Spherical Coordinate System

Spherical Polar Coordinates

Let 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 be any point whose projection on the 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 is L(𝑥, 𝑦, 0).
Then the spherical polar coordinates of 𝑃 are 𝑟, 𝜃, ϕ in which 𝑟റ = 𝑂𝑃.
Transformation equations between spherical and rectangular coordinates
The transformation equations expressing the

rectangular coordinates in terms of

spherical polar coordinates are

x = r sin  cos 
y = r sin  sin 
z = r cos 
squaring and adding above equations
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2 sin 2  cos 2  + r 2 sin 2  sin 2  + r 2 cos 2 
= r 2 sin 2  (cos 2  + sin 2  ) + r 2 cos 2 
= r 2 sin 2  + r 2 cos 2  = r 2 (sin 2  + cos 2  ) = r 2

 r = x2 + y 2 + z 2
squaring and adding first two equations , we get
x 2 + y 2 = r 2 sin 2  cos 2  + r 2 sin 2  sin 2 
= r 2 sin 2  (cos 2  + sin 2  ) = r 2 sin 2 
or r sin  = x 2 + y 2
Divide this equation, by third equation, we have
r sin  x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2
= or tan  =
r cos  z z
x 2
+ y 2
  = tan −1
z
Now Dividing first two equations
r sin  sin  y y
= or tan  =
r sin  cos  x x
y
  = tan −1
x Where 𝑟 ≥ 0, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋, 0 ≤ 𝜙 ≤ 2𝜋
Unit vectors :
The position vector of point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) in spherical polar coordinates is given by

r = xi + y j + zk
r = r sin  cos  i + r sin  sin  j + r cos  k
The tangent vectors in the direction of 𝑟, 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ϕ respectively are given by

r = xi + y j + zk
r = r sin  cos  i + r sin  sin  j + r cos  k
r
= sin  cos  i + sin  sin  j + cos  k
r
r
= r cos  cos  i + r cos  sin  j − r sin  k

r
= −r sin  sin  i + r sin  cos  j

 r
sin  cos  i + sin  sin  j + cos  k
eˆr = r =
r sin 2  cos 2  + sin 2  sin 2  + cos 2 
r
eˆr = sin  cos  i + sin  sin  j + cos  k
r
r cos  cos  i + r cos  sin  j − r sin  k
eˆ =  =
r r 2 cos 2  cos 2  + r 2 cos 2  sin 2  + r 2 sin 2 

eˆ = cos  cos  i + cos  sin  j − sin  k
r
 −r sin  sin  i + r sin  cos  j
eˆ = =
r r 2 sin 2  sin 2  + r 2 sin 2  cos 2 

eˆ = − sin  i + cos  j
In matrix notation

 eˆr   sin  cos  sin  sin  cos    i 

     
eˆ  = cos  cos  cos  sin  − sin    j 
 eˆ   − sin   
  cos  0   k 
 
Scale factors:

The scales factors for the spherical coordinate system are given by.

r
h1 = hr = = sin 2  cos 2  + sin 2  sin 2  + cos 2 
r
= sin 2  (cos 2  + sin 2  ) + cos 2 
= sin 2  + cos 2  = 1
h1 = hr = 1

h2 = h = r 2 cos 2  cos 2  + r 2 cos 2  sin 2  + r 2 sin 2 

= r 2 cos 2  (cos 2  + sin 2  ) + r 2 sin 2 
= r 2 cos 2  + r 2 sin 2  = r
h2 = h = r

h3 = h = r 2 sin 2  sin 2  + r 2 sin 2  cos 2 

= r 2 sin 2  (sin 2  + cos 2  )
= r 2 sin 2  = r sin 
h3 = h = r sin 
 Arc length element:

In orthogonal curvilinear coordinates, the elements of arc lengthis det er min ed by

(ds)2 = h12 (du1 ) 2 + h22 (du2 ) 2 + h32 (du3 ) 2
In cylindrical polar coorrdinates, thesebecomes
(ds)2 = (1)2 (dr ) 2 + (r ) 2 (d ) 2 + (r sin  ) 2 (d ) 2
= (dr )2 + r 2 (d )2 + r 2 sin 2  (d ) 2

Area element

we knowthat the elements of area in an orthogonal curvilinear coordinates are :

dA1 = h2 h3du2 du3 , dA2 = h1h3du1du3 dA3 = h1h2 du1du2
In cylindrical polar coordinates, thesebecomes
dA1 = (r )(r sin  )d d = r 2 sin  d d
dA2 = (1)(r sin  )drd = r sin  drd
dA3 = (1)(r )drd = rdrd
Volume element

dv = h1h2 h3du1du2 du3

In spherical polar coordinate, this becomes
dv = (1)(r )(r sin  )drd d = r 2 sin  drd dz

Expression for Jacobian in spherical polar coordinates:

We know that the Jacobian in orthogonal curvilinear coordinates 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 is given by

x, y , z
J( ) = h1h2 h3
u1 , u2 , u3
In spherical polar coordinates h1 = 1, h2 = r , h3 = r sin  and u1 = r , u2 =  , u3 = 
x, y , z
Therefore J( ) = (1)( r )( r sin  ) = r 2 sin 
u1 , u2 , u3
Expression for gradient, divergence, curl and Laplcian for spherical polar
coordinates:

we knowthat for spherical polar coordinates (r ,  ,  )

u1 = r , u2 =  , u3 =  ; e1 = e r , e 2 = e , e3 = e
h1 = hr = 1, h2 = h = r , h3 = h = r sin 
A1 = Ar A2 = A A3 = A

Gradient:

In orthogonal curvilinear coordinates, we have

1  1  1 
 = eˆ1 + eˆ2 + eˆ3
h1 u1 h2 u2 h3 u3
In spherical polar coordinates it becomes
1  1  1 
 = eˆr + eˆ + eˆ
1 r r  r sin  
 1  1 
 = eˆr + eˆ + eˆ
r r  r sin  
Divergence:
In orthogonal curvilinear coordinates, we have
1     
. A =  ( A1h2 h3 ) + ( A2 h3h1 ) + ( A3h1h2 )
 u1
h1h2 h3 u2 u3 
In spherical polar coordinates this becomes
   
. A =
1
 ( r )( r sin  ) Ar + ( ( r sin  )(1) A ) +  (1)( r ) ( A )
(1)( r )( r sin  )  r  
 2   
 r ( r sin  ) Ar +  ( r sin  A ) +  ( rA ) 
1
. A = 2
( r sin  )  
1  2  
. A =
r r
2 ( r Ar) +
1
r sin  
( r sin  A ) +
1
r sin  
( rA )
Curl:
In orthogonal curvilinear coordinates, we have
h1eˆ1 h2 eˆ2 h3eˆ3
 A = 1   
h1h2 h3 u1 u2 u3
A1h1 A2 h2 A3h3
In spherical polar coordinates, this becomes

eˆr reˆ r sin  eˆ

 A = 1   
(1)( r )( r sin  ) r  
Ar rA r sin  A
  ( )}
 ˆ
er { 
( r sin  A
) −  ( )} − reˆ { 
rA  ( r sin  A
) − Ar 
 A = 1     r  
( r sin  ) +{  ( rA ) − Ar }rsin  eˆ
2 

 r  
Laplacian:

In orthogonal curvilinear coordinates, we have

1   h2 h3   h3h1   h1h2  
 2 =  ( ) + ( ) + ( )
 u1 h1 u1 u2 h2 u2 u3 h3 u3 
h1h2 h3
In spherical polar coordinates, this becomes
1   ( r )( r sin  )   ( r sin  )(1)   (1)( r )  
 =
2
 ( )+ ( )+ ( )
(1)( r )( r sin  )  r (1) r  r   ( r sin  )  
1    2     1  2 
 = 2 (  ) r + (sin  )+
2
2 
r sin
( r sin  )  r  r    ( sin  )  
1   2   1   1  2
  = 2 r
2
+ (sin  )+ 2
r r  r  r 2 sin    r sin   2
Spherical Coordinate System
Transformation equations from cylindrical to spherical system:
If point P has cylindrical polar coordinates 𝜌, 𝝋, 𝒛 then
y
 = x 2 + y 2  = tan −1
x
z=z
If spherical polar coordinates of P are
𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜑 then
x2 + y 2
r= x +y +z
2 2 2
 = tan −1

z
y
 = tan −1
x
Then from the figure and above equations
we have

r =  2 + z2  = tan −1  =
z
Example: Prove that the spherical coordinate system is orthogonal.
Spherical Coordinate System
Example: Express the velocity and acceleration of a particle in spherical
coordinates.
Example; Represent the following vector in spherical coordinates.
෠
𝐴റ = 2𝑦𝑖Ƹ − 𝑧𝑗Ƹ + 3𝑥 𝑘.
Contravariant Vectors
Important points:
▪ On transforming a vector the components change and the basis
vectors change however, the vector itself does not change its
direction and magnitude remains same.
▪ This actually defines a tensor which does not change with a
change of coordinate transformation. i.e., it remains invariant
under a change of coordinate systems.
The components of the vector change under a coordinate
transformation. These components may change in one of the two
ways
▪ Contravariant
▪ Covariant
A vector whose components transform in a contravariant fashion
is a contravariant vector.
Similarly, a vector whose components transform in a covariant
fashion is a covariant vector.
Contravariant vectors:
▪ A contravariant vector or tangent vector is often abbreviated simply as
vector, such as a direction vector or velocity vector.
▪ The contravariant vector has components that contra-vary with a change of
basis to compensate.
▪ That is, the matrix that transforms the vector components must be the
inverse of the matrix that transforms the basis vectors.
▪ Examples of vectors with contravariant components include the position of
an object relative to an observer, or any derivative of position with respect
to time, including velocity and acceleration.
▪ In Einstein notation, contravariant components are denoted with upper
indices.
Contravariant Vectors:
Consider a coordinate system with 𝑥1 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and
𝑒1Ƹ and 𝑒Ƹ2 are unit vectors along these axes. Further consider a
vector 𝑎റ in this coordinate system such that in component form it
can be written as
𝑎റ = 𝑎1 𝑒1Ƹ + 𝑎2 𝑒Ƹ2 → (1)
Now we will observe change in above vector when the basis vector 𝑒Ƹ2
becomes 2𝑒Ƹ2 . It means we are transforming the vector 𝑎റ from the 𝑥1 𝑥2
coordinate system to a new one named as 𝑥′1 𝑥′2 system such that the new
bases vectors 𝑒′Ƹ 1 and 𝑒′Ƹ 2 are related with 𝑒1Ƹ and 𝑒Ƹ2 as: 𝑒′Ƹ 1 = 𝑒1Ƹ and 𝑒′Ƹ 2 = 2𝑒Ƹ2 .
In this new system:
𝑎റ = 𝑎1 𝑒1Ƹ + 𝑎ሖ2 𝑒′Ƹ 2 → (2)
Now comparing (1) and (2), we have
𝑎2 𝑒Ƹ2 = 𝑎2′ 𝑒′Ƹ 2 using 𝑒′Ƹ 2 = 2𝑒Ƹ2 , we obtain:
𝑎 2
𝑎2 𝑒Ƹ2 = 2𝑎ሖ2 𝑒Ƹ2 implies 𝑎2 = 2𝑎ሖ2 or 𝑎ሖ2 =
2
Covariant Vectors
Covariant Vectors:
▪ In contrast, co-vectors also called dual vectors typically have
units of the inverse of distance.
▪ An example of a co-vector is the gradient, which has units of a
spatial derivative, or distance inverse. The components of co-
vectors change in the same way as changes to scale of the
reference axes and consequently are called covariant.
▪ A covariant vector often abbreviated as co-vector has
components that co-vary with a change of basis.
▪ That is, the components must be transformed by the same
matrix as the change of basis matrix.
▪ In Einstein notation, covariant components are denoted with
lower indices.
Relation between contravariant and covariant components of a
vector:
Note that:
▪ Contravariant components of a vector represent its parallel
projections onto coordinate axes.
▪ Covariant components of a vector represent its perpendicular
projection.
Consider the vector 𝑎റ in contravariant component form as
𝑎റ = 𝑎1 𝑒1Ƹ + 𝑎2 𝑒Ƹ2 → (1)
Since its covariant components are perpendicular projections of 𝑎റ
onto the coordinate axes so,
𝑎1 = 𝑎.
റ 𝑒1Ƹ → (2) ,
𝑎2 = 𝑎.
റ 𝑒Ƹ2 → (3)
Now replacing the expression of vector 𝑎റ from Eq.1 into (2) and (3)
We have:
𝑎1 = (𝑎1 𝑒1Ƹ + 𝑎2 𝑒Ƹ2 ). 𝑒1Ƹ and 𝑎2 = (𝑎1 𝑒1Ƹ + 𝑎2 𝑒Ƹ2 ). 𝑒Ƹ2
Implies
𝑎1 = 𝑎1 (𝑒1Ƹ . 𝑒1Ƹ ) + 𝑎2 (𝑒Ƹ2 . 𝑒1Ƹ ) → (2′)
𝑎2 = 𝑎1 (𝑒1Ƹ . 𝑒Ƹ2 ) + 𝑎2 (𝑒Ƹ2 . 𝑒Ƹ2 ) → (3′)
Covariant vector components transformation:
Now similar to contravariant case, consider a coordinate system with 𝑥1 −
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and 𝑒1Ƹ and 𝑒Ƹ2 are unit vectors along these axes. Further
consider a vector 𝑎റ in this coordinate system such that in component form it
can be written as
𝑎റ = 𝑎1 𝑒1Ƹ + 𝑎2 𝑒Ƹ2 → 1
To obtain a relation for covariant components,
consider
റ 𝑒1Ƹ =𝑎1 (𝑒1Ƹ . 𝑒1Ƹ ) + 𝑎ሖ2 (𝑒′Ƹ 2 . 𝑒1Ƹ )
𝑎′1 = 𝑎.
റ 𝑒′Ƹ 2 = 𝑎1 (𝑒1Ƹ . 𝑒′Ƹ 2 ) + 𝑎ሖ2 (𝑒′Ƹ 2 . 𝑒′Ƹ 2 )
𝑎′2 = 𝑎.
𝑎 2
Now using 𝑒′Ƹ 2 = 2𝑒Ƹ2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎ሖ2 = , we get
2
𝑎′1 = 𝑎1 (𝑒1Ƹ . 𝑒1Ƹ ) + 𝑎2 (𝑒Ƹ2 . 𝑒1Ƹ ) = 𝑎1 and
𝑎′2 = 2( 𝑎1 (𝑒1Ƹ . 𝑒Ƹ2 ) + 𝑎2 (𝑒Ƹ2 . 𝑒Ƹ2 ) )= 2𝑎2
Implies that a covariant component transforms in the same manner as the basis
vectors.
Note:
If we restrict ourselves to Cartesian co-ordinate systems having
orthonormal basis vectors then we do not have to make a
distinction between co- and contravariant indices.
First order tensors
Tensor of rank one:
Tensors of order one are actually vectors. Here we study the
transformation rules for contravariant and covariant first order
tensors.
Transformation Law for Contravariant tensor:
A vector field 𝐴റ is a contravariant tensor of order one provided its
components 𝐴𝑖 and 𝐴ሚ𝑖 relative to the coordinate systems 𝑥 𝑖 and
𝑥෤ 𝑖 obey the transformation
𝜕 𝑥෤ 𝑖
𝐴ሚ𝑖 = 𝐴𝑟 ;1≤𝑖≤𝑛
𝜕𝑥 𝑟
Question: Show that the tangent vector of curve is a contravariant vector.
Solution: Let C be curve whose parametric representation in 𝑥 𝑖 − system is
𝑥 𝑖 = 𝑥 𝑖 (𝑡); 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏.
The tangent vector 𝑇 = 𝑇 𝑖 is defined by the usual differentiation:
𝑑𝑥 𝑖
𝑇𝑖 =
𝑑𝑡
Under a change of coordinates to 𝑥෤ 𝑖 system, the same curve is given by 𝑥෤ 𝑖 =
𝑥෤ 𝑖 (𝑡); 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏
And the tangent for this system is
𝑑 𝑥
෤ 𝑖
𝑇෨ 𝑖 =
𝑑𝑡
Then by chain rule:
𝑑 𝑥෤ 𝑖 𝜕𝑥෤ 𝑖 𝑑𝑥 𝑖 𝜕𝑥෤ 𝑖
= or 𝑇෨ 𝑖 = 𝑇 𝑟
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑖
Implying that tangent vector 𝑇 is a contravariant vector.
Transformation Law for Covariant tensor:
A vector field 𝐴റ is a covariant tensor of order one provided its components 𝐴𝑖
and 𝐴ሚ 𝑖 relative to the coordinate systems 𝑥 𝑖 and 𝑥෤ 𝑖 obey the transformation
𝜕𝑥 𝑟
𝐴ሚ 𝑖 = 𝐴𝑟 ;1≤𝑖≤𝑛
𝜕𝑥 𝑖
Example: Suppose that 𝑇 𝑖 is a contravariant vector on 𝑅2 and that
𝑇 𝑖 = (𝑥 2 , 𝑥 1 ) in the 𝑥 𝑖 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚. Calculate 𝑇෨ 𝑖 in the 𝑥෤ 𝑖 −system, under the
change of coordinates.
𝑥෤ 1 = (𝑥 2 )2
𝑥෤ 2 = 𝑥 1 𝑥 2
By definition of contravariance,
𝜕𝑥෤ 𝑖𝜕𝑥෤ 𝜕𝑥෤ 𝑖 𝑖 𝜕𝑥෤ 𝑖 𝜕𝑥෤ 𝑖
𝑇෨ 𝑖 = 𝑇 𝑟 𝑟 = 𝑇1 1 + 𝑇 2 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 1
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 1 𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝑥෤ 𝜕𝑥෤ 1 1
For 𝑖 = 1: 𝑇෨ 1 = 𝑥 2 1 + 𝑥 1 2 = 2𝑥 1 𝑥 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑥෤ 2 𝜕𝑥෤ 2
For 𝑖 = 2: 𝑇෨ 2 = 𝑥 2 +𝑥 1 = (𝑥 2 )2 + (𝑥 1 )2
𝜕𝑥 1 𝜕𝑥 2
Which in terms of tilted coordinates become:
(𝑥෤ ) 2 2
𝑇෨ 1 =2 𝑥෤ 2 , 𝑇෨ 2 = 𝑥෤ 1 + ෤ 1
𝑥
Example: Calculate 𝑇෨ 𝑖 in the 𝑥෤ 𝑖 −system if 𝑇 𝑖 = (𝑥 2 , 𝑥 1 + 2𝑥 2 ) is a
contravariant vector.
Second Order Tensors
Higher order tensors:
Tensors of arbitrary order may be defined. We begin with the three
types of second order tensors.
▪ Contravariant tensor
▪ Covariant tensor
▪ Mixed tensor
Let 𝑉 = [𝑉 𝑖𝑗 ] denote a matrix field and [𝑉 𝑖𝑗 ] is an 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix of
scalar fields. These are defined over the same region in 𝑅𝑛 . As
before, there are two systems of coordinates 𝑥 𝑖 and 𝑥෤ 𝑖 with
𝑉 = [𝑉 𝑖𝑗 ] in 𝑥 𝑖 -system and 𝑉 = [𝑉෨ 𝑖𝑗 ] in the tilted coordinate
system. Where the coordinates from one system to another can be
transformed via some transformation.
Contravariant tensor:
The matrix field V is a contravariant tensor of order two if its
components 𝑇 𝑖𝑗 in 𝑥 𝑖 -system and 𝑇෨ 𝑖𝑗 in 𝑥෤ 𝑖 -system obey the law
of transformation
𝜕 𝑥
෤ 𝑖 𝜕𝑥
෤ 𝑗
𝑇෨ 𝑖𝑗 = 𝑇 𝑟𝑠 𝑟 𝑠
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

Covariant tensor:
The matrix field V is a covariant tensor of order two if its
components 𝑇𝑖𝑗 in 𝑥 𝑖 -system and 𝑇෨𝑖𝑗 in 𝑥෤ 𝑖 -system obey the law of
transformation

𝜕𝑥 𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝑠
𝑇෨𝑖𝑗 = 𝑇𝑟𝑠 𝑖 𝑗
𝜕𝑥෤ 𝜕𝑥෤
Mixed tensor:
The matrix field V is a mixed tensor of order two, contravariant
of order one and covariant of order one, if its components 𝑇𝑗𝑖 in
𝑥 𝑖 -system and 𝑇෨𝑖𝑗 in 𝑥෤ 𝑖 -system obey the law of transformation
𝑖 𝑠
𝜕 𝑥
෤ 𝜕𝑥
𝑇෨𝑗𝑖 = 𝑇𝑠𝑟 𝑟 𝑗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥෤
Tensor of arbitrary order:
Vectors and matrix fields are inadequate for higher order tensors.
The generalized vector field V is a tensor of order 𝑚 = 𝑝 𝑞,
contravariant of order 𝑝 and covariant of order 𝑞, if its
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 ...𝑖
components 𝑇𝑗11𝑗22𝑗33...𝑗𝑞𝑝 in 𝑥 𝑖 -system and 𝑇෨𝑗𝑖11𝑗𝑖22𝑗𝑖33...𝑗
...𝑖𝑝
𝑞

in 𝑥෤ 𝑖 - system obey the law of transformation

𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 ...𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 ...𝑖 𝜕 𝑥෤ 𝑖1 𝜕𝑥෤ 𝑖2 𝜕𝑥෤ 𝑖𝑝 𝜕𝑥 𝑠1 𝜕𝑥 𝑠1 𝜕𝑥 𝑠1

𝑇෨𝑗 1𝑗 2𝑗 3...𝑗𝑝 = 𝑇𝑗 1𝑗 2𝑗 3...𝑗𝑝 ... ...
1 2 3 𝑞 1 2 3 𝑞 𝜕𝑥 𝑟1 𝜕𝑥 𝑟2 𝜕𝑥 𝑟𝑝 𝜕𝑥෤ 𝑗1 𝜕𝑥෤ 𝑗1 𝜕𝑥෤ 𝑗1
Invariant:
A function 𝜑(𝑥 1 , 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 3 , … , 𝑥 𝑛 ) is called scalar or an invariant if
its original value does not change upon transformation of
coordinates from 𝑥 𝑖 -system to 𝑥෤ 𝑖 -system. i.e.,
𝜑(𝑥 1 , 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 3 , . . . , 𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝜑(
෤ 𝑥෤ 1 , 𝑥෤ 2 , 𝑥෤ 3 , . . . , 𝑥෤ 𝑛 )
▪ Scalar is a tensor of rank zero.
▪ Objects, functions, equations or formulas that are independent
of the coordinate system used to express them are invariants
and are of fundamental significance.

▪ An invariant of a vector (rank-1 tensor) under coordinate

transformations is its magnitude, i.e. length (the direction is
also invariant but it is not scalar!).
▪ The main three independent scalar invariants of a rank-2 tensor under
change of basis are:

𝐼𝑓 𝐴 = [𝐴𝑖𝑗 ], 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝐼 = 𝑡𝑟(𝐴) = 𝐴𝑖𝑖
𝐼𝐼 = 𝑡𝑟(𝐴2 ) = 𝐴𝑖𝑗 𝐴𝑗𝑖
𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝑡𝑟(𝐴3 ) = 𝐴𝑖𝑗 𝐴𝑗𝑘 𝐴𝑘𝑖

𝐼1 = 𝐼 = 𝐴𝑖𝑖
1 2
𝐼2 = (𝐼 − 𝐼𝐼)
2

1
𝐼3 = det(𝐴) = (𝐼 3 − 3𝐼 . 𝐼𝐼 + 2𝐼𝐼𝐼)
3!
Addition and subtraction of tensors
The sum or difference of two tensors which have same number of
covariant and contravariant indices is again a tensor of the rank
and type as the given tensors.

Since the transformation law for tensor of any arbitrary order is

linear in the tensor components, it is clear that if 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 , … , 𝑇𝑛 are
tensors of the same type and order and if 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , … , 𝛼𝑛 are
invariant scalars, then

Is a tensor of the same type and order as 𝑇𝑖 .

Outer product
The outer product of the tensors

Is the tensor

Which is of order
Inner product
To take an inner product of two tensors, one equates an upper
index of one tensor to a lower index of the other, and then apply
sum over the repeated dummy index. In effect, the contravariant
and covariant behaviors cancel out, which lowers the total order
of the tensor product.

It can be observed that there will exist inner products,

in general, all of these will be distinct. Each will be a tensor of
order
Contraction
This is another order reducing operation like the inner product
but is applied to single tensors. In contraction of a tensor we
equate its one contravariant index and one covariant index.
Combined operations
We can form new tensors from the old ones in a variety of ways
by performing different tensor operations discussed above.
One might form the outer product of two tensors, then take an
inner product of this with a third tensor, or contract on one or
more pair of indices either before or after taking a product.
It is noteworthy to mention that an inner product of two tensors
may be characterized as a contraction of their outer product.
Quotient Law
By this law, we can test the given quantity is a tensor or not.
Suppose given quantity be A and we do not know that A is a
tensor or not. To test A, we take inner product of A with an
arbitrary tensor, if this inner product is a tensor then A is also a
tensor.
Statement
If the inner product of a set of functions with an arbitrary tensor
is a tensor then these set of functions are components of a tensor.
Tensor Equations
Much of the importance of tensors in mathematical physics and
engineering resides in the fact that if a tensor equation or identity
is true in one coordinate system, then it is true in all coordinate
systems.
Symmetric Tensors
A tensor is said to symmetric with respect to two
contravariant or two covariant indices if its
components remain unchanged on an interchange of
the two indices.
Skew symmetric tensor
A tensor is said to be skew symmetric with respect to
two contravariant or two covariant indices if its
components change sign on interchange of the two
indices.
Conjugate symmetric tensor:
Consider a covariant symmetric tensor of rank
two . Let d denote the determinant of this tensor
Then define by
Cartesian Tensors:
A cartesian tensor is a tensor in a three dimensional Euclidean space.
Unlike general tensors there is no distinction between covariant and
contravariant indices for Cartesian tensors. However, tensors in non
Euclidean spaces do require this distinction.
In other words, tensors defined in a geometry obeying the coordinate
transformation from non tilde system to tilde system as
𝑥෤ 𝑖 = 𝑎𝑗𝑖 𝑥 𝑗 with 𝑎𝑗𝑖 ≠ 0
and the transformation matrix 𝑎𝑗𝑖 is orthogonal are called Cartesian
tensors. This transformation should also be distance preserving.
Transformation laws for Cartesian tensors:
 Affine Tensors

The adjective "affine" indicates everything that is related to the

geometry of affine spaces. A coordinate system for the n-dimensional
affine space is determined by any basis of n vectors, which are not
necessarily orthonormal. Therefore the resulting axes are not mutually
perpendicular.
Consider a transformation of the form that takes the points from a
rectangular coordinate system into an affine coordinate system.
Tensors defined on the class of all such affine coordinate systems
are called affine tensors.