of PLC has its own programming hardware, such as a small hand-held device, which
resembles an oversized calculator with a liquid crystal display (LCD) but most commonly this is
computer-based. Computer-based programmers typically use a special communication board,
installed in an industrial terminal or personal computer, which runs the appropriate software
program. This allows offline programming, where program logic is developed separately, then
loaded onto the CPU when required.
Programming can be done directly into the CPU if desired; in which case, a programmer can test the
system, and watch the logic operate as each element is highlighted in sequence on a cathode ray
tube (CRT) when the system is running. Since a PLC can operate without having the programming
device attached, one device can be used to service many separate PLC systems.
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(4) PLC Controller Inputs
The intelligence of an automated system depends largely on the ability of a PLC controller to
read signals from different types of sensors and input devices. Keys, keyboards, and
functional switches are the basis of the human–machine relationship. On the other hand, to
detect a working piece, view a mechanism in motion, or check pressure or fluid level
specific automatic devices such as proximity sensors, marginal switches, photoelectric
sensors, level sensors, and so on are needed.
Thus, input signals can be logical (ON/OFF) or analog in order to receive input from these
devices. Smaller PLC controllers usually have digital input lines only while larger ones also
accept analog inputs through special units. One of the most frequent analog signals is a
current signal of 4–20 mA and a millivolt voltage signal generated by the various sensors that are
usually used as inputs for PLCs. You can obtain sensors for different purposes.
Other devices also can serve as inputs to the PLC controller, such as intelligent devices such as
robots, video systems, and so forth (a robot, for instance, can send a signal to PLC controller
input as information when it has finished moving an object from one place to the other).
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(5) PLC Controller Output
An industrial control system is incomplete if it is not connected to some output devices. Some
of the most frequently used devices are motors, solenoids, relays, indicators and sound
emitters. By starting a motor, or a relay, the PLC can manage or control a simple system, such
as a system for sorting products, or even complex systems such as a service system for
positioning the head of a robotic machine. Output can be analog or digital. A digital output
signal works as a switch; it connects and disconnects lines. Analog output is continous,
and used to generate an analog signal (for instance, a motor whose speed is controlled by a
voltage, the value of which corresponds to a desired speed).
(6) Extension Lines
Every PLC controller has a limited number of input/output lines, which can be increased by
using extension lines, which can be applied to both input and output lines. Also, extension
modules can have inputs and outputs that are different from those on the PLC controller (for
instance, if relay outputs are on a controller, transistor outputs can be on an extension module).
The PLC has input and output lines through which it is connected to a system it directs.
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Two terms frequently mentioned when discussing connections to inputs or outputs are
"sinking" and "sourcing;" both are very important in connecting a PLC correctly to the
external environment. The briefest definition of these two concepts would be:
Sinking = Common GND line (—);
Sourcing = Common VCC line (+),
Hence the (+) and the (—) in the above definition, which refer to the poles of a DC supply. Inputs
and outputs that are either sinking or sourcing can conduct electricity only in one direction, so
they are only supplied with direct current. According to what we have discussed so far, each
input or output has its own return line, so five inputs would need 10 screw terminals on a PLC
controller housing. Instead, we use a system of connecting several inputs to one return line as
illustrated in Figure 6.2. These common lines are usually marked "COMM" on the PLC controller
housing.
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7) Power Supply
Most PLC controllers work either at 24 V DC or 220 V AC. On some PLC controllers, usually the
bigger ones, you will find the electrical supply as a separate module while small and medium
series already contain the supply module. Different types of modules use different amounts of
electrical current so the user determines the correct setting.
This electrical supply is not usually used to start external inputs or outputs. The user has to
provide separate supplies in starting PLC controller inputs or outputs to ensure a so-called
pure supply for the PLC controller. By pure supply we mean a supply where the
industrial environment cannot affect it adversely. Some of the smaller PLC controllers
supply their inputs with voltage from a small supply source already incorporated into the PLC.
The internal logic and communication circuitry usually operates on 5 or 15 V DC power. The
power supply provides filtering and isolation of the low-voltage power from the AC power line.
Power supply assemblies may be separate modules, or in some cases plug-in modules in the
I/O racks. Separate control transformers are often used to isolate inputs and CPU from output
devices. The purpose is to isolate this sensitive circuitry from transient disturbances
produced by any highly inductive output devices.
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(8) Timers and Counters
Timers and counters are indispensable in PLC programming for numbering products, determining
the time for a required action, and so on. Timing functions are very important, and cycle periods
are critical in many processes.
There are two types of timers; delay-off and delay-on. The first has a delay before turn off and
the second has a delay before turning on in relation to the activation signal. An example of a
delay-off timer would be staircase lighting, which simply turns off a few minutes after its activation.
Each timer has a time basis, or more precisely has several time bases. Typical values are 1, 0.1,
and 0.01 second. If the programmer has entered 0.1 as the time basis and 50 as the delay
increase number, the timer will have a delay of 5 seconds (50×0.1 seconds = 5 seconds).
Timers also have to have the SV value - the number of increments that the timer has to calculate
before it changes the output status - in advance, either as a constant or a variable. If a variable is
used, the timer will use a real-time value of the variable to determine a delay. This enables delays
to vary depending on the conditions of the process. An example is a system that produces two
different products, each requiring different timing during the process itself. Product A requires a
period of 10 seconds, so number 10 would be assigned to the variable. When product B appears,
the variable can change to that required by product B.
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Typically, timers have two inputs. The first is the timer-enable, or conditional input (when this
input is activated, the timer will start counting), and the second input is a reset input. This input
has to be in OFF status in order for a timer to be active. Some PLC models require this input to
be low for a timer to be active; other makers require high status (all of them function in the same
way basically). However, if a reset line changes status, the timer erases accumulated value.
IN-input signal
PT- pre-set time
Q-output
ET- time elapse
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Counters
Up-counter
The up-counter block CTU can be used to signal when a count has reached a maximum value. The
CTU block counts the number of ‘rising edges’ detected at the input CU. PV defines the maximum
value for the counter. Each time the function block is called with a new rising edge on CU, the
counter output CV is incremented by one.
When the counter reaches the PV value, the Q output is set true and the counting stops. The
reset input R can be used to set the output Q to false, and clear the count CV to zero.
Down-counter
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Down-counter
The down-counter block CTD can be used to signal when a count has reached zero, on counting
down from a preset value.
The CTD block counts down the number of ‘rising edges’ detected at the input CD. PV defines the
starting value for the counter. Each time the function block is called with a new rising edge on
CD, the counter output CV is decremented by one.
When the counter reaches zero, the Q output is set true and the counting stops. The load signal
LD can be used to clear the counter output Q to false, and load the count CV with the preset value
PV.
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Up-down counter
The up-down counter block CTUD has two inputs CU and CD. It can be used to both count up
on one input and down on the other.
The CTUD block counts up the number of ‘rising edges’ detected at the input CU and counts
down the ‘rising edges’ detected on CD. PV defines the maximum value for the counter.
If the counter output CV reaches zero, the QD output is set true and the counting down stops.
If CV reaches the maximum value PV, the QU output is set true and the counting up stops.
The load signal LD can be used to preset the counter output CV with the value PV. Similarly,
the reset signal R can be used to clear the counter output to zero.
The up-down counter could be used, for example, to count items placed on and taken off a
conveyor belt. The count value would indicate how many items are on the belt at any time.
Note: if any of the counter function blocks are executed with count inputs, such as CU,
continually held true, they will not detect any rising edges and therefore will not count.
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PLC Control Mechanism
A programmable logic controller is a digital electronic device that uses programmable memory to
store instructions, and a CPU to implement specific functions such as logic, sequence, timing,
counting, and arithmetic, in order to control machines and processes. Figure 6.2 shows a simple
schematic of a typical programmable logic controller. When running, the CPU scans the memory
continuously from top to bottom, and left to right, checking every input, output, and instruction in
sequence. The scan time depends upon the size and complexity of the program, and the
number and type of I/O, and may be as short as a few milliseconds, so producing tens of scans
per second. This short time makes the operation appear as instantaneous, but one must
consider the scan sequence when handling critically timed operations and sealing circuits.
Complex systems may use interlocked multiple CPUs to minimize total scan time.
The input and output modules allow the PLC to communicate with the machine and are quite
different to those in a PC. The inputs may come from limit switches, proximity sensors,
temperature sensors, and so on. The PLC will set the outputs on the basis of the software
program and the combination of inputs. These outputs may control motor speed and direction,
actuate valves, open or close gates, and control all the motions and activities of the machine.
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(1) System Address
The key to getting comfortable with any PLC is to understand the total addressing system.
We have to connect our discrete inputs, push-buttons, limit-switches, and so on, to our
controller, interface those points with the "electronic ladder-logic diagram" (program), and
then bring the results out through another interface to operate motor starters, solenoids,
lights, and so forth.
Inputs and outputs are wired to interface modules, installed in an I/O rack. Each rack has a
two-digit address, each slot has its own address, and each terminal point is numbered.
Figure 6.3 shows a PLC product in which all of these addresses are octal.
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Figure 6.3: Solution of one line
of logic
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We combine the addresses to form a number that identifies each input and output.
Some manufacturers use decimal addresses, and some older systems are based on 8-bit
words, rather than 16. There are a number of proprietary programmable controllers for specific
applications, such as elevator controls or energy management, which may not follow the
expected pattern, but they will use either 8- or 16-bit word structures. It is very important to
identify the addressing system before you attempt to work on any system that uses a
programmable controller, because one must know the purpose of each I/O bit before
manipulating them in memory.
If you know the address of the input or output is known the status of its bit can be checked
immediately by calling up the equivalent address on a CRT screen.
(2) I/O Addresses
Figure 6.4 gives an I/O address scheme, which shows us that the I/O modules are closely
linked with the input and output image tables, respectively.
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Figure 6.4: I/O addressing
scheme of a PLC
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Figure 6.3 shows a very simple line of logic, where a push-button is used to turn on a lamp. The
push-button and lamp "hardwiring" terminates at I/O terminals, and the logic is carried out in
software. We have a push-button, wired to an input module (I), installed in rack 00, slot 0, and
terminal 04. The address becomes I:000/04. An indicating lamp is wired to an output module (O),
installed in rack 00, slot 7, and terminal 15. The address becomes O:007/15. Our input address,
I:000/04, becomes memory address I:000/04, and the output address 0:007/15 becomes memory
address 0:007/15.
In other words, the type of module, the rack address, and the slot position identifies the word
address in memory. The terminal number identifies the bit number.
(3) Image Table Addresses
An output image table is reserved in its IR area of the memory (see Table 6.1) as File format, and
an input image table is reserved in the same way. A File in memory contains any number of
words. Files are separated by type, according to their functions. In the same way, an input image
table is also reserved in its IR area of the memory (See Table 6.1) in file format. Figure 6.4
illustrates the respective mapping relationship of the I/O modules to both output and input image
tables.
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(4) Scanning
As the scan reads the input image table, it notes the condition of every input, and then scans
the logic diagram, updating all references to the inputs. After the logic is updated, the scanner
resets the output image table, to activate the required outputs. Figure 6.4 shows some
optional I/O arrangements and addressing.
In Figure 6.3, we show how one line of logic would perform when the input at I:000/04 is
energized: it immediately sets input image table bit I:000/04 true (ON). The scanner senses
this change of state, and makes the element I:000/04 true in our logic diagram. Bit 0:007/15 is
turned on by the logic. The scanner sets 0:007/15 true in the output image table, and then
updates the output 0:007/15 to turn the lamp on.
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PLC Programming
Programmable logic controllers use a variety of software programming languages. These include
sequential function chart (SFC), function block diagram (FBD), ladder-logic diagram (LD),
structured text (ST), instruction list (IL), relay ladder logic (RLL), flow chart, C, C++, and
Basic. Among these languages, the ladder diagram is the most popular. Almost every
language possesses various useful options, such as forced switching on and off of the system
inputs/outputs (I/O lines), program follow-up in real time, or documenting a diagram – very
necessary to understand and to define failures and malfunctions. The programmer can add
remarks, names of input or output devices, and comments that can be useful when finding
errors, or with system maintenance. Adding comments and remarks enables any technician (and
not just the person who developed the system) to understand a ladder-logic diagram easily.
Comments and remarks can even precisely quote part numbers in case replacements are
needed which speeds up repair of any problems arising because of faulty parts. Formerly, only
the person who developed the system had access to the program, so nobody apart from them
could understand how it was done. A correctly documented ladder-logic diagram allows any
technician to understand thoroughly how the system functions.
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(1) Relay Ladder Logic
Ladder logic, developed to mimic relay logic, is the main programming method used for PLCs.
Relays are used to let one power source close a switch for another (often high current) power
source, while keeping them isolated. An example of a relay in a simple control application is
shown in Figure 6.5. In this system, the first relay (on the left) is normally closed and will allow
current to flow until a voltage is applied to input A. The second relay is normally open and will not
allow current to flow until a voltage is applied to input B. If current is flowing through the first two
relays, then current will flow through the coil in the third relay, and close the switch for output C.
This circuit would normally be drawn in the ladder logic form. This can be read logically as C will
be on if A is off and B is on.
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Figure 6.5: A simple relay controller
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(2) Programming
An example of ladder logic can be seen in Figure 6.9. To interpret this diagram, imagine that the
power is on the vertical line on the left-hand side; we call this the hot rail. On the right-hand side is
the neutral rail. In this figure there are two rungs, and on each rung there are combinations of
inputs (two vertical lines) and outputs (circles). If the inputs are opened or closed in the right
combination, then the power can flow from the hot rail, through the inputs, to power the outputs, and
finally to the neutral rail. An input can come from a sensor or a switch. An output will be some
device outside the PLC that is switched ON or OFF, such as lights or motors. In the top rung the
contacts are normally open and normally closed, which means if input A is ON and input B is
OFF, then power will flow through the output and activate it. Any other combination of input
values will result in the output X being off.
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Figure 6.9: A simple ladder logic diagram
The second rung of Figure 6.9 is more complex; several combinations of inputs will result in the
output Y turning on. On the left-most part of the rung, power could flow through the top if C is
OFF and D is ON. Power could also (and simultaneously) flow through the bottom if both E
and F are true. This would get power half way across the rung, and then if G or H is true the
power will be delivered to output Y.
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(3) Ladder Diagram Instructions
Ladder logic input contacts and output coils allow simple logical decisions. Instructions extend
this to allow other types of control. Most of the instructions will use PLC memory locations to
get and store values, and track instruction status. Most instructions will normally become
active when the input is true. Some instructions, such as TOF timers, can remain active when
the input is off. Other instructions will only operate when the input goes from false to true; this
is known as positive edge-triggered. Consider a counter that only counts when the input goes
from false to true; the length of time that the input stays true does not change the instruction
behavior. A negative edge-triggered instruction would be triggered when the input goes from
true to false. These are rarer; unless stated, assume instructions are not edge-triggered.
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