Psychostasis: The weighing of the Heart

–
"Analyzing the Hunefer Papyrus and
similar depictions of Books of the Dead."
Final essay

By: Roberto F. Arguello M.

Student ID: 999344922

Class # 22735 Essence and Functions of Ancient Images (Egypt)

Professor Arlette David

The Hebrew University of Jerusalem

2022 Autumn semester

Table of Contents
1. Abstract .................................................................................................................................... 2
2. Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 2
3. Corpus...................................................................................................................................... 3
4. A brief explanation of the provenance of the “Book of the Dead” texts ................................. 4
5. Hunefer’s Book of the Dead – Judgment Scene ...................................................................... 5
6. Describing, Comparing, and Differentiating ........................................................................... 8
6.1 The adoration of witnessing deities .................................................................................. 8
6.2 Judgment Hall .................................................................................................................. 9
6.2.1 – Maat’s Scale ......................................................................................................... 11
6.2.2 – Deities and Demon ............................................................................................... 12
6.2.3 – Protagonist depiction ................................................................................................. 12
6.3 Meeting with Osiris ........................................................................................................ 13
6.3.1 – Osiris’s Throne .......................................................................................................... 16
7. Reference Gallery .................................................................................................................. 17
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................. 21

1
 1. Abstract

This essay was created as a final assignment for the Essence and Functions of Ancient Images

(Egypt) class given at The Hebrew University during the first semester of the 2022-2023 course

year. In this essay, I will analyze "The Hunefer Papyri," also known as Hunefer's Book of the

Dead, and compare it with previous motifs of similar depictions with the tools and information

given during our class.

2. Introduction

Since the first translation and publication by Sr. Karl R. Lepsius1 in 1889, the Book of the Dead

has shined a new light on our understanding of the ritualistic and cultic ways in "the New

Kingdom" period. It also has opened the human imagination and given us good entertainment in

western movies and books such as the 1999 film "The Mummy," where the plot sees the antagonist

use "THE" Book of the Dead to revive and bring back a certain evil priest. This depiction is far

from the reality of what the actual text tells.

The ancient Egyptians believed in a particular afterlife most differently than our most modern

westernized thoughts come to believe or understand. This afterlife realm has three core beliefs:

The underworld or Duat, eternal life on the “Field of Reeds,” and the soul reborn.

In a way, in our modern western understanding of death and what is beyond, we may think that all

of these rituals in the ancient Egyptian culture were focused and fixated on death, but in reality, it

was the opposite. Egyptians were trying to preserve and praise life and finding ways to preserve

the memories and prolong life even after death. Performing ceremonies and preparing the person's

1
German Egyptologist during the mid-1800’s with major influence on our understandings of the valley of the kings,
dating of the pyramids and “Das Todtenbuch der Ägypter” (Lepsius 1842).

2
body so that it could even be helpful for the Ba (soul) and Ka (life force of the person) in the

netherworld, all of these actions happened before the Ba started to reach the Duat.

The "Book of the Dead" was an evolution of cultic texts written in different forms throughout the

Egyptian reign. Going from the "Pyramid Text" during the "Old Kingdom," and later becoming

the "Coffin Text" during the "Middle Kingdom" and later becoming the "Book of the Dead" texts

during the "New Kingdom."

This essay aims to analyze and give a basic understanding of different depictions of the same motif.

In this case utilizing the Hunefer's Papyri (Hunefer Book of the Dead) as the central depiction,

specifically the scene of “Judgement in front of Osiris,” and compare and differentiate it from

other depictions of the same motif found in different periods.

3. Corpus

MAIN MOTIF
# Name / Book of the Dead Dynasty Dating
1 Hunefer’s Papyrus 19th Dynasty – New Kingdom c. 1275 B.C.E.
SECONDARY MOTIFS
# Name Dynasty Dating
1 Papyrus of Khnumemhab 19th Dynasty – New Kingdom c. 1294 - 1279
B.C.E. approx.
2 Papyrus of Ani 19th Dynasty – New Kingdom c. 1250 B.C.E.
3 Papyrus of Anhay/Anhai 20th Dynasty – New Kingdom c. 1100 B.C.E.
4 Papyrus of the singer of Amun, 21st Dynasty – Third c. 1050 B.C.E.
Nauny Intermediate Period
5 Papyrus of Irtyuru or Milbank Ptolemaic Dynasty c. 332 / 330 B.C.E.
**For image reference, view Point 7, “Reference Gallery.”

3
 4. A brief explanation of the provenance of the “Book of the Dead” texts

Before we look at the history of this text, let us define what they are. The “Book of the Dead” is a

compilation of spells, generally written on a papyrus scroll but could be found in linen wraps with

the mummified person (Caminos 1970), which the Ba will rely on while passing through the Duat

and even when it reaches the eternal life (O'Rourke 2016). This scroll is not a book per se but a

list of spells with imagery to help the user on their way to eternal life. The ancient Egyptians

believed the Ba could encounter evil spirits in the Duat before reaching the “Hall of Judgement”

before confronting the fundamental challenges to let him pass to the eternal afterlife.

The origin of this text is traced back to the “Pyramid Text,” dated to the Old Kingdom. The earliest

one found is in the pyramid of King Unas, dated to the 5th Dynasty (2400 – 2301 BCE). This text

contained spells, prayers, psalms, or hymns carved on the stone walls to help the Ba of the Pharaoh

in the afterlife (Allen 2015). Time passes, and we start to see a new variation of this text with the

“Coffin Text.” Same principle as the “Pyramid Text,” but this was written inside coffins hidden

from prying eyes. The “Coffin Text” was written mainly in the First Intermediate period and by

the start of the Middle Kingdom so, roughly from 2181 to 1991 B.C.E. (Borghouts 1981)

(O'Rourke 2016). At the start of the late Middle Kingdom, priests started writing the spells in linen,

leaving them on top of the deceased, and by the start of the Second Intermediate period, they were

using papyrus rolls.

4
 5. Hunefer’s Book of the Dead – Judgment Scene

Figure 4.1 – Hunefer’s Judgment in the presence of Osiris, Hunefer’s Papyrus, 19th Dynasty, New Kingdom, c. 1275 B.C.E.,
papyrus - Egypt – The British Museum, EA9901,3

This scene (Fig 4.1) in Hunefer’s Book of the Dead depicts when Anubis brings Hunefer to the

“Hall of Maat,” or the hall of judgment, to stand trial and meet Osiris to let him pass over to eternal

life in the field of reeds. This entire scene is read from left to right.

Figure 4.1.1 – Hunefer adoring deities that will witness her, Hunefer’s Papyrus, 19th Dynasty, New Kingdom, c. 1275 B.C.E.,
papyrus - Egypt – The British Museum, EA9901,3

The first part of the scene shows Hunefer kneeling and adoring or perhaps even talking to different

deities who witness his trial, located on the top left vignette (Fig 4.1.1). Then down to the center

of the vignette, starting from the left (Fig 4.1.2), we can see Anubis grabbing Hunefer by the hand

and bringing him to the goddess of truth, justice, and order, Maat. We can observe that Anubis is

carrying an Ankh, the symbol of life. There is contrasting symbolism of Anubis carrying the Ankh,

being that Anubis is the protector of the dead, having a life symbol; in our time, we could compare

5
it to being a defense and prosecutor attorney. We can see our first clear distinction between the

characters' skin colors, light-brown to indicate a human/person and yellow to indicate a god or

deity. In our second phase, Anubis sets up the Maat scale, watched by Thoth, the God of sacred

texts, math, writing, and the demon Ammit. On one side of the scale, we can see Hunefer’s heart,

interpreted in what seems to be a pot, and on the other side, we see a feather of Maat. If the feather

weighted more or balanced with the heart, then Hunefer could pass to the next part. If the feather

weighed less than the heart, then his soul was eaten by Ammit. Ammit is a demon that acted as an

executioner of sinful souls, condemning them to not exist in any plain and strip for the chance of

the eternal afterlife; by the ancient Egyptians, this result was far worse than death itself. It was the

definition of total inexistence. Ammit, depicted in this papyrus, was a combination of three

animals: the head of a crocodile, the upper body of what seems to be a lion, and the lower body of

a hippopotamus. I believe this could express the three main man-eating animals in ancient Egypt.

Thoth, in this case, is recording the whole ordeal.

Figure 4.1.2 – Hunefer’s judgement trial, Hunefer’s Papyrus, 19th Dynasty, New Kingdom, c. 1275 B.C.E., papyrus - Egypt – The
British Museum, EA9901,3

6
After passing the scale trial, Hunefer, taken by Horus, son of Osiris who also carries an Ankh, to

see Osiris, the God of the dead, the afterlife, and agriculture (Fig. 4.1.3). Osiris is depicted in green,

the color of life and vegetation (Rossiter 1984), accompanied by Isis and Nephthys. On his throne,

we can see in front of him a flourishing lotus plant, which symbolizes royalty and eternal life. On

top of it, we can see Horus’s four children, representing the four cardinal points and protectors of

the vital organs in their canopic jars, preserving them forever (Rossiter 1984). We also can see that

Osiris is wrapped in white bandages that tell us part of his history of when he was reborn. He also

has the “flail” and “crook,” symbolizing land fertility and kingship.

Figure 4.1.3 – Hunefer meeting with Osiris, Hunefer’s Papyrus, 19th Dynasty, New Kingdom, c. 1275 B.C.E., papyrus - Egypt –
The British Museum, EA9901,3

7
 6. Describing, Comparing, and Differentiating

Starting from the earliest to the latest, I will describe and compare the changes in the motif

throughout the different periods separating the scenes in their vignettes. Some papyrus does not

have the exact representation of certain depictions.

6.1 The adoration of witnessing deities

Figure 6.1.1 – Hunefer adoring deities that will witness her, Hunefer’s Papyrus, 19th Dynasty, New Kingdom, c. 1275 B.C.E.,
papyrus - Egypt – The British Museum, EA9901,3

Figure 6.1.2 – Witnessing deities for Ani – The Papyrus of Ani, 19th Dynasty, New Kingdom, c. 1250 B.C.E., papyrus – Egypt –
The British Museum, EA10470,3

Figure 6.1.3 – Witnessing deities for Anhay/Anhai – The Papyrus of Anhai, 20th Dynasty, c. 1100 B.C.E., papyrus – Egypt – The
British Museum, EA10472,4

Figure 6.1.4 – Witnessing deities for Irtyuru – The Papyrus of Irtyuru / Milbank, Ptolemaic Dynasty, c. 332 B.C.E, papyrus –
Egypt – The Oriental Institute, E10486J

8
Analysing Hunefer’s (Fig. 6.1.1) and Ani’s (Fig. 6.1.2) vignettes, between the deities and the

offerings, it can be appreciated that they mostly remain the same, except that in Ani’s depiction,

the protagonist per se does not appear. From there on, we can see that none of the prominent

protagonist's presence appears in this vignette anymore; now, that does not mean that scribes or

priests see this step as unnecessary anymore. They still leave offerings, indicating that some

respect and praise given to the witnessing deities are part of the norm, or it could also indicate the

wealthiness of the protagonist being abundant enough to give to all the deities.

Another point is that all the witnessing deities are seated, telling “us,” the reader (the Ba of the

deceased), that all are here to stay and witness the trial.

6.2 Judgment Hall

Figure 6.2.1 - Hunefer’s judgement trial, Hunefer’s Papyrus, 19th Dynasty, New Kingdom, c. 1275 B.C.E., papyrus - Egypt – The
British Museum, EA9901,3

9
Figure 6.2.2 – Judgement of “Khnumemheb,” Book of the Dead of Khnumemheb, 19th Dynasty, New Kingdom, c. 1294/1279
B.C.E., papyrus – Egypt – The University College London, UC 32365 – 2002

Figure 6.2.3 – Judgement of Ani, Book of the Dead Papyrus of Ani, 19th Dynasty, New Kingdom, c. 1250 B.C.E., papyrus – Egypt
– The British Museum, EA10470,3

Figure 6.2.4 – Judgement of Anhay/Anhai – The Papyrus of Anhai, 20th Dynasty, c. 1100 B.C.E., papyrus – Egypt – The British
Museum, EA10472,4

10
Figure 6.2.5 – Judgement of Nauny, Book of the Dead for the Chantress of Amun Nauny, 21st Dynasty, c. 1050 B.C.E., papyrus –
Egypt – The MET Museum, 30.3.31, Gallery 126

Figure 6.2.6 – Judgement of Irtyuru, Book of the Dead of Milbank / Irtyuru, Ptolemaic Dynasty, c. 332/330 B.C.E., papyrus –
Egypt – The Oriental Institute, E10486J

This vignette shows the trial of the main protagonist. In this standard depiction of the scene, the

protagonist is presented with the scale trial, and a deity balances this one as Thoth makes sure that

it is recorded, and Ammit waits for the result.

6.2.1 – Maat’s Scale

The scale in most depictions remains almost the same; the scale does maintain the same appearance

in general, that includes the color and shape. However, in some instances, we can appreciate

Maat’s face on top of the scale, as shown in Hunefer’s depiction (Fig. 6.2.1). In others, we see

what could represent Thoth’s primate form on top of it (Fig. 6.2.3, Fig. 6.2.4, and Fig 6.2.5)

(Rossiter 1984) or just Maat’s feather (Fig. 6.2.6). Another point to indicate is the feather on the

scale. The feather, in most instances, is represented by the hieroglyphic symbol of Maat (Fig. 6.2.2,

6.2.4, 6.2.5, and 6.2.6) rather than her feather (Fig. 6.2.1 and 6.2.3). In most cases, we see the scale

11
being balanced by Anubis (Fig. 6.2.1, 6.2.3, 6.2.4, and 6.2.5), and in one instance, it is being

balanced by Horus (Fig. 6.2.2) and in another by both, Anubis and Horus (Fig. 6.2.6).

6.2.2 – Deities and Demon

Throughout the vignette, the same deities appear in one shape or another, Anubis in his shape as

the jackal head deity, Horus with his falcon-shaped head, Thoth with his ibis-shaped faction, and

Maat in her human form. Horus, Anubis, and Thoth have their respective tail emerging from their

hips, symbolizing their divinity status (Calvin W. Schwabe 1982).

In some instances, Maat does appear with her face being her feather (Fig. 6.2.6).

Ammit seems to have the most distinctive feature swap compared to the other deities; in one

depiction, it is shown with a cheetah upper part of the body, as in the case of figure 6.2.3, maybe

to denote or emphasize her quick and precise execution for the unjustified souls.

6.2.3 – Protagonist depiction

The protagonist is represented as a figure, or as its Ba in the case of Ani in Fig. 6.2.3, always

humble and afraid, waiting for his trial.

In the case of Nauny (Fig. 6.2.5), she is presented as confident against the trial, and in her hands,

she carries her sight and voice reflected by the hieroglyphics.

In the end, there are no significant differences between them.

12
 6.3 Meeting with Osiris

Figure 6.3.1 – Hunefer meeting with Osiris, Hunefer’s Papyrus, 19th Dynasty, New Kingdom, c. 1275 B.C.E., papyrus - Egypt –
The British Museum, EA9901,3

Figure 6.3.2 - “Khnumemheb” meeting with Osiris, Book of the Dead of Khnumemheb, 19th Dynasty, New Kingdom, c. 1294/1279
B.C.E., papyrus – Egypt – The University College London, UC 32365 – 2002

13
Figure 6.3.3 – Horus bringing Ani to Osiris, Book of the Dead Papyrus of Ani, 19th Dynasty, New Kingdom, c. 1250 B.C.E.,
papyrus – Egypt – The British Museum, EA10470,4

Figure 6.3.4 – Osiris watching over Anhai’s trial – The Papyrus of Anhai, 20th Dynasty, c. 1100 B.C.E., papyrus – Egypt – The
British Museum, EA10472,5

14
Figure 6.3.5 – Osiris overseeing Nauny’s trial, Book of the Dead for the Chantress of Amun Nauny, 21st Dynasty, c. 1050 B.C.E.,
papyrus – Egypt – The MET Museum, 30.3.31, Gallery 126

Figure 6.3.6 - Judgement of Irtyuru, Book of the Dead of Milbank / Irtyuru, Ptolemaic Dynasty, c. 332/330 B.C.E., papyrus –
Egypt – The Oriental Institute, E10486J

In the meeting with Osiris, he is presented as a being overwatching the entire trial, always sitting

on his throne and carrying his flail, crook, and sometimes just his sacred “was” scepter (Fig. 6.3.5),

symbolizing Thebes (Rossiter 1984). Besides the above, a constant depiction (From Fig. 6.3.3 to

6.3.6) that Osiris has an offering shown in front of him; this could be from wheat to presents to

domesticated animals.

15
Another constant symbol is of the papyrus in front, sometimes on his back (Fig. 6.3.5),

symbolizing life and eternity. Most of the time, this papyrus is presented with the four sons of

Horus (Fig. 6.3.1, 6.3.2, 6.3.3).

How he dresses does not change from period to period; perhaps the way it is represented might

change, but the meaning stays the same—dressed up in white bandages symbolizing his death and

reborn.

6.3.1 – Osiris’s Throne

Osiris’s throne is the one with the most significant changes throughout time. We can appreciate

Isis and Nephthys standing behind Osiris except in Nauny’s (Fig. 6.3.5) and Irtyuru’s (Fig. 6.3.6)

papyrus. Maybe this could indicate a lack of space in the vignette from part of the scribe or priest

or perhaps a lack of funding by the papyrus's owner.

We can appreciate almost every depiction on top of the ceiling, except in the Book of the Dead of

Khnumemheb (Fig. 6.3.2) for deterioration; the standing flared cobra symbolizes royalty. The

Book of the Dead of Nauny (Fig. 6.3.5) shows the cobra on the double crown of Osiris.

16
 7. Reference Gallery

Figure 7.1 - Book of the Dead of Hunefer (Hw-nfr) frame 3; fully coloured vignettes; coloured border. The scene (vignettes) shows
episodes in Hunefer's judgment, Hunefer’s Papyrus, 19th Dynasty, New Kingdom, c. 1275 B.C.E., papyrus - Egypt – The British
Museum, EA9901,3

Figure 7.2 - Judgement of “Khnumemheb,” Book of the Dead of Khnumemheb, 19th Dynasty, New Kingdom, c. 1294/1279
B.C.E., papyrus – Egypt – The University College London, UC 32365 – 2002

17
Figure 7.3 - Judgement of Ani, Book of the Dead Papyrus of Ani, 19 th Dynasty, New Kingdom, c. 1250 B.C.E., papyrus – Egypt –
The British Museum, EA10470,3

Figure 7.4 - Book of the Dead of Ani; frame 4; full colour vignettes; red borders. Vignette showing the conclusion of the
judgment, with Ani introduced to Osiris, Book of the Dead Papyrus of Ani, 19th Dynasty, New Kingdom, c. 1250 B.C.E., papyrus
– Egypt – The British Museum, EA10470,4

18
Figure 7.5 - Book of the Dead of Anhay; frame 4; full colour judgment vignette; blue border at top, yellow/red at bottom. The
judgment of Anhay Judgement of Anhay/Anhai – The Papyrus of Anhai, 20th Dynasty, c. 1100 B.C.E., papyrus – Egypt – The
British Museum, EA10472,4

Figure 7.7 - Book of the Dead of Anhay; frame 5; full colour vignettes; blue border at top, yellow/red at bottom. Vignette of Osiris
watching the judgment of Anhay. Spell 110 with vignette of Field of Reeds, The Papyrus of Anhai, 20th Dynasty, c. 1100 B.C.E.,
papyrus – Egypt – The British Museum, EA10472,5

19
Figure 7.8 - Book of the Dead for the Chantress of Amun Nauny, 21st Dynasty, c. 1050 B.C.E., papyrus – Egypt – The MET
Museum, 30.3.31, Gallery 126

Figure 7.9 - Milbank Papyrus, text plus many vignettes, largest is the judgement scene before Osiris, scroll for benefit of
Yartiuerow, Book of the Dead of Milbank / Irtyuru, Ptolemaic Dynasty, c. 332/330 B.C.E., papyrus – Egypt – The Oriental
Institute, E10486J

20
Bibliography
Allen, James P. 2015. The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts, Second Edition. Atlanta: SBL Press.
1888. Book of the Dead of Anhay - EA10472,4. The British Museum, London.
1888. Book of the Dead of Anhay - EA10472,6. The British Museum , London.
1888. Book of the Dead of Ani - EA10470,31. The British Museum, London.
n.d. "Book of the Dead of Ani; frame 4." The British Museum. EA10470,4. London.
1852. Book of the Dead of Hunefer - EA9901,3. The British Museum, London.
n.d. Book of the Dead of Khnumemheb, 19th Dynasty. University College London, London.
1888. 'Book of the Dead', Papyrus of Ani, EA10470,3. The British Museum, London.
Borghouts, Joris F. 1981. An introductory guide to the coffin texts. Leiden : Egyptologisch
Seminarium; Universiteit Amsterdam.
Budge, E. A. Wallis. 1967. The Book of the dead : the papyrus of Ani in the British Museum. New
York: Dover Publications.
Budge, Sir E. A. Wallis. 2004. The Book of the Dead. Project Gutenberg. Accessed 2023.
https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/7145/pg7145-images.html.
Calvin W. Schwabe, Adams Joyce, and Hodge T. Carleton. 1982. "Egyptian Beliefs about the
Bull’s Spine: An Anatomical Origin for Ankh." Anthropological Linguistics 445-479.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/30027646.
Caminos, Ricardo A. 1970. ""Fragments of the Book of the Dead on Linen and Papyrus."." The
Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 56 (SAGE Publications Ltd.) 117 - 131. Accessed 2023.
https://doi.org/10.2307/3856047.
Institue, The Oriental. 2018. Highlights from the Collection: Egypt. Accessed 2023.
https://oi.uchicago.edu/collections/highlights/highlights-collection-egypt.
Lepsius, Carl Richard. 1842. Das Todtenbuch der Ägypter (nach dem hieroglyphischen Papyrus
in Turin). https://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/propylaeumdok/volltexte/2010/467.
Met, The. 1930. Book of the Dead for the Chantress of Amun Nauny - 30.3.31. Accessed 2023.
Museum, The Brooklyn. n.d. Book of the Dead of the Goldworker of Amun, Sobekmose. Accessed
2023. https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/objects/118297.
O'Rourke, Paul F. 2016. An Ancient Egyptian Book Of The Dead. Thames & Hudson, Brooklyn
Museum.
1888. Papyrus from the Book of the Dead of Anhai - 0512.222.6. The British Museum, London.
Rossiter, Evelyn. 1984. The Book Of The Dead - Papyri of Ani, Hunefer, Anhaï. Liber.

21
Scalf, Foy. 2017. Book of The Dead Becoming God in Ancient Egypt. Chicago: The Oriental
Institue of the University of Chicago.
Scalf, The Oriental Institute Museum - Foy. 2018. Papyrus Milbank: The Book of the Dead of
Irtyuru. March. Accessed 2023. https://artsandculture.google.com/story/papyrus-milbank-
the-oriental-institute/4wXhDWX2bttPLQ?hl=en.
Shorter, Alan W. 1937. "The Papyrus of Khnememhab in the University College, London." The
Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 23 (1): 34-38. https://doi.org/10.2307/3854457.
Shorter, Alan W. 1937. "The Papyrus of Khnememhab in University College, London." The
Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 34-38. Accessed 2023.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3854457?seq=7.
Stevenson, Alice. 2015. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology Charcaters and collections.
London: UCL Press.
https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1468795/4/The_Petrie_Museum_of_Egyptian_Archa
eology.pdf.
2015. The British Museum, "Hunefer’s Judgement in the presence of Osiris," in Smarthistory. Dec
11. Accessed 2023. https://smarthistory.org/hunefers-judgement-in-the-presence-of-
osiris/.

22