Magnetic fields 1

1. Magnetic fields 6. The Right hand grip rule gives the

1. Magnetic fields are produced whenever direction of the field for a straight conductor
charged particles move, i.e. by an electric carrying a current.
current.
• A moving electric charge creates an
electric field and a magnetic field.
• A static electric charge creates an
electric field.
2. Sources of magnetic fields are:
(a) moving charges,
(b) permanent magnets,
(c) current carrying conductors.
3. In permanent magnets, e.g. a bar magnet,
electrons spinning around the nucleus of The thumb points in the direction of the
each atom create a tiny magnetic field, so current and the fingers point in the direction
each atom acts like a tiny magnet. The tiny of the field.
atomic magnets line up with each other to
produce a strong magnetic field with north
and south poles at the ends of the material.

4. The field around a bar magnet is non

uniform, so its strength and direction varies
For a solenoid carrying a current, the fingers
from place to place. Field lines show the
point in the direction of the current and the
path that a north pole takes in the field. The
thumb points in the direction of the field.
direction of the field is taken as the direction
of the force acting on a north pole placed in
the field.
5. The field of a solenoid is due to the
electric current flowing through it. It is similar
to that of a bar magnet on the outside but
uniform inside the coil at its centre.

7. Formulas for the magnetic field strengths

due to currents are given later.
 Magnetic fields 2
2. Force on a current carrying
conductor
1. A magnetic field is a region of space
where a force acts on a current carrying
conductor, a permanent magnet or a moving
charge.
2. Magnetic field strength is defined in terms
of the force acting on an electric current.
Gravitational field strength is the force per
unit mass on a mass placed in the field
𝐹
( 𝑔 = 𝑚 ), and electrical field strength is the
𝐹
force per unit charge (𝐸 = 𝑞 ). The maximum force occurs when the current
and the field are at right-angles to each other
3. Fleming’s left-hand rule gives the direction
and the motion is then at right angles to both
of the force (or motion of the conductor).
the field and the current.
The bigger the current and the stronger the
magnetic field the greater the force on the
wire and the faster it will move. Also the wire
will 'feel' the biggest force if it is at right
angles to the magnetic field and no force at
all if it is parallel to the field.
4. The motion is due to the interaction of the
field of the magnet and the field of the
current, as shown below.

The effect can be demonstrated by the

experiment shown below (Figure 1).

The magnetic field lines under the wire act in

schoolphysics
the same direction and add, while those
above the wire act in the opposite direction
When a current is passed through the bent and cancel. The wire is forced upwards due
wire it moves along the two fixed wires to this ‘catapult’ effect.
between the poles of the magnets. 5. Magnetic flux density (B) or field strength,
Altering either the direction of the current or is the force per unit length per unit current on
the direction of the magnetic field will change a straight current carrying conductor at right
the direction of motion. angles to the field.
𝐹
𝐵 = 𝐼𝐿 𝐹=𝐵𝐼𝐿
where F = force on wire at right angles to the
field,
I = current, L=length of wire,
B= magnetic field strength.
 Magnetic fields 3
The unit of B is the tesla (T). Fleming’s left-hand rule shows that the force
1 T = 1 N A-1 m-1 on the wire is upwards.
6. If the wire carrying a current is parallel to By Newton’s third law, the wire exerts an
the field lines there is no force on the wire. equal but opposite force on the magnets
downwards, which causes the reading on the
balance to increase.
2. The apparatus is used to investigate how
the force varies
• when the current increases
no force • when the field strength is increased by
adding extra magnets to the yoke
B sin θ • with length of the wire in the field, (by
adding extra magnets.)

force F force F
θ θ

B cos θ

When the wire is at angle θ to the field, the

component of the field perpendicular to the 0 current I 0 length L
wire is 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, the force on the wire is 𝐹 ∝ 𝐼 𝐹 ∝𝐿
𝐹 = 𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝐼𝐿.
7. The direction of the force is given by the Using a current balance
left hand rule, but the first finger points in the
direction of B sin θ. The component B cos θ
has no effect on the current carrying wire.

Example:
In the diagram shown, the magnetic field
strength is 0.25T, the current in the wire is
3 A, and the length of the wire is 20 cm.
Find the direction and size of the force on the
wire if and the angle θ is
(a) 30º, (b) 45º, (c) 90º and (d) 0º.

Answer:

Factors affecting the size of the force

Using a top pan balance
1. The balance is set to read zero after the
magnets have been placed on it. A current is
then passed along the clamped stiff wire. 1. The wire frame is balanced on two pivots.
When a current flows through the frame, the
- - + magnetic field pushes the frame downwards.
A small weight is added to the other side to
balance it.
2. The apparatus is used to investigate how
the force varies with current, with length of
clamped rod wire in the field and when the field strength is
or wire
increased by adding extra magnets to the
yoke.
 Magnetic fields 4
3. Force on a moving charge in a
magnetic field 2. Deflection of electrons in a magnetic fields
1. Force on a moving charge
B force on electron

q v
beam of
electrons

L
current force

1. A static charge is not affected by a Magnetic field into the page

magnetic field. A moving charge is affected
because a moving charge is a current.
Fleming’s left hand rule can be used to give 1. For a particle of charge Q moving through
the direction of the force. a uniform magnetic field at speed v in a
2. Suppose the current is carried by positive direction at an angle θ to the field, the force
charges q moving with a drift velocity v from on the particle is
left to right. 𝐹 = 𝐵 𝑄 𝑣 sin 𝜃
In a time t the distance travelled by a charge When the velocity is at 90° to the field,
is sin 90° = 1, so the force is 𝐹 = 𝐵 𝑄 𝑣
𝐿 = 𝑣𝑡 2. The force is perpendicular to the direction
(distance = speed x time). of motion. (The direction of the force is given
The current is by Fleming’s left hand rule but it must be
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑞/𝑡 remembered that conventional current to the
(current = charge/time), right represents electron motion to the left).
where n = total number of charges. 3. The path of the beam is circular. The
3. The force on the current is force increases with the speed of the
𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿 electrons.
𝐹 = 𝐵 (𝑛𝑞/𝑡) 𝐿 4. If the velocity is parallel to the field, θ = 0,
= 𝐵𝑛(𝑞/𝑡) 𝑣𝑡 sin 0 = 0, so F = 0. There is no deflection.
= 𝐵𝑛𝑞𝑣 5. If the charge enters at an angle, the path
For a single charge q, the force is is not circular, but is a helix, resulting from
𝐹 = 𝐵𝑞𝑣. circular motion and linear motion combined.
4. For an electron the force The component parallel to the field 𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃,
𝐹 = 𝐵𝑒𝑣, remains unchanged, and the component
where e = 1.6 x 10-19 C, the charge on an perpendicular to the field 𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 is the
electron. Electrons move in the opposite tangential velocity as it travels in a circle.
direction to conventional current. Electrons
moving from right to left (in the opposite
direction to the conventional current shown in 3. The Hall probe
the diagram); experience a force out of the 1. A practical use of 𝐹 = 𝐵 𝑄 𝑣 is the Hall
page. probe, which is a magnetic field sensor used
to measure magnetic field strength.
2. A current balance gives the magnetic field
strength directly from the force, current and
length of the test wire, and does not need to
be calibrated. A Hall probe is more
convenient and easier to use in practical
situations, but needs to be calibrated. Also
Hall probes can measure very weak fields.
 Magnetic fields 5
where VH is the Hall p.d. across the width d of
the conductor.
magnetic field If the charge carriers each have charge Q,
and drift velocity v, the electric force on each
charge carrier is
𝑉 𝑄
= 𝐸 𝑄 = 𝐻𝑑
Y
A B
The magnetic force on each charge carrier is
Hall =𝐵𝑄𝑣
X pd At equilibrium
due to 𝑉𝐻 𝑄
= 𝐵𝑄𝑣
field 𝑑
𝑉𝐻 = 𝐵 𝑣 𝑑
The current I is given by
current semiconductor 𝐼=𝑛𝑄𝑣𝐴
slice
where
A is the cross-sectional area, n is the number
3. A Hall probe contains a slice of of charge carriers per unit volume, and v is
semiconducting material. The slice is the drift velocity.
𝐼
positioned so that magnetic field lines are at 𝑣 = 𝑛𝑄𝐴
right angles to its plane. When a constant Substituting for v gives
current is passed between A and B, charge 𝐼
carriers in the slice (which are electrons in an 𝑉𝐻 = 𝐵 𝑛 𝑄 𝐴 𝑑
n-type semiconductor) are deflected by the 𝐵𝐼𝑑
𝑉𝐻 = 𝑛 𝐴 𝑄
field, causing a p.d. (called the Hall p.d.)
between X and Y which can be measured But 𝐴 = 𝑑 𝑥 𝑡
with a sensitive voltmeter. The field strength where t is the thickness of the conductor.
is proportional to the Hall p.d. So
𝐵𝐼
4. The magnetic field forces electrons 𝑉𝐻 =
𝑛 𝑄𝑡
upwards to side Y, side X becomes deficient
showing that
of electrons, so becomes positively charged.
𝑉𝐻 ∝ 𝐵
The Hall p.d. builds up.
and
1
𝑉𝐻 ∝ 𝑛
field into page
conventional
where n is the number of charge carriers per
current unit volume. A semiconductor slice in a
direction X t magnetic field produces a larger Hall voltage
- - - - - - -- than a metal in the same field.
E d electrons
moving
+ + + + + + to the left
To measure magnetic flux density
Y 1. The slice is positioned so that magnetic
force on negative field lines are at right angles to its plane.
charge carrier When a current is passed between A and B,
charge carriers in the slice experiences a
The charge difference between X and Y sideways force causing a p.d. (called the Hall
causes an electric field E to build up, p.d.) between X and Y which can be
perpendicular to the magnetic field. measured with a sensitive voltmeter. The
Equilibrium is reached when the force on the field strength is proportional to the Hall p.d.
electrons due to the magnetic field is equal in 2. The probe is first calibrated using a
size and opposite in direction to the force on magnetic field of known strength Bo (e.g. a
the electrons due to the electric field. solenoid carrying an accurately known
5. The electric field strength = potential current is suitable because the field strength
gradient, is given by B = µonI). The Hall p.d. Vo for the
𝑉
𝐸 = 𝑑𝐻 known field is measured. Then the probe is
 Magnetic fields 6
placed in into the unknown field and the 𝑒
5. To measure the specific charge (𝑚)
voltmeter reading is noted again.
𝐵 𝑉 𝐵𝑜
= 𝐵= 𝑥𝑉 anode + fluorescent
𝐵𝑜 𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜 screen
where B = unknown field strength,
V = Hall p.d. produced by B,
Bo = known field strength,
Vo = Hall p.d. produced by Bo.

- vacuum
4. Velocity Selector V Helmholtz coils

+ collimator voltmeter measures the accelerating

plates voltage VA

slit
1. This method uses crossed electric and
positive magnetic fields.
ions
𝐸 2. For zero deflection the electric and
𝑣= 𝐵 magnetic force on the beam of electrons
-
magnetic field into page balance.
𝐸𝑒=𝐵𝑒𝑣
𝐸
𝑣= 𝐵
1. Positive ions enter a region where the The kinetic energy of the electron is
electric field and magnetic fields are ½ 𝑚 𝑣 2 = 𝑒 𝑉𝐴 ,
perpendicular to each other (or ‘crossed’). where VA is the accelerating voltage read off
2. The force exerted on the ion by the electric the voltmeter.
field Substituting for v,
= 𝑞𝐸 downwards. 𝐸2
The force exerted by the magnetic field ½𝑚 = 𝑒 𝑉𝐴 ,
𝐵2
= 𝐵𝑞𝑣 upwards. 𝑒 𝐸2
=
𝑚 𝑉𝐴 2 𝐵2
3. For zero deflection, the forces are equal
and opposite. So, but
𝑉
𝑞 𝐸 = 𝐵 𝑞 𝑣, 𝐸=𝑑
giving So
𝐸 𝑒 𝑉2
𝑣= 𝐵 =
𝑚 𝑑2 2 𝐵2 𝑉𝐴
4. Faster ions are deflected upwards
because 𝐵 𝑞 𝑣 is greater than 𝑞 𝐸 while Rearranging gives
slower moving ions are deflected downwards. 𝑒
𝑉 2 = 2 𝑑 2 𝐵 2 𝑉𝐴
These strike the plate instead of passing 𝑚
through. This arrangement is used in a mass
spectrometer. 3. A graph of V2 is plotted against B2.
The gradient is
𝑒
= 2 𝑑2 𝑉𝐴 𝑚
4. The magnetic field strength can be
measured with a Hall probe or using the
formula
𝑁𝐼
𝐵 = 0.716 µ𝑜 𝑟
5. The value is approximate since in practice
the fields are not constant along the whole
length of the beam.
𝑒
= 1.76 𝑥 1011 𝐶 𝑘𝑔−1
𝑚
 Magnetic fields 7
6. Thomson 1897 used this method to 2. Long solenoid
determine e/m of cathode rays. At that time 1. For a solenoid of length L, with N turns,
the specific charge of hydrogen ions was the number of turns per metre,
known to be 9.65 x 107 C kg-1. The hydrogen 𝑁
𝑛= 𝐿
atom was regarded as the smallest particle.
The magnetic flux density at its centre is
Thompson had discovered a subatomic
particle with a mass 1/1800 the mass of the 𝐵 = µ𝑜 𝑛𝐼
hydrogen atom. The Millikan experiment Near the ends of the solenoid it decreases to
enabled the charge to be found. The mass of half, as shown in the graph.
the electron could thus be determined. 2. The magnetic flux density is increased if a
ferrous material such as iron or steel is
placed inside the solenoid.

4. Magnetic fields due to currents B

1. The long straight wire µ𝑜 𝑛𝐼
A Hall probe is used to investigate the
magnetic flux density around the wire.
0.5 µ𝑜 𝑛𝐼
The Hall probe must be positioned so that the
lines of flux pass at right angles through its
tip.
0
distance from centre
A

3. At the centre of a flat circular coil of

radius R with N turns
The field lines are perpendicular to the plane
of the coil and away from the centre of the
Hall probe coil, the field lines form non- circular loops.
to data logger
The magnetic flux density is
B/μT B/μT µ0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵=
2𝑟

0 I/A 0 distance r/mm

• Doubling the current, doubles the flux

density, if the distance from the wire is
kept constant.
• Doubling the distance from the wire,
halves the flux density, if the current is
kept constant.
So
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼
𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐵 ∝
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 , 𝑟
The flux density is given by
µ𝑜 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑥
where
μo is a constnt called the permeability of free
space.
 Magnetic fields 8
Force between two current-carrying wires Example
Find the force per unit length acting on a long
straight wire carrying a current of 11.0 A
X Y when placed 3 cm away from a similar wire
carrying a current of 8.0 A.
I1 I2
Answer:
5.9 x 10-4 Nm-1, the wires are pulling each
L other together.
F F
B
Comparing forces in magnetic, electric and
gravitational fields
r 1. Gravitational, electric and magnetic fields
are defined in terms of the force on a unit
mass, charge or current.
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
𝑔=𝑚 𝐸= 𝑞 𝐵 = 𝐼𝐿
1. Two parallel current carrying conductors
exert equal and opposite forces on each
other because the current in each wire 2. All fields share ‘action at a distance’
creates a magnetic field that causes a force between masses, between charges or
on the other wire. Currents flowing in the between wires carrying currents.
𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑞 𝑞 µ 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐿
• same direction attract. 𝐹= 𝐹 = 4 𝜋1𝜀 2𝑟2 𝐹 = 𝑜 2𝜋𝑟
𝑑2 𝑜
• in opposite directions repel. 3. Decreasing strength with distance from
2. X and Y are two infinitely long, straight the source of the field.
wires in a vacuum. The current in Y 4. Representation by field lines.
produces a magnetic field B at X in the 5. The force:
direction shown. As a result there is a force F • between two 1 kg masses 1 m apart
on X acting towards Y given by the left hand = 6.7 x 10-11 N
rule. • between two charges of 1 C placed 1
3. The magnetic field strength at X due to the m apart = 9.0 x 109 N
current in Y is • per metre on two wires carrying a
µ𝑜 𝐼2
𝐵= current of 1 A placed 1 m apart
2𝜋𝑟 = 2.0 x 10-7 N
The force F on X is given by 𝐹 = 𝐵 𝐼1 𝑙.
6. A stationary charge is unaffected in a
Therefore
µ𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐿 magnetic field, but a moving charge
𝐹= experiences a force given by
2𝜋𝑟
𝐹 µ𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐹 = 𝐵 𝑄 𝑣 sin 𝜃
= 7. Current carrying conductors in a magnetic
𝐿 2𝜋𝑟
4. Similarly by Newton’s 3rd law, Y feels a field do not experience a force if the current
force of the same size due to the field of X in is parallel to the field direction but for all other
the opposite direction. directions experience a force given by
𝐹 = 𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝐼𝐿.
4. One ampere is defined as the current in
two infinitely long straight wires 1m apart in a
vacuum which produces a force of
2 x 10-7 Nm-1 on each wire.
Hence µo = 4π x 10-7 H m-1.