STEM ROAD MAP

STEM Road Map: A Framework for Integrated STEM Education is the first resource
to offer integrated STEM curricula encompassing the entire K-12 spectrum, with
complete grade-level learning based on a spiraled approach to building concep-
tual understanding. A team of over 30 STEM education professionals from across
the US collaborated on the important work of mapping out the Common Core
standards in mathematics and English/language arts, the Next Generation Science
Standards performance expectations, and the Framework for 21st Century Learn-
ing into a coordinated, integrated, STEM education curriculum map.
The book is structured in three main parts—Conceptualizing STEM, STEM
Curriculum Maps, and Building Capacity for STEM—designed to build com-
mon understandings of integrated STEM, provide rich curriculum maps for imple-
menting integrated STEM at the classroom level, and provide supports to enable
systemic transformation to an integrated STEM approach. The STEM Road Map
places the power into educators’ hands to implement integrated STEM learning
within their classrooms without the need for extensive resources, making it a reality
for all students.

Carla C. Johnson is Associate Dean for Engagement and Global Affairs and
Professor of Science Education, College of Education, Purdue University, USA.

Erin E. Peters-Burton is Division Director and Associate Professor of

Education—Science Education and Educational Psychology, George Mason Uni-
versity, USA.

Tamara J. Moore is Associate Professor, Engineering Education, School of

Engineering Education, Purdue University, USA.
This page intentionally left blank
STEM ROAD MAP
A Framework for Integrated
STEM Education

Edited by Carla C. Johnson,

Erin E. Peters-Burton, and
Tamara J. Moore
First published 2016
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
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Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2016 Taylor & Francis
The right of the editors to be identified as the authors of the editorial
material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been
asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other
means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
STEM road map : a framework for integrated STEM education / edited
by Carla C. Johnson, Erin E. Peters-Burton & Tamara J. Moore.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Science—Study and teaching (Elementary) 2. Technology—Study
and teaching (Elementary) 3. Engineering—Study and teaching
(Elementary) 4. Mathematics—Study and teaching (Elementary)
5. Science—Study and teaching (Secondary) 6. Technology—Study
and teaching (Secondary) 7. Engineering—Study and teaching
(Secondary) 8. Mathematics—Study and teaching (Secondary)
I. Johnson, Carla C., 1969– editor of compilation, author.
LB1585.S748 2015
372.35044—dc23
2014048917
ISBN: 978-1-138-80422-7 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-80423-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-75315-7 (ebk)

Typeset in Bembo
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
This work is dedicated to the memory of Margaret Ashida, the
inaugural Executive Director of STEMx, who passed away this year.
STEMx is a U.S. multi-state network focused on sharing, analyz-
ing, and disseminating quality STEM education tools to transform
education, expand the number of STEM teachers, increase achieve-
ment in STEM, and grow tomorrow’s innovators. Margaret was a
visionary leader who expressed great enthusiasm for the potential of
the STEM Road Map work to make STEM education a reality for
all children.
This page intentionally left blank
CONTENTS

Preface ix
Acknowledgments xi

PART I
Conceptualizing STEM 1

1 The Need for a STEM Road Map 3

Tamara J. Moore, Carla C. Johnson, Erin E. Peters-Burton,
and S. Selcen Guzey

2 The Emergence of STEM 13

Catherine Koehler, Ian C. Binns, and
Mark A. Bloom

3 Integrated STEM Education 23

Lynn A. Bryan, Tamara J. Moore, Carla C. Johnson,
and Gillian H. Roehrig

PART II
STEM Curriculum Maps 39

4 The STEM Road Map for Grades K-2 41

Catherine Koehler, Mark A. Bloom, and
Andrea R. Milner
viii Contents

5 The STEM Road Map for Grades 3–5 68

Brenda M. Capobianco, Carolyn Parker,
Amanda Laurier, and Jennifer Rankin

6 The STEM Road Map for Grades 6–8 96

Carla C. Johnson, Tamara J. Moore, Juliana Utley,
Jonathan Breiner, Steven R. Burton, Erin E. Peters-Burton,
Janet Walton, and Chea L. Parton

7 The STEM Road Map for Grades 9–12 124

Erin E. Peters-Burton, Padmanabhan Seshaiyer,
Stephen R. Burton, Jennifer Drake-Patrick, and
Carla C. Johnson

PART III
Building Capacity for STEM 163

8 Data-Driven STEM Assessment 165

Toni A. Sondergeld, Kristin L.K. Koskey,
Gregory E. Stone, and Erin E. Peters-Burton

9 Sociotransformative STEM Education 189

Alberto J. Rodriguez

10 Effective STEM Professional Development 203

Carla C. Johnson and Toni A. Sondergeld

11 Effective Program Characteristics, Start-up, and

Advocacy for STEM 211
Shaun Yoder, Susan Bodary, and Carla C. Johnson

Appendix A Sample STEM Module One: Grade 7 239

Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers
Appendix B Sample STEM Module Two: Grade K 311
Jennifer Suh
Appendix C Sample STEM Road Map Module Curriculum
Planning Template 337
Carla C. Johnson, Erin E. Peters-Burton, and
Catherine Koehler
About the Contributors 347
Index 349
PREFACE

STEM Road Map: A Framework for Integrated STEM Education is the first resource
for educators, administrators, community stakeholders, and advocates of STEM
to guide K-12 schools in the direction of integrated STEM education. A team of
over 30 STEM education professionals from across the U.S. collaborated on the
important work of mapping out the Common Core standards in mathematics
and English/language arts, the Next Generation Science Standards performance
objectives, and the Framework for 21st Century Learning (www.p21.org) into a
coordinated, integrated, STEM education curriculum map.
The purpose of this book is to make STEM for all students a reality. It makes
an integrated STEM curriculum available that encompasses the entire K-12 spec-
trum with complete grade-level learning based on a spiraled approach to build-
ing conceptual understanding. The entire K-12 STEM Road Map is organized
around five major STEM themes that include: Cause and Effect, Innovation
and Progress, The Represented World, Sustainable Systems, and Optimizing the
Human Experience. At each grade level, students will engage with a topic that
was derived from the academic standards (e.g. Common Core, Next Generation
Science Standards) that aligns with the selected theme. STEM Road Map: A Frame-
work for Integrated STEM Education places the power into the educators’ hands to
implement integrated STEM learning within their classrooms without the need
for extensive resources.
The book is structured in three main parts designed to build common under-
standings of integrated STEM, provide rich curriculum maps for implementing
integrated STEM at the classroom level, and supports to enable systemic trans-
formation to an integrated STEM approach. The three corresponding parts are:
Conceptualizing STEM, STEM Curriculum Maps, and Building Capacity for
STEM.
x Preface

The first Part of the book, Conceptualizing STEM, is comprised of three

chapters. Chapter 1 provides an overview of the need for a STEM Road Map and
presents the five STEM themes that serve as the anchor for an integrated STEM
curriculum. Chapter 2 discusses the historical evolution of STEM and ties to the
new academic standards. Chapter 3 establishes a conceptual and practical frame-
work for integrated STEM.
In Part II, STEM Curriculum Maps, there are four chapters with each cor-
responding to a grade band within K-12. Chapter 4 is the K-2 STEM Road
Map that presents the framework for early childhood STEM learning. Chapter 5
focuses on grades 3–5 in upper elementary and presents the STEM curriculum
maps for each theme and grade level. Chapter 6 moves into middle school grade
levels (6–8) and continues the spiraling curriculum maps for STEM. Chapter 7
is the final chapter in this Part, which focuses on integrated STEM in the high
school setting (9–12).
Part III of the book is focused on Building Capacity for STEM and the
series of chapters in this section are meant to serve as resources for implement-
ing STEM. Chapter 8 provides an overview of effective STEM assessment and
using data to drive integrated STEM instruction. Chapter 9 is focused on mak-
ing STEM accessible to all learners through a sociotransformative approach.
Chapter 10 provides guidelines for effective STEM professional development.
Chapter 11 is the final chapter in the book and presents frameworks for effective
STEM programs and STEM advocacy.
The Appendix provides two fully developed STEM Road Map sample cur-
riculum modules. These are meant to serve as a model for schools that may
want to develop their own, community-based and local-context curriculum for
STEM using the curriculum maps provided in the book. However, all modules
outlined in the book are under development at Purdue University and will be
made available in the very near future.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

As with most large book projects, there are many people behind the scenes that
provided support to make this project a success. The authors of this book would
like to show their appreciation to the following individuals who provided their
expertise in conceptualizing integrated STEM, helping to review chapters and/
or modules, and providing other support.

Becky Ashe, L&N STEM Academy, Knoxville, TN

Kathy Bowdring, West Potomac High School, Alexandria, VA
David Burns, Battelle, Columbus, OH
Jessica Carr, Innovation Academy, Kingsport, TN
Tony Donen, STEM School Chattanooga, Chattanooga, TN
Marni Durham, Princeton City School District, Cincinnati, OH
Jeremy Eltz, Indiana Department of Education, Indianapolis, IN
Lori Farkash, Moss Y. Beach Elementary School, Wallingford, CT
Caroline Gergel, Annandale High School, Annandale, VA
Maggie Jensen, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN
Rita Neidlinger, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN
Chea Parton, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN
William Sprankles, Princeton City School District, Cincinnati, OH
Sandy Watkins, Tennessee STEM Innovation Network

We would also like to thank sponsors of this work whose valuable support
enabled this project to move from idea to reality.

Bill Muzzillo, General Motors

Dean Maryann Santos de Barona, Purdue University College of Education
This page intentionally left blank
PART I

Conceptualizing STEM
This page intentionally left blank
1
THE NEED FOR A STEM ROAD MAP
Tamara J. Moore, Carla C. Johnson,
Erin E. Peters-Burton, and S. Selcen Guzey

Introduction
Policy makers and educational leaders have argued that the key to future prosper-
ity of the U.S. is improving STEM teaching and learning opportunities for our
children (Committee on Prospering in the Global Economy of the 21st Century,
2007). This call to action is anchored by two distinct realities: the jobs of the
future are integrally STEM driven and the foundation of STEM knowledge stu-
dents receive in K-12 has been directly linked to the prosperity of our country.
Specifically, one out of every three jobs by 2015 will be STEM-related (National
Science Board, 2007). Further, over 80 percent of the fastest-growing occupa-
tions in our country are dependent on mastery of mathematics, engineering,
technology, and science knowledge and skills, and these positions are being filled
by talent from abroad due to the talent shortage within the U.S. (Bureau of Labor
Statistics, 2008). Student mastery of STEM disciplines in K-12 schools is directly
connected to success in college, as well as economic growth and development,
national security, and global competitiveness (Business Roundtable, 2005; Com-
mittee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy [CSEPP], 2007).
There have been several reports that have provided strategies for preparing our
children for the STEM-wave of change. The Carnegie Foundation’s 2009 report,
The Opportunity Equation, proposed four key areas of focus to address the STEM
talent crisis, including (a) higher levels of mathematics and science learning for all
students; (b) common standards that are fewer, clearer, and better aligned with
assessments; (c) improved teaching and professional learning, supported by better
school and system management; and (d) new designs for schools to support learn-
ing more effectively. Other reports by the National Research Council (NRC) and
other agencies have echoed these calls to action (e.g., NRC, 2011, 2014).
4 Tamara J. Moore et al.

The STEM Road Map project is a coordinated response to the need for
addressing STEM learning in K-12 to better prepare our children for the
careers of the future that are anchored in understanding of STEM. As sug-
gested in the Carnegie Foundation report (2009), the STEM Road Map pro-
vides a new curriculum design for delivering STEM learning more effectively
across the continuum of K-12 schooling. The STEM Road Map project started
as an ambitious undertaking by 25 leaders in STEM education from the various
STEM disciplines (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) as well
as English/language arts and stakeholders from the realm of educational policy
and reform. The focus of the effort was to address the need for an innovative,
integrated, problem- and project-based, high-quality curriculum for K-12 that
would begin to address the prevalent issues within our educational system and
provide teachers with a tool that would enable them to teach the Common Core
(mathematics and English/language arts) along with the Next Generation Sci-
ence Standards (NGSS) while infusing the 21st Century Skills Framework (www.
p21.org) in a real-world, meaningful way. An integrated STEM approach is
necessary for addressing global and local challenges, as well as for success in
careers of today and those anticipated in the future. Roehrig, Moore, Wang,
and Park (2012) argued that our daily challenges are: “multidisciplinary, and
many require integration of multiple STEM concepts to solve them” (p. 31).
The emerging new standards have responded to the call for a more interdis-
ciplinary approach and have infused more critical thinking and integration
of other content areas (e.g., English/language arts inclusion of science, NGSS
focus on mathematics and engineering).
The STEM Road Map provides a complete, K-12 mapping of academic stan-
dards (i.e., Common Core and NGSS) organized by five STEM themes that
students will experience in a spiraled curriculum that will grow their content
knowledge and skills through application within five-week sequences of instruc-
tion organized around a problem or a project. The STEM Road Map curriculum
is designed to be delivered by teachers in a collaborative, integrated manner where
explicit ties to the actual project and/or problem are made within each content
area each week of instruction, while one or more of the disciplines serve as the
lead for delivery of the module. As a result, students will experience the overlap-
ping nature of integrated STEM learning and deeper conceptual understanding
will be achieved in both STEM and non-STEM disciplines.

Integrated STEM in the STEM Road Map

The foundation of the STEM Road Map is meaningful integration of the STEM
disciplines within the context of real-world challenges and problems in K-12 class-
rooms (e.g., Breiner, Harkness, Johnson, & Koehler, 2012; Johnson, 2013; Rennie,
Venville, & Wallace, 2012; Roehrig et al., 2012). Integrated STEM is primarily
 The Need for a STEM Road Map 5

about providing opportunities for students to learn in settings that require inter-
disciplinary boundaries to be crossed; in particular, integrated STEM education
is an effort by educators to have students participate in engineering design and
engineering thinking as a means to develop and/or explore technologies in a
manner that requires deep learning and application of mathematics and/or sci-
ence as well as consideration of other disciplines (e.g., social studies, English/
language arts). Moore and colleagues (Moore, Guzey, & Brown, 2014; Moore
et al., 2014) developed a STEM integration framework that has been adopted to
guide the focus of the STEM Road Map. The “Framework for STEM Integra-
tion in the Classroom” has six primary elements that will be incorporated in the
STEM Road Map:

1) In order to engage students in meaningful learning and provide access to

the content, integrated STEM learning environments include a motivating
and engaging context. These contexts should be personally meaningful and
allow for students to connect with the content.
2) In order to develop problem-solving abilities, creativity, and higher-order
thinking skills, integrated STEM education should include engineering
design challenges of relevant technologies for compelling purposes. This
can also include engineering thinking, technological progress, and reverse
engineering of technologies.
3) STEM integration should allow for students to learn from failure and to
redesign based on what is learned. This is one of the hallmarks of engineer-
ing thinking and should not be overlooked.
4) In order for the learning to be meaningful and worth the time it takes to
participate in project- and problem-based learning challenges, integrated
STEM education should include standards-based mathematics and/or sci-
ence objectives in the learning activities. In addition, real-world problems
are interdisciplinary beyond just the STEM disciplines. This means that
other disciplines, such as English/language arts and social studies, can be
included as appropriate.
5) In order to provide students with opportunities to learn the standards-based
content deeply, it is imperative that content be taught in a student-centered
manner. Students need opportunities to grapple with the content and think
for themselves in order to deepen their conceptual knowledge.
6) Finally, integrated STEM learning environments should emphasize team-
work and communication abilities that are imperative for life in a 21st cen-
tury workforce.

Each curricular module within the STEM Road Map has been designed using
these six elements. However, the STEM Road Map also provides an extensive
breadth of themes that students will encounter in a given year or grade level.
6 Tamara J. Moore et al.

STEM Themes
The STEM Road Map is organized around five real-world STEM themes that
serve as the focus for delivery of the spiraled curriculum in grades K-12. Each of
these themes will have a focused STEM topic within each grade level that is tied
to the appropriate academic content standards. An overview of each theme is
presented in this chapter to provide the context for the grade-level, theme-based
topics that will appear in this book.

Cause and Effect

The concept of cause and effect is a powerful and pervasive notion in the STEM
fields. It is the foundation of understanding how and why things happen as they
do. Humans spend considerable effort and resources trying to understand the
causes and effects of natural and designed phenomena to gain better control over
events and environment and to be prepared to react appropriately. Equipped
with the knowledge of a specific cause and effect relationship, one can lead a better
life or contribute to the community by altering the cause leading to a different
effect. For example, if a person recognizes that irresponsible energy consumption
leads to global climate change, that person can act to remedy their contribution
to the situation. Although cause and effect is a core idea in the STEM fields, it
is actually very difficult to determine. Students should similarly be capable of
understanding when evidence points to cause and effect, as well as when evi-
dence points to relationships, but not direct causality. A major goal of education
is to develop empowered, analytical citizens who are capable of thinking through
complex processes to make important decisions. An understanding of causality,
as well as understanding when causality cannot be determined, will help stu-
dents become better consumers, global citizens, and community members.

Innovation and Progress

The theme of innovation and progress as conceptualized for the STEM Road
Map consists of ideas that use established concepts to move the STEM fields
forward. One of the most important factors in determining if humans will have
a positive future is innovation. Innovation is the driving force behind progress,
which helps to make possibilities that did not exist before. Innovation and prog-
ress are creative entities, but in the STEM fields, they are anchored by evidence
and logic. In creating something new, students must consider what is already
known in the STEM fields and apply this knowledge appropriately. When we
innovate, we create value that was not there previously and create new condi-
tions and possibilities for even more innovations. Students should consider how
their innovations might affect progress and use their STEM thinking to change
current human burdens to benefits. For example, if we develop more efficient
 The Need for a STEM Road Map 7

cars that use by-products from another manufacturing industry, such as food
processing, then we have used waste productively and reduced the need for the
waste to be hauled away, an indirect benefit of the innovation.

The Represented World

When we communicate about the world we live in, how the world works, and
how we can meet the needs of humans, we often use underlying phenomena
as part of our explanations. However, these concepts are often too complex to
explain directly, so we invoke simplifying representations or models to help
communicate the important features. We need representations and models such
as graphs, tables, mathematical expressions, and diagrams because they make our
thinking visible. For example, when explaining about geologic time, we cannot
actually observe the passage of such large chunks of time, so we create a timeline
or a model that uses a proportional scale to visually illustrate how much time has
passed for different eras. Another example may be something too complex for
students in a particular grade level, such as explaining the p subshell orbitals of
electrons to fifth graders. Instead, we use the Bohr model, which more closely
represents the orbiting of planets, which is accessible to fifth graders. When we
create models, they should be helpful if they are designed to point out the most
important features of a phenomenon. We also create representations of the world
with mathematical functions, which help us to change parameters to suit the
situation. Creating representations of phenomena engages students because they
assimilate the information and communicate it directly. However, models also
leave out some of the details that occur with the phenomena. Because models
are helpful, but are also estimates of phenomena, it is important for students to
evaluate their usefulness as well as what they leave out because they are estimates
of an occurrence.

Sustainable Systems
We encounter sustainable systems in everything we do. Looking at a garden, you
will see flowers blooming, weeds sprouting, insects buzzing, and various forms of
life living within its boundaries. This is an example of an ecosystem, a collection of
living organisms that survive together. This happens to be one type of ‘system’ but
if you look around, systems are all around us. From an engineering perspective, the
term ‘systems’ is the use of “concepts of component need, component interaction,
systems interaction, and feedback. The interaction of subcomponents to produce a
functional system is a common lens used by all engineering disciplines for under-
standing, analysis, and design” (Koehler et al., 2006, p. 8). Systems can either be
open (as in the example of an ecosystem) or closed (as in the example of a combus-
tion engine). Ideally, a system should be sustainable (e.g., being able to maintain
equilibrium without much energy from outside the structure). In our example of an
8 Tamara J. Moore et al.

ecosystem, the interaction of the organisms within the system and the influences
of the environment (e.g., water, sunlight) can maintain the system for a period of
time thus demonstrating its ability to endure. A sustainable system is ideal as it
allows for existence of the entity for the long term. In our STEM Road Map project,
we identified different standards that we consider to be oriented toward ‘systems’
that students should know and understand in the K-12 setting. We have identified
examples of systems-thinking: ecosystems, the rock cycle, earth processes (such as
erosion, tectonics, ocean currents, weather phenomena), Earth-Sun-Moon cycles,
heat transfer, and the interaction between the geosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere,
and/or atmosphere. Students and teachers need to understand that we live in a world
of systems, and they are not independent of each other, but instead intrinsically
linked so that disruption in one part of the system will have reverberating effects on
other parts of the system.

Optimizing the Human Experience

The theme of optimizing the human experience as conceptualized for the STEM
Road Map consists of the notion that science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics as disciplines have the capacity to continuously improve the ways
humans live, interact, and find meaning in the world. This idea has two compo-
nents: being more suited to our environment and being more fully human. For
example, the progression of STEM ideas can help humans live more comfortably
by providing unique ways to access water sources, design energy sources that
do not have as much of an impact on our environment, develop new ways of
communication and expression, and build efficient shelters. STEM ideas can also
help humans to be self-actualized by providing access to the secrets and wonders
of nature. Learning in STEM requires students to think logically and system-
atically, which is a way of knowing the world that is markedly different from
knowing the world as an artist. However, we feel that when students can utilize
various ways of knowing, and understand when it is appropriate to use a differ-
ent way of knowing or integrate ways of knowing, they are fully experiencing
the best of what it is to be human. Learning to think like a STEM professional
via the problem-based learning scenarios provided in the STEM Road Map helps
students to optimize the human experience by innovating improvements in the
designed world students live in.

Infusion of Technology and Engineering in

the STEM Road Map
In 2009, the National Academy of Engineering produced a report, Engineer-
ing in K-12 Education: Understanding the Status and Improving the Prospects, which
explained some of the factors that make incorporating the topic of engineering
difficult. First, most teachers do not have an engineering background, and as a
 The Need for a STEM Road Map 9

result, there is not a critical mass of teachers who would feel comfortable or quali-
fied to teach a curriculum that is exclusively about engineering subject matter.
Second, the curricular demands on teachers is already overwhelming, and add-
ing another topic to teach is not productive, particularly given the high-stakes
testing environment. Therefore, the National Academies of Engineering sug-
gested two different strategies for implementation of engineering education in
the current K-12 curriculum: infusion and mapping. Infusion is the proactive
strategy of taking engineering standards and embedding them into the science
and mathematics standards. The science and engineering practices in NGSS are
an example of infusion, because engineering standards have been added along
with the science standards, for example asking questions (science) and identifying
problems (engineering). Mapping involves integrating big ideas in engineering
onto current standards in other disciplines. The big ideas suggested in this report
include engineering design, systems thinking, optimization, modeling, identifying
constraints, analysis, communication, and engineering habits of mind. The STEM
Road Map incorporates both mapping and infusion in the designed curriculum.
Since the themes in the book are aligned to the NGSS and engineering standards
are mapped into the Science and Engineering Practices as well as the Disciplin-
ary Core Ideas, mapping of engineering standards is folded into the curriculum.
Similarly, the themes were designed to support engineering ideas such as the ones
recommended in the National Academies report, therefore, the STEM Road Map
also infuses major engineering ideas into the integrated curriculum.

The Nature of STEM

The practice of integrating STEM topics has been around for a long time. How-
ever, on closer examination, STEM education is often accelerated or enriched
science and mathematics education, rather than integration. In the STEM Road
Map, we have embraced a truly integrated STEM approach as a response to
workforce and societal needs. Learning through multiple, integrated subjects
can produce deeper conceptual understandings, better development of skills, and
higher achievement than learning the subjects in isolation. Similar to the phi-
losophy of the NGSS, we feel that learning concepts to pass a test is not enough;
students should also be learning what it is like to think like a STEM professional
and develop the requisite STEM habits of mind. A multidisciplinary approach
can help students reinforce their learning across all four subjects in STEM. Cre-
ating a STEM learning environment can be accomplished by examining the
nature of each discipline and considering what is alike and what is different
about the core content areas that are integrated into STEM learning experiences.
There has been a great deal of work developed on the nature of science, technol-
ogy, engineering, and mathematics individually, and the intention in this section of
the book is not to delve deeply into each one, but to look at common features that
might enhance teachers’ understandings of integrated STEM learning. The nature
10 Tamara J. Moore et al.

of science (NOS) has been defined as the inherent guidelines that scientists follow in
order to cultivate valid ideas about the natural world (Lederman, 1992; McComas &
Olson, 1998). The nature of technology (NOT) explains features of technological
advancements that extend humans’ abilities to shape the world for goals ranging from
survival needs to aesthetics (AAAS, 1993). The nature of engineering (NOE) can
be described as what engineers do in the cyclical design process, how engineering
impacts society, and how society impacts engineering (NRC, 2014). The nature of
mathematics (NOM) can be considered the cycle of inquiry that begins with the
representation of quantities as abstract symbols, accounting for all possibilities through
manipulation of the rules (although there is some flexibility), and validating the qual-
ity of solutions and models by understanding the differences between mistakes and
reasonable choices that did not turn out to be successful (Schoenfeld, 1992). All of
these disciplines depend on iterative cycles of inquiry that lead to the development of
valid and productive ideas. In these iterative cycles of inquiry, there are no rigid steps
in the processes of the development of ideas, although they are guided by reasoned
arguments. Therefore, STEM can be characterized as the human endeavor of antici-
pating outcomes based on background knowledge, making sense of what is observed,
the use of logical reasoning, approaching unknowns systematically, and the necessity
of transparency for the purposes of replicability and evaluation. An important feature
of the outcome of the iterative cycles is that the process is self-righting. That is, if there
is an error along the way, peer review, replication, and evaluation will help straighten
out issues with the process of the investigation, a model created as a tool or a product,
or the design process. STEM professionals, and STEM students, should recognize
that choices in the cycles of inquiry are made for a reason and the attempts to try to
account for all possibilities are central features of their discipline.

STEM Road Map Module Curriculum Planning Template

This book includes the K-12 academic content standards and Framework for 21st
Century Learning (Partnership for 21st Century Learning, 2009) mapped out in
a full pathway for implementing integrated STEM. Additionally, two full STEM
Road Map curriculum modules have been included in the appendix to serve as a
resource for implementation. Further, the STEM Road Map Module Curriculum
Planning Template is also included to guide individual teachers, schools, dis-
tricts, and other educational programs in the development of their own locally
contextualized curriculum.
The STEM Road Map Module Curriculum Planning Template includes a sum-
mary of the module, established goals/objectives, content standards, 21st-century
themes and skills, as well as the overall challenge or problem that drives instruction
in the grade-level topic of study. Other included areas of the template are: module
launch activity, key concepts, desired outcomes, assessment plan, resources, time-
line, and then individual lesson plans.
 The Need for a STEM Road Map 11

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cussion about conceptions of STEM in education and partnerships, School Science and
Mathematics, 112(1), 3–11.
Bureau of Labor Statistics (2008). Employment projections: 2008–2018 summary. Retrieved
from www.bls.gov/news.release/ecopro.nr0.htm
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2
THE EMERGENCE OF STEM
Catherine Koehler, Ian C. Binns, and
Mark A. Bloom

As we enter the 21st century where technological advancement has domi-

nated global markets, the U.S. must fundamentally shift the composition of
its workforce in order to be competitive (Business-Higher Education Forum
(BEF), 2002; National Science Board (NSB), 2004; Smalley, 2003; National
Science Foundation (NSF), 2005; Friedman, 2005; National Academy of
Engineering (NAE), 2005; National Academy of Science (NAS), 2007). Our
nation’s well-being depends upon how well we educate our children in sci-
ence, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) and prepare them
for careers within these fields. It is through proficiency in these STEM fields
that our economic and national security will maintain our competitiveness in
this global competition. In Rising Above the Gathering Storm (NAS, 2007), the
National Academy of Science warns us of the danger that “Americans may
not know enough about science, technology, or mathematics to contribute
significantly to, or fully benefit from, the knowledge-based economy that is
already taking shape around us” (p. 121). It is estimated that only approxi-
mately 6 percent of American undergraduate students major in engineer-
ing, while other countries boast much higher numbers: European countries
(12 percent), Singapore (20 percent), and China (40 percent). Other indicators
in this report included: (a) the U.S. economy, though strong, has more invest-
ments in foreign stocks than in U.S. stocks (remember that this report was
prior to the 2008 U.S. financial collapse); (b) the U.S. is sending many jobs
overseas; and (c) advanced research in physics (e.g. the particle accelerator) is
located outside the U.S. (NAS, 2007). Traditional classroom lecture methods
are not preparing our youth for the challenges of the coming global change;
we need to teach differently.
14 Catherine Koehler et al.

The Rising Above the Gathering Storm report (NAS, 2007) provides guidance
to improve global competitiveness of the U.S. through engagement with STEM
and STEM education:

1) Increase America’s talent pool by vastly improving K-12 science and math-
ematics education.
2) Sustain and strengthen the nation’s traditional commitment to long-term
basic research that has the potential to be transformational in order to main-
tain the flow of new ideas that fuel the economy, provide security, and
enhance the quality of life.
3) Make the U.S. the most attractive setting in which to study and perform
research so that we can develop, recruit, and retain the best and the brightest
students, scientists, and engineers from within the U.S. and throughout the
world.
4) Ensure that the United States (a) is the premier place in the world to inno-
vate; (b) invests in downstream activities such as manufacturing and mar-
keting; and (c) creates high-paying jobs based on innovations.

This chapter focuses on the first recommendation: Increase America’s talent pool
by vastly improving K-12 science and mathematics education.

History of Science Education and the Link to STEM

On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 and rocked the world
of science and science education. This small, silver satellite orbited the Earth
approximately 1,400 times before re-entry into the atmosphere on January 4,
1958, 92 days after it was launched (NASA, 2014). The launch of Sputnik rever-
berated fear throughout the United States and the Race to Space was on. This
monumental occasion marked an era that would change how curriculum would
be evaluated; particularly the subjects of science and mathematics. It was clear to
the American public that reform was needed in science and mathematics instruc-
tion. As a rapid reaction to the launching of Sputnik 1, the National Science
Foundation (NSF) began funding curriculum projects such as the Physical Sci-
ence Study Committee (PSSC), Earth Science Curriculum Project (ESCP), and
Biological Science Curriculum Study (BSCS) (among others) that were developed
and taught in schools across the U.S. Mathematics also had its share of curriculum
projects, including the School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG), the University
of Maryland Mathematics Project (UMMaP), and the Madison Project to name a
few. With the development of these curriculum projects, teachers had difficulty
with implementation as they did not have the content background to support
these new reform efforts. Unfortunately, without content support and professional
development, teachers reverted back to teaching content that was familiar to them
using familiar pedagogical strategies: not representative of these new approaches
 The Emergence of STEM 15

to teaching and learning (Bybee, 2013). Technology and engineering were also on
board with curriculum initiatives in the 1970s with the development of The Man
Made World, part of the Engineering Concepts Curriculum Project (ECCP), but
unfortunately, there was no place in schools to teach these concepts (International
Technology Education Association (ITEA), 2009).
Despite the curricular efforts of the 1960s and 1970s, the 1983 report by
the National Commission on Excellence in Education (NCEE), A Nation at
Risk, revealed a distressing picture of the education system in the United States
(NCEE, 1983). Among other things, this report indicated that (a) U.S. students
were behind their peers from other developed nations with regard to science and
mathematics, (b) many students did not possess ‘higher-order’ thinking skills, and
(c) the average achievement of high school students was even lower than when
Sputnik was launched. One of the many recommendations from this report was
the development of standards of learning. It was this report that led to the devel-
opment of Project 2061: Science for All Americans (American Association for the
Advancement of Science (AAAS), 1989), which provided a framework for K-12
education and established the goal that all Americans must be literate in science,
technology, and mathematics by 2061, the year Halley’s Comet returns. Project
2061: Science for All Americans led to the development of the Benchmarks for Science
Literacy (Benchmarks) (AAAS, 1993). The Benchmarks served as a set of coher-
ent learning objectives leading to the outcomes of Science for All Americans for
K-12 education and a foundation for most states’ science standards. In 1996, the
National Research Council (NRC, 1996) released the National Science Education
Standards (NSES), which has been the last attempt at publishing a set of national
science standards until 2013.
The national science standards as described in Project 2061 and Benchmarks are
not strictly focused on science content; they include engineering and technol-
ogy standards. Both reform documents included five specific chapters related to
STEM areas. In The Nature of Mathematics (Chapter 2) and The Mathematic World
(Chapter 9), mathematics is described as a “science of patterns and relationships”
and an “applied science” (AAAS, 1989, p. 16) and used as a “modeling process”
that “plays a key role in almost all human endeavors” (p. 129). The Nature of Tech-
nology (Chapter 3) recommends that students have knowledge about the nature
of technology as a requirement for scientific literacy (p. 25). The Designed World
(Chapter 8) recommends that students have an understanding of how technol-
ogy and human activity shape our environment and our lives. The technologies
this chapter focuses on include agriculture, manufacturing, energy sources/use,
communication, information processing, and health technology.
It is not only important to know about the concepts of science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics; it is equally important to be able to engage in the
practices of these disciplines. In a chapter that brings together these ideas about
science and technology practices, Habits of Mind (Chapter 12) outlines the values
and attitudes toward science, mathematics, and technology. This chapter focuses
16 Catherine Koehler et al.

on thinking skills that are necessary to engage in these disciplines; computa-

tion and estimation, manipulation and observation, communication and critical
response. Although the acronym STEM was not used in the context of these
reform documents, all essential elements of the disciplines were mentioned.

What Is STEM?
The term STEM has its original roots in government policy and was coined by
the National Science Foundation (NSF) in the early 1990s. The original term
was actually ‘SMET’ (science, math, engineering, and technology), but due to
its similarity to a vulgar term, a program officer at NSF suggested that STEM be
adopted (Saunders, 2009; NAS, 2007).
Recent research has indicated that even persons who deal with STEM on a
daily basis are a bit confused as to its meaning and context. Breiner, Harkness,
Johnson, and Koehler (2012) conducted a survey at a major research university
in the Midwest and asked faculty members two questions: “What is STEM?”
and “How does STEM influence and/or impact your life?” They reported that
faculty members were able to identify STEM as separate disciplines, e.g. science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics, but their conceptualization of the
term was based solely on their academic discipline. For example, a faculty mem-
ber who studied biology or worked in medicine might answer the first question
with a response such as: “STEM is stem cell research or the stem of a plant.”
In response to the second question, “How does STEM influence and/or impact
your life?”, it was noted that the faculty responses fell into three main categories:
societal reasons, personal reasons, and a null (no) relationship to STEM. In the
societal reasons category, responses included: “It is life,” and “develops compe-
tencies about basic skills used in life.” In the personal reasons category, responses
included: “I teach math” and “I used a bit of technology and I truly enjoy reading
about science.” Some faculty members were unaware of the notion of STEM (the
null relationship to STEM category) and their response consisted of not know-
ing what STEM was or “none that I am aware of.” The most interesting find-
ing was under the personal reasons of how STEM influences/impacts your life,
and these responses included a faculty member who was disenfranchised about
STEM stating, “It further marginalizes my field since I am in the Humanities. It
makes my field seem irrelevant, which STEM programs already do. It furthers
narrow-minded thinking” (Breiner et al., 2012, pp. 8–9). There has been little
further research exploring these questions and, as such, the operational definition
of STEM is left up to the parties as to how they will use it for their purposes of
argument (Breiner et al., 2012; Bybee, 2013).
As STEM is made up of four disciplines, one concern is the perception that
the ‘T’ (technology) and ‘E’ (engineering) are oftentimes secondary to the ‘S’
(science) and ‘M’ (mathematics) (ITEA, 2009; NAE, 2005). When we refer to
STEM in K-12, it does not mean that students are learning mathematics and
 The Emergence of STEM 17

science with a little sprinkle of technology and engineering mixed in, but instead
it refers to integration of the disciplines. ITEA advocates that students learn
about the development of technology, with a sense toward “the study of all
modifications humans have made in their natural environment for their own
purposes” and as a disciple that includes the “study and application of learning
experiences that relate to inventions, innovations, and changes intended to meet
human needs and wants” (ITEA, 2009, p. 22). Different forms of technology
have been included in the school setting for many years, however engineering
education has not yet made such inroads.
Engineering has not been adopted in the K-12 setting until very recently, and
in only selected schools. Engineering has been strengthened in the K-12 system
by the development of technology standards by ITEA.
Engineering as a discipline in the K-12 setting is often referred to as the miss-
ing letter in STEM. Because there are no nationally adopted academic standards
for engineering for the K-12 setting, there is no student assessment in engineer-
ing education, thus policy makers and school administrators pay little atten-
tion to it in K-12 schools (NAE, 2009). However, the NAE recommends that
engineering concepts be infused into other subjects to illustrate the nature of
big ideas such as design and systems thinking. The infusion approach is practi-
cal for curriculum design, because the engineering design process is an iterative
decision-making process that uses the content knowledge of mathematics and
science as its foundation (Koehler, Faraclas, Giblin, Moss, & Kazerounian, 2013).
This leaves an opportunity for STEM educators to design and implement inno-
vative engineering activities that integrate the STEM disciplines in meaningful
learning opportunities for students. The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS,
2013) provides several options of how to implement the integration of standards
in novel ways throughout grades K through 12, particularly in the field of engi-
neering. In the last section of this chapter, we will discuss NGSS in more detail,
and in particular, how it will guide science education in the future.

Federal Funding for STEM Initiatives

The Federal government has been a driving force behind STEM initiatives in
the United States. STEM funding has been plentiful since 2007 when the Bush
Administration signed into law the America Creating Opportunities to Mean-
ingfully Promote Excellence in Technology, Education, and Science Act, known
as America COMPETES Act. The emphasis of this law was “to invest in inno-
vation through research and development, and to improve the competitiveness
of the United States” (GPO, 2007, p. 1) and authorized $32.7 billion between
2008–2010 for programs and activities in STEM-related disciplines. It also
established the creation of a National Science and Technology Summit, a group
of federal agencies that were tasked to examine pathways for the United States’
STEM initiatives, support basic research in physical sciences, propose improved
18 Catherine Koehler et al.

instruction in mathematics, increase access for low-income students for AP/IB

coursework, and to authorize Teacher Corps programs that would bring 30,000
mathematics and science teachers into the classroom (Bush, 2007).
The Obama Administration reauthorized this Act in 2010 and as part of the
reauthorization established an office under the National Science and Technology
Council (NSTC) that managed the coordination of STEM education activities in
federal agencies such as the National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aero-
nautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), and the Department of Education, among others.
Within the 2010 America COMPETES Reauthorization Act, there was a call
for the NSTC to create a five-year federal STEM education strategic plan. In the
2013 progress report, the NSTC outlined five goals to drive federal investment
in STEM education. These goals include:

1) Improve STEM instruction by preparing 100,000 excellent new K-12 STEM

teachers by 2020, and support the existing STEM teacher workforce;
2) Increase and sustain youth and public engagement in STEM by supporting a
50% increase in the number of U.S. youths who have authentic STEM expe-
riences each year prior to completing in high school;
3) Enhance STEM experience for undergraduate students by graduating one
million additional students with degrees in STEM fields over the next
10 years;
4) Better serve groups historically under-represented in STEM fields by
increasing the number of underrepresented in STEM fields with STEM
degrees (including women) over the next 10 years;
5) Design graduate education for tomorrow’s STEM workforce by providing
graduate-trained STEM professionals with basic and applied research exper-
tise to acquire specialized skills in areas of national importance.
(NSTC, 2013, p. 15)

In another federal initiative, Race to the Top, President Obama announced a chal-
lenge to states to create comprehensive education reform by establishing state-wide
strategies to turn around student achievement, adopt rigorous and high-quality
student assessments, teacher evaluations and professional development, and data
systems to track student performance. This reform was rolled out as a competi-
tion among states. This program was funded with $4.35 billion; an unprecedented
amount for any education reform initiative. Within this plan, the President advo-
cated what we now know as the Common Core State Standards, a common set of
rigorous, career ready standards for mathematics and reading. Some of the funds
from Race to the Top promoted the adoption of these standards. In the first round
competition, two states, Delaware and Tennessee, were awarded Race to the Top
funds and a total of 18 states and the District of Columbia have received funds
through this program (U.S. Department of Education (USDOE), 2014a).
 The Emergence of STEM 19

The future of STEM funding relies on the federal budget and, as such, based
on this five-year strategic plan written by the NSTC, President Obama has pro-
posed to support $170 million for STEM education in the 2015 fiscal year budget.
In this projected budget, the President proposed several initiatives designed to
improve teaching and learning in STEM subject areas for teachers and students,
and to train the next generation of innovators. He also proposed money allocated
for STEM innovation networks to support partnerships between school districts
and universities that would develop streamlined pathways to STEM education
and careers. Teacher training is paramount and this 2015 budget includes fund-
ing for STEM teacher pathways to recruit and train STEM educators for high-
need schools as well as a national program for STEM Master Teacher Corps that
will develop teacher leaders who will advocate for STEM education in their
communities (USDOE, 2014b). As of the writing of this chapter, the 2015 federal
budget has only been proposed, and given the uncertainty of the Congress, the
fate of this funding is anyone’s guess at this time.

NGSS and STEM Education

Funding streams for STEM initiatives are well defined, but the question remains:
How does this funding impact education? To create a seamless pipeline from child-
hood to career, science educators created A Framework for K-12 Science Education
(Framework) (NRC, 2012) and a set of accompanying science standards, Next Gen-
eration Science Standards (NGSS) (NGSS Lead States, 2013), to address the need for
content that will drive the K-12 science education agenda for the foreseeable future.
The format of Framework (and later NGSS) is much different than the older reform
documents, Project 2061, Benchmarks, and NSES, as Framework outlines three very
distinctive areas, or dimensions, that K-12 science education need to focus on for
21st century learners. These three dimensions include: (a) science and engineering
practices; (b) crosscutting concepts; and (c) core ideas in four disciplinary areas:
physical sciences, life sciences, earth/space sciences, and engineering, technology,
and applications of science (NRC, 2012, p. 2).
Just as Project 2061 is the framework for Benchmarks, so is Framework the foun-
dation for NGSS. Consider NGSS as a road map of student performance expec-
tations that connects areas of practices, content, and crosscutting concepts as they
relate to the disciplines of science. What makes NGSS so unique is the design of
the standards. Each grade level has specific content standards and cross-matched
to these standards are science and engineering practices, disciplinary core ideas,
and crosscutting concepts. Teachers may be familiar with the terminology of
science practices from the older reform documents, but the new language of
NGSS changes the focus of the notion of practices. These practices describe how
scientists and engineers approach problems and engage in investigations to solve
these problems. The language in which we refer is pervasive throughout the
document and consists of iterative conceptual modeling, engaging in argument
20 Catherine Koehler et al.

from evidence, and constructing explanations and designing solutions. No lon-

ger is the student expected to be the passive learner by “merely learning about
(these concepts) secondhand” (NGSS Lead States, 2013, p. xv), but instead they
are active learners that are “engaging in scientific investigations that require not
only skills, but also knowledge that is specific to each practice” (p. xv). It is our
intent with this book to foster the development of these practices through the
problem-/project-based themes that were described in Chapter 1, and in more
detail throughout later chapters in this book.

Next Steps in Science Education and STEM Education

The 21st century learning and teaching approaches must go beyond the tradi-
tional ways of dispensing knowledge and rote memorization, to one where the
students take more responsibility for learning and the teacher becomes a facili-
tator of activities. As recommended in the Framework, problem-/project-based
learning (PBL) scenarios are active learning strategies that contextualize science.
In a PBL scenario, students engage in their lessons by considering “problems as
the starting point for gaining new knowledge” (Lambros, 2002, p.1). Although
project-based learning and problem-based learning are often used interchangeably,
each approaches a situation through a problem scenario but the end result differs.
Project-based learning culminates with a tangible creation of a product whereas
problem-based learning results in new knowledge (Capraro & Slough, 2009). Ide-
ally, the integration of STEM disciplines within PBL allows the learner to holisti-
cally approach a real-world problem learning the content and tools necessary to
provide its answer.
In this book we utilize PBL scenarios as challenges that are based on the five
themes outlined in Chapter 1: Cause and Effect, Innovation and Progress, The
Represented World, Sustainable Systems, and Human Optimization, to which
the NGSS and Common Core mathematics and language arts standards were
aligned. The grade bands K-2, 3–5, 6–8, and 9–12 were divided into chapters and
each chapter will describe how the standards align to each theme.
The new STEM education initiatives such as the new standards provide the
opportunity for teachers to integrate PBL scenarios in their classrooms, not only
the disciplines of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, but also to
integrate Common Core State Standards. In essence, it is a win-win situation for
both K-12 teachers and students, but most importantly, the students will develop
the skills and knowledge that are necessary to engage as informed global citizens
and be prepared to proceed to STEM fields.

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 The Emergence of STEM 21

American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) (1993). Benchmarks for
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3
INTEGRATED STEM EDUCATION
Lynn A. Bryan, Tamara J. Moore, Carla C. Johnson,
and Gillian H. Roehrig

In this chapter, we provide an overview of what ‘integrated STEM’ is—from its

forms and characteristics to the practices and pedagogical approaches involved. Inte-
grated STEM instruction is not meant to add to an already full curriculum, but
to enhance the existing curriculum and find synergies among disciplines so that
students can understand the interdependence among science, technology, engineer-
ing, and mathematics—for example, as they develop an understanding of STEM
and learn to explain natural phenomena or design and propose solutions to a local,
national, or global problem. In turn, student learning will be more contextualized,
authentic, and meaningful. The STEM Road Map is a tool to assist teachers in this
process, identifying realistic intersections of content in the STEM disciplines, sug-
gesting themes for situating integrated STEM instruction in a meaningful context,
and providing a model for planning integrated STEM learning experiences.

What Is ‘Integrated STEM’ Education?

As you may have already gathered by reading the opening chapters of the STEM
Road Map, there is more to integrating STEM disciplines than simply teaching
two disciplines together or using one discipline as a tool for teaching another.
In fact, this already happens for many teachers—for example, teaching science
often requires the use of mathematics, e.g. graphing, measuring, utilizing ratios,
working with geometric shapes. However, we are referring to something more
intentional and more specific when we use the term ‘integrated STEM’. Drawing
on the work of scholars who are credited with inspiring the movement to more
meaningfully integrate the STEM disciplines at the K-12 level (Childress & Sand-
ers, 2007; Sanders, 2009; Sanders & Wells, 2010), we define integrated STEM
as the teaching and learning of the content and practices of disciplinary knowledge which
include science and/or mathematics through the integration of the practices of engineering
24 Lynn A. Bryan et al.

and engineering design of relevant technologies. We take the viewpoint that, while
any discipline can have learning goals in integrated STEM environments, math-
ematics, science, and engineering will be the primary goals. With this in mind,
we will describe the forms of STEM integration followed by the hallmark char-
acteristics of any integrated STEM learning environment.

Forms of STEM Integration

STEM integration in the classroom generally takes one of three forms: content
integration, supporting content integration, or context integration. Content inte-
gration refers to units and activities that have multiple STEM (and potentially other)
disciplinary learning objectives; whereas supporting content integration refers to
units and activities in which one content area is meaningfully covered (e.g. math-
ematics) in support of the main content’s learning objectives (e.g. science). Context
integration uses a context from one discipline to situate learning objectives from
another discipline. Supporting content integration is common in the classroom,
but often not done in a way that furthers the learning of the supporting content.
Context integration is often implemented through the use of a story that situates
the disciplinary content goals in another discipline’s practices. Meaningful content
integration is the ultimate goal of the STEM Road Map project; however, the
STEM Road Map includes versions of context, supporting content, and content
integration as useful methods of STEM integration. It is recommended that you
have a mixture of all three, but keep the emphasis on content integration.

Characteristics of STEM Integration

While there are different models of integrating STEM content and practices, five
core characteristics distinguish integrated STEM learning experiences from activ-
ities, lessons, or courses that simply find superficial ‘connections’ among STEM
disciplines. These characteristics include instruction in which: (1) the content
and practices of one or more anchor science and mathematics disciplines define
some of the primary learning goals; (2) the integrator is the engineering prac-
tices and engineering design of technologies as the context and/or an intentional
component of the content to be learned; (3) the engineering design or engineer-
ing practices related to relevant technologies requires the use of scientific and
mathematical concepts through design justification; (4) the development of 21st
century skills is emphasized; (5) the context of instruction requires solving a
real-world problem or task through teamwork (Bybee, 2013; Moore et al., 2014b;
National Academy of Engineering (NAE)/National Research Council (NRC),
2014; NRC, 2012b; Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009; Sanders, 2009). In
Table 3.1, we provide a description of these five core, distinguishing character-
istics of integrated STEM instruction. These areas map to the STEM integration
curriculum framework described in Chapter 1.
TABLE 3.1 Distinguishing Characteristics of Integrated STEM

Distinguishing Description
Characteristic
The content and Anchor disciplines are the primary disciplines from which the
practices of one learning goals for instruction are derived. Learning goals (what you
or more anchor want students to know) provide coherence between the instructional
science and activities (how students will come to know what you want them
mathematics to know) and assessments (how you determine whether students
disciplines define have come to know what you want them to know) (Wiggins &
some of the primary McTighe, 2005). Explicit attention is given within the learning
learning goals. goals to the connections between disciplines. By emphasizing the
relationships of content across different disciplines, students develop
deep, transferable understandings and more coherent frameworks for
reasoning about interdisciplinary problems and phenomena.
The integrator An ‘integrator’ brings together different parts in a way that
is the practices requires those parts to work together for a whole. As the integrator
of engineering in integrated STEM, the practices of engineering and engineering
and engineering design provide real-world, problem-solving contexts for learning and
design as the context applying science and mathematics, as well as meaningfully bring in
and/or an intentional other disciplines. In addition, engineering practices require students
component of to use informed judgment to make decisions and help them develop
the content to be habits of mind such as troubleshooting, pulling from prior experiences,
learned. and learning from failure (Moore, Guzey, & Brown, 2014).
The engineering High-quality STEM integration learning experiences meaningfully
design or engineering integrate the engineering design/practices with the science and
practices related to mathematics content. Design justification is one way to require the
relevant technologies students to apply the mathematics and science to the engineering
require the scientific design. For example, students should make recommendations for
and mathematical the design to their client that are supported by the background
concepts information and content and the results from their tests as data
through design for their decisions. Justification of design choices is parallel to
justification. the argumentation in science education, i.e. claims, evidence,
explanation (Toulmin, 2008; see also Hand, et al., 2009; Llewellyn,
2014; Sampson, Enderle, & Grooms, 2013).
The development of The phrase, ‘21st-century skills,’ refers to the knowledge, skills, and
21st-century skills character traits that are deemed necessary to effectively function as
is emphasized. citizens, workers, and leaders in the 21st-century workplace (Bybee,
2010; NRC, 2012b; Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009).
The context of A real-world problem or task centers on an authentic issue
instruction requires or meaningful challenge. As opposed to decontextualized or
solving a real-world contrived tasks (e.g. ‘cook book’ labs in science or rote problem
problem or task solving in mathematics), real-world problems engage students in
through teamwork issues that are significant in everyday life and have more personal
and communication. and/or social relevance. Furthermore, the teamwork involved in
solving real-world problems or tasks provides opportunities to
understand the interdisciplinary nature of STEM through rich,
engaging, and motivating experiences that require teams of students
to solve them. Teams of students need to communicate their
processes and results (Carlson & Sullivan, 2004; Dym, et al., 2005;
Frykholm & Glasson, 2005; Selingo, 2007; Smith, et al., 2005).
26 Lynn A. Bryan et al.

As you will see in the upcoming chapters, the STEM Road Map provides a
guide at each grade level for teachers to be able to design integrated STEM instruc-
tion to reflect these core defining characteristics.

Commitments to Teaching and Learning

We should note that while there are defining characteristics of integrated STEM
instruction, there also are characteristics of effective teaching and learning in gen-
eral to which we are committed. Thus, our vision of integrated STEM is grounded
in the following commitments about teaching and learning that embody recom-
mendations from time-honored and contemporary education research:

• Learning is a generative and revisionary process in which students are

responsible for constructing knowledge.
• Teaching requires deep, flexible content knowledge, pedagogical content
knowledge, and reflective practices.
• Instruction should be culturally inclusive, socially relevant, and situated in
authentic contexts.
• Quality instruction is guided by the content, approaches, and pedagogical
principles of standards that are rigorous, coherent, and research-based.

Learning Is a Generative and Revisionary Process in Which

Students Are Responsible for Constructing Knowledge
Decades of research in learning and cognition have shown that learning entails
the development of conceptual constructs, reasoning processes, and patterns of
activity. Instruction that is based on a generative and revisionary view of learn-
ing takes into account students’ relevant prior knowledge, experiences, and
interests—i.e., students are not blank slates when they come to our classrooms.
Their existing understandings, experiences, beliefs, and interests inf luence how
they will interpret what we are trying to teach. Furthermore, constructing
knowledge is a progressive and iterative process that necessarily involves revi-
sion of ideas (Osborne & Wittrock, 1983; Posner, Strike, Hewson, & Gertzog,
1982; von Glasersfeld, 1989).
For teachers of integrated STEM, this means that the design of learning
experiences must take students’ existing knowledge into account, provide
them with the opportunity to become explicitly aware of their ideas, and help
them build/revise their knowledge. Such learning experiences, in turn, will
help students understand concepts more deeply and will be more personally
meaningful and engaging. Instructional approaches including problem-based
learning and project-based learning, which are discussed in this chapter, are
examples of the types of approaches conducive to teaching integrated STEM
in K-12 classrooms.
 Integrated STEM Education 27

Teaching Requires Deep, Flexible Content Knowledge,

Pedagogical Content Knowledge, and Reflective Practices
It is an intuitive, but nonetheless critical, notion that a deep, flexible, and coher-
ent understanding of content is a prerequisite to the development of knowledge
for how to teach the content. Content knowledge enables the integrated STEM
teacher to design conceptually coherent lessons, lead dynamic and in-depth dis-
cussions about STEM constructs and phenomena, and relate STEM content to
meaningful and authentic situations. However, content knowledge is not enough,
as teachers must also have knowledge of and reflectively think about learners,
curriculum, instructional strategies, and assessment to be engaging and effective
(i.e., pedagogical content knowledge or PCK; Bryan, 2003; Geddis, 1993; Shulman,
1987; Van Driel, Verloop, & de Vos, 1998).
For teachers of integrated STEM, this means that they will need to demon-
strate deep, flexible subject-matter knowledge and pedagogical content knowl-
edge related to the disciplines of STEM education; well-developed knowledge
and skills to integrate crosscutting content, processes, and practices beyond their
discipline of expertise; and well-developed knowledge and skills for teaching
diverse student populations. Teaching integrated STEM will require teachers to
understand the nature of STEM through the study of the content and practices of
scientists, technologists, engineers, and mathematicians. Thus, integrated STEM
teachers will be those who exhibit attributes of educational leadership – e.g. they
will take the lead in implementing innovations and breaking the boundaries of
‘siloed’ subject area instruction; they will lead their colleagues in professional
development by sharing and disseminating what they know and know how to
do; they will lead in developing collaborations that enrich the learning experi-
ences of their students. They will be reflective practitioners who use evidence
from student learning artifacts to inform and revise practices, and possess the
disposition of a lifelong learner.

Instruction Should Be Culturally Inclusive, Socially Relevant,

and Situated in Authentic Contexts
An abundance of educational research indicates that students bring to the class-
room ways of knowing, thinking, and communicating that are reflective of their
home and community environments and comprise part of the foundation of a
students’ classroom/educational experience (e.g. Bryan & Atwater, 2002; Fradd &
Lee, 1999; Gay, 2010; Lee, 1999; Lemke, 2001). In short, the social and cul-
tural life of students is central to their learning. Thus, teaching approaches that
acknowledge, respond to, and celebrate the culture, motivations, and interests
of students are more likely to engage them and facilitate their learning (Brophy
et al., 2008; Carlson & Sullivan, 2004; Frykholm & Glasson, 2005; Gay, 2010).
Situating integrated STEM instruction in culturally inclusive, socially relevant,
28 Lynn A. Bryan et al.

and authentic contexts provides students with opportunities to make sense of

the situation at hand, based on extensions of their own personal knowledge and
experiences. Engaging contexts also provide a compelling purpose to do the
challenge at hand, including but not limited to global, environmental, and social
contexts that involve contemporary events and issues.

Quality Instruction Is Guided by the Content, Approaches,

and Pedagogical Principles of Standards and Practices That
Are Rigorous, Coherent, and Research-Based
Standards provide the foundation to inform and provide coherence among cur-
riculum, instruction, and assessment within each discipline as well as, in the
context of integrated STEM education, across disciplines. National level stan-
dards such as Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) and Common Core State
Standards in Mathematics (CCSS-M) are designed with a progression of aca-
demically rigorous disciplinary core ideas and practices that are scientifically and
mathematically coherent. In addition, these standards are designed to prepare
K-12 students for college and career readiness at an internationally competitive
level (NGSS Lead States, 2013).
At the core of the STEM Road Map are four sets of education standards that
articulate what students should know (knowledge) and be able to do (skills/
practices) in each content area at each grade level: NGSS (NGSS Lead States,
2013), CCSS-M (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and
Council of Chief State School Officers (NGA and CCSSO), 2010b), Common Core
State Standards in English Language Arts (CCSS-ELA; NGA and CCSSO, 2010a)
and 21st Century Skills Framework (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009).
You have probably noted that there are no technology or engineering stan-
dards explicitly mapped in the STEM Road Map. The fields of technology
and engineering certainly have been a central part of the integrated STEM
conversation, working to increase and expand attention to these disciplines in
K-12 instruction. For example, the International Technology Education Asso-
ciation (ITEA) developed the Standards for Technological Literacy that define
what students should know and be able to do to be technologically literate
and outline content standards for technological literacy in grades K-12 (ITEA,
2007). The National Academy of Engineering (NAE) report, Standards for K-12
Engineering Education?, determined that developing separate K-12 engineering
standards was not an appropriate approach as “it would be extremely difficult
to ensure their usefulness and effective implementation” (NRC, 2010b, p. 1).
Instead, the committee offered the strategy of integration for K-12 engineering
education—embedding relevant engineering learning goals into standards for
another discipline (e.g., science). This integrative approach addresses the impor-
tance of engineering design, making connections between engineering and
other STEM disciplines, and communication. So while the STEM Road Map
 Integrated STEM Education 29

does not explicitly map these standards at each grade level, the theme-inspired
topics for each grade level are organized around an engineering design chal-
lenge or project that contextualizes and motivates the learning of integrated
STEM content, practices, and skills.

What Are STEM Practices and Skills in Integrated STEM

Instruction?
The fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics use specific
knowledge and skills that form distinct practices (NGSS Lead States, 2013;
NRC, 2012a). ‘Practices’ are the behaviors that professionals (in this case scien-
tists, mathematicians, and engineers) engage in as they investigate, design, and
problem solve, as well as build models, theories, and systems. Practices involve
the use of both discipline knowledge and skills specific to each practice (NGSS
Lead States, 2013). Therefore, instruction that integrates across STEM disciplin-
ary boundaries necessarily facilitates students’ understanding, development, and
use of the various practices of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
(Berlin & White, 1995; Frykholm & Glasson, 2005; NGSS Lead States, 2013;
NRC, 2012a). We describe below the essential practices of each of the STEM
fields for K-12 integrated STEM instruction: science inquiry, engineering design,
and mathematical thinking and reasoning. In addition, we also describe 21st cen-
tury skills—skills that are intertwined with the development of STEM content
knowledge and are an integral part of integrated STEM instruction.

Scientific Inquiry
Scientific inquiry refers to the diverse thinking processes and practices that sci-
entists use to examine and answer questions about the natural world (NGSS
Lead States, 2013; NRC, 2001). While scientific inquiry occurs in various forms,
several central characteristics of scientific inquiry, when incorporated into
K-12 instruction, enable students to construct knowledge of scientific ideas and
understand the work of scientists. Inquiry in the integrated STEM classroom
mirrors scientific inquiry by emphasizing students’ questioning, collecting evi-
dence, developing explanations and communicating findings. For greater detail
about scientific inquiry practices, we encourage our readers to refer to a chart in
the National Research Council (2001) document, Inquiry and the National Science
Education Standards, which elaborates on the essential features of K-12 classroom
scientific inquiry (see p. 29). In this chart, the essential features of scientific
inquiry—engaging in scientifically oriented questions, giving priority to evidence in
responding to questions, formulating explanations from evidence, connecting explanations
to scientific knowledge, and communicating and justifying explanations—are character-
ized along a continuum that shows the variations of these practices in relation to
the degree of learner self-direction versus teacher/material direction.
30 Lynn A. Bryan et al.

Engineering and Engineering Design

The field of engineering is focused on the design, manufacturing, and operation
of efficient and economical technologies for a specific purpose. These technolo-
gies can be structures, machines, processes, and/or systems. The design of these
technologies requires creative and carefully planned applications of scientific
and mathematical concepts (Moore et al., 2014a). As reflected in recent STEM-
related reform documents such as A Framework of K-12 Science Education (NRC,
2012a) and the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead States, 2013), design
processes are the heart of engineering practice, and as such, are a focus of engi-
neering at the K-12 level. Engineering design processes can be represented by
iterative and reflective practices on stages of design, such as problem scoping, learn-
ing the background, planning for a solution, implementing a solution, testing the solution,
and evaluating the tests of the solutions (Moore et al., 2014a). An integral part of
engineering design is engineering thinking or habits of mind: systems thinking,
creativity, optimism, perseverance, innovation, collaboration, communication,
and ethical thinking. Additionally, engineers must manage risk and uncertainty,
learn from failure, consider the safety of those developing and using the tech-
nologies designed, and consider prior experience (Moore et al., 2014a). Engi-
neering design coupled with engineering thinking allows students to become
independent, reflective thinkers who have learned to integrate multiple ideas
together to solve problems.

Mathematical Thinking and Reasoning

Mathematics is a human-developed way of thinking and knowing that inves-
tigates ordering, operational, and structural relationships in a logical manner
(Gilfeather & del Regato, 1999). As a discipline, mathematics is concerned with
the development of new mathematical knowledge. Mathematicians develop new
mathematics through considering all of the body of current mathematics and
extending that body of knowledge through logical development of new math-
ematical structures. This results in a new mathematics that is still internally
consistent with the previous body of mathematics. This way of thinking—that is
the hallmark of mathematics—is also parallel to the mathematical thinking and
reasoning students should develop. Oftentimes, school mathematics curricula
is about learning to think ‘inside the box’; however, mathematical thinking is
learning to think flexibly and ‘outside the box’ (Devlin, 2012). The CCSS-M
provide the mathematical practices as guidelines, which include the following:

• Make sense of the problem and persevere in solving it;

• Explain the meaning of a problem and look for solution entry points;
• Reason abstractly and quantitatively;
• Decontextualize – create abstractions of a situation and represent it as sym-
bols and manipulate;
 Integrated STEM Education 31

• Construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning of others;

• Model with mathematics;
• Use appropriate tools strategically;
• Attend to precision;
• Look for and make use of structure;
• Look for and express regularity in repeated reasoning.
(NGA and CCSSO, 2010b)

These represent the hallmarks of mathematical thinking and reasoning, both

from the viewpoint of the mathematician and the K-12 student. Developing
competency in mathematical thinking and reasoning is a fundamental goal of a
mathematics education because it allows students to bring all of the knowledge
of mathematics to bear in different situations.

Twenty-First Century Skills

Cognitive, intrapersonal, and interpersonal skills and abilities necessary to effec-
tively function as citizens, workers, and leaders in the 21st century workplace
are often referred to as ‘21st Century Skills’ (Bybee, 2010; NRC, 2010a, 2012b;
Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009). Research suggests that these skills are
increasing in value across a wide range of jobs, whether low-skill, low-wage
service-oriented positions or high-skill, high-wage professional-oriented posi-
tions (Bybee, 2013; Levy & Murnane, 2004). Integrated STEM is a promising
context for offering K-12 students opportunities to develop these skills, as these
skills are embedded to some degree in all of the STEM disciplines.
There exist several lists of 21st century skills (e.g., Bybee, 2010; NRC, 2010a,
2012b; Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009) with considerable overlap. In
the STEM Road Map, authors have utilized the P21 Framework (Partnership
for 21st Century Skills, 2009) as the conceptual guide for curriculum mapping
and module development. The P21 Framework includes core components of:
21st Century Themes, Learning and Innovation Skills; Information, Media, and
Technology Skills; and Life and Career Skills. In addition to a main and impor-
tant focus on core content, the P21 Framework promotes development of student
understanding of 21st Century Themes that include: global awareness, financial,
economic, business, and entrepreneurial literacy, civic literacy, environmental
literacy, and health literacy (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009).
The Learning and Innovation Skills in the P21 Framework focus on creativity
and innovation, critical thinking, problem solving, and communication and col-
laboration. Information, Media, and Technology Skills are inclusive of informa-
tion literacy, media literacy, and information, communications, and technology
literacy. The final area of the P21 Framework is Life and Career Skills and this
area emphasizes flexibility and adaptability, initiative and self-direction, social
and cross-cultural skills, productivity and accountability, and leadership and
responsibility (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009).
32 Lynn A. Bryan et al.

Pedagogical Approaches to Teaching Integrated STEM

Two of the primary pedagogical approaches to teaching integrated STEM include
project-based learning and problem-based learning. These two terms often are
used interchangeably, though there are distinct differences between them. Both
of these pedagogical approaches utilize an open-ended problem, question, or
challenge to begin the instructional sequence and are designed to be an authen-
tic application of 21st Century Skills in the context of learning and mastering
new integrated STEM concepts. Students work collaboratively and access mul-
tiple tools and data sources to solve the problem, question, and/or challenge.
Project- and problem-based learning often include partners from outside the
school who are STEM experts and who provide a connection with STEM indus-
try and careers to broaden the scope of the content and bring the learning alive
for integrated STEM students.
Project-based learning specifically has as the outcome of the work a product
that has been conceptualized, designed, and tested to determine if the product is a
viable solution to the problem (e.g. Blumenfeld, et al., 1991; Krauss & Boss, 2013).
Most project-based learning is tied to a local need or problem where the question
is student generated. This could be a school- or community-based issue. Project-
based learning units of instruction often require multiple weeks to complete. Stu-
dent teams present their products to their classmates and the larger community,
often to model the process that a STEM professional would complete.
Problem-based learning is driven by fictitious scenarios or case studies that may
not fit within a local or community issue (e.g. Barell, 2006; Lambros, 2004). Stu-
dents are presented with an ill-structured problem that may often be a global or
persistent concern for society, or a potential problem that may need to be solved in
the present or future (Johnson, 2003). Problem-based learning instructional units
often have a more narrowly specified outcome, which may include a solution or
point of view rather than a tangible product (Johnson, 2004). The duration of
problem-based learning experiences tend to be shorter, lasting days or weeks.
It is essential with integrated STEM learning that the pedagogy that drives
the learning has an integrated focus and students engage with an important
topic, problem, or issue that is either teacher or student generated (NRC, 2011).
Problem- and project-based learning pedagogy provide the best-in-class model,
which currently exists for implementing integrated STEM education at all
levels K-12.

The Continuum of STEM Integration

The Framework for K-12 Science Education (NRC, 2012a) aligns with the recom-
mendations for an integrated approach from the Engineering in K-12 Education
(NRC, 2009) and Standards for K-12 Engineering Education? (NRC, 2010b). The
Framework authors emphasize that students should become familiar with engi-
neering practices through increasingly sophisticated experiences with them
 Integrated STEM Education 33

across the grades. The Framework authors are clear that “not every such practice
will occur in every context” (NRC, 2012a, p.247), but rather that:

the curriculum should provide repeated opportunities across various con-

texts for students to develop their facility with these practices and use them
as a support for developing deep understanding of the concepts in question
and of the nature of science and of engineering.
(NRC, 2012a, p. 247)

Thus, it is necessary for articulation of STEM to occur across K-12 to ensure that
all students have these developing experiences with the practices of engineering.
While individual teachers and grade-level teams will have important decisions
to make about STEM integration within a single grade, it is important that the
progression of learning related to STEM integration is delineated across all grade
levels.
It is useful to consider the experiences of school systems within states that
have already adopted engineering into their K-12 science standards. For example,
Minnesota adopted engineering standards as part of their new state science stan-
dards in 2009. Professional development has been provided for K-12 teachers
across the state to enhance the implementation of integrated STEM teaching
(Guzey, Tank, Wang, Roehrig, & Moore, 2014; Roehrig, Moore, Wang, & Park,
2012). Associated research into STEM integration within K-12 school systems
reveals some important considerations for school systems, schools, and teachers.
Elementary schools already had an articulated scope and sequence for science
standards across grades K-5. Engineering was blended into this existing scope
and sequence by identifying content that naturally integrated STEM concepts
or where existing engineering curriculum and/or kits existed like Engineering
is Elementary, which could be integrated with existing science units. Elemen-
tary programs also provide a space for integration with non-STEM disciplines;
indeed research has shown that the addition of literacy approaches can improve
learning in STEM (Tank, 2014).
Middle schools have taken two approaches: (1) required engineering content
courses and (2) integration of engineering into existing science courses. If an
engineering course is to be used to address engineering practices it is important
that it is not an elective offering, as engineering practices are required for all stu-
dents. It is also important that “every science unit or engineering design project
must have as one of its goals the development of student understanding of at least
one disciplinary core idea” (NRC, 2012a, p. 201). Our experiences with middle
schools that have adopted engineering curriculum as a STEM course, such as
the Project Lead the Way (PLTW) Gateway to Technology, is that there is lim-
ited integration of science and mathematics concepts in the engineering design
challenges (Roehrig et al., 2012; Stohlmann, Moore, & Roehrig, 2012). Integra-
tion of engineering into existing science courses can be done successfully; our
experience is that professional development and team planning for engineering
34 Lynn A. Bryan et al.

integration improves quality and ensures that all students have experiences with
STEM integration (Roehrig et al., 2012).
While physical science offers more natural spaces for STEM integration, it
is important that students experience integrated STEM across all science disci-
plines. Many high schools have relegated engineering to ninth grade physical
science teachers as this is seen as a more natural fit for engineering design chal-
lenges and a course normally required for all students. We note here that biology
provides important opportunities to discuss other aspects of K-12 engineering
standards, for example ethics of cloning and genetic engineering. It is not neces-
sary at the course or lesson level to include all aspects of engineering; as long
as care is taken that all aspects of a quality engineering education (Moore et al.,
2014a) are included somewhere within the scope and sequence of K-12.

Overview of Integrated STEM in this Book

Each grade band map within the STEM Road Map suggests the content area
standards that serve as anchor content for an integrated STEM instructional
module. Each grade level in the STEM Road Map includes five key topics (mod-
ules) for exploration. The STEM Road Map for a given grade level includes at
least one module that is led by science, mathematics, English/language arts, and
social studies—promoting the integration of STEM across the curriculum. In
addition, the 21st Century Skills emphasized in the module are aligned with the
content standards. For example, in the sixth grade Transportation–Motorsports
module, student teams are challenged to design a prototype vehicle with a new
safety aspect that will ensure drivers are protected from potential accidents. This
module is driven by science with very important connections to mathematics,
as students will test their prototypes and conduct various formula calculations to
determine efficacy. The science content in this module focuses on motion, force,
energy, speed, and Newton’s laws. Students will utilize mathematics practices as
they make sense of the problems, reason abstractly and quantitatively, and model
with mathematics. Engineering design and engineering thinking are integral
to the topics and modules included in the STEM Road Map. In this module,
students utilize engineering design to develop, test, and modify their vehicle
prototypes. Embedded throughout the module is 21st Century Skills develop-
ment, as students enhance their understandings of economic and financial lit-
eracy through their application of learning and innovation skills in this module.

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PART II

STEM Curriculum Maps

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4
THE STEM ROAD MAP FOR
GRADES K-2
Catherine Koehler, Mark A. Bloom, and
Andrea R. Milner

Overview of the K-2 STEM Road Map

This chapter will provide a detailed overview of the integrated STEM Road
Map for Kindergarten through second grade. Using the overarching themes
described in Chapter 1: Cause and Effect, Innovation and Progress, The Rep-
resented World, Sustainable Systems, and Optimizing the Human Experience,
the K-2 Road Map will describe innovative and integrated approaches for the
teaching and learning of these themes from a problem-/project-based learning
(PBL) perspective. Each theme will be described by presenting a topic in science
and a problem or challenge associated with these topics. The problem/challenge
will provide the teacher with the opportunity to be creative in the instruction
of the topic.
In the K-2 grade band for the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS),
there are limited standards for science content as much of the focus during
these grades is in English/language arts (ELA) and mathematics. As such,
some of the themes have been combined to maximize the content standards
as written by NGSS. In a table provided after each theme description, we have
included suggested Common Core State Standards (CCSS) standards in math-
ematics and ELA that could align with each theme. These suggested CCSS
standards were chosen because they represent the ELA and mathematics ideas
that most represent the intersection between the NGSS and CC. Additional
ELA and mathematics standards can be added to each scenario as appropriate. It
is important to note that this STEM Road Map stresses the integration between
the disciplines of science, mathematics, and ELA as well as social studies, art,
and music. Additionally, the National Association for the Education of Young
Children (NAEYC) (2012) supports curriculum goals that focus on children’s
42 Catherine Koehler et al.

emergent knowledge and skills in all subject areas including language and
literacy, mathematics, science, social studies, health, physical education, and
the visual and performing arts. As most teachers in the K-2 grade band have
self-contained classrooms, each challenge presented here can easily integrate
all of these disciplines.
The inclusion of 21st Century Skills is an important hallmark of the STEM
Road Map. It is important that all K-12 teachers address these very important
skills, no matter how young the students are. PBL promotes responsibility, inde-
pendence, discipline, as well as social learning as students practice and become
proficient in the 21st Century Skills (Bell, 2010).
It is never too early to introduce students to the careers in STEM fields. Each
of the theme descriptions in this chapter suggests careers that align with that
theme. This is an opportunity for teachers to introduce the named careers to
students through a variety of sources such as a YouTube video or a short story
read-aloud. Interactive videoconferencing, observing professionals at work in
museums, science centers, or university are also all effective ways primary stu-
dents can develop STEM career awareness (Cole, 2011). Clever Crazes for Kids
is a highly interactive online resource that has a STEM career focus in a variety
of educational games that will begin to build their knowledge and exposure to
STEM (www.clevercrazes.com).

STEM Themes in the K-2 STEM Road Map

In Table 4.1, there is an overview of the K-2 STEM Road Map and the topics
that will be covered in each grade. The topics should take up to five weeks to
complete as they are designed to integrate all disciplines that a K-2 teacher will
cover. The integration of these disciplines is the forefront of this STEM Road
Map. For each topic, there will be a challenge or problem that will guide the
capstone of the module. We will not prescribe how a teacher should instruct
their students as that would take away from the creativity of the teacher. Instead,
we provide teachers with the core ideas that should be covered within each

TABLE 4.1 Overview of K-2 STEM Road Map Themes and Topics by Grade, K-2

STEM Road Map Theme Kindergarten Topics Grade 1 Topics Grade 2 Topics
Cause and Effect Motion Waves Our Changing
Environment
Innovation and Progress — Communication Material Assembly
The Represented World Patterns Patterns and Plants Change Over Time
Sustainable Systems Habitats Habitat Our Schoolyard
Garden
Optimizing the Human Our Changing Survival on —
Experience Environment Earth—Water
 The STEM Road Map for Grades K-2 43

STEM Road Map theme and NGSS, CCSS in ELA and mathematics, NAEYC
standards, and positions in science and technology for kindergartners and pri-
mary grade children, and the 21st Century Skills that would best integrate
into that theme. Also, the use of technology is a critical component of the
STEM Road Map. Effective uses of technology are active, hands-on, engaging,
and empowering; give the child control; provide adaptive scaffolds to ease the
accomplishment of tasks; and are used as one of many options to support chil-
dren’s learning (NAEYC, 2012, p. 6). It is imperative that teachers consistently
scaffold the students with their learning, as the challenges/problems may seem
developmentally challenging for younger students. Over time, the students will
become more intellectually independent; they will be able to explore the chal-
lenges/problems collaboratively.
It is the best practice of expert teachers that students in grades K-2 keep
a STEM journal—a collection of knowledge they have discussed in class over
the entire year and should include several prescribed sections where students
write down information that they learned in each activity. Sections in the STEM
notebook might include, but are not limited to: (a) a list of science vocabulary;
(b) KWL forms, which include, K-What do I know?, W-What do I want to
learn?, L-What did I learn?; (c) tables for each exploration; (d) science drawings
or illustrations with associated explanations of the students’ thinking; (e) conclu-
sions for each scenario—what did I learn?; and (f) connections to STEM careers.
Science is a natural part of a child’s daily experiences and they are anxious to
explore it, discover answers, and build new understandings (Eliason & Jenkins,
2012). Therefore, by managing their own STEM notebooks, students can begin
to work like a scientist and/or engineer, and they will begin to understand that
these disciplines require careful measurement, calculation, and documentation.
This notebook can be used to connect science content to math and language arts
as well as art, geography, and music. Students can use their journals to illustrate
their ideas about the topics being discussed and can reflect on these drawings
as they learn the material. Teachers can also use this notebook as an authentic
assessment tool.

The STEM Road Map for Kindergarten

Teachers who begin their instruction using the STEM Road Map concept in kin-
dergarten have the responsibility to guide young minds on a new and exciting
path of integrated learning. In Table 4.2, we have outlined the overview of the
topics and challenges/problems that kindergarten students could tackle. Each of
these topics can be taught over the course of five weeks as they are integrating
topics such as ELA, mathematics, science, engineering, art, music, and geog-
raphy. Understanding that students in kindergarten are beginning the formal
learning process, the problems/challenges will be developmentally appropriate
for their age (see Table 4.2).
44 Catherine Koehler et al.

TABLE 4.2 Kindergarten STEM Road Map Themes, Topics, and Problems/Challenges

STEM Theme Topic Problem/Challenge

Cause and Effect The ‘Roll’ of Physics in Student teams will investigate
Motion different types of track designs to
determine which design will help
LEAD
a marble go the fastest without
Science
having it jump off the track.
The Represented Patterns on Earth and in Student teams will investigate how
World the Sky the patterns of the sky and the
animals on Earth adapt to changes
LEAD
over one year and create a yearlong
Mathematics
calendar to demonstrate what they
have observed throughout the year.
Sustainable Habitats in the U.S. Student teams will select various
Systems habitats in the local area and
LEAD
various habitats in other areas in
Social Studies
the U.S. and develop a reference
manual to describe these habitats’
similarities and differences in
relation to weather, climate, and
the animals that reside there.
Optimizing Our Changing Environment Student teams will develop and
the Human print a school newspaper or
LEAD
Experience blog to be distributed to other
English/Language Arts
kindergarten classes in the school
district and beyond to report
changes in the environment
around the school and community.

Cause and Effect (Kindergarten): The ‘Roll’ of Physics

in Motion
Most amusement parks and fairs today have roller coasters that cater to the very
young child (e.g., Cedar Point’s Woodstock Express; Six Flags’s Magic Flyer). In fact,
there are curriculum units and special event days at amusement parks that focus
on the ‘Physics of Roller Coasters’ aimed at kindergarteners (Hein & Sivell, 2014).
Many of the children who ride such roller coasters may be left wondering how they
work. This module theme introduces students to the basics of physics as it relates to
motion. In this challenge, the students are presented with designing a track so that
a marble can roll without jumping off the track. This is not limited to only one
track, but the students can design multiple tracks to test their designs. First, they
will need to research how a roller coaster works (ELA), and will have to understand
about motion (science), speed (science), and the pushing and pulling effects of
gravity (science). Their mathematics skills will play a major role in this challenge
as they will be measuring and comparing numbers. The teacher will help develop
 The STEM Road Map for Grades K-2 45

classroom charts to collect their data. A discussion could focus on identifying the
best place to situate a roller coaster from an environmental perspective and what
safety precautions might be at play with their roller coaster models (see Table 4.3).

The Represented World (Kindergarten): Patterns

on Earth and in the Sky
In this module, students will begin to identify weather and sky patterns as they
emerge during the year and the adaptability of animals, including humans, on
Earth to those changing patterns. The problem/challenge is: A petting zoo needs
your team to create a yearlong calendar to demonstrate what you have observed throughout

TABLE 4.3 STEM Road Map Grades K-2—Kindergarten Cause and Effect Theme: Motion

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
K-PS2-1 CCSS Math Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MP1, MP2, MP3, CCSS.ELA. Economic, Business, and
MP4, MP6 RI.K.1 Entrepreneurial Literacy
RI.K.3 Health Literacy
Environmental Literacy
KPS2-2 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
K.MD.B.3 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
W.K.2 Critical Thinking and
W.K.5 Problem Solving
W.K.7 Communication and
Collaboration
CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media, and
K.CC.C.6 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.Math.Content. CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
K.CC.C.7 SL.K.1 Media Literacy
SL.K.3 Information Communication
SL.K.5 and Technology Literacy
CCSS.Math.Content. Life and Career Skills:
K.CC.B.4 Flexibility and Adaptability
CCSS.Math.Content. Initiative and Self-Direction
K.CC.B.4a Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
CCSS.Math.Content. Productivity and
K.CC.B.4b Accountability
CCSS.Math.Content. Leadership and Responsibility
K.CC.B.4c
CCSS.Math.Content.
K.MD.A.1
CCSS.Math.Content.
K.MD.A.2
46 Catherine Koehler et al.

the year. Teams will create a presentation for the petting zoo to explain to their
customers the changes that animals experience over a year as a result of changing
weather. Much of the observations the students will make can be recorded in their
STEM notebooks and used as talking points. The lead discipline for this module is
mathematics because so many of the observations will take the form of quantitative
relationships backed by qualitative observations, aligning the different patterns of
the sky and animals. Data can be collected using illustrations of the cycles of the
Sun, the Moon, the seasons, and how animals adapt to these changing conditions.
Weather observations can also be collected and analyzed based on the seasons. This
module can span the entire school year so that the students can understand how
patterns of the sky and the Earth change (see Table 4.4).

TABLE 4.4 STEM Road Map Grades K-2—Kindergarten The Represented World Theme:
Patterns on Earth and in the Sky
NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills
Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
K-ESS2-1 CCSS Math Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MP1, MP2, MP3, CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP4, MP6, MP7 RI.K.1 Environmental Literacy
RI.K.3 Civic Literacy
K-ESS3-1 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
K.CC.B.4 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
W.K.2 Critical Thinking and
W.K.5 Problem Solving
W.K.7 Communication and Collaboration
K-PS3-1 CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media, and
K.CC.C.6 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.Math.Content. CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
K.CC.C.7 SL.K.1 Media Literacy
SL.K.3 Information Communication
SL.K.5 and Technology Literacy
K-LS1-1 CCSS.Math.Content. Life and Career Skills:
K.MD.B.3 Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility
CCSS.Math.Content.
K.CC.A.1
CCSS.Math.Content.
K.CC.A.2
CCSS.Math.Content.
K.CC.A.3
CCSS.Math.Content.
K.CC.B.5
 The STEM Road Map for Grades K-2 47

Sustainable Systems (Kindergarten): Habitats in the U.S.

Habitats are ideal to observe sustainable systems at work. With the invention of
the webcam, students around the world can view habitats in distant lands such
as the Serengeti in Africa or the Tundra in the Arctic. From their own class-
rooms, students can see how the lions of the Serengeti feed and drink around
a watering hole, they can see emperor penguins of Antarctica birthing their
babies, and can see how urban peregrine falcons nest and take care of their
young on city rooftops. Comparing and contrasting habitats teaches students
the wonders of life in places near and far. In this module, students are chal-
lenged to choose various habitats in the local area and various habitats in other
areas in the U.S. and develop a reference manual to describe their similarities
and differences in relation to weather, climate, and the animals that reside there.
In kindergarten, we introduce students to the notion of habitats, concentrat-
ing on local habitats, and compare these local habitats with those in the U.S.
The lead discipline in this module is geography and students will begin to see
beyond their own neighborhood, city, and state to learn about the geography
and habitats found in other regions of the U.S. Technology plays a huge role
in this unit as it can bring different habitats to the students (via webcams) so
they can make observations from afar. Later in first grade, this topic will be
expanded to habitats in other countries around the world. The NAEYC (2012)
and the Fred Rogers Center recommend that early childhood educators select,
use, integrate, and evaluate technology and interactive media tools in inten-
tional and developmentally appropriate ways, giving careful attention to the
appropriateness and the quality of the content, the child’s experience, and the
opportunities for co-engagement (p. 11). At the end of this module, students
will develop a reference manual that describes and compares different habitats
around the U.S. (see Table 4.5).

Optimizing the Human Experience (Kindergarten):

Our Changing School Environment
It is never too early to introduce the notion of the changing environment to
students. In this module, students are challenged to develop a means to com-
municate changes in the environment that they see around their school and
their community. Students may develop a school newspaper or blog to be dis-
tributed in the school district and beyond to report the changes in the environ-
ment observed around the school and community. In this module, students will
become aware of the changes in their environment and record those changes
for wider distribution to other kindergarten classes as well as beyond. The lead
discipline is ELA, and this project will allow students to have literary freedom
to express their findings of environmental issues as they pertain to the topic of
48 Catherine Koehler et al.

TABLE 4.5 STEM Road Map Grades K-2—Kindergarten Sustainable Systems Theme:
Habitats

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
K-LS1-1 CCSS Math Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MP1, MP2, MP3, CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP4, MP5, MP6, RI.K.1 Environmental Literacy
MP7, MP8 RI.K.3
K-ESS3-1 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
K.CC.B.4 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
CCSS.Math.Content. W.K.2 Critical Thinking and
K.CC.B.4a W.K.5 Problem Solving
CCSS.Math.Content. W.K.7 Communication and
K.CC.B.4b Collaboration
CCSS.Math.Content.
K.CC.B.4c
K-PS3-1 CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media, and
K.CC.C.6 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.Math.Content. CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
K.CC.C.7 SL.K.1 Media Literacy
SL.K.3 Information Communication
SL.K.5 and Technology Literacy
CCSS.Math.Content. Life and Career Skills:
K.MD.A.1 Flexibility and Adaptability
CCSS.Math.Content. Initiative and Self-Direction
K.MD.A.2 Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility
CCSS.Math.Content.
K.MD.B.3
CCSS.Math.Content.
K.CC.A.1
CCSS.Math.Content.
K.CC.A.2
CCSS.Math.Content.
K.CC.A.3
CCSS.Math.Content.
K.CC.B.5

localized effects of climate change, erratic weather conditions, and the effects of
climate and weather on local animal habitats. Students can produce an online
newspaper or blog to distribute the information to a wide audience. They can
adopt another kindergarten class and share their information with this class (see
Table 4.6).
 The STEM Road Map for Grades K-2 49

TABLE 4.6 STEM Road Map Grades K-2—Kindergarten Optimizing the Human
Experience Theme: Our Changing School Environment

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
K-ESS2-1 CCSS Math Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MP1, MP2, MP3, CCSS.ELA. Economic, Business, and
MP4, MP6 RI.K.1 Entrepreneurial Literacy
RI.K.3 Environmental Literacy
Civic Literacy
K-ESS3-1 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
K.CC.B.4 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
W.K.2 Critical Thinking and
W.K.5 Problem Solving
W.K.7 Communication and
Collaboration
K-PS3-1 CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media, and
K.CC.C.6 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.Math.Content. CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
K.CC.C.7 SL.K.1 Media Literacy
SL.K.3 Information Communication
SL.K.5 and Technology Literacy
K-LS1-1 CCSS.Math.Content. Life and Career Skills:
K.MD.A.1 Flexibility and Adaptability
CCSS.Math.Content. Initiative and Self-Direction
K.MD.A.2 Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility
CCSS.Math.Content.
K.MD.B.3
CCSS.Math.Content.
K.CC.A.1
CCSS.Math.Content.
K.CC.A.2
CCSS.Math.Content.
K.CC.A.3
CCSS.Math.Content.
K.CC.B.5

STEM Careers in Kindergarten

It is important to introduce students to different careers through the general
description of the career. In this section, we will introduce you to a broad defi-
nition of different careers. Later in this chapter, we will discuss different careers
more specifically.
50 Catherine Koehler et al.

An engineer is a person who solves problems that help society and/or the com-
munity. They can be a man or a woman. Many times, they work with other people
who are also engineers in solving the problem. Engineers always try to design prod-
ucts to help make life easier. The engineer, after being presented with a problem,
uses a design process that helps them tackle the problem. Engineers always work
with constraints (parameters around the problem), whether it is financial (how
much does the design cost?), ethical (how will this design harm the environment,
animals, or humans?), or time (how much time do we have to complete this task?)
(Koehler, Faraclas, Giblin, Moss, & Kazerounian, 2013). There are many different
types of engineers that focus on different types of designs and products and a few
are listed here: mechanical (manufacturing, robotics), biomedical (works with med-
ical designs), civil and environmental (work to help transportation, construction,
water resource management, waste treatment facilities), chemical (nanotechnol-
ogy, uses chemistry and physics), electrical (electricity, electronics, electromagnetic,
communication), computer (software and hardware design), structural (building,
bridges, dams), aerospace (airplanes, space shuttles, ‘rocket’ science).
A scientist is a person (either female or male) who studies phenomena on Earth
and/or in space in an attempt to explain the natural world. A scientist uses a meth-
odology to study these phenomena oftentimes referred to as a scientific method.
Science begins with an observation follow by a question. Scientists explore these
questions by collecting empirical data, analyzing the data, and drawing conclu-
sions based on evidence that they have collected. They can use an experimental
procedure to explore their research questions as most people perceive how sci-
ence is conducted, or they can use their observations to explore the questions as
the way astronomers and some field biologists do. Scientists use their creativity
in all aspects of the scientific endeavor from making the observation to draw-
ing conclusions based on evidence. A scientist is not restricted to a laboratory in
which to work, but instead can work out in the field, e.g. outdoors or in space,
or on computers (Koehler, Binns, & Bloom, 2013). Fields of science include: life
sciences (biology, medicine, environmental science), physical science (chemistry,
physics, geology, astronomy, meteorology).
A mathematician is a person (female or male) who studies phenomena related to
numbers, models, and structures related to numbers and patterns (American Math-
ematical Society, 2014). The disciplines of engineering and science often use math-
ematics to explain the data collected and used. The person who studies mathematics
can pursue careers in statistics (study of the collection, analysis, interpretation, pre-
sentation, and organization of data (Dodge, 2006)), actuaries (study of financial
risk), and work with scientists in the fields of climate change and astronomy.
A journalist writes about a variety of topics for publication. They have an
excellent command of the English language and are able to discuss issues that
are related to current events. They often work in the field exploring stories that
are newsworthy. They can sometimes live in foreign countries reporting on the
events that are happening there.
 The STEM Road Map for Grades K-2 51

A meteorologist is a person who studies the weather and different atmospheric

changes that occur short-term. They have a strong background in science,
geography, and mathematics. Many times they are on television broadcasting
the weather. Many work with maps and study how precipitation and pressure
changes affect geographic areas.
An astronomer is a person who studies the stars, planets, the Sun, solar system,
and the universe. Much of their study is done using computers and telescopes.
They try to answer questions about the origins of the universe or whether there
is life on distant planets. An astronomer needs a strong background in physics,
computers, mathematics, and mapping.
An ecologist is a person who studies biomes, habitats, ecosystems, organisms,
and their relationship to the environment. They have a strong background in
biology, the environment, and the climate. They often work with policy makers
on environmental issues.
A geographer is a person who studies the land and why people settle in the
area that they do. They have a strong background in mapping, geology, anthro-
pology (study of where people live in the past and the present), and meteorology.

The STEM Road Map for First Grade

In first grade, students will explore themes that connect to the ideas learned
in kindergarten. Each of the STEM themes has topics associated with it and
a problem/challenge for the students to address. Although the STEM themes
are the same, the topics vary depending on the NGSS standards that align with
that theme. Each topic will be described in detail and a map of the content
standards for NGSS, CCSS for English/language arts (ELA), CCSS for math-
ematics, NAEYC standards, and positions in science and technology for kinder-
gartners and primary grade children, and 21st Century Skills will accompany
each description. As previously stated, each module is to be approached in an
interdisciplinary way, which allows the teacher to use the lead discipline as a
framework for the module while integrating other disciplines as appropriate.
We provide the CCSS for ELA and mathematics as well as 21st Century Skills as
important ingredients for the development and implementation of the module
(see Table 4.7).

Cause and Effect (First Grade): Influence of Waves

In this unit, students will begin to explore the notion of waves. As we know,
waves can present themselves in different forms, including light and sound
waves. Light waves come to the Earth in the form of visible light from the Sun
while mechanical waves are waves that can produce sound. The understanding
of waves is fundamental to a more advanced understanding of communication
and various other phenomena in science. Both types of waves are all around us
52 Catherine Koehler et al.

TABLE 4.7 Overview of the First Grade STEM Road Map Themes, Topics, and Problems/
Challenges

STEM Theme Topic Problem/Challenge

Cause and Effect Influence of Waves Student teams will develop
a model to demonstrate how
LEAD
humans experience and interact
Science
with light and sound waves.
Innovation and Progress The STEM of Sound Student teams will design and
create instruments to play in an
LEAD
organized class orchestra.
Music and English/
Language Arts
The Represented World Patterns and The Student teams will design a
Changing World window-box garden and follow
their products over an extended
LEAD
period of time.
Mathematics
Sustainable Systems Habitats—Local and Student teams will develop a plan
Far Away to save their selected endangered
species through mitigating
LEAD
weather, climate, and other factors
Social Studies
that contribute to their vitality.
Optimizing the Human Survival on Student teams will design and
Experience Earth—Water create a watering system that
can keep a garden moist during
LEAD
dry weather while following
Social Studies and
conservation guidelines.
Science

at all times, constantly bombarding us, and bouncing off of us although we

often do not notice this. Students will begin to understand that there are dif-
ferent forms of waves and that body organs (e.g., eyes, ears, and skin) respond
to the waves differently. This module will also explore, at a basic level, the
human anatomy of hearing and sight. Students will learn about various sources
of sound and light and determine how the sound and light waves reach them
(see Table 4.8).

Innovation and Progress (First Grade): The STEM of Sound

Sound is an integral part of human life. Many of our ancient ancestors used
sound as a way to communicate with each other and entertain themselves
during rituals and festivities. In this unit, we explore the notion of sound in-
depth, in particular using the orchestra as the framework for understanding it.
Students will explore why an orchestra sounds so powerful. They will research
the history of different instruments of the orchestra (e.g., woodwinds, string
 The STEM Road Map for Grades K-2 53

TABLE 4.8 STEM Road Map Grades K-2—First Grade Cause and Effect Theme: Influence
of Waves

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
1-PS4-1 CCSS Math Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MP1, MP2, MP4, CCSS.ELA. Economic, Business, and
MP6 RI.1.1 Entrepreneurial Literacy
RI.1.3
RI.1.7
1-PS4-2 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
1.NBT.A.1c CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
W.1.2 Critical Thinking and
W.1.6 Problem Solving
W.1.7 Communication and
W.1.8 Collaboration
1-PS4-3 CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media, and
1.NBT.B.3 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
SL.1.1 Media Literacy
SL.1.3 Information Communication
SL.1.5 and Technology Literacy
CCSS.Math.Content. Life and Career Skills:
1.MD.C.4 Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility
CCSS.Math.Content.
1.OA.A

instruments, brass, and drums). While exploring how the instruments make
sound, they will begin to understand the essence of sound waves. The students
will learn about musical notes and how they relate to mathematics. At the end
of the unit, the challenge/problem is: Design and create your own instrument to
play in a class orchestra. Students can choose a percussion instrument that uses
a striking motion to create sound, a wind instrument that uses their breath
or forced air to create a sound through different lengths of pipe, or a string
instrument that uses different lengths of taut string or rubber bands. The class
will try to play a simple song on their homemade instruments. They will also
learn about the origins of this song and its role of communicating a message in
a ritual (see Table 4.9).
54 Catherine Koehler et al.

TABLE 4.9 STEM Road Map Grades K-2—First Grade Innovation and Progress Theme:
Communication by Sound

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
1-PS4-4 CCSS Math Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MP1, MP2, MP4, CCSS.ELA. Economic, Business, and
MP6, MP7 RI.1.1 Entrepreneurial Literacy
RI.1.3 Global Awareness
RI.1.7 Civic Literacy
1-PS4-1 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
1.NBT.B.3 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
W.1.2 Critical Thinking and
W.1.6 Problem Solving
W.1.7 Communication and
W.1.8 Collaboration
CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media, and
1.MD.A.1 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.Math.Content. CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
1.MD.A.2 SL.1.1 Media Literacy
SL.1.3 Information Communication
SL.1.5 and Technology Literacy
CCSS.Math.Content. Life and Career Skills:
1.MD.C.4 Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility
CCSS.Math.Content.
1.OA.A.1

The Represented World (First Grade): Patterns and

The Changing World
Children are curious about how living things grow and change over the course of
their lives. In this unit, we explore the concept of changes in the plant world and
how changes on Earth (the seasons) and in the sky (daylight hours) affect these
plants. In kindergarten, the students will have studied the patterns of the Sun and
Moon (daylight and darkness) and how these patterns affect the Earth. In this unit,
students will review these concepts again and relate them to how plants grow.
The students will study how plants change over time due to the changing seasons
and learn that certain plants grow in different regions. They will make observa-
tions in a real-world setting about changing plant life and make notes for a design
of a window-box garden. The lead discipline for this unit is mathematics, so the
 The STEM Road Map for Grades K-2 55

emphasis is on how students make their observations, measure the changes, and
thus quantify the results. The challenge/problem for this unit is: Design a window-
box garden, plant several different plants and follow their life cycle over an extended period of
time (several months). Students will begin this unit by researching which plants grow
in their area and which plants do not grow in their area, then students will explore
what types of containers best serve as a foundation for the plants. Students will
design a notebook to make observations of the plants and collaboratively decide
what observations to make and how to organize these observations. Based on the
observations the students make throughout this unit about window-box environ-
ments, they analyze how plants develop throughout the year (see Table 4.10).

TABLE 4.10 STEM Road Map Grades K-2—First Grade The Represented World Theme:
The Changing World

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
1-ESS1-1 CCSS Math Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MP1, MP2, MP3, CCSS.ELA. Economic, Business, and
MP4, MP5, MP6, RI.1.1 Entrepreneurial Literacy
MP7, MP8 RI.1.3 Global Awareness
RI.1.7 Environmental Literacy
1-ESS1-2 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
1.NBT.C.4 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
CCSS.Math.Content. W.1.2 Critical Thinking and
1.NBT.C.5 W.1.6 Problem Solving
CCSS.Math.Content. W.1.7 Communication and
1.NBT.C.6 W.1.8 Collaboration
1-LS3-1 CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media, and
1.NBT.B.3 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
SL.1.1 Media Literacy
SL.1.3 Information Communication
SL.1.5 and Technology Literacy
1-LS-1-2 CCSS.Math.Content. Life and Career Skills:
1.MD.A.1 Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility
CCSS.Math.Content.
1.MD.C.4
CCSS.Math.Content.
1.OA.A.1
CCSS.Math.Content.
1.OA.A.2
56 Catherine Koehler et al.

Sustainable Systems (First Grade): Habitats—Near

and Far
In kindergarten, the students explored habitats of animals in their own commu-
nity as well as across the U.S. Now, they will explore habitats on a global scale.
As mentioned in the kindergarten unit, habitats are the ideal location to visualize
sustainable systems at work. With the help of webcams, students can experi-
ence habitats in distant lands. By comparing and contrasting habitats, students
learn about the wonders of life in places near and far. In this challenge/problem,
students are asked to: Choose an endangered species in a habitat in another area of
the world and develop a plan to save the endangered species by describing the habitat’s
characteristics as it relates to weather, climate, and the animals that reside there and how
humans may influence this habitat. The lead discipline in this unit is geography,
and students will begin to see beyond their own town and state to other parts
of the world. Technology plays a huge role in this unit as it can bring different
habitats to the students so they can make observations from afar. Students will
begin this unit by researching the habitat of an endangered species and develop-
ing an organizational tool to describe the characteristics of the habitat. Students
will also look at campaigns to save endangered species such as those done with
the World Wildlife Foundation. At the end of this unit, students will present
their plan to save the endangered animal by describing the habitat characteristics,
what is happening to endanger the species, and how they might be able to help
(see Table 4.11).

TABLE 4.11 STEM Road Map Grades K-2—First Grade Sustainable Systems Theme: Near
and Far

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
1-LS1-1 CCSS Math Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MP1, MP2, MP3, CCSS.ELA. Economic, Business, and
MP4, MP6, MP7 RI.1.1 Entrepreneurial Literacy
RI.1.3 Global Awareness
RI.1.7 Environmental Literacy
Health Literacy
Civic Literacy
1-LS-1-2 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
1.NBT.C.5 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
W.1.2 Critical Thinking and
W.1.6 Problem Solving
W.1.7 Communication and
W.1.8 Collaboration
(Continued)
 The STEM Road Map for Grades K-2 57

TABLE 4.11 (Continued)

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media, and
1.NBT.C.6 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
SL.1.1 Media Literacy
SL.1.3 Information Communication
SL.1.5 and Technology Literacy
CCSS.Math.Content. Life and Career Skills:
1.NBT.B.3 Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility
CCSS.Math.Content.
1.MD.C.4
CCSS.Math.Content.
1.OA.A.1

Optimizing the Human Experience (First Grade): Survival on

Earth—Water
Water is a scarcity in many parts of the U.S. and around the world. Students need
to recognize that water is essential for living and that without it, animals and plants
cannot survive. As such, the introduction of this unit deals with water and its
role in life on Earth. The lead disciplines for this unit are geography and science.
It is important for the teacher to connect the area of the U.S. in which students
live with its sources of water (geography and weather). Students should recognize
that water is a unique feature on Earth, and it is the substance that separates Earth
from the other planets, especially in that it is the only one (that we know of) that
supports a wealth of animal and plant life (science). The challenge/problem for
this unit is: Design and create a watering system that can keep a garden moist during dry
weather while following conservation guidelines. Redesign this system for a region that has
different water sources. This particular challenge gives students opportunities to test
their design and modify it in order to make it usable for different climate condi-
tions (see Table 4.12).

STEM Careers in First Grade

An optometrist is a person who tests a person’s vision. They test the eyes for any
disease or changes in how people see. They will test the eyes using sophisticated
58 Catherine Koehler et al.

TABLE 4.12 STEM Road Map Grades K-2—First Grade Optimizing the Human Experience
Theme: Survival on Earth—Water

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
1-LS1-1 CCSS Math PracticesReading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MP1, MP2, MP3, CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP4, MP5, MP6, RI.1.1 Environmental Literacy
MP7, MP8 RI.1.3
RI.1.7
CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
1.NBT.B.3 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
W.1.2 Critical Thinking and
W.1.6 Problem Solving
W.1.7 Communication and
W.1.8 Collaboration
CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media, and
1.MD.A.1 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.Math.Content. CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
1.MD.A.2 SL.1.1 Media Literacy
SL.1.5 Information Communication
and Technology Literacy
CCSS.Math.Content. Life and Career Skills:
1.MD.C.4 Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and
Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility
CCSS.Math.Content.
1.OA.A.1

equipment and determine if you need glasses or not. They can sometimes make
the glasses for you in their office. They have a strong background in human
anatomy and physiology, physics-optics, and business.
An audio engineer is an engineer who specializes in sound. They can design
different speakers to project sound from a radio or stereo. They can design ear
buds to listen to your iDevices. They have a strong background in physics-waves,
mathematics, computers, the human brain, and hearing.
A hearing specialist is a person who studies human hearing. They study how
people hear and try to determine if a person has a hearing deficiency. They
can prescribe hearing aids to help people with damaged hearing. They have a
background in human anatomy and physiology, the human brain and hearing,
computers, and mathematics.
 The STEM Road Map for Grades K-2 59

A horticulturalist is a person who works with the land and how it produces
fruits, vegetables, mushrooms, and other plants. They can design gardens and
work on farms growing food for consumption. They can also work as gardeners,
landscape designers, and farmers. They need a strong background in soil science,
plant pathology, geology, chemistry, and architecture (for designing).
An ecologist is a person who studies biomes, habitats, ecosystems, organisms
and their relationship to the environment. They have a strong background in
biology, the environment, and the climate. They often work with policy makers
on environmental issues.
A geographer is a person who studies the land and why people settle in the
area that they do. They have a strong background in mapping, geology, anthro-
pology (study of where people live in the past and the present), and meteorology.
A climatologist is a person who studies climate in a region or worldwide. These
individuals study how weather over the long-term affects plants and animals in a
specific region. With the onset of Global Climate Change (GCC), it is important
for climatologists to understand how GCC is affecting us. They need a strong
background in meteorology, geology, chemistry, physics, botany, and mathematics.

The STEM Road Map for Second Grade

The STEM Road Map builds on the knowledge discussed from the previous two
grades. As students develop intellectually, the problems/challenges become more
complex and students should be given more independence in their thinking
and problem solving. As discussed earlier, it is extremely important for students
to use their science notebooks as a tool to assist in this learning. Students are
encouraged to draw pictures and use labels to explain their thinking in their
notebooks. Illustrating their observations requires young scientists to make close
observations of the world around them. Teachers should begin very early in the
year to teach students the difference between cartoon-like drawings/illustrations
and scientific illustrations. Through modeling of drawing and labeling (with
labels and details), students develop an understanding that their scientific illus-
trations give information and explain ideas. Students are encouraged to make
their illustrations as realistic as possible. The teacher explains that students should
think about their scientific illustrations like this: If I weren’t here to explain what
is in my picture, could other scientists make sense of it? The overarching emphasis in
this section will focus on students’ illustrations of their ideas and the changing
conceptions as they learn the material being presented (see Table 4.13).

Cause and Effect (Second Grade): The Changing Environment

In kindergarten and first grade, students were introduced to different habitats
within the U.S. and the world. During these lessons and as they explore diverse
habitats, they are introduced to major Earth features, such as mountain ranges,
60 Catherine Koehler et al.

TABLE 4.13 Overview of the Second Grade STEM Road Map Themes, Topics, and
Problems/Challenges

STEM Theme Topic Problem/Challenge

Cause and Our Changing Environment Student teams will develop a
Effect communication plan to inform their
LEAD
community in the event of a natural
Science and Social Studies
disaster such as a flood, tornado,
earthquake, or dust storm in the area.
Innovation and Material Science and Space Student teams will design a spacesuit
Progress using material that will protect a person
LEAD
from dangerous elements in space.
Science and Social Studies
The Represented Change Over Time—Our Student teams will adopt a plot of land
World Schoolyard in the schoolyard and investigate how
it changes over a school year.
LEAD
Mathematics and English/
Language Arts
Sustainable System Interactions: Our Student teams will develop a
Systems Schoolyard Garden schoolyard garden and explore the
interaction between the Earth, plants,
LEAD
humans, animals, weather, and seasons.
Science and Mathematics

coastal regions, the Great Plains, and river basins. This lesson explores what
would happen to various habitats if there were a natural hazard. In this module,
students pull together the knowledge they learned from previous units on habi-
tats (local and global), research new factors, and problem solve about how the
impact of a natural hazard on the environment, the people, and the animals can
be minimized. The problem/challenge is: Investigate your home and different regions
of the U.S., develop and communicate a plan to have people prepare for a natural hazard
such as a flood, tornado, earthquake, or dust storm to minimize the impact of the damage
on the environment. In devising a plan for natural hazards, students can produce an
infomercial about how to prepare for one of these disasters. In science, students
learn about the conditions for natural hazards; in technology, students utilize
technology to gather information and communicate; in engineering, students
learn about how shelters are constructed and how water sources are controlled;
and in mathematics, students learn about models for calculating how many peo-
ple are involved and chances of weather occurrences (see Table 4.14).

Innovation and Progress (Second Grade): Material Science

and Space
Materials and their uses are continually changing as technology develops. It is
important for students to understand that materials are always evolving and that
 The STEM Road Map for Grades K-2 61

TABLE 4.14 STEM Road Map Grades K-2—Second Grade Cause and Effect Theme: The
Changing Environment

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
1-PS1-4 CCSS Math PracticesReading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MP1, MP2, MP3, CCSS.ELA. Economic, Business, and
MP4, MP5, MP6, RI.2.1 Entrepreneurial Literacy
MP7, MP8 RI.2.3 Global Awareness
RI.2.7 Environmental Literacy
RI.2.8 Civic Literacy
RI.2.9
2-LS2-1 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
2.NBT.A.1 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
CCSS.Math.Content. W.2.1 Critical Thinking and
2.NBT.A.2 W.2.2 Problem Solving
CCSS.Math.Content. W.2.6 Communication and
2.NBT.A.3 W.2.7 Collaboration
W.2.8
2-LS2-2 Speaking and Information, Media, and
Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
SL.2.2 Media Literacy
SL.2.1 Information Communication
SL.2.3 and Technology Literacy
SL.2.5
2-ESS1-1 Life and Career Skills:
Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility
2-ESS2-1

better products are a result of these changes. Take clothing for example; in Europe
in ancient times, wool was readily available from sheep and used for most cloth-
ing, and Native Northern Americans used deer skin for their clothing because it
was easier to access. Once the U.S. became agricultural, cotton was the material of
choice for clothing manufacturing for many years. It is lightweight and durable,
but with the invention of polyester, cotton was no longer the primary choice. In
this unit, students will investigate the history and the changing role that materials
play in clothing and protection against the elements. In particular, there are serious
discussions about designing a living quarters on the Moon or on Mars. What will
astronauts wear to protect them from the elements? The design of the materials
62 Catherine Koehler et al.

for their clothing is currently being discussed at NASA. What would these clothes
look like? How easily will they be able to move about wearing these clothes? How
will they work or eat? These are questions that real scientists are discussing right
now and one that is an engaging thought exercise that second-grade students can
explore. In addition to the material evolution discussion, the students would need
some background knowledge about NASA and its space program. The problem/
challenge for this unit is: Design a spacesuit using material that will protect a person
from dangerous elements in space. Students would begin by researching how materials
have changed over time based on human need and technology advances. Students
can progress from this basic understanding to more extreme environments, such as
what scientists studying in Antarctica wear to protect them from those particular
conditions. Students can create a graphic novel to keep track of the progression
of their ideas. Finally, students should work in collaborative teams to research the
conditions on either Mars or the Moon and design a spacesuit to protect humans
from the conditions found in that environment (see Table 4.15).

TABLE 4.15 STEM Road Map Grades K-2—Second Grade Innovation and Progress
Theme: Material Science and Space

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
1-PS1-3 CCSS Math Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MP1, MP2, MP3, CCSS.ELA. Economic, Business, and
MP4, MP5, MP6, RI.2.1 Entrepreneurial Literacy
MP7 RI.2.3 Global Awareness
RI.2.7 Health Literacy
RI.2.8
RI.2.9
2-PS1-2 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
2.NBT.A.1 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
CCSS.Math.Content. W.2.1 Critical Thinking and
2.NBT.A.2 W.2.2 Problem Solving
CCSS.Math.Content. W.2.6 Communication and
2.NBT.A.3 W.2.7 Collaboration
W.2.8
2-PS1-1 CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media, and
2.NBT.A.4 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
SL.2.2 Media Literacy
SL.2.1 Information Communication
SL.2.3 and Technology Literacy
SL.2.5
(Continued)
 The STEM Road Map for Grades K-2 63

TABLE 4.15 (Continued)

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
CCSS.Math.Content. Life and Career Skills:
2.MD.A.1 Flexibility and Adaptability
CCSS.Math.Content. Initiative and Self-Direction
2.MD.A.2 Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
CCSS.Math.Content. Productivity and Accountability
2.MD.A.3 Leadership and Responsibility
CCSS.Math.Content.
2.MD.A.4
CCSS.Math.Content.
2.MD.D.10

The Represented World (Second Grade): Changes Over

Time—Our Schoolyard
In other units, we have discussed changing environments and habitats in the U.S.
and the world. It is important for students to understand that even small areas,
such as their schoolyard, undergo changes. If we act locally and think globally,
we can make positive changes right here at home. In this unit, students will
focus on a small plot of land that they will adopt in their schoolyard. Students
will need to present a proposal for this land use such as creating a playground,
planting a vegetable or butterfly garden, or creating an athletic field. They will
be responsible for planning for optimal land use, responsible water consumption,
making observations and recording measurements throughout the school year,
and documenting this data in their science notebooks. They should then analyze
their data and describe the changes that occurred, no matter how small they
may seem. Finally, students will create a story that describes these changes and
share the story with the class. The focus for this unit will be on accuracy and
measurement; mathematics will be the lead discipline. Students will learn about
the tools used for measurement, they will use technology to make observations,
and realize that science is conducted not only in the classroom but in the field as
well. The problem/challenge for this unit is: Adopt a plot of land in your schoolyard
for a project of your design, plan for optimal land use, responsible water consumption, and
investigate how it changes over a school year (see Table 4.16).

Sustainable Systems (Second Grade): Our Schoolyard Garden

Growing food is a skill that is necessary for our survival on Earth. With the
increasing population, it is important for students to understand how food grows
and how to care for a garden. In this unit, students will be introduced to different
64 Catherine Koehler et al.

TABLE 4.16 STEM Road Map Grades K-2—Second Grade The Represented World
Theme: Changes over Time—Our Schoolyard

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
2-PS1-1 CCSS Math Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MP1, MP2, MP3, CCSS.ELA. Environmental Awareness
MP4, MP5, MP6, RI.2.1 Civic Literacy
MP7, MP8 RI.2.3
RI.2.7
RI.2.8
RI.2.9
2-ESS1-1 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
2.MD.D.10 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
W.2.1 Critical Thinking and
W.2.2 Problem Solving
W.2.7 Communication and
W.2.8 Collaboration
2-ESS2-2 CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media, and
2.NB.T.A.1 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.Math.Content. CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
2.NB.T.A.2 SL.2.2 Media Literacy
CCSS.Math.Content. SL.2.1 Information Communication
2.NB.T.A.3 SL.2.3 and Technology Literacy
SL.2.5
2-LS-4-1 Life and Career Skills:
Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility
2-LS2-2

types of gardens (e.g., rooftop, hanging, backyard, etc.) and learn how to care for
them. The challenge/problem for this unit is: Investigate and develop a school garden
and explore the interaction between the Earth, plants, humans, animals, weather, and
seasons. The integration of mathematics and science is a key element in this unit
as students will design a garden plot and will need the necessary tools in math-
ematics to take measurements and make informed decisions about how much
soil to use, what type of plants to grow, and how to design a watering system if
there were drought conditions. The design and care of the garden can extend
from the beginning to the end of the school year and this unit can be revisited
multiple times during the year. Equally important in this unit is the integra-
tion of social studies. Students will begin to understand how different areas
 The STEM Road Map for Grades K-2 65

TABLE 4.17 STEM Road Map Grades K-2—Second Grade Sustainable Systems Theme:
Interactions in Systems

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
2-LS4-1 CCSS Math PracticesReading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MP1, MP2, MP3, CCSS.ELA. Economic, Business, and
MP4, MP5, MP6, RI.2.1 Entrepreneurial Literacy
MP7, MP8 RI.2.3 Global Awareness
RI.2.7 Environmental Literacy
RI.2.8 Civic Literacy
RI.2.9 Health Literacy
2-LS2-2 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
2.MD.B.5 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
W.2.1 Critical Thinking and
W.2.2 Problem Solving
W.2.7 Communication and
W.2.8 Collaboration
2-ESS2-2 CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media, and
2.MD.D.10 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
SL.2.2 Media Literacy
SL.2.1 Information Communication
SL.2.3 and Technology Literacy
SL.2.5
2-ESS2-1 CCSS.Math.Content. Life and Career Skills:
2.NBT.A.3 Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility
2-PS1-3

in the U.S. and around the world grow food for the populace. This important
integration drives the awareness that a growing population will put a strain on
resources and that the knowledge of developing a garden is key to managing this
strain (see Table 4.17).

STEM Careers in Second Grade

A material engineer is a person who develops, processes, and tests materials that
enhance the structure of products. A material engineer can make computer chips
that run computers, design new materials for plastics or ceramics that can be used
in manufacturing, develop a tissue to help burn victims, create a new material for
66 Catherine Koehler et al.

sports equipment like skis or golf clubs, or even airplanes. They have a background
in physics, engineering, mathematics, and design (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014).
A nanotechnologist is a type of material engineer who works with materi-
als that are at a very small scale. They have similar backgrounds to a material
engineer.
An urban planner is a person who develops plans for the use of land in com-
munities and cities. They are particularly interested in how people move into
communities. They have a background in geography, anthropology, and policy.
An environmental engineer is a person who is interested in how the environ-
ment is affected by humans. They work with groups to ensure that water quality
and waste management are maintained in communities. They also work with
civil engineers in the development of roads and infrastructures in communities.
Where the civil engineer is responsible for construction and design of infra-
structure as it relates to transportation, an environmental engineer will work to
ensure that the environment is maintained as natural as possible. These engineers
have a background in environmental science, ecology, mathematics, transporta-
tion, construction, and materials.

K-2 Road Map Summary

This chapter outlines the STEM Road Map for grades K-2. The intent in this
chapter is to provide learning modules for teachers that will integrate the Next
Generation Science Standards (NGSS) with Common Core ELA and mathematics,
and the NAEYC standards and positions into five STEM themes. The beauty of
this integration is to include other disciplines such as social studies, art, and music
that are often forgotten in the classroom. The addition of 21st Century Skills are
woven into the themes and will help students develop the skills necessary for
their future learning and understanding. With each theme, we have suggested
careers for teachers and students to explore together and with this exploration
they will recognize that they, too, can consider STEM in their future aspirations.
It is our hope that after an integrated curriculum over three years, as we have
outlined here, students will begin to appreciate that they have the opportunity
to contribute to the ever-changing world in which we live.

STEM Road Map Module

A complete STEM Road Map Kindergarten Patterns on Earth and in the Sky
module is included in the Appendix of this book. More modules are under devel-
opment and will be made available in the near future.

References
American Mathematical Society (2014). What do mathematicians do? Retrieved from
www.ams.org/profession/career-info/math-work/math-work
 The STEM Road Map for Grades K-2 67

Bell, S. (2010). Project-based learning for the 21st Century: Skills for the future, The
Clearing House, 83, 39–43.
Bureau of Labor Statistics (2014). Occupational outlook handbook: Material engineers.
Retrieved from www.bls.gov/ooh/architecture-and-engineering/materials-engineers.htm
Cole, C. (2011). Connecting students to STEM careers: Social networking strategies. Interna-
tional Society for Technology in Education.
Dodge, Y. (2006). The Oxford dictionary of statistical terms. New York: Oxford University
Press.
Eliason, C.F., & Jenkins, L.T. (2012). A practical guide to early childhood curriculum (9th ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Hein, W.W., & Sivell, M. (2014). Physics day at Six Flags America. Retrieved from https://
www.sixflags.com/sites/default/files/SFA_PhysicsDayWorkbook.pdf
Koehler, C.M., Binns, I.C., & Bloom, M.A. (2013). Dispositions of scientists in main-
stream films: The extraordinary person classed a scientist. In Application of visual data
in K-16 science classrooms, Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.
Koehler, C.M., Faraclas, E.W., Giblin, D., Moss, D.M., & Kazerounian, K. (2013). The
nexus between science literacy & technical literacy: A state by state analysis of engi-
neering content in state science frameworks, Journal of STEM Education, 14(3), 5–11.
National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) (2012). Technology
and interactive media as tools in early childhood programs serving children from birth
through age 8. Retrieved from www.naeyc.org/content/technology-and-young-children
5
THE STEM ROAD MAP FOR
GRADES 3–5
Brenda M. Capobianco, Carolyn Parker,
Amanda Laurier, and Jennifer Rankin

Overview of the 3–5 STEM Road Map

Learning and teaching STEM at the elementary school level means provid-
ing students with multiple opportunities to develop scientific understandings
and related practices necessary to function productively as problem-solvers in
a scientific and technological world. Allowing elementary school students to
explore, experiment, or investigate while modeling, reasoning, and communi-
cating affords students the opportunity to build curiosity, increase interest, and,
moreover, construct and apply new scientific knowledge to real-world problems
(NRC, 2005).
This is critically important at the upper elementary school level (defined here
as grades 3 through 5) because students’ thought processes become more mature
and they start solving problems in a more logical fashion as well as incorpo-
rating inductive reasoning (Piaget & Inhelder, 1973). From a STEM perspec-
tive, this means that teachers must consider innovative ways to engage grade
3–5 students in a more student-centered, collaborative, hands-on, problem-
based approach to learning while integrating disciplinary core ideas, scientific
and engineering practices, and critical thinking across multiple subject areas. In
this chapter, we provide an overview of an integrated approach using our grade
3–5 STEM Road Map. Like other grade band chapters, the STEM Road Map for
grades 3–5 is anchored in the five STEM themes: Cause and Effect, Innovation
and Progress, The Represented World, Sustainable Systems, and Optimizing the
Human Experience. Each STEM Road Map theme is intended for a five-week
sequence of integrated instruction where the theme and associated problem or
project is enacted through a core content area. For the upper elementary STEM
Road Map chapter, we provide an example of a five-week module for each
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 3–5 69

grade level, including the complete unit with all instructional and assessment
materials.
The STEM Road Map for grades 3–5 is aligned to Common Core State Standards
in Mathematics (CCSS-M), Common Core State Standards in English/Language
Arts (CCSS-ELA), Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS), and the 21st Century
Skills Framework. The enactment of the curriculum should be student-centered,
facilitated in an integrated fashion, and taught by making explicit connections
across multiple content areas.

STEM Themes in the 3–5 STEM Road Map

The five overarching STEM themes continue to be reinforced and spiraled from
the early, elementary grades. Cause and Effect, the dynamic relationship between
various phenomena in the world provides a real-world context for the study of
weather, seismic activity, and the changes of seasons.
Human ingenuity and its important contributions to society are described
by the theme Innovation and Progress. In grades 3–5, students explore the design
of maglev trains and solar ovens, as well as the use of multimedia resources to
display the influence of Earth’s systems on one another.
Different models that humans have developed to help make sense of the world
are included in the theme The Represented World. In grades 3–5, suggested top-
ics include the phenomenon of bungee jumping, the process of erosion, and the
development of a rainwater harvesting system.
The theme Sustainable Systems challenges students to investigate the interac-
tion of different components of a larger system and explore ways the system
can be sustained over time. Students in grades 3–5 can do so by examining the
interactions among living and non-living things in an aquarium/terrarium, the
study of renewable energy, and the process of making compost.
Lastly, the theme Optimizing the Human Experience encourages students to
utilize STEM ideas, concepts, and principles to improve the human condition.
In grades 3–5, students focus on the development of levees and their impact on
humans, the history of volcanic eruptions in conjunction with the development
of a mechanical device to detect vibrations, and alternative ideas for conserving
energy and promoting ecological sustainability.

The STEM Road Map for Third Grade

Before mapping out an integrated approach to learning STEM, it is important
to consider what students have learned and experienced prior to entering third
grade. In the second grade, students are expected to develop a more informed
understanding of plants, different habitats, properties of materials, Earth events,
and factors that contribute to Earth events. In addition, students in second grade
develop and use models, plan and carry out investigations, analyze and interpret
70 Brenda M. Capobianco et al.

TABLE 5.1 Third Grade STEM Road Map Themes, Topics, and Problems/Challenges

STEM Theme Topic Problem/Challenge

Cause and Predicting the Weather Student teams will create a local weather
Effect forecast in either a video or a blog by
LEAD
making predictions based on collected data
Mathematics
and observations.
Innovation and Transportation in the Student teams will design a model of a
Progress Future high-speed train that will safely transport
passengers.
LEAD
Social Studies
The Represented Recreational STEM Student teams will conduct a survey of
World their school playground or a nearby park
LEAD
or playground and develop a proposal for
Science
design of a new swing set that is both more
entertaining, yet a safer environment for play.
Sustainable Ecosystem Preservation Student teams will develop a plan to
Systems preserve the local ecosystem.
LEAD
Science
Optimizing Reducing our Footprint Student teams will develop a plan for more
the Human environmentally friendly transportation
LEAD
Experience methods at their local school.
Language Arts

data, construct explanations, and design solutions. Using this newly acquired
knowledge, students in third grade extend their existing ideas and conceptions in
life, physical and earth and space sciences by engaging in one or more problem-
based challenges. Each challenge is organized around one central topic inspired
by one or more of the STEM Road Map themes. These topics not only align with
the theme but also with grade level academic content standards (e.g., Common
Core, Next Generation Science Standards). The topics for third grade include the
following: weather, transportation, motion, ecosystems, and environmental sci-
ence. Each of these topics is organized around a standards-based challenge, prob-
lem, or project that student teams are assigned to tackle in the course of learning
necessary content and skills in the various disciplines (see Table 5.1).

Cause and Effect: Predicting the Weather

Weather is easily observable and impacts our daily lives in various ways.
Extreme weather events and conditions—including blizzards, tornadoes, and
hurricanes—are sources of engagement and high interest among young learners.
In this project, third grade students investigate the many factors that influence
weather, including temperature, air pressure, clouds, and wind direction and
speed in science. Students will create a weather station and collect daily weather
data, utilizing measurement skills in mathematics, by using various instruments
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 3–5 71

including thermometers, barometers, wind vanes, anemometers, and hygrom-

eters. After taking measurements and making direct observations of the sky and
outdoor conditions, students will compare their findings to current weather data
provided through research in language arts on reputable sites such as that of the
National Weather Service (see www.weather.gov). Students will analyze data for
predictable patterns such as daily temperature variation. For example, daily high
temperatures usually occur between 3:00 and 4:00 in the afternoon. The Sun is
at its highest point in the sky at noon, but it takes a few hours to warm the Earth,
so there is always a ‘lag’ in temperature response. Students will learn about the
differences in weather geographically around the world, tying in social studies
connections. Students will recognize these cause-and-effect relationships and
will use this knowledge to create a local weather forecast, which can be in the
form of an in-class presentation, video, or blog. Student audience members will
view the presentation and state whether they agree or disagree with the forecast,
providing supporting evidence (see Table 5.2).

TABLE 5.2 STEM Road Map—Third Grade Cause and Effect Theme: Predicting the
Weather

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
3-ESS2-1 CCSS.Math.Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MP1, MP2, MP3, CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP4, MP5, MP6 RI.3.1 Environmental Literacy
RI.3.3 Health Literacy
RI.3.5
RF.3.4
3-ESS2-2 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation
3.MD.A.1 CCSS.ELA Skills:
CCSS.Math.Content. W.3.1. W.3.1a, W.3.1b, Creativity and Innovation
3.MD.A.2 W.3.1c, W.3.1d Critical Thinking and
W.3.2, W.3.2b Problem Solving
W.3.3 Communication and
W.3.7 Collaboration
W.3.8
CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media and
3.NBT.A.1 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.Math.Content. CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
3.NBT.A.2 SL.3.1, SL.3.1d Media Literacy
CCSS.Math.Content. SL.3.3 ICT Literacy
3.NBT.A.3 SL.3.4
SL.3.5
SL.3.6
(Continued)
72 Brenda M. Capobianco et al.

TABLE 5.2 (Continued)

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
CCSS.Math.Content. Life and Career Skills:
3.MD.B.3 Flexibility and Adaptability
CCSS.Math.Content. Initiative and Self-Direction
3.MD.B.4 Social and Cross-Cultural
Skills
Productivity and
Accountability
Leadership and
Responsibility

Innovation and Progress: Transportation in the Future

The notion of innovation for third grade students means that students can be cre-
ative, resourceful, and imaginative. In the transportation design task led by social
studies, third grade students learn the history of train technology, from wagon
tramways of the 1500s to the invention of the first modern-day train in 1804 by
Richard Tevithick, to today’s modern-day technology that includes improved
engine efficiency and enhanced aerodynamics. In science class, students examine
magnetic interactions and use magnets to solve a simple design problem. Using
their new knowledge, students work in small teams to design a train that can
safely carry passengers (weights) down an eight-foot track. The goal is to devise
a vehicle that can easily glide when pushed. Final designs are assessed on the
following criteria: (a) how well the car stays on the track; (b) how well the car
glides to the end of the track; (c) appearance and overall design; and (d) speed.
Further, students will conduct research on design ideas in language arts and will
use mathematical practices to support solving this challenge. Teams will present
their designs in a group presentation (see Table 5.3).

The Represented World: Recreational STEM

This investigation requires third grade students to examine the STEM aspects
involved in constructing a swing set to propose a prototype for a new and
improved swing set. In science class, students will learn about motion and forces
and conduct research on available swing sets in and around their schools. If swing
sets are not readily available, a teacher could provide films depicting swing sets
from the Internet. As the students examine different swing sets, they respond to
the following question: What are the best conditions when creating a fun but
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 3–5 73

TABLE 5.3 STEM Road Map—Third Grade Innovation and Progress Theme:
Transportation in the Future

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
3-PS2-3 CCSS.Math.Practices Reading Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
MP1, MP2, MP4, CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
MP5, MP6 RI.3.1 Critical Thinking and
RI.3.3 Problem Solving
RI.3.8 Communication and
Collaboration
3-PS2-4 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Information, Media and
NBT.A.2 CCSS.ELA. Technology Skills:
W.3.1. W.3.1a, Information Literacy
W.3.1b, W.3.1c, Media Literacy
W.3.2, W.3.2b ICT Literacy
W.3.3
W.3.7
W.3.8
CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Life and Career Skills:
MD.A.1 Listening Standards Flexibility and Adaptability
CCSS.ELA. Initiative and Self-Direction
SL.3.1, SL.3.1d Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
SL.3.3 Productivity and Accountability
SL.3.4 Leadership and Responsibility
SL.3.5
SL.3.6
CCSS.Math.Content.
MD.B.4

safe swing set? Students may need to be prompted to look at the length of the
rope or chain, the type of seat, or how a child ‘gives power’ to the swing to cre-
ate the ride. Once the student teams have examined, compared, and contrasted
different swing sets they will develop a sketch and small scale model of their
proposed design, using geometric shapes and precise measurements (mathemat-
ics). Finally, individual students will draft a short essay or blog, which details the
key components of how their design is an improvement upon existing swing sets
(see Table 5.4).

Sustainable Systems: Ecosystem Preservation

Devising, building, and maintaining models of terrestrial and aquatic eco-
systems provides third grade students with the opportunity to explore factors
74 Brenda M. Capobianco et al.

TABLE 5.4 STEM Road Map—Third Grade The Represented World Theme: Recreational
STEM

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
3-PS2-1 CCSS.Math.Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
3-PS2-2 MP1, MP2, MP4, CCSS.ELA. Health Literacy
MP5, MP7 W.3.7
W.3.8
CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation
3.MD.A.2 CCSS.ELA. Skills:
W.3.1. W.3.1a, W.3.1b, Creativity and Innovation
W.3.1c, W.3.1d Critical Thinking and
W.3.2, W.3.2b Problem Solving
W.3.3 Communication and
W.3.7 Collaboration
W.3.8
CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media and
3.MD.B.4 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
SL.3.1, SL.3.1d Media Literacy
SL.3.3 ICT Literacy
SL.3.4
SL.3.5
SL.3.6
CCSS.Math.Content.
3.OA.D.8
CCSS.Math.Content.
3.OA.D.9

necessary to sustain an ecosystem as well as observe the diverse and unique

life cycles of living organisms. In small teams, students investigate a local eco-
system, such as a nearby stream or park, to better understand the interaction
between living creatures, energy, and the non-living. Next, students work
together to build a model of an aquatic ecosystem and observe the relation-
ships between aquatic plants, algae, fish (mosquitofish or guppies), and snails.
Students begin to discuss the roles of organisms in the ecosystem as well as
observe first-hand the life cycles of different aquatic plants and animals. As
students observe events in the aquatic ecosystems, the students review the
concepts introduced earlier in the life science sequence (biotic and abiotic
factors; needs and characteristics of organisms and habitats). The term ‘eco-
system’ is then introduced to refer to the system composed of a community
of organisms interacting with its environment. The concept of ‘sustainable’ is
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 3–5 75

further explored by instructing students to find out different ways to maintain

their ecosystems over time using what they know about the conditions nec-
essary for the living organisms to survive. Finally, students apply what they
have learned when they constructed their own ecosystems and apply their
knowledge to their community’s ecosystem. For the language arts compo-
nent, students will write an essay or blog on how to protect, appreciate, and
take care of a local natural pond, creek, or park. In social studies, students
will learn about the various types and locations of biomes locally in the U.S
(see Table 5.5).

TABLE 5.5 STEM Road Map—Third Grade Sustainable Systems Theme: Ecosystem
Preservation

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
3-LS1-1 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
Practices CCSS.ELA Environmental Literacy
MP1, MP2, MP4 RI.3.7
RI.3.1
RI.3.2
RI.3.3
3-LS4-3 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
3.MD.B.3 CCSS.ELA Creativity and Innovation
W.3.1. W.3.1a, Critical Thinking and
W.3.1b, W.3.1c, Problem Solving
W.3.1d Communication and
W.3.2, W.3.2b Collaboration
W.3.3
W.3.7
W.3.8
CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media and
3.NBT.A.1 Listening Technology Skills:
CCSS.Math.Content. Standards Information Literacy
3.NBT.A.2 CCSS.ELA. Media Literacy
CCSS.Math.Content. SL.3.5 ICT Literacy
3.NBT.A.3
CCSS.Math.Content. Life and Career Skills:
3.NF.A.1 Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility
76 Brenda M. Capobianco et al.

Optimizing the Human Experience: Reducing our Footprint

Founded in 2004, the Green Schools Initiative represents an organization of parent
environmentalists, school administrators, teachers, and policy makers aimed at
improving the environmental health and ecological sustainability of U.S. schools
(Green Schools Initiative, 2004). According to the organization, there are seven
steps to becoming a green school (see www.greenschools.net). The steps include:
(1) establishing a green team or eco-committee; (2) adopting a school-based
environmental vision statement; (3) surveying the school’s energy use; (4) cre-
ating a school-based action plan; (5) evaluating the initiative; (6) integrating
green/sustainability practices into the school’s curriculum; and (7) celebrating
the school’s accomplishments.
In the STEM Road Map theme Optimizing the Human Experience third
grade students are challenged in language arts class to investigate the local envi-
ronmental problems and alternative solutions associated with caregivers dropping
off or picking up students in private automobiles. In many schools, caregivers
choose to drive students to and from schools. Large numbers of automobiles can
be seen idling in front of schools at arrival and dismissal times, which creates
an air quality problem and increases ambient carbon dioxide levels. Third grade
students use mathematics practices to observe and record the number of cars that
drop off students each day over a two-week period. In science class, students
will learn about characteristics of living things and how environmental changes
influence the survival rate of various species. Students then brainstorm alterna-
tive modes of transportation such as walking, biking, and mass transportation.
Using results from their analyses, students develop and promote a school-wide
plan that includes more environmentally friendly modes of transportation to
and from school. This plan is constructed in the form of a formal document that
is made available to the school community and presented to the local parent/
teacher association and/or school leadership team. Students may also create a
club that includes incentives for walking, biking, or taking the bus to school
and reward students for using alternative forms of transportation (see Table 5.6).

Sample STEM Careers in the Third Grade STEM Road Map

Career development and exploration in the elementary grades is critically impor-
tant in facilitating students’ interest, attitude, and persistence in STEM. There are
many online resources that teachers and parents can utilize to begin supporting
children’s exploration of STEM careers including Clever Crazes for Kids (www.
clevercrazes.com). Careers that complement the third grade STEM Road Map
and related activities include a variety of professions that reinforce opportunities
for students to pursue their interests in fields such as meteorology, climatology,
field biology, environmental science, law, and rail engineering.
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 3–5 77

TABLE 5.6 STEM Road Map—Third Grade Optimizing the Human Experience Theme:
Reducing our Footprint

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
3-LS4-2 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
3-LS4-3 Practices. CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP1, MP2, MP4, RI.3.7 Environmental Literacy
MP5 RI.3.3
CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation
3.MD.B.4 CCSS.ELA. Skills:
W.3.1. W.3.1a, W.3.1b, Creativity and Innovation
W.3.1c, W.3.1d Critical Thinking and
W.3.2, W.3.2b Problem Solving
W.3.3 Communication and
W.3.7 Collaboration
W.3.8
CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media and
3.MD.D.8 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.ELA Information Literacy
SL.3.1 Media Literacy
SL.3.1.a ICT Literacy
SL.3.1.b
SL.3.1.d
SL.3.5
CCSS.Math.Content. Life Career Skills:
3.OA.B.5 Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility

The work of professionals, such as meteorologists and climatologists, allow

students to explore different skills, practices, and knowledge associated with
weather forecasting by interpreting and reporting the weather patterns; predict-
ing future climate trends; and researching, verifying, and reporting on storms of
the past. Essentially, a meteorologist is a specialized scientist that focuses on some
aspect of the atmosphere. There are many different types of meteorologists rang-
ing from broadcast to research meteorologists, and forensic to archive meteorolo-
gists. A climatologist is a scientist who studies the climate. In short, climatology
is related to meteorology, the study of weather, except that it looks at long-term
trends and the history of the climate, rather than examining weather systems in
the short-term like meteorologists do.
78 Brenda M. Capobianco et al.

Additional professions in areas such as field biology and environmental

science provide students with the opportunity to plan and carry out investiga-
tions in the field, analyze and interpret data from the field, and communicate
results from their field studies to a larger audience. Environmental scientists
and specialists use their knowledge of the natural sciences to protect the envi-
ronment and human health. Environmental scientists monitor the quality of
the environment (air, water, and soil), interpret the impact of human activi-
ties on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and develop strategies for restoring
ecosystems. In addition, environmental scientists help planners develop and
construct buildings, transportation corridors, and utilities in ways that pro-
tect water resources and ref lect efficient and beneficial land use. Advocates of
environmental science include environmental attorneys, policy makers, and
state councilmen who serve local, national, and international communities.
Their work is to ensure the development and enactment of environmental
laws, policies, and guidelines that address issues including climate change,
conservation, water quality, groundwater and soil contamination, use of
natural resources, waste management, disaster reduction, and air and noise
pollution.
Large corporations, such as The Walt Disney Company, employ mathemati-
cians to develop models to predict the movement and f low of visitors through-
out their theme parks and resorts and to and from different sites within the
parks. The mathematicians use different software applications to make their
work easier and more efficient while providing information about how to min-
imize the wait time at each park site and enhance visitors’ overall experience.
The company also employs technology developers and managers to design,
implement, lead, and deliver different applications that support the company’s
overarching mission to create and deliver unforgettable experiences for the
audience.

The STEM Road Map for Fourth Grade

As students progress from third to fourth grade, they become more informed
problem-solvers. Using what they learned in third grade about weather, the
interaction between forces, and changes within an ecosystem, fourth grade stu-
dents now apply their newly acquired knowledge to explore the properties of
waves and energy transfer, the effects of weathering, and the role of renewable
energy within sustainable systems. Fourth grade students explore topics inspired
by the different STEM Road Map themes. These topics also align with grade-
level academic content standards (e.g., Common Core, Next Generation Science
Standards). The topics for fourth grade include the following: mapping, solar
energy, soil erosion, energy, and water consumption and conservation. Each of
these topics is organized around a challenge/problem or project that student
teams are assigned to tackle in the course of learning necessary content and skills
in the various disciplines (see Table 5.7).
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 3–5 79

TABLE 5.7 Fourth Grade STEM Road Map Themes, Topics, and Problems/Challenges

STEM Theme Topic Problem/Challenge

Cause and Field Station Mapping Student teams will create a plan for the
Effect construction of a safe and accessible station to
LEAD
conduct research on predicted volcano activity.
Social Studies
Innovation Harnessing Solar Student teams will design, construct, and test
and Progress Energy a system that removes salt from saltwater using
solar energy that could be used for their selected
LEAD
region of the world.
Science
The Repre- Erosion Modeling Student teams will create a model to
sented World demonstrate the impact of soil erosion around
LEAD
their school and communicate the problems
Mathematics
associated with soil erosion in a blog.
Sustainable Hydropower Student teams will develop a three-dimensional
Systems Efficiency model or a computer-assisted image that
demonstrates how an engineer may optimize
LEAD
the efficiency of a dam.
Science
Optimizing Water Conservation Student teams will develop informational
the Human materials for their school and community
LEAD
Experience focused on water conservation generally and
Language Arts
decreasing the use of bottled water specifically
by use of filtration methods for tap water.

Cause and Effect: Field Station Mapping

In social studies, fourth grade students learn about different kinds of maps. Fourth
grade students discover what all maps have in common, as well as some of the fea-
tures they can expect to encounter while map reading. In this project, fourth grade
students blend their mapping skills with their understanding of science principles
by analyzing world maps that show the locations of volcanoes and recent seismic
activity (earthquakes), and learn about types of plates (oceanic and continental) and
plate boundaries (divergent, convergent, and transform). In science, students will
also learn about change over time evidenced in rock formations and fossils. In small
teams, students generate different volcanic activity maps and make volcano predic-
tions. Student teams explore patterns of volcano activity on different landmasses and
identify a location and design for a research station. Using their understanding from
the map analysis and related volcano activity data, student teams select and pres-
ent their recommendations for a research station site as well as a design that would
remain safe from geological hazards and would be easily accessible (see Table 5.8).

Innovation and Progress: Harnessing Solar Energy

This project allows fourth grade students to design, test, and refine their ideas for a
device that separates salt from water. Students apply what they know about science
80 Brenda M. Capobianco et al.

TABLE 5.8 STEM Road Map—Fourth Grade Cause and Effect Theme: Field Station
Mapping

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
4-ESS2-1 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
4-ESS2-2 Practices CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP1, MP2, MP5, RI.4.3 Environmental Literacy
MP6 RI.4.4
RI.4.6
RI.4.7
RF.4.4a
CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation
4.MD.A.1 CCSS.ELA. Skills:
CCSS.Math.Content. W.4.1, W.4.1a, W.4.1b, Creativity and Innovation
4.MD.A.2 W.4.1c, W.4.1d Critical Thinking and
CCSS.Math.Content. W.4.2, W.4.2a, Problem Solving
4.MD.A.3 W.4.2b, W.4.2c, Communication and
W.4.2.d, W.4.2.e Collaboration
W.4.4
W.4.5
W.4.6
W.4.7
W.4.8
W.4.9
Speaking and Information, Media and
Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
SL.4.1 ICT Literacy
SL.4.4
SL.4.5
Life Career Skills:
Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural
Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility

concepts, including electromagnetic radiation and solar energy, to plan, construct,

and test a passive solar-powered desalination apparatus (a ‘desaladora’ in Spanish).
Students test the performance of their desaladora by separating saltwater that has the
same concentration of the average sample of ocean water. Students will learn that
ocean water contains about 35,000 ppm of salt and will use multiplication and divi-
sion to determine concentrations of solutions in word problems. This task encour-
ages students to learn more about topics through research in language arts such as
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 3–5 81

the greenhouse effect and, furthermore, innovate different ways of harnessing the
Sun’s light energy. In social studies, students will learn about how populations have
used solar energy for a variety of ways to move their region forward (see Table 5.9).

The Represented World: Erosion Modeling

Soil erosion can be a serious problem, as it naturally occurs, primarily through
water and wind processes. It may be a slow process, reducing farmland, or in more
severe cases, threatening our agricultural systems. Tapping into previously learned
concepts that waves, wind, water, and ice erode rock and soil and, therefore, affect
the shape of the Earth’s land surface, fourth grade students will focus on soil ero-
sion caused by water runoff. Students locate an area in or around their school
that has been affected by soil erosion. If there is not a safe area for the students
to examine and analyze first-hand, examples may be given from the Internet.
Although not ideal, there are lots of images of examples of soil erosion. In this
mathematics-led challenge, students will design and construct their own erosion
model within the given constraints (e.g., must fit within the provided plastic con-
tainer). Students can test a variety of apparatuses to spray water in varying quanti-
ties and distribution to test their model. Students should gather data on several

TABLE 5.9 STEM Road Map—Fourth Grade Innovation and Progress Theme: Harnessing
Solar Energy

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
4-PS3-2 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
4-PS3-4 Practices. CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP1, MP2, MP3, RI.3.7 Environmental Literacy
MP5 RI.3.3
4-ESS3-1 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
4-ESS3-2 4.OA.A.2 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
CCSS.Math.Content. W.4.6 Critical Thinking and
4.OA.A.3 W.4.7 Problem Solving
W.4.8 Communication and
Collaboration
CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and
MD.A.1 Listening Standards
CCSS.Math.Content. CCSS.ELA.
MD.A.2 SL.4.1, SL.4.1a,
SL.4.1b, SL.4.1c,
SL.4.1.d
SL.4.4
CCSS.Math.Content.
4.NBT.B.4
82 Brenda M. Capobianco et al.

things including the quantity of water, intensity of spray, amount of runoff of

water and soil. Student teams will again use mathematics skills to prepare a graph
that depicts the amount of erosion as determined by the amount of dirt washed
away as a function of water intensity. In language arts, students will individually
write a journal entry based upon the prompt: What is the relationship between
water intensity and soil erosion? In social studies, students will explore regions
that have been historically impacted by landslides and sinkholes and develop a
plan for informing the public of the hazards of living in areas that are more prone
to erosion (see Table 5.10).

TABLE 5.10 STEM Road Map—Fourth Grade The Represented World Theme: Erosion
Modeling

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
4-ESS2-1 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
Practices CCSS.ELA. Environmental Literacy
MP1, MP2, MP3, RI.3.3
MP4, MP5 RI.3.7
4-ESS3-2 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation
4.MD.A.1 CCSS.ELA. Skills:
CCSS.Math.Content. W.4.1, W.4.1a, W.4.1b, Creativity and Innovation
4.MD.A.2 W.4.1c, W.4.1d Critical Thinking and
CCSS.Math.Content. W.4.2, W.4.2a, Problem Solving
4.MD.A.3 W.4.2b, W.4.2c, Communication and
W.4.2.d, W.4.2.e Collaboration
W.4.4
W.4.5
W.4.6
W.4.7
W.4.8
W.4.9
Speaking and Information, Media and
Listening Standards Technology Skills:
SL.4.1, SL.4.1a, Information Literacy
SL.4.1b, SL.4.1c, ICT Literacy
SL.4.1.d
SL.4.4
Life Career Skills:
Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 3–5 83

Sustainable Systems: Hydropower Efficiency

In this science-led project, students will learn about the natural resources that pro-
vide our energy and fuels for everyday life, specifically hydroelectric power. The
challenge for this module is focused on the development of a three-dimensional
model or computer-assisted image that will demonstrate how to optimize the
efficiency of a dam. In language arts, student teams will research how water has
historically been used to produce energy, with an emphasis on sustainability. In
social studies, using sources such as the Department of Energy’s website History
of Hydropower (Department of Energy, 2015), students explore the historical
development and use of hydroelectric dams, wave power, and tidal power (see
Table 5.11). In science, student teams explore how a hydroelectric dam operates
through online simulations (e.g., Oregon Museum of Science and Industry).

TABLE 5.11 STEM Road Map—Fourth Grade Sustainable Systems Theme: Hydropower
Efficiency

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
4-ESS3-1 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
Practices CCSS.ELA. Environmental Literacy
MP1, MP2, RI.4.1 Global Awareness
MP3, MP5, RI.4.2
MP6 RI.4.5
RI.4.7
RI.4.9
4-PS3-4 Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
W.4.1 Critical Thinking and Problem Solving
W.4.2 Communication and Collaboration
W.4.7
W.4.9
Speaking and Information, Media and Technology
Listening Standards Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
SL.4.1 Media Literacy
SL.4.4 ICT Literacy
SL.4.5
Life Career Skills:
Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility
84 Brenda M. Capobianco et al.

Optimizing the Human Experience: Water Conservation

The theme Optimizing the Human Experience asks students to apply STEM
ideas, concepts, and principles to improve the human condition. In this language
arts driven module, student teams will develop informational materials for their
school and community focused on water conservation. On a planet where only
1 percent of the water is useable for humans, yet presently sustains a growing
population, helping students understand the importance of water reuse through
filtration is an imperative.
Through their research and connections made in science class, students explore
the ever-more-scarce natural resource, water, by investigating all of the various
ways water is used and wasted where they live. Students generate, distribute, and
analyze water consumption surveys; interview local residents; and meet with
county engineers. Using a writing journal, students record what they learn and
reflect on ways water is wasted. In social studies, student teams will learn in detail
about the global water quality and access issues while also emphasizing the geog-
raphy and economic vitality of the countries they study.
Using notes from their writing journals, students prepare a persuasive essay
that convinces the local town council to start a water conservation campaign
for the town. Students apply what they have learned to design a personal water
conservation plan for their home. For example, if students identified a family
member who took unusually long showers, the students could propose and
design a water capture system that would allow the reuse of the water for
something like f lushing a toilet, watering the lawn, or washing the car. Stu-
dents would then present their capture and purification systems to their peers
(see Table 5.12).

TABLE 5.12 STEM Road Map—Fourth Grade Optimizing the Human Experience
Theme: Water Conservation
NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills
Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
4-ESS3-2 CCSS.Math.Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MP1, MP2, MP3, CCSS.ELA. Environmental Literacy
MP4, MP5, MP6 RI.4.3
RI.4.4
RI.4.5
RI.4.6
RI.4.7
RI.4.8
RI.4.9
(Continued)
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 3–5 85

TABLE 5.12 (Continued)

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation
4.OA.A.2 CCSS.ELA. Skills:
W.4.1, W.4.1a, W.4.1b, Creativity and Innovation
W.4.1c, W.4.1d Critical Thinking and
W.4.2, W.4.2a, W.4.2b, Problem Solving
W.4.2c, W.4.2.d, W.4.2.e Communication and
W.4.4 Collaboration
W.4.5
W.4.6
W.4.7
W.4.8
W.4.9
CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Listening Information, Media and
4.NBT.A.3 Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
SL.4.1, SL.4.1a, SL.4.1b, Media Literacy
SL.4.1c, SL.4.1.d ICT Literacy
SL.4.4
CCSS.Math.Content. Life Career Skills:
MD.A.2 Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural
Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility

Sample STEM Careers in the Fourth Grade STEM Road Map

As students’ curiosity and enthusiasm for STEM builds, it is equally important
to make fourth grade students aware of different related careers. Professions such
as civil engineer, seismologist, urban planner, journalist, and topographer align
well with the fourth grade STEM Road Map and related activities.
Civil engineers design and oversee the construction and maintenance of build-
ings and infrastructure such as highways, tunnels, rail systems, airports, and water
supply and sewage systems. The job includes analysis (especially in the planning
stage), studying survey reports and maps, breaking down construction costs, and
considering government regulations and potential environmental hazards. Civil
engineers also may test soils and building materials, provide cost estimates for
equipment and labor, and use software to plan and design systems and structures.
A seismologist is a scientist who specializes in earth science. The work of a
seismologist varies depending on where the work is needed. Some of this work
86 Brenda M. Capobianco et al.

may include monitoring, maintaining, testing, and operating seismological

equipment; documenting data; supervising preparation of test sites; managing
inventory on equipment; and maintaining safety standards. Most seismologists
work for petroleum or geophysical companies, and data-processing centers.
An urban planner combines skills in land planning with transportation plan-
ning to design a community or region that is easy to live in and attractive to look
at. Urban planners are typically trained as engineers or architects. They must also
have an understanding of many other fields, including the environment, trans-
portation, and psychology.
A journalist is an individual who investigates, collects, and presents informa-
tion in the form of a news story. This story can be presented through newspa-
pers, magazines, radio, television, and the Internet. A journalist writes in an
objective manner, stating the facts and getting multiple perspectives of the story.
A topographer is an expert in geology or geography who surveys lands and
creates highly accurate representations through models and maps. Topographers
often use computer equipment to take precise measurements of the elevation,
location, shape, and contours of a particular area. Topographers created many of
the maps we use today.

The STEM Road Map for Fifth Grade

At the fifth grade level, students are able to develop and use models, plan and
carry out investigations, and analyze and interpret data. More specifically, fifth
grade students delve further into the properties of matter and the conservation of
matter, the movement of matter among plants and animals within an environ-
ment, and the representation of data used to reveal the daily changes in the length
and direction of shadows, day and night, and the four seasons. Fifth grade students
explore topics inspired by the various STEM Road Map themes that also align
with grade-level academic content standards (e.g. Common Core, Next Generation
Science Standards) which include the following: the interpretation and representa-
tion of data on the length and direction of shadows over time; the development of
a protocol for making compost; the analysis of rainwater; and the design of a tech-
nological innovation that incorporates students’ understanding of the interactions
between Earth’s systems. Each of these topics is organized around a challenge/
problem or project that student teams are to address in their course of learning
necessary content and skills in the various disciplines (see Table 5.13).

Cause and Effect: Schoolyard Engineering

In this project, fifth grade students are challenged to design an awning for the
schoolyard picnic table that will provide enough shade across the day for students
and adults. In science class, students will explore trends and patterns in data gath-
ered from making observations of the length and direction of shadows from day
to night and from one season to the next season. Different positions of the Sun,
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 3–5 87

TABLE 5.13 Fifth Grade STEM Road Map Themes, Topics, and Problems/Challenges

STEM Theme Topic Problem/Challenge

Cause and Schoolyard Engineering Student teams will design a movable
Effect awning for a picnic table located on the
LEAD
schoolyard that provides enough shade
Mathematics
throughout recess for students and adults.
Innovation and Interactions Student teams will develop a proposal
Progress (using multimedia visual display) for
LEAD
the location of a wind turbine in their
Social Studies
assigned region.
The Repre- Rainwater Analysis Student teams will design a rainwater
sented World harvesting system for their school.
LEAD
Mathematics
Sustainable Composting Student teams will design a compost
Systems system for their school’s cafeteria that
LEAD
makes use of excess food and food waste
Science
that is disposed of each day.
Optimizing Mitigating Climate Student teams will design a solution that
the Human Change will mitigate the effects of global climate
Experience change in their selected region of the
LEAD
world.
Social Studies

Moon, and stars at different times of the day, month, and year afford students
the opportunity to observe and record patterns. Over an extended period, while
on the playground each day, students measure and calculate the length of their
shadows while facing different directions using mathematics. Students then pool
their data to identify trends and patterns, relating the length of their shadows
to the position of the Sun at recess. Students develop graphs to represent their
data and analysis. Using data from their analysis, students work in teams to plan,
design, and test a movable awning for a picnic table located in the school grounds
that follows the path of the Sun and creates a large enough shadow to provide
shade during recess throughout different times of the day. The student teams will
present their prototypes to a panel of teachers and community members who
will judge their innovativeness and presentation quality (see Table 5.14).

Innovation and Progress: Interactions

In this social studies-led fifth grade challenge, students are challenged to develop
a proposal for the location of a wind turbine off the east coast of the U.S. Stu-
dents will investigate U.S. geography, as well as economic factors and feasibility
of potential locations. In science class, students will learn about the interaction
of the Earth’s systems (e.g., geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere),
as well as how the interaction of landforms and long-term weather patterns
88 Brenda M. Capobianco et al.

TABLE 5.14 STEM Road Map—Fifth Grade Cause and Effect Theme: Schoolyard
Engineering

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
5-ESS1-1 CCSS.Math.Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
5-ESS1-2 MP1, MP2, MP3, CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP6 RI.5.1
RI.5.4
RI.5.9
RF.5.3
RF.5.4a
CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
5.MD.A.1 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
W.5.1 Critical Thinking and
W.5.2 Problem Solving
W.5.4 Communication and
W.5.6 Collaboration
W.5.7
W.5.8
CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media and
5.NBT.A.3 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.Math.Content. CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
5.NBT.A.4 SL.5.1, SL.5.1d Media Literacy
SL.5.4 ICT Literacy
SL.5.5
SL.5.6
CCSS.Math.Content. Life Career Skills:
5.NBT.B.5 Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility
CCSS.Math.Content.
5.NF.B.4b
CCSS.Math.Content.
5.G.A.2
CCSS.Math.Content.
5.G.B.3

influence one another to support energy production. In mathematics, students

will use multiplication of whole numbers to determine the potential wind energy
generated based upon the speed of wind and duration of wind, and will provide
an analysis by month of the projected wind energy production. Student teams
will develop a written report based upon their selection of site and criteria for
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 3–5 89

the specified location. Additionally, students will deliver a multimedia presenta-

tion using PowerPoint, Prezi, or a video to present their findings to the class (see
Table 5.15).

The Represented World: Rainwater Analysis

In this mathematics-led challenge, student teams are challenged to devise a method
to capture and reuse rainwater around their school building. To provide context for
the module, students will learn in social studies about the importance of water for
agriculture and will visit a local farm or garden to learn about how they reclaim

TABLE 5.15 STEM Road Map—Fifth Grade Innovation and Progress Theme: Interactions

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
5-ESS2-1 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
Practices CCSS.ELA Global Awareness
MP1, MP2, MP3, RI.5.1
MP4, MP5 RI.5.4
RI.5.7
RI.5.9
RF.5.3
RF.5.4a
CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
5.NBT.B.5 CCSS.ELA Creativity and Innovation
W.5.1 Critical Thinking and
W.5.2 Problem Solving
W.5.4 Communication and
W.5.6 Collaboration
W.5.7
W.5.8
CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media and
5.MD.A.1 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.ELA Information Literacy
SL.5.1, SL.5.1d Media Literacy
SL.5.4 ICT Literacy
SL.5.5
SL.5.6
CCSS.Math.Content. Life Career Skills:
5.G.A.2 Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility
90 Brenda M. Capobianco et al.

water. In science class, students will engage in study of plants and the resources
that sustain and support plant life (e.g., air and water). Additionally, students will
learn about the hydrosphere and distribution of water on Earth. Student teams
will gather data related to the amount of rainfall in various locations around the
school to determine the best placement for their teams’ capture system. Using self-
constructed rain gauges made out of canning jars, students measure the amount
of rain that falls in different areas of the playground over a one-month period.
From this data, students estimate the actual amount of rainfall that falls over the
entire playground. Using the engineering design process, teams of students plan,
construct, and test a method to collect and reuse excess rainwater. This challenge
builds upon the knowledge that the students gained from the fourth grade Repre-
sented World challenge focused on soil erosion. The fifth grade challenge could be
differentiated to include the concept of rainwater capture as a way to decrease soil
erosion in the school’s playground. The language arts connection will include read-
ing a variety of children’s literature that is focused on water. Additionally, students
will collect data in their site for one month and compile their data to share with
the class. The class data set will serve as a means to base a proposal to the building
principal for the location of a rainwater collection system. Finally, students will also
present their findings orally to a panel of local stakeholders, including members of
the town council, civil engineers, and interested citizens (see Table 5.16).

TABLE 5.16 STEM Road Map—Fifth Grade The Represented World Theme: Rainwater
Analysis
NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills
Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
5-ESS2-2 CCSS.Math.Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
5-ESS2-1 MP1, MP2, MP3, CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP4, MP5, MP7 RI.5.1
RI.5.4
RI.5.9
RF.5.3
RF.5.4a
RI.5.7
5-LS1-1 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
5-LS1-2 5.G.A.1 CCSS.ELA Creativity and Innovation
W.5.1 Critical Thinking and
W.5.2 Problem Solving
W.5.4 Communication and
W.5.6 Collaboration
W.5.7
W.5.8
W.5.9
(Continued)
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 3–5 91

TABLE 5.16 (Continued)

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media and
5.MD.C.5 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.Math.Content. CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
5.MD.C.5A SL.5.1, SL.5.1d Media Literacy
CCSS.Math.Content. SL.5.4 ICT Literacy
5.MD.C.5B SL.5.5
SL.5.6
CCSS.Math.Content. Life Career Skills:
5.NBT.A.3 Flexibility and Adaptability
CCSS.Math.Content. Initiative and Self-Direction
5.NBT.A.4 Social and Cross-Cultural
Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility
CCSS.Math.Content.
5.NBT.B.5

Sustainable Systems: Composting

The composting design task affords students the opportunity to devise a protocol
for making compost (Dankenbring, Capobianco, & Eichinger, 2014) from the
excess of water and food from their school’s cafeteria. Underpinning the prac-
tices associated with the engineering design process is the production of either
an artifact or a process. In this challenge, students innovate and create a process
for making good compost and will develop a marketing campaign to encour-
age students and staff to take part in the program. In doing so, students utilize
what they learn in science class regarding biotic and abiotic factors, conditions
for decomposition to take place, and the role of decomposers to generate a form
of compost that is useable and nutrient-rich. Further, in language arts students
will learn how to develop materials from their research and experiences for the
purpose of relaying a position. Over several weeks, small teams of students will
monitor the progress of their compost by recording measurements such as soil
temperature, pH, odor, and level of moisture while also finding ways to aerate,
weed, and water. At the end of the first month, students will compile their data
into a technical report that will be summarized and shared with the school com-
munity. In social studies, students will learn about landfills and other areas in the
U.S. and world that garbage is dumped and the implications for human vitality.
In mathematics, students will calculate the savings in disposal costs, as well as in
the repurposing of the compost to fertilize future gardens and replenish the soil.
92 Brenda M. Capobianco et al.

In the end, students develop an informed understanding of the interdependent

relationships in ecosystems and significant role decomposers play within these
respective ecosystems (see Table 5.17).

Optimizing the Human Experience: Mitigating Climate Change

By leveraging their sense of curiosity and creativity, fifth grade students, with
social studies as the lead discipline, work to learn about predicted effects of global
climate change on specific Third World countries. These deleterious effects are
region specific. In science class, students will explore many factors that have
been found to contribute to climate change both directly and indirectly in the

TABLE 5.17 STEM Road Map—Fifth Grade Sustainable Systems Theme: Composting

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
5-ESS3-1 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
Practices CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP1, MP2, MP3, RI.5.1
MP4, MP5, MP6, RI.5.4
MP7, MP8 RI.5.7
RI.5.9
RF.5.3
RF.5.4a
5-ETS1-2 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
5-ETS1-3 MD.A.1 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
W.5.1 Critical Thinking and
W.5.2 Problem Solving
W.5.4 Communication and
W.5.6 Collaboration
W.5.7
W.5.8
CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media and
MD.B2 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.ELA Information Literacy
SL.5.1 Media Literacy
SL.5.4 ICT Literacy
SL.5.5
SL.5.6
CCSS.Math.Content. Life Career Skills:
MD.C.5 Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 3–5 93

context of using science ideas to protect the Earth’s resources and environment.
Student teams will be asked to research the effects of global climate change on
their assigned country of the world. Student teams will plan and develop the
ideas for a prototype of a technological innovation that is designed to minimize
the influence of global climate change on their selected effect. For example,
students may have learned that an increase in rain will increase the erosion of
different landforms. In mathematics, students will develop graphs to represent
the data on climate change for their selected region and develop a model for
how they project their innovation may influence these statistics. Students could
develop a prototype of a device that could minimize the impact of erosion and
protect resources along a local riverbank or beach. In language arts, students
will construct a technologically enhanced mode to present their innovation to
a broad audience (e.g., blog, webpage) and will share their products with the
school community (see Table 5.18).

TABLE 5.18 STEM Road Map—Fifth Grade Optimizing the Human Experience Theme:
Mitigating Climate Change

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
5-ESS3-1 CCSS.Math.Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MP1, MP2, MP3, CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP4, MP5, MP6 RI.5.1
RI.5.4
RI.5.7
RI.5.9
RF.5.3
RF.5.4a
CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
NBT.A.3 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
W.5.1 Critical Thinking and
W.5.2 Problem Solving
W.5.4 Communication and
W.5.6 Collaboration
W.5.7
W.5.8
CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media and
MD.A.1 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
SL.5.1 Media Literacy
SL.5.4 ICT Literacy
SL.5.5
SL.5.6
(Continued)
94 Brenda M. Capobianco et al.

TABLE 5.18 (Continued)

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
CCSS.Math.Content. Life Career Skills:
5.G.A.2 Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility

Sample STEM Careers in the Fifth Grade STEM Road Map

Maintaining interest in STEM careers remains important as students complete
fifth grade. Careers that align with our fifth grade STEM learning activities
are: statistician, graphic artist, hydrologist, and geotechnical engineer. In our
ever-developing, complex world, statisticians are experts in data. They provide
expert research design and trustworthy data production. They analyze the data
to determine practical and useful conclusions. Statisticians draw on expertise
from the fields of mathematics, science, and technology. They must have an
understanding of research design and how data can be generated from a broad
range of scientific fields. Additionally, they must use complex computer pro-
grams to efficiently analyze large data sets.
A graphic artist uses a variety of mediums to convey a message of emotion.
Graphic designers are often employed in advertising, working side by side with a
client to promote a product or idea. Graphic designers must have an understand-
ing of computerized media and common design programs.
A hydrologist applies STEM knowledge and principles to solve water-related
problems of quantity, quality, and availability. They may work in environmental
protection, concerned with problems of flooding or soil erosion. Hydrologists
must have an understanding of a broad range of STEM fields, including math-
ematics, physics, and Earth science.
A geotechnical engineer studies Earth’s materials and applies the knowledge
to fields such as mining and fossil fuel production. Like most STEM profession-
als, a geotechnical engineer must have a broad understanding of STEM fields.

Summary
This chapter presented the STEM Road Map for grades 3–5 as an approach that
engages upper-elementary students in authentic, team-based problems across
content areas. Using the content and processes included in this chapter, instruc-
tion can be enacted in an integrated and coordinated manner, challenging
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 3–5 95

students to confront real-world scenarios. The spiraled approach, building on

the knowledge and processes developed in the early elementary grades, supports
students in the development of the skills and dispositions necessary to succeed in
middle school and in later STEM careers.

References
Dankenbring, C., Capobianco, B., & Eichinger, D. (2014). How to develop an engineer-
ing design task, Science and Children, 53(2), 4–9.
Department of Energy (2015, February 19). History of hydropower. Retrieved from
http://energy.gov/eere/water/history-hydropower
Green Schools Initiative (2004, September). Retrieved from www.greenschools.net/article.
php?list=type&type=4
National Research Council (NRC) (2005). How students learn: History, mathematics, and
science in the classroom. M.S. Donovan & J. D. Bransford (Eds.), Washington, DC:
National Academies Press.
Oregon Museum of Science and Industry. (October 20, 2014). Best dam simulation ever.
Retrieved from www.omsi.edu/exhibits/damsimulation/
Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (1973). Memory and intelligence. London: Routledge and Kegan
Paul.
6
THE STEM ROAD MAP FOR
GRADES 6–8
Carla C. Johnson, Tamara J. Moore, Juliana Utley,
Jonathan Breiner, Steven R. Burton, Erin E. Peters-Burton,
Janet Walton, and Chea L. Parton

Overview of the 6–8 STEM Road Map

This chapter will provide a detailed overview of the integrated STEM Road Map
for the middle school grade levels 6–8. The STEM Road Map for grades 6–8 is
anchored in the overarching five STEM themes that comprise the continuum of
the STEM Road Map from K-12, which include: Cause and Effect, Innovation
and Progress, The Represented World, Sustainable Systems, and Optimizing the
Human Experience. Each STEM Road Map theme is designed to be a five-week
sequence of integrated instruction where the theme and associated problem or
project is implemented across core content areas.
The STEM Road Map for grades 6–8 is designed to be delivered in an
integrated fashion, meaning that it is not a curriculum that should be taught
by one teacher (e.g. science, social studies, mathematics, language arts) in
isolation. Rather, the STEM Road Map and associated STEM Road Map mod-
ules ref lect an integration of Common Core Mathematics, Common Core
English/Language Arts, Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS), and the
21st Century Skills Framework and should be delivered by one or more lead
teachers with other content areas making distinct ties to the project within
their own curriculums as suggested in the maps and associated modules. The
middle school level provides for the most authentic and facilitative setting for
implementing the STEM Road Map. Students will quickly begin to see the
connections across the disciplines and will also experience greater conceptual
understanding of content taught in the various areas as they begin to apply
their learning within the context of the real-world STEM projects in which
they are engaged. Therefore, in the middle grades (6–8) there are clear and
distinctive roles for all content areas (including art and music) in the inclusive,
integrated STEM approach.
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 6–8 97

STEM Themes in the 6–8 STEM Road Map

The five overarching STEM themes continue to be reinforced and spiraled
within the 6–8 STEM Road Map. Cause and Effect is the real-world STEM theme
that consists of the dynamic relationships between various phenomena in the
world. Students in grades 6–8 will explore motor sports, transportation, and
Earth on the move within this STEM theme.
The theme of Innovation and Progress relates to the various landmark develop-
ments driven by human ingenuity that have moved our society and understand-
ings forward across generations. At the middle school level, topics in the STEM
Road Map within Innovation and Progress include the effects of human impacts
on climate, space travel, and medicine.
The Represented World will take a look at the various models that humans have
developed to make sense of the world around them. Students will explore topics
including communication, genetic disorders, and learning from the past.
In the Sustainable Systems STEM theme, students will be engaged in challenges
including global water quality, populations, and minimizing human impact on
the environment.
The STEM Road Map theme of Optimizing the Human Experience focuses on
innovations that have improved the quality of life. Students in grades 6–8 will
investigate natural hazards, genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and the role
of the Sun in life on Earth.
Each of these topics will provide middle school students with an opportu-
nity to be immersed in an authentic, problem- and project-based curriculum
that spans across traditional content lines to bring engineering and technologi-
cal design, scientific inquiry, and mathematical reasoning to life in the process
of developing potential prototypes for innovations of the future. Further, 21st
Century Skills will be part of the fabric of day-to-day instruction within the
STEM Road Map at the middle level as students will further refine their abilities
to leverage critical thinking, creativity, communication, collaboration, informa-
tion, and media literacy, all while they continue to grow their talents in leader-
ship and taking responsibility for their own learning. The STEM Road Map 6–8
provides teachers with an engaging focus for delivery of the curriculum through
the motivating topics that are personal to student interests and experiences in
middle school, while also challenging adolescents to consider some of our great-
est challenges and propose potential innovative solutions for society.

The STEM Road Map for Sixth Grade

This chapter is designed to build upon the experiences that students gained in the
grades 3–5 STEM Road Map, but could also be used with students who have not yet
received any component of this curriculum. In grades 3–5, students were presented
with challenges such as developing a weather forecast, designing the transportation
of the future, and conserving water, one of our most precious resources on Earth.
98 Carla C. Johnson et al.

In sixth grade, students will explore STEM Road Map theme inspired top-
ics that align with grade-level academic content standards (e.g. Common Core,
Next Generation Science Standards). The topics for sixth grade include: Amusement
Parks, Human Impacts on Our Climate, Communication, Global Water Quality, and
Natural Hazards. Each of these topics is organized around a challenge/problem or
project that student teams are assigned to tackle in the course of learning neces-
sary content and skills in the various disciplines (see Table 6.1).

TABLE 6.1 Sixth Grade STEM Road Map Themes, Topics, and Problems/Challenges

STEM Theme Topic Problem/Challenge

Cause and Effect Human Impacts Student teams are challenged to develop a
on Our Climate potential solution to one aspect of human
activity that may contribute to global
LEAD
warming. In solving this PBL challenge,
Mathematics/
students will investigate the aspects of
Science
climate change driven by the rise in global
temperatures over the past century.
Innovation and Amusement Given the technological capabilities of
Progress of the Future today, student teams will be challenged to
produce a prototype of the amusement park
LEAD
of the future. Student teams will conduct
Science/Social
research on the advancements in amusement
Studies
parks from the world’s first fair to present
including rides and games, as well as function
in society, to inform their prototype.
The Represented Communication Student teams will design nested packages—
World small packages within large packages—for
LEAD
the purpose of repurposing a product or
ELA/
marketing it to a new user. Students will
Mathematics
research the functions of packages, such as:
protect, contain, identify, transport, stack
and store, and provide information.
Sustainable Systems Global Water Student teams will devise a potential
Quality product/solution to address challenges
related to poor water quality and/or access
LEAD
to clean water for their assigned country.
Science
Optimizing the Natural Hazards Student teams will develop a natural hazard
Human Experience awareness and emergency preparedness plan
LEAD
specific to their selected country of interest.
Social Studies
Second, teams will propose a potential new
innovation that may enable people to either
prepare for or deal with the aftermath of
the event.
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 6–8 99

Cause and Effect: Human Impacts on Our Climate

In sixth grade, students will begin to grapple with some of the biggest chal-
lenges, and often debates, within and outside of the scientific community. In
the Cause and Effect STEM Road Map theme for sixth grade, the focus is on
human impacts on climate overall and the project asks students to specifically
address global warming. In this project, students in science and mathemat-
ics class will investigate aspects of climate change driven by the rise in global
temperatures over the past century and develop potential solutions that might
address one aspect of human activity that has contributed to global climate
change. This project will require students to conduct research on the potential
causes of climate change, interview experts and others with understandings of
this topic, use mathematical modeling and statistics to determine what steps
have been taken to mitigate climate change, and develop their own prototype
or solution using existing resources to address this global challenge. Table 6.2
provides a mapping of the content standards included in the Human Impacts on
Our Climate PBL.

TABLE 6.2 STEM Road Map—Sixth Grade Cause and Effect Theme: Human Impacts
on Climate

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives

MS-ESS2-5 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:

MS-ESS2-6 Practices CCSS.ELA Global Awareness
MP1, MP2, MP3, RI.6.1 Environmental Literacy
MP4, MP5 RI.6.4
RI.6.7
MS-ESS3-5 CCSS.M.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
6.NS.C.8 CCSS.ELA Creativity and Innovation
W.6.1, W.6.1a, Critical Thinking and
W.6.1b, W.6.1c, Problem Solving
W.6.1e, W.6.2, Communication and
W.6.2a, W.6.2b, Collaboration
W.6.2d, W.6.2f
CCSS.M.Content. Speaking and Information, Media and
6.EE.C.9 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.ELA Information Literacy
SL.6.1, SL.6.1a, Media Literacy
SL.6.1b, SL.6.1c, ICT Literacy
SL.6.2, SL.6.5, L.6.1

(Continued)
100 Carla C. Johnson et al.

TABLE 6.2 (Continued)

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives

CCSS.M.Content. Life and Career Skills:

6.SP.B.5a Flexibility and Adaptability
CCSS.M.Content. Initiative and Self-Direction
6.SP.B.5b Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility

Innovation and Progress: Amusement of the Future

Without a doubt, most adolescents have had some type of interaction or experi-
ence with amusement parks or local carnivals in their childhood. Therefore, the
sixth grade topic of Amusement of the Future will serve as a motivating focus
for instruction across this five-week sequence that is co-led by science and social
studies disciplines in the STEM Road Map. The problem that students will be
presented with in this PBL module is to work in teams to design a prototype of
the amusement park of the future. Mathematics and English/language arts com-
ponents of this project will include research on the historical origins and designs
of amusement parks, development of a blueprint of the model (either on paper or
using technology), building and testing a small-scale prototype, and developing
a cost-benefit analysis for building and maintaining the park. This will include
examining the potential impact on the local community where the amusement
park will be situated. Finally, students will develop a marketing plan and an info-
mercial promoting their model with script and demonstration. The mapping of
content standards associated within this theme/topic can be found in Table 6.3.

The Represented World: Communication

In the last decade, the ability to communicate through the use of technology
has grown exponentially; from Facebook to texting and Twitter to Instagram,
adolescents are engaged in communicating every day and sometimes without
one spoken word. In The Represented World, students will explore the realm
of communication in sixth grade English/language arts and mathematics class.
They will explore packaging (in particular nested packages) with the purpose of
repurposing a product or marketing the product to a new user. Either of these
will require high levels of communication through the packaging. Through this,
they will also learn about the importance of gaining strong personal written
and verbal communication skills. Persuasive writing will be one form of com-
munication that will be emphasized in this module, as the students will have to
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 6–8 101

TABLE 6.3 STEM Road Map—Sixth Grade Innovation and Progress Theme: Amusement
of the Future

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
MS-PS3-1 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MS-PS3-2 Practices CCSS.ELA. Economic, Business, and
MS-PS3-4 MP1, MP2, MP3, RI.6.1 Entrepreneurial Literacy
MS-PS3-5 MP4, RI.6.4
MP5, MP6 RI.6.7
CCSS.M.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
6.RP.A.3 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
W.6.1, W.6.1a, Critical Thinking and
W.6.1b, W.6.1c, Problem Solving
W.6.1e, W.6.2, Communication and
W.6.2a, W.6.2b, Collaboration
W.6.2d, W.6.2f
CCSS.M.Content. Speaking and Information, Media and
6.G.A.1 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.M.Content. CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
6.G.A.3 SL.6.1, SL.6.1a, Media Literacy
SL.6.1b, SL.6.1c, ICT Literacy
SL.6.2, SL.6.5, L.6.1
CCSS.M.Content. Life and Career Skills:
6.SP.B.5b Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility

convince their client that their new product is marketable. As the students are
required to think about nested packages (i.e. packages within packages), this
module will require students to develop deep understandings of geometrical
properties of three-dimensional shapes and engineering design, which is the
focus of the science classroom component of this module. Success in the 21st
century workplace and beyond hinges upon the ability to meld communication
skills with their content skills. The mapping of content standards associated with
this theme/topic can be found in Table 6.4.

Sustainable Systems: Global Water Quality

Despite the numerous advances that have been made on Earth to move our
society forward, humans still grapple with many challenges around the globe,
including access to both an adequate water supply and clean water overall. In this
102 Carla C. Johnson et al.

TABLE 6.4 STEM Road Map—Sixth Grade The Represented World Theme:
Communication

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
MS-ETS1-1 CCSS.Math.Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MS-ETS1-2 MP1, MP4, MP5, CCSS.ELA. Environmental Literacy
MS-ETS1-3 MP6 RI.6.4, RI.6.7 Health Literacy
CCSS.M.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
6.G.1 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
CCSS.M.Content. W.6.1, W.6.1a Critical Thinking and
6.G.2 W.6.1b, W.6.1e Problem Solving
CCSS.M.Content. W.6.2, W.6.2a, Communication and
6.G.3 W.6.3d, W.6.4 Collaboration
CCSS.M.Content.
6.G.4
Speaking and Information, Media and
Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
SL.6.1, SL.6.1a, Media Literacy
SL.6.1b, SL.6.1c, ICT Literacy
SL.6.2, SL.6.5, L.6.1
Life and Career Skills:
Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility

sixth grade science-led unit, students will learn more about this international
dilemma that civilizations face each and every day and the lengths to which
some go in order to get access to water. As students learn about the historical
context (social studies) of progress in global water quality, they will also be chal-
lenged to use their innovative thinking to devise potential future solutions to this
issue. This will require considering materials, prototypes, cost-benefit analyses,
and transportation methods that may provide much needed life resources to
communities in various locations around the globe. Further, student teams will
develop documentaries in English/language arts that will bring to light the daily
struggle for access to water around the globe (see Table 6.5).

Optimizing the Human Experience: Natural Hazards

Students in sixth grade will take a proactive stance to addressing natural hazards
that our society faces on a regular basis, through an exploration of the realized
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 6–8 103

TABLE 6.5 STEM Road Map—Sixth Grade Sustainable Systems Theme: Global Water
Quality

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
MS-ESS2-4 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
Practices CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP1, MP2, MP4 RI.6.4 Environmental Literacy
RI.6.7 Health Literacy
MS-ESS3-1 CCSS.M.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
6.RP.A.1 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
W.6.1, W.6.1a Critical Thinking and
W.6.1b, W.6.1e Problem Solving
W.6.2, W.6.2a, Communication and
W.6.3d, W.6.4 Collaboration
CCSS.M.Content. Speaking and Information, Media and
6.RP.A.2 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
SL.6.1, SL.6.1a, Media Literacy
SL.6.1b, SL.6.1c, ICT Literacy
SL.6.2, SL.6.5, L.6.1
CCSS.M.Content. Life and Career Skills:
6.RP.A.3.b Flexibility and Adaptability
CCSS.M.Content. Initiative and Self-Direction
6.RP.A.3.c Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility

impact of hazards such as hurricanes, tornadoes, earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic

eruptions, and flooding. Students will learn about the culture of populations
that live in historically natural hazard zones and will develop an understand-
ing of the benefits and risks that communities experience. Sixth graders will be
challenged to conduct research on a selected country and learn more about the
natural hazards that occur in that region with connections to science, math-
ematics, language arts, and the lead subject, social studies. Students will work in
teams to develop emergency awareness and preparedness plans for their assigned
setting. Teams will also develop a potential new innovation that may inform the
population of an upcoming event and/or help a society deal with the aftermath
of a natural hazard (see Table 6.6).

Sample STEM Careers in the Sixth Grade STEM Road Map

Environmental scientists use their knowledge of natural sciences to protect the
environment. They identify problems and find solutions that protect the health of
104 Carla C. Johnson et al.

TABLE 6.6 STEM Road Map—Sixth Grade Optimizing the Human Experience
Theme: Natural Hazards

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
MS-ESS3-2 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
Practices CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP1, MP2, MP4 RI.6.1 Environmental Literacy
RI.6.4 Health Literacy
RI.6.7 Economic and Financial
Literacy
CCSS.M.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
6.EE.B.6 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
W.6.1, W.6.1a Critical Thinking and
W.6.1b, W.6.1e Problem Solving
W.6.2, W.6.2a, Communication and
W.6.3d, W.6.4 Collaboration
CCSS.M.Content. Speaking and Information, Media and
6.EE.B.7 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
SL.6.1, SL.6.1a, Media Literacy
SL.6.1b, SL.6.1c, ICT Literacy
SL.6.2, SL.6.5,
L.6.1
CCSS.M.Content. Life and Career Skills:
6.EE.C.9 Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility

the environment and the people living in it. Environmental scientists often work
in laboratories and offices, but also spend time in the environment they’re protect-
ing. Environmental scientists need at least a bachelor’s degree in natural science.
Environmental engineering technicians carry out the plans that environmen-
tal engineers develop. They test, operate, and, if necessary, modify equipment for
preventing or cleaning up environmental pollution. They may collect samples
for testing or work to identify the sources of environmental pollution. They
typically work indoors, usually in laboratories. Employers in this field prefer that
environmental engineering technicians have earned an associate’s degree.
Architects plan and design buildings and other structures. Architects spend
most of their time in offices, where they consult with clients, develop reports
and drawings, and work with other architects and engineers. However, architects
often visit construction sites to review the progress of projects. There are three
main steps in becoming a licensed architect: earning a professional degree in
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 6–8 105

architecture, gaining work experience through an internship, and passing the

Architect Registration Exam.
Civil engineers design and supervise large construction projects, including
roads, buildings, airports, tunnels, dams, bridges, and systems for water sup-
ply and sewage treatment. Civil engineers generally work indoors in offices.
However, they sometimes spend time outdoors at construction sites so they can
monitor operations or solve problems at the site. Civil engineers need a bachelor’s
degree and must be licensed in all states and the District of Columbia.
Actuaries analyze the financial costs of risk and uncertainty. They use math-
ematics, statistics, and financial theory to assess the risk that an event will occur
and to help businesses and clients minimize the cost of that risk. Most actuaries
work in an office setting. Actuaries need a bachelor’s degree and must pass a
series of exams to become certified professionals. They must have a strong back-
ground in mathematics, statistics, and business.
Microbiologists study the growth, development, and other characteristics of
microscopic organisms like bacteria. Microbiologists work in laboratories and
offices where they conduct experiments. A bachelor’s degree in microbiology or
a closely related field is needed for entry-level positions.
Registered nurses take care of people with injury and illness as well as teach
the public about health conditions and provide emotional support to patients
and their families. Nurses work in hospitals, doctors’ offices, home healthcare,
nursing homes, summer camps, schools, and also in the military. To become a
registered nurse, an associate’s or bachelor’s degree is required as well as passing
a national licensing exam.
Statisticians use mathematical techniques to analyze and interpret data and
draw conclusions. Although statisticians work mostly in offices, they may travel in
order to supervise surveys or gather data. Some statisticians work for the govern-
ment; many others work for private businesses. Most statisticians enter the occu-
pation with a master’s degree in statistics, mathematics, or survey methodology,
although a bachelor’s degree is sufficient for some entry-level jobs. Research and
academic positions generally require an advanced degree (e.g., Ph.D. or Ed.D.).
Advertising, promotions, and marketing managers plan programs to gener-
ate interest in a product or service. They work with art directors, sales agents,
and financial staff members. About 24 percent of advertising and promotions
managers worked for advertising agencies in 2012. About 16 percent of market-
ing managers worked in the management of companies and enterprises industry.
A bachelor’s degree is required of most advertising promotions, and marketing
management positions.

The STEM Road Map for Seventh Grade

In seventh grade, students will explore STEM Road Map theme inspired top-
ics that align with grade-level academic content standards (e.g., Common
Core, Next Generation Science Standards). The topics for seventh grade include:
106 Carla C. Johnson et al.

TABLE 6.7 Seventh Grade STEM Road Map Themes, Topics, and Problems/Challenges

STEM Theme Topic Problem/Challenge

Cause and Transportation— Student teams are challenged to design a
Effect Motorsports motorsports prototype vehicle that includes
one new safety aspect from existing
LEAD Science
technologies and is powered by energy
transformations.
Innovation and Life in Space Student teams will research, design, and
Progress build a prototype of a human colony that
LEAD
could enable life in space on a selected planet
Science
or moon. Teams will need to harness light
energy and chemically develop means to
generate oxygen and water essential for life.
The Repre- Genetic Disorders Student teams will develop a proposed course
sented World of intervention for a selected genetic disorder,
LEAD
based on research that may provide some relief
ELA
from symptoms associated with the disorder.
Teams will develop informational materials
(e.g. blogs, printed media) to disseminate to
the public regarding their findings.
Sustainable Population Density Student teams will devise a model for
Systems counting populations of a given species on
LEAD
Earth and develop a formal presentation of the
Mathematics
model for consideration by a panel of experts.
Optimizing Genetically Modified Student teams will develop a documentary
the Human Organisms (GMOs) on the pros and cons of the use of GMOs as
Experience the main source of food for humans and other
LEAD
living things.
Social Studies

Transportation—Motorsports, Space Travel, Genetic Disorders, Populations, and Geneti-

cally Modified Organisms (GMOs). Each of these topics is organized around a
challenge/problem or project that student teams are assigned to tackle in the course
of learning necessary content and skills in the various disciplines (see Table 6.7).

Cause and Effect: Transportation—Motorsports

The seventh grade transportation—motorsports module is led by science. Students
will take on the role of design engineers as they work in teams to design, within a
set of design constraints, an innovative prototype vehicle powered by energy trans-
formations. As they move through the module, students will investigate types of
energy; energy transformations; the law of conservation of energy; the concepts
of speed, friction, and aerodynamic drag; and the engineering design process.
Students will learn about the history of the motorsports industry, safety standards,
and how it has transformed the economy of the U.S. through NASCAR, IndyCar,
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 6–8 107

and other racing associations. Mathematics is embedded throughout this module,

which will culminate in the design project, The Automotive X-Challenge. Engi-
neering, manufacturing, and motorsports careers are emphasized throughout the
unit via videos, activities, and visits from industry professionals. Student teams
will participate in a race day event in which cars will compete for speed and will
present their design to industry professionals to be judged upon design, innova-
tion, teamwork, and presentation quality (see Table 6.8).

Innovation and Progress: Life in Space

Advancements in space travel have taken place at a very rapid pace since the first
astronaut landed on the moon. Within the last decade we have seen the closure of
the U.S. space shuttle program and NASA has focused their work more toward

TABLE 6.8 STEM Road Map—Seventh Grade Cause and Effect Theme: Transportation—
Motorsports
NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills
Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
MS-PS2-1 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MS-PS2-2 Practices CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness,
MS-PS2-3 MP1, MP2, MP3, RI.7.1 Financial, Economic,
MS-PS2-5 MP4, MP5 RI.7.7 Business, and Entrepreneurial
MP6, MP7, MP8 Literacy
CCSS.M.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
7.RP.A.1 W.7.1, W.7.1a Creativity and Innovation
CCSS.M.Content. W.7.2, W.7.2a, Critical Thinking and
7.RP.A.2 W.7.2.b Problem Solving
CCSS.M.Content. W.7.6 Communication and
7.NS.A.3 W.7.7 Collaboration
W.7.8
W.7.9
CCSS.M.Content. Speaking and Information, Media and
7.EE.B.3 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.M.Content. SL.7.1, SL.7.1a, Information Literacy
7.EE.B.4 SL.7.1b, SL.7.1c, Media Literacy
SL.7.1d, ICT Literacy
SL.7.3
SL.7.4
SL.7.5
Life and Career Skills:
Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility
108 Carla C. Johnson et al.

exploration of Mars and other aspects of our galaxy. In this sixth grade science-led
module, students will gain an understanding of some historical aspects of space
travel (social studies) and will also research current advances to design and create a
prototype of a habitat that could be created on another viable planet or moon in our
solar system that would support human colonization. Teams will investigate light
and sound, chemical properties, and the scale of the universe as they consider design
possibilities for their colony. Students will read a variety of texts in English/language
arts focused on space exploration and gather information from a variety of online
sources to support the development of their research for this project. In mathemat-
ics, modeling will be used to determine the feasibility of models in regards to space
travel, light years, and the timeline for inhabiting the colony (see Table 6.9).

The Represented World: Genetic Disorders

Traditionally, students in middle school have not had the opportunity to explore
genetics beyond learning about Punnett Squares and learning about genetic traits

TABLE 6.9 STEM Road Map—Seventh Grade Innovation and Progress: Life in Space

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
MS-PS1-1 Reading Standards
CCSS.Math.Practices 21st Century Themes:
MS-PS1-5 MP1, MP2, MP3, CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP4, MP5, MP6, RI.7.8 Environmental Literacy
MP7 RI.7.9 Health Literacy
MS-ESS1-2 CCSS.Math.Content.Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
MS-ESS1-3 7.NS.A.1 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
CCSS.Math.Content.W.7.1, W.7.1a Critical Thinking and
7.NS.A.2 W.7.1b, W.7.1c Problem Solving
CCSS.Math.Content.W.7.1e, Communication and
7.NS.A.3 W.7.2, W.7.2a, Collaboration
W.7.2b, W.7.2d,
W.7.3.c
W.7.6
W.7.7
W.7.8
W.7.9
MS-PS4-2 CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking Standards Information, Media and
7.EE.A.1 CCSS.ELA. Technology Skills:
SL.7.1, SL.7.1a, Information Literacy
SL.7.1b, SL.7.1c, Media Literacy
SL.7.1d, SL.7.3, ICT Literacy
SL.7.4, SL.7.5
(Continued)
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 6–8 109

TABLE 6.9 (Continued)

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
CCSS.Math.Content. Life and Career Skills:
7.EE.B.3 Flexibility and Adaptability
CCSS.Math.Content. Initiative and Self-Direction
7.EE.B.4a Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility
CCSS.M.Content.
7.RP.A.1
CCSS.M.Content.
7.RP.A.2

at a surface level. In this seventh grade module, students will work in teams to select
a genetic disorder based upon their own interests and engage in research to learn
about historical, homeopathic, and proposed treatments and remedies for symp-
toms of the disorder. The knowledge that each team gains from their work will be
communicated to the public through the development of technology-based com-
munication tools. English/language arts class is the lead discipline for this module
in the STEM Road Map, where students will conduct important research and learn
how to analyze sources to gather information that will serve as the basis for their
course of intervention. In science, students will learn about genetic traits and dis-
orders. In mathematics, students will use a variety of ways to model genetic traits
including the mathematically based Punnett Squares (see Table 6.10).

Sustainable Systems: Population Density

There are many STEM fields that require out of the box thinking on a regular
basis. In agriculture, it is often difficult to conduct an exact count of livestock

TABLE 6.10 STEM Road Map—Seventh Grade The Represented World Theme: Genetic
Disorders

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
MS-LS4-6 CCSS.Math.Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
M1, M2, M3, M4, CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
M5 RI.7.8 Environmental Literacy
RI.7.9
(Continued)
110 Carla C. Johnson et al.

TABLE 6.10 (Continued)

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
MS-LS3-1 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
MS-LS3-2 7.NS.A.3 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
W.7.1, W.7.1a Critical Thinking and
W.7.1b, W.7.1c Problem Solving
W.7.1e Communication and
W.7.2, W.7.2a, Collaboration
W.7.2b, W.7.2d,
W.7.3.c
W.7.6
W.7.7
W.7.8
W.7.9
MS-LS4-3 CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking Standards Information, Media and
MS-LS4-4 7.SP.A.1 CCSS.ELA. Technology Skills:
CCSS.Math.Content. SL.7.1, SL.7.1a, Information Literacy
7.SP.A.2 SL.7.1b, SL.7.1c, Media Literacy
SL.7.1d, SL.7.3, ICT Literacy
SL.7.4, SL.7.5
MS-LS1-4 Life and Career Skills:
Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility

due to the size of the area that the animals inhabit. Similarly, obtaining an accu-
rate count of animals in the wild is a challenge. Population density refers to the
application of mathematical modeling to measure a given population within a
targeted area or region. As a matter of fact, population density is used often to
examine human populations around the globe and is a concept within the realm
of social studies as well. In this challenge, student teams will devise a model for
counting populations of a given species on Earth and develop a formal presenta-
tion of their models for consideration by a panel of experts. As an extension, in
science class, students will examine ecosystems and populations of living things
(non-human). In social studies, students will explore global populations and rela-
tionships between population density and access to goods/services with an eco-
nomic and geographical lens. In English/language arts, students will read relevant
literature focused on the aforementioned issues and apply new knowledge to their
model (see Table 6.11).
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 6–8 111

TABLE 6.11 STEM Road Map—Sustainable Systems Theme: Population Density

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
MS-LS1-6 CCSS.Math.Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MS-LS1-7 MP1, MP2, MP3, CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP4, MP5, MP6, RI.7.8 Environmental Literacy
MP8 RI.7.9 Civic Literacy
Financial, Economic, Business,
and Entrepreneurial Literacy
Health Literacy
MS-LS2-1 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
MS-LS2-2 7.SP.A.1 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
MS-LS2-3 CCSS.Math.Content. W.7.1, W.7.1a Critical Thinking and
MS-LS2-4 7.SP.A.2 W.7.1b, W.7.1c Problem Solving
W.7.1e Communication and
W.7.2, W.7.2a, Collaboration
W.7.2b, W.7.2d,
W.7.3.c
W.7.6
W.7.7
W.7.8
W.7.9
CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking Standards Information, Media and
7.SP.B.4 CCSS.ELA. Technology Skills:
SL.7.1, SL.7.1a, Information Literacy
SL.7.1b, SL.7.1c, Media Literacy
SL.7.1d, SL.7.3, ICT Literacy
SL.7.4, SL.7.5
Life and Career Skills:
Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility

Optimizing the Human Experience: Genetically

Modified Organisms
There are many nations on Earth that struggle each day with access to a sufficient
food supply. The challenges of generating adequate food supply and developing
pest-resistant plants sparked the field of genetically modified organisms, or GMOs.
However, there are growing concerns about the impact of genetically engineered
plants and animals on human health. In this seventh grade social studies-led mod-
ule, student teams will investigate the pros and cons of GMOs and will develop a
112 Carla C. Johnson et al.

documentary focused on communicating the health, social, and economic aspects

of GMO production and consumption. In science class, students will learn about
genetic factors that influence the growth of organisms, as well as basic cell struc-
ture and function. Students will explore the costs and benefits of GMO use in
mathematics while developing mathematical models to grow further understand-
ings. Finally, students will work in English/language arts on the development of
the communication that will be the basis of the documentary and learn how to
persuasively relay their ideas in a convincing manner (see Table 6.12).

TABLE 6.12 STEM Road Map—Seventh Grade Optimizing the Human Experience
Theme: Genetically Modified Organisms

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
MS-LS1-2 CCSS.M.PracticesReading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MS-LS1-3 MP1, MP3 CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MS-LS1-5 RI.7.1 Health Literacy
MS-LS1-8 RI.7.4 Civic Literacy
RI.7.8
RI.7.9
MS-LS2-5 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
7.RP.A.2c CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
W.7.1, W.7.1a Critical Thinking and
W.7.1b, W.7.1c Problem Solving
W.7.1e, W.7.2, Communication and
W.7.2a, W.7.2b, Collaboration
W.7.2d
W.7.3.c
W.7.6
W.7.7
W.7.8
W.7.9
MS-LS4-5 CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking Standards Information, Media and
7.NS.A.1d CCSS.ELA. Technology Skills:
CCSS.Math.Content. SL.7.1, SL.7.1a, Information Literacy
7.NS.A.3 SL.7.1b, SL.7.1c, Media Literacy
SL.7.1d, SL.7.2, ICT Literacy
SL.7.3, SL.7.4,
SL.7.5, SL.7.6
CCSS.Math.Content. Life and Career Skills:
7.EE.B.3 Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 6–8 113

Sample STEM Careers in the Seventh Grade STEM Road Map

Biomedical engineers analyze and design solutions to problems in biology and
medicine, with the goal of improving the quality and effectiveness of patient care.
Biomedical engineers work in manufacturing, universities, hospitals, research facili-
ties of companies, and educational and medical institutions. Biomedical engineers
typically need a bachelor’s degree in biomedical engineering from an accredited
program to enter the occupation. Alternatively, they can get a bachelor’s degree in
a different field of engineering and then either get a graduate degree in biomedi-
cal engineering or get on-the-job training in biomedical engineering.
Microbiologists study the growth, development, and other characteristics of
microscopic organisms like bacteria. Microbiologists work in laboratories and
offices where they conduct experiments. A bachelor’s degree in microbiology or
a closely related field is needed for entry-level positions.
Food scientists work to maintain agricultural productivity and food safety.
Most food scientists work in research universities, industry, or the federal gov-
ernment in laboratories, offices, and the field. Food scientists need to have earned
at least a bachelor’s degree, but many have master’s degrees and Ph.Ds.
Environmental scientists use their knowledge of natural sciences to protect the
environment. They identify problems and find solutions that protect the health of
the environment and the people living in it. Environmental scientists often work
in laboratories and offices, but also spend time in the environment they’re protect-
ing. Environmental scientists need at least a bachelor’s degree in natural science.
Cost estimators collect and analyze data to estimate the time, money, resources,
and labor required for product manufacturing, construction projects, or services.
Some specialize in a particular industry or product type. Although cost estimators
generally work in central offices, they often visit factory floors or construction
sites. A bachelor’s degree is generally needed for entering the field.
Aerospace engineers design aircraft, spacecraft, satellites, and missiles. They also
test prototypes to make sure that they function according to design. Aerospace
engineers are employed in industries whose workers design or build aircraft, mis-
siles, systems for national defense, or spacecraft. Aerospace engineers are employed
primarily in analysis and design, manufacturing, industries that perform research
and development, and the federal government. Aerospace engineers must have a
bachelor’s degree in aerospace engineering or another field of engineering or sci-
ence related to aerospace systems. Some aerospace engineers work on projects that
are related to national defense and thus require security clearances.
Database administrators use software to store and organize data, such as financial
information and customer shipping records. They make sure that data are available to
users and are secure from unauthorized access. Database administrators work in many
types of industries including insurance companies, banks, and hospitals. A bachelor’s
degree in information or computer-related subjects is commonly required.
Logisticians analyze and coordinate an organization’s supply chain (i.e. the
system that moves a product from supplier to consumer). They manage the entire
114 Carla C. Johnson et al.

life cycle of a product, which includes how a product is acquired, distributed,

allocated, and delivered. Logisticians work in nearly every industry. The job
can be stressful due to the fast pace of logistical work. Although an associate’s
degree may be sufficient for some logistician jobs, a bachelor’s degree is typically
required for most positions.
Economists study the production and distribution of resources, goods, and
services by researching trends, analyzing data, and evaluating economic issues.
Although the majority of economists work independently in an office, some col-
laborate with other economists and statisticians. Most economists need a master’s
or doctoral degree; however, some entry-level positions (especially in the federal
government) require a bachelor’s degree.

The STEM Road Map for Eighth Grade

The eighth grade year will engage students in exploring STEM Road Map theme
generated topics that also align with grade-level academic content standards (e.g.
Common Core, Next Generation Science Standards) which include: Earth on the
Move, Medicine, Learning from the Past, Minimizing our Impact, and The Role of
the Sun in Life on Earth. Each of these topics is organized around a challenge/
problem or project that student teams are assigned to tackle in the course of
learning necessary content and skills in the various disciplines (see Table 6.13).

TABLE 6.13 Eighth Grade STEM Road Map Themes, Topics, and Problems/Challenges

STEM Theme Topic Problem/Challenge

Cause and Effect Earth on the Move Student teams will develop and propose
a model, based on evidence with an
LEAD
alternative explanation for the changes
Science
observed on Earth (plate tectonic theory).
Innovation and Medicine Student teams will propose an alternative
Progress course of treatment for a persistent disease/
LEAD
disorder in humans or animals (healthcare
English/LA
engineering).
The Represented Learning from the Given the current state of infrastructure
World Past decay, student teams will develop a
decision model for the local Department
LEAD
of Transportation on how to choose what
Mathematics
type of bridge to construct when provided
with information about the span length,
application, use information, etc.
Sustainable Systems Minimizing our Student teams will design and develop/
Impact modify an existing prototype or innovative
idea that could be leveraged to maximize
LEAD
the supply of natural resources on Earth.
Social Studies
(Continued)
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 6–8 115

TABLE 6.13 (Continued)

STEM Theme Topic Problem/Challenge

Optimizing the The Role of the Sun Student teams will develop a prototype
Human Experience in Life on Earth of a machine that would harness thermal
energy and convert it for a needed use of
LEAD
society.
Science

Cause and Effect: Earth on the Move

Our dynamic Earth that we inhabit is comprised of plates of crust that make up the
lithosphere. Over time, these plates, which float on a sea of molten lava underneath,
have moved ever so slowly. This continual movement has resulted in some observ-
able changes and events on Earth, including earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and
mountain formation. In eighth grade, students will evaluate existing theories and
data available to propose a model comprised of an alternate explanation for plate
movement. This module is led by science, where students will examine various
aspects of plate tectonic theory. Mathematical practices will be emphasized in this
module, along with how the movement of the Earth has impacted communities for
decades (social studies), including the recent (2014) eruption of Kilauea in Hawaii.
In English/language arts, students will engage in conversations as they evaluate their
sources and work to develop the presentation of their model (see Table 6.14).

TABLE 6.14 STEM Road Map—Eighth Grade Cause and Effect Theme: Earth on the Move

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
MS-ESS2-1 CCSS.Math.Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MS-ESS2-2 MP1, MP2, MP4 CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MS-ESS2-3 RL.8.1 Environmental Literacy
RI.8.9
CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
8.EE.A.4 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
CCSS.Math.Content. RW.8.1, RW.8.1a Critical Thinking and
8.EE.B.5 RW.8.1b, RW.8.1c Problem Solving
RW.8.1e Communication and
RW.8.2, RW.8.2b Collaboration
RW.8.2c, RW.8.2d
RW.8.3a, RW.8.3d,
RW.8.6
RW.8.7
RW.8.8
(Continued)
116 Carla C. Johnson et al.

TABLE 6.14 (Continued)

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media and
8.G.C.9 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
SL.8.1, SL.8.1a, Media Literacy
SL.8.1b, SL.8.1c, ICT Literacy
SL.8.1d,
SL.8.2
SL.8.3
SL.8.4
SL.8.5
SL.8.6
CCSS.Math.Content. Life and Career Skills:
8.SP.A.1 Flexibility and Adaptability
CCSS.Math.Content. Initiative and Self-Direction
8.SP.A.4 Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility

Innovation and Progress: Medicine

Each day new understandings and innovations are discovered in the field of
medicine. Technological advances as well as years of research and development
have moved our society forward in the diagnosis and approaches for mitigating
medical issues. It is important for students to learn about the extensive work that
has been conducted in this area and to also learn that many of the treatments of
the future have yet to be revealed. In this module, eighth graders will choose
a persistent disease and/or disorder in humans and conduct research to propose
an alternative course of treatment. This module is led by English/language arts
where students will focus on reading technical reports focused on medicine and
the challenges with access to appropriate treatments for humans in various parts
of the world. In social studies, students will learn about the inequity in access to
healthcare in Third World countries. In science, students will examine chemical
structures and molecules to learn more about the chemistry behind drug discov-
ery. In mathematics, students will work to solve equations and convert fractions
as applied in the field of medicine (see Table 6.15).

The Represented World: Learning from the Past

This unit will focus on addressing the real problems of today’s society through the
lens of the past. In science, students will examine observable changes in rocks and
fossils to interpret the past. The challenge for this module is led by mathematics
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 6–8 117

TABLE 6.15 STEM Road Map—Eighth Grade Innovation and Progress Theme: Medicine

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
MS-LS1-3 CCSS.Math.Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MS-LS1-5 MP1, MP2, MP3, CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP4, MP5 RL.8.1 Health Literacy
RI.8.9
MS-LS4-5 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
8.EE.A.1 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
RW.8.1, RW.8.1a Critical Thinking and
RW.8.1b, RW.8.1c Problem Solving
RW.8.1e Communication and
RW.8.2, RW.8.2b Collaboration
RW.8.2c, RW.8.2d
RW.8.3a, RW.8.3d,
RW.8.6
RW.8.7
RW.8.8
CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media and
8.EE.B.5 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
SL.8.1, SL.8.1a, Media Literacy
SL.8.1b, SL.8.1c, ICT Literacy
SL.8.1d
SL.8.2
SL.8.3
SL.8.4
SL.8.5
SL.8.6
CCSS.Math.Content. Life and Career Skills:
8.EE.C.7b Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility

and is focused on infrastructure decay, specifically the state of bridges in the U.S.
With recent bridge collapses (i.e., Minnesota bridge), much debate has ensued
regarding the maintenance of bridges and, when building, examining designs
that will prove to be more sustainable over time. Student teams will develop a
decision model, grounded in engineering, for the local Department of Trans-
portation on how to select bridge design aligned with appropriate span length,
application, use information, and other important data. In social studies, students
will learn about how infrastructure such as roads and bridges has helped to move
their geographic region forward. In English/language arts, students will work
118 Carla C. Johnson et al.

to develop a written proposal that articulates key components of their decision

model (see Table 6.16).

Sustainable Systems: Minimizing our Impact

As our world continues to move forward with new innovations and solutions to
challenges, a delicate balance must be maintained to ensure the footprint on our
Earth and the natural resources and surroundings is minimized. There are thousands

TABLE 6.16 STEM Road Map—Eighth Grade The Represented World Theme: Learning
from the Past
NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills
Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
MS-ESS1-4 CCSS.Math.Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MP1, MP2, CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP3, MP4, RL.8.1 Environmental Literacy
MP5, MP6, RI.8.9 Financial, Economic, Business,
MP7, MP8 and Entrepreneurial Literacy
MS-LS4-1 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
MS-LS4-2 8.EE.A.1 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
RW.8.1, RW.8.1a Critical Thinking and
RW.8.1b, RW.8.1c Problem Solving
RW.8.1e Communication and
RW.8.2, RW.8.2b Collaboration
RW.8.2c, RW.8.2d
RW.8.3a, RW.8.3d,
RW.8.6
RW.8.7
RW.8.8
CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media and
8.EE.B.5 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
SL.8.1, SL.8.1a, Media Literacy
SL.8.1b, SL.8.1c, ICT Literacy
SL.8.1d
SL.8.2
SL.8.3
SL.8.4
SL.8.5
SL.8.6
CCSS.Math.Content. Life and Career Skills:
8.EE.C.7b Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
CCSS.Math.Content.
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
8.F.B.5
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 6–8 119

of STEM careers that are tied directly or indirectly to preserving our environment.
Increasingly, debates in the U.S. have focused on alternative forms of energy and
sources for food and water. In eighth grade, students will consider this ongoing
and persistent dilemma as they consider existing products, techniques, and models
that are focused on minimizing our impact. Student teams will be challenged to
research, design, and develop either a new prototype or modify an existing one to
maximize our supply of a natural resource. This module is led by social studies;
therefore, students will examine resources in the U.S. specifically and develop plans
to lower our dependence on fossil fuels. In science, students will learn about the
variety of forms of alternative energy and current human consumption of natu-
ral resources overall. In mathematics, students will utilize mathematical modeling
and conduct calculations to produce data to base their prototypes on. In English/
language arts, students will read a variety of texts and online sources of information
as they engage in research on this topic (see Table 6.17).

TABLE 6.17 STEM Road Map—Eighth Grade Sustainable Systems Theme: Minimizing
our Impact

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
MS-ESS3-3 CCSS.Math.Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MS-ESS3-4 MP1, MP2, MP3, CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP4, MP5 RL.8.1 Environmental Literacy
RI.8.9
MS-PS1-3 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation
8.F.B.4 CCSS.ELA. Skills:
CCSS.Math.Content. RW.8.1, RW.8.1a Creativity and Innovation
8.F.B.5 RW.8.1b, RW.8.1c Critical Thinking and
RW.8.1e Problem Solving
RW.8.2, RW.8.2b Communication and
RW.8.2c, RW.8.2d Collaboration
RW.8.3a, RW.8.3d
RW.8.6
RW.8.7
RW.8.8
Speaking and Information, Media and
Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
SL.8.1, SL.8.1a, SL.8.1b, Media Literacy
SL.8.1c, SL.8.1d ICT Literacy
SL.8.2
SL.8.3
SL.8.4
SL.8.5
SL.8.6
(Continued)
120 Carla C. Johnson et al.

TABLE 6.17 (Continued)

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
Life and Career Skills:
Flexibility and
Adaptability
Initiative and
Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural
Skills
Productivity and
Accountability
Leadership and
Responsibility

Optimizing the Human Experience: The Role of the Sun

in Life on Earth
The final module in eighth grade will focus on the longstanding role of the Sun
in life on Earth. This will include learning about how the Sun has been impor-
tant in cultural ways, seasonal considerations, and as a primary source of sustain-
ing life on Earth. Student teams will be asked to utilize engineering design to
develop a prototype of a machine that can harness thermal energy and convert it
for a needed use of society. The lead discipline for this module is science and stu-
dents will learn specifically about thermal energy and will research potential uses
for this resource. In mathematics, for example, students will construct a function
to model a linear relationship to determine the rate of change. In social studies,
students will explore cultural and geographical connections to the Sun and how
this has impacted various populations around the globe on a daily basis. In Eng-
lish/language arts, students will develop their writing skills through crafting a
paper on the importance of exploring solar energy as a potential source of energy
for the future (see Table 6.18).

Sample STEM Careers in the Eighth Grade STEM Road Map

Medical sonographers use special equipment to assess and diagnose various medi-
cal conditions. Most medical sonographers work in hospitals though some might
work in doctors’ offices. A bachelor’s degree, as well as a formal certificate in
medical sonography, is required to be a medical sonographer.
Construction managers plan, coordinate, budget, and supervise construction
projects from early development to completion. Although many construction man-
agers work from a main office, most work out of a field office at the construction
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 6–8 121

TABLE 6.18 STEM Road Map—Eighth Grade Optimizing the Human Experience
Theme: The Role of the Sun in Life on Earth
NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills
Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
MS-PS1-4 CCSS.Math.Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
MS-PS1-6 MP1, MP2, MP3, CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP5 RL.8.1 Environmental Literacy
RI.8.9 Financial, Economic, Business,
and Entrepreneurial Literacy
MS-PS3-3 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
8.F.B.4 CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
RW.8.1, RW.8.1a Critical Thinking and
RW.8.1b, RW.8.1c Problem Solving
RW.8.1e Communication and
RW.8.2, RW.8.2b Collaboration
RW.8.2c, RW.8.2d
RW.8.3a, RW.8.3d,
RW.8.6
RW.8.7
RW.8.8
CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media and
8.EE.C.8c Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.Math.Content. CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
8.EE.C.7b SL.8.1, SL.8.1a, Media Literacy
SL.8.1b, SL.8.1c, ICT Literacy
SL.8.1d, SL.8.2,
SL.8.3, SL.8.4,
SL.8.5, SL.8.6
CCSS.Math.Content. Life and Career Skills:
8.EE.B.5 Flexibility and Adaptability
Initiative and Self-Direction
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility

site where they monitor the project and make daily decisions about construction
activities. Employers increasingly prefer candidates with both work experience
and a bachelor’s degree in a construction-related field (i.e., construction manage-
ment). However, some construction managers may qualify by working many
years in a construction trade. Certification, although not required, is becoming
increasingly important.
Carpenters construct and repair building frameworks and structures—such
as stairways, doorframes, partitions, and rafters—made from wood and other
materials. They also may install kitchen cabinets, siding, and drywall. Because
122 Carla C. Johnson et al.

carpenters are involved in many types of construction, from building highways

and bridges to installing kitchen cabinets, they may work both indoors and out.
Although most carpenters learn their trade through a formal apprenticeship,
some learn on the job, starting as a helper.
Environmental engineering technicians carry out the plans that environmen-
tal engineers develop. They test, operate, and, if necessary, modify equipment for
preventing or cleaning up environmental pollution. They may collect samples
for testing or work to identify the sources of environmental pollution. They
typically work indoors, usually in laboratories. Employers in this field prefer that
environmental engineering technicians have earned an associate’s degree.
Software developers are the creative minds behind computer programs. Some
develop the applications that allow people to do specific tasks on a computer
or other device. Others develop the underlying systems that run the devices or
control networks. Many software developers work for computer systems design
and related services firms or software publishers. Others work in computer and
electronic product manufacturing industries. Software developers usually have
a bachelor’s degree in computer science and strong computer-programming
skills.
Lobbyists (political scientists) research and analyze political ideas, policies,
political trends, and related issues in order to work with senators and congress-
men to pass policies and laws regarding certain issues. Lobbyists sometimes work
overtime to finish reports and meet deadlines. Entry-level education required for
this position is a master’s degree.
Historians research, analyze, interpret, and present the past by studying a
variety of historical documents and sources. They work in government agencies,
museums, archives, historical societies, research organizations, and consulting
firms. Some must travel to carry out research. Most historian positions require a
master’s degree; some research positions require a doctoral degree.
Semiconductor processors are workers who oversee the manufacturing process
of solar cells. Semiconductors act as conductors of electricity and semiconductor
processors oversee their manufacture including the repair and maintenance of
machinery. They test completed cells and perform diagnostic tests to make sure
the cells work properly. Most production workers are trained on the job and gain
expertise with experience; however, some positions may require formal training
programs or apprenticeships or college degrees for production managers.
Geoscientists study the physical aspects of the Earth, such as its composition,
structure, and processes to learn about its past, present, and future. Most split
their time between working in offices and labs and working outdoors. Doing
research and investigations outdoors is commonly called fieldwork and can
require extensive travel to remote locations and irregular working hours. Most
geoscientist jobs require at least a bachelor’s degree. In several states, geoscientists
may need a license to offer their services to the public.
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 6–8 123

Summary
This chapter presented the STEM Road Map for grades 6–8 as an engaging,
real-world approach to integration of core content areas for implementation in
middle school. With the use of this tool, instruction can be transformed into
coordinated modules of instruction which require teams of students to grapple
with global and local challenges and problems as they master the content for their
grade level, along with skills and habits of mind necessary for success in careers
of the future. In the next chapter, the spiraling approach of the STEM Road Map
will continue with a presentation of an integrated approach for delivery of tradi-
tional high school coursework.

Sample Module
A complete STEM Road Map seventh grade Transportation—Motorsports mod-
ule is included in Appendix A. More modules are under development and will
be made available in the near future.
7
THE STEM ROAD MAP FOR
GRADES 9–12
Erin E. Peters-Burton, Padmanabhan Seshaiyer,
Stephen R. Burton, Jennifer Drake-Patrick, and
Carla C. Johnson

Overview of the 9–12 STEM Road Map

This chapter will provide a detailed overview of the integrated STEM Road Map
for the high school grade levels 9–12. The STEM Road Map for grades 9–12
continues to be anchored in the overarching five STEM themes which include:
Cause and Effect, Innovation and Progress, The Represented World, Sustainable
Systems, and Optimizing the Human Experience. Each STEM Road Map theme
is designed as a five-week sequence, including integrated instruction where the
theme and associated problem or project is implemented across core content
areas. High school teachers may not be as familiar with integrated content as
elementary teachers; therefore, guidance for ways to integrate different disci-
plines is included in this chapter. It is understood that high school teachers have
areas of specialization such as earth science, chemistry, biology, and physics, in
addition to their understanding of science in general. This is taken into account
in designing the STEM Road Map, which focuses mainly on earth science in
ninth grade, biology in tenth grade, chemistry in eleventh grade, and physics in
twelfth grade. However, the curriculum in the STEM Road Map is flexible, and
can be moved from year to year based on the need of the students, teachers, and
school organizations.
The STEM Road Map for grades 9–12 is designed to be delivered in an inte-
grated fashion. High school teachers may take several approaches to integrating
content throughout instruction, such as enlisting colleagues from other disci-
plines (e.g. science, social studies, mathematics, language arts) to insert instruc-
tion into the teacher’s lessons or to have colleagues continue to build the theme
through lessons in other classrooms to reinforce learning. The STEM Road Map
and associated STEM Road Map modules reflect an integration of Common
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 9–12 125

Core Mathematics, Common Core English/Language Arts, Next Generation

Science Standards (NGSS), and the 21st Century Skills Framework and should be
delivered by one lead teacher with other content areas making distinct ties to
the project within their own curriculums as suggested in the maps and associ-
ated modules. Implementation of the STEM Road Map at the high school level
is critical because high school students are equipped with ample background
knowledge and skills, positioning them to make rich contributions and connec-
tions while engaging with problem-based learning (PBL) scenarios. Working
across disciplines enhances students’ ability to gain deeper conceptual under-
standing of the content and the PBL scenarios encourage students to apply and
evaluate their learning within the context of real-world STEM projects. Even in
the high school grades (9–12) all content areas (including art and music) play an
important role in the inclusive, integrated STEM approach.

STEM Themes in the 9–12 STEM Road Map

The five overarching STEM themes continue to be reinforced and spiraled
within the 9–12 STEM Road Map. Cause and Effect is the real-world STEM
theme that consists of the dynamic relationships between various phenomena
in the world. Students in grades 9–12 will explore formation of the Earth, bio-
diversity, conservation of matter in the universe, and electromagnetic radiation
within this STEM theme.
The theme of Innovation and Progress relates to the various landmark develop-
ments driven by human ingenuity that have moved our society and understand-
ings forward across generations. At the high school level, topics in the STEM
Road Map within the theme of Innovation and Progress include erosion and
weathering management, environmental management, designing new materials,
and communications technologies.
The Represented World will take a look at the various models that humans have
developed to make sense of the world around them. Students will explore topics
including global models and their uses, modeling ecosystems, modeling energy
in chemistry, and the use of models for prediction.
In the Sustainable Systems STEM theme, students will be engaged in chal-
lenges including vital systems of the Earth, survival and reproduction, chemistry
of plants, and human influence on the Earth’s energy flow.
The STEM Road Map theme of Optimizing the Human Experience focuses on
innovations that have improved the quality of life. Students in grades 9–12 will
investigate evaluating human impact on nature, rebuilding the natural environ-
ment, developing and maintaining resources, and natural occurrences and their
impact on humans.
Each of these topics will immerse high school students in an authentic,
problem- and project-based curriculum that spans across traditional content
barriers, bringing engineering and technological design, scientific inquiry,
126 Erin E. Peters-Burton et al.

and mathematical reasoning to life through the process of developing potential

prototypes for future innovations. Further, 21st Century Skills, such as criti-
cal thinking, creativity, communication, collaboration, information, and media
literacy, will be emphasized daily within the STEM Road Map as students
continue to develop their skills in leadership and responsibility for their own
learning.
The STEM Road Map 9–12 builds on skills and knowledge learned in ele-
mentary and middle school by including compelling topics that require analy-
sis, synthesis, and evaluation of information in order to reach a conclusion.
Additionally, the STEM Road Map 9–12 gives students responsibility for their
own learning and promotes meaningful learning in authentic, relevant con-
texts that help students connect their existing knowledge with new knowledge
and skills.

The STEM Road Map for Ninth Grade

In middle school, students learned about Amusement Parks, Human Impacts on
Our Climate, Communication, Global Water Quality, Natural Hazards, Transporta-
tion, Space Travel, Genetic Disorders, Populations, Genetically Modified Organisms
(GMOs), Earth on the Move, Medicine, Learning from the Past, Minimizing our
Impact, and The Role of the Sun in Life on Earth. The skills and knowledge that
students acquired through their work in middle school will continue to be
built upon by iteratively connecting topics to the five themes. In ninth grade,
students will explore STEM Road Map theme inspired topics that align with
grade-level academic content standards (e.g. Common Core, Next Generation
Science Standards). The topics for ninth grade include: Formation of the Earth,
Erosion and Weathering Management, Global Models and their Uses, Vital Systems
of the Earth, and Evaluating Human Impact on Nature. Each topic is organized
around a challenge/problem or project that student teams are assigned to tackle
in the course of learning necessary content and skills in the various disciplines
(see Table 7.1).

TABLE 7.1 Ninth Grade STEM Road Map Themes, Topics, and Problems/Challenges

STEM Theme Topic Problem/Challenge

Cause and Formation of the Student teams will create a multimedia
Effect Earth production for use by an environmental
LEAD consulting firm that relates how Earth’s internal
Science processes operate, including interactions involving
water, to evidence from ancient Earth materials,
meteorites, and other planetary surfaces to explain
how Earth’s formation and early history have led
to current processes on Earth.
(Continued)
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 9–12 127

TABLE 7.1 (Continued)

STEM Theme Topic Problem/Challenge

Innovation and Erosion and Landslides have become more commonplace in
Progress Weathering various areas of the U.S. Students are challenged
Management to examine an occurrence of erosion that led to
a landslide or sinkhole and construct a policy
LEAD
brief based upon research into how erosion,
Social Studies
weathering, and deposition occur. In the brief,
student teams should propose a solution or
mitigation plan for these challenges based on
prioritized criteria and trade-offs.
The Represented Global Models and Student teams will choose and analyze a major
World their Uses global challenge, including the cycling of carbon
among the hydrosphere, atmosphere, geosphere,
LEAD
and biosphere, to specify qualitative and
Science
quantitative criteria and constraints for solutions
for society, indicating needs and wants. Student
teams will synthesize this information in a
model expressed in an infographic.
Sustainable Vital Systems of the Systems are interconnected and often one change
Systems Earth can influence the whole. In this challenge,
students will be assigned to investigate one
LEAD
change within the Earth’s surface system that
English Language
has had various impacts associated with it.
Arts
Teams will explore this on a local and global
scale and will develop a documentary video that
will detail the pros and cons of this change.
Optimizing Evaluating Human Student teams will be challenged to develop
the Human Impact on Nature a prototype or a model of a technological
Experience innovation that could reduce the impact of
LEAD
human activities on natural systems, including
Social Studies or
a detailed plan for testing the prototype and
Science or English/
taking the innovation to market.
Language Arts

Cause and Effect: Formation of the Earth

By ninth grade, students most likely have formed some ideas about the early his-
tory of the Earth, but have not yet connected the theory about the formation of
the Earth to the current processes taking place. In this project, students will use
their prior knowledge of early Earth formation, but will learn more about the
progression of processes such as interactions involving water, erosion, transporta-
tion, deposition, convection, and Earth’s materials, to explain how the formation
and early history have led to current processes on the Earth, and to develop a mul-
timedia presentation for an environmental consulting firm to foresee how events
and processes affect the Earth’s surface. Students will research how geologists
128 Erin E. Peters-Burton et al.

and other Earth science professionals gather information about very old and very
slow phenomena in order to formulate and support their claims about the con-
nections between formation and current processes. Two motivational compo-
nents are built into this project: connecting to prior knowledge and designing a
multimedia project for an environmental consulting firm. Not only will students
acquire new knowledge on the topic, but they will also learn new skills in com-
municating the information effectively through different media such as audio,
video, diagrams, and narrative (see Table 7.2).

TABLE 7.2 STEM Road Map—Ninth Grade Cause and Effect Theme: Formation
of the Earth
NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills
Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
HS-PS2-1 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
Practices CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP1, MP3, RI.9-10.1
MP5, MP6, RI.9-10.2
MP8 RI.9-10.7
RI.9-10.8
RI.9-10.10
HS-ESS1-2 CCSS.Math. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation
HS-ESS1-6 Content. CCSS.ELA. Skills:
HSN- W.9-10.1a. W.9-10.1b, W.9- Creativity and Innovation
VM.B.4b 10.1c, W.9-10.1d, W.9-10.1e Critical Thinking and
W.9-10.2a, W.9-10.2b, Problem Solving
W.9-10.2c, W.9-10.2d, Communication and
W.9-10.2e, W.9-10.2f Collaboration
W.9-10.4
W.9-10.6
W.9-10.8
W.9-10.10
HS-ESS2-1 CCSS.Math. Speaking and Listening Information, Media and
HS-ESS2-5 Content. Standards Technology Skills:
HSN- CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
VM.B.4c SL.9-10.2 Media Literacy
SL.9-10.4 ICT Literacy
SL.9-10.5
SL.9-10.6
HS-ETS-3 CCSS.Math. Language Standards Life and Career Skills:
Content. CCSS.ELA. Flexibility and Adaptability
HSN- L.9-10.2 Initiative and Self-Direction
VM.B.4a L.9-10.6 Social and Cross-Cultural
Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 9–12 129

Innovation and Progress: Erosion and Weathering Management

In the Erosion and Weathering Management PBL, students will apply what they
learned about erosion, transportation, and deposition of Earth’s materials from the
Cause and Effect PBL. This project is inspired by conservation organizations around
the world and intends to raise students’ awareness of a little-known problem, the
conservation and management of the movement of soils to prevent landslides. Ero-
sion, although normally occurring as part of the natural order, has become det-
rimental to the environment due to long-term human impact. Storms that were
once harmless now leave the land damaged and vulnerable. Tourism is affected by
rapid sand erosion from beaches. Rain, which seems harmless enough, has become
so acidic in areas that it wears away statues. The increasing rate of landslides has
stolen nutrients from agricultural environments, which can in turn cause problems
with food distribution. Once students research these and other current problems
with erosion and weathering, they will propose a management plan, weighing
the costs and benefits of the long-term implications, and communicate their ideas
through a policy paper. Writing a policy brief can pose a new challenge for stu-
dents because it is a way of writing that may not be familiar; however, the task
can lay the foundation for students to be advocates for future issues (see Table 7.3).

TABLE 7.3 STEM Road Map—Ninth Grade Innovation and Progress Theme: Erosion
and Weathering Management

NGSS Performance Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Objectives Mathematics Language Arts
HS-PS2-3 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
Practices CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP1, MP3 RI.9-10.1 Environmental
RI.9-10.2 Literacy
RI.9-10.3
RI.9-10.4
RI.9-10.6
RI.9-10.8
RI.9-10.10
HS-ETS-2 CCSS.Math. Writing Standards Learning and
Content. CCSS.ELA. Innovation Skills:
HSA-CED.A.3 W.9-10.1a. W.9-10.1b, W.9- Creativity and
10.1c, W.9-10.1d, W.9-10.1e Innovation
W.9-10.2a, W.9-10.2b, Critical Thinking and
W.9-10.2c, W.9-10.2d, Problem Solving
W.9-10.2e, W.9-10.2f Communication and
W.9-10.4 Collaboration
W.9-10.5
W.9-10.7
W.9-10.8
W.9-10.9a, W.9-10.9b
W.9-10.10
(Continued)
130 Erin E. Peters-Burton et al.

TABLE 7.3 (Continued)

NGSS Performance Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Objectives Mathematics Language Arts
HS-PS2-3 CCSS.Math. Speaking and Listening Information, Media
Content. Standards and Technology Skills:
HSN-CN.B.6 CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
SL.9-10.1a, SL.9-10.1b, Media Literacy
SL.9-10.1c, SL.9-10.1d ICT Literacy
SL.9-10.2
SL.9-10.4
Language Standards Life and Career Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Flexibility and
L.9-10.1a, L.9-10.1b Adaptability
L.9-10.2a, L.9-10.2b, Initiative and
L.9-10.2c Self-Direction
L.9-10.3a Social and Cross-
SL.9-10.6 Cultural Skills
Productivity and
Accountability
Leadership and
Responsibility

The Represented World: Global Models and their Uses

In the Represented World PBL, students will discover the vast information about
interactions of processes on the Earth and how it impacts human life. Students
will research highly complex topics and synthesize the information into a mean-
ingful and understandable infographic. In this project, students will first explore a
myriad of major global challenges, such as cycling of carbon in the hydrosphere,
atmosphere, geosphere, and biosphere or climate change modeling results, identi-
fying one global challenge that they will further research in detail. After finding
causes of the problems based in evidence, students will communicate posed solu-
tions to these problems using both qualitative and quantitative data from reliable
sources. In analyzing the solutions, students will also need to examine societal
implications, identifying the differences between needs and wants of different
members of society. After refining and making meaning from this information,
students are to communicate succinctly in an infographic. Information graphics
or infographics present graphic visual representations of complex information,
data, or knowledge quickly, clearly, and concisely (see Table 7.4). Research shows
that infographics can improve student cognition by enhancing students’ abilities
to see patterns and trends (Heer, Bostock, & Ogievetsky, 2010; Card, 2009).

Sustainable Systems: Vital Systems of the Earth

The ninth grade students participating in the prior PBLs have gained valuable
knowledge about complex systems, including linkages between the formation of
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 9–12 131

TABLE 7.4 STEM Road Map—Ninth Grade The Represented World Theme: Global
Models and their Uses

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
HS-ESS1-4 CCSS.Math.Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
HS-ESS1-5 MP1, MP2, MP3, CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP4, MP5, MP6, RI.9-10.1 Civic Literacy
MP8 RI.9-10.2 Environmental Literacy
RI.9-10.3
RI.9-10.4
RI.9-10.6
RI.9-10.8
RI.9-10.10
HS-ETS-1 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation
HS-IF.B.5 CCSS.ELA. Skills:
W.9-10.2a, W.9-10.2b, Creativity and Innovation
W.9-10.2c, W.9-10.2d, Critical Thinking and
W.9-10.2e, W.9-10.2f Problem Solving
W.9-10.5 Communication and
W.9-10.6 Collaboration
W.9-10.8
W.9-10.9a, W.9-10.9b
HS-ESS2-6 CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking and Information, Media and
HS-BF.B.4 Listening Standards Technology Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
SL.9-10.1a, SL.9-10.1b, Media Literacy
SL.9-10.1c, SL.9-10.1d ICT Literacy
SL.9-10.2
SL.9-10.4
SL.9-10.5
HS-ESS3-5 CCSS.Math.Content. Language Standards Life and Career Skills:
HSN-Q.A.2 CCSS.ELA. Flexibility and Adaptability
L.9-10.3 Initiative and Self-Direction
L.9-10.4a-d Social and Cross-Cultural
L.9-10.5 Skills
L.9-10.6 Productivity and
Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility

the Earth and current processes, erosion and weathering impacts on the environ-
ment, and cycling of carbon. The PBL in the Sustainable Systems theme builds
on that knowledge to challenge students to predict future implications when one
part of a surface system on the Earth changes (atmosphere, geosphere, hydro-
sphere, biosphere) and the impacts that this has on other components. A broad
understanding of systems theory underpins this work, emphasizing interactions
132 Erin E. Peters-Burton et al.

between different subsystems and humans. To accomplish this task, students

must first find all parts of the system and how they interact, then predict the
interaction effects of the system on other components over a progression of time,
as well as the feedback systems that are cyclic in the system. Students will dem-
onstrate what they know about spatial and temporal scale by completing the PBL
scenario of creating a documentary detailing the pros and cons of the interac-
tions (see Table 7.5).

TABLE 7.5 STEM Road Map—Ninth Grade Sustainable Systems Theme: Vital Systems
of the Earth

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
HS-PS3-1 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards: 21st Century Themes:
Practices MP1, CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP3, MP8 RI.9-10.1 Civic Literacy
RI.9-10.2 Environmental Literacy
RI.9-10.3
RI.9-10.4
RI.9-10.6
RI.9-10.8
RI.9-10.10
HS-LS1-6 CCSS.Math. Writing Standards: Learning and Innovation
Content. CCSS.ELA. Skills:
HSA-REI.A.1 W.9-10.1a. W.9-10.1b, W.9- Creativity and Innovation
10.1c, W.9-10.1d, W.9-10.1e Critical Thinking and
W.9-10.2a, W.9-10.2b, Problem Solving
W.9-10.2c, W.9-10.2d, Communication and
W.9-10.2e, W.9-10.2f Collaboration
W.9-10.4
W.9-10.5
W.9-10.7
W.9-10.8
W.9-10.9a, W.9-10.9b
W.9-10.10
HS-LS2-5 CCSS.Math. Speaking and Listening Information, Media and
Content. Standards Technology Skills:
HS-IF.C.7c CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
SL.9-10.1a, SL.9-10.1b, Media Literacy
SL.9-10.1c, SL.9-10.1d ICT Literacy
SL.9-10.2
SL.9-10.4
SL.9-10.6
(Continued)
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 9–12 133

TABLE 7.5 (Continued)

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
HS-ESS2-2 CCSS.Math. Language Standards Life and Career Skills:
HS-ESS2-3 Content. CCSS.ELA. Flexibility and Adaptability
HS-ESS2-7 HSA-CED.A.4 L.9-10.1a, L.9-10.1b Initiative and Self-Direction
L.9-10.2a, L.9-10.2b, Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
L.9-10.2c Productivity and
L.9-10.3a Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility
HS-ETS-1

Optimizing the Human Experience: Evaluating Human

Impact on Nature
The PBL for the Optimizing the Human Experience theme, Evaluating Human
Impact on Nature, again extends the knowledge discovered in the PBLs from the
prior themes’ PBL experiences. However, this PBL poses a different challenge that
involves the engineering design process, which is defined in this chapter by the
NASA model (NASA, 2014). Now that students have proficient knowledge in
the systems on Earth, how they interact, how one change might influence other
changes, and how to communicate complex information in an understandable
way, students will be compelled in this PBL to pose a real solution and implement
the solution in a societal context. Students will work in teams to identify a prob-
lem regarding the negative impact of human activities on natural systems. Then
they will identify criteria and constraints, brainstorm possible solutions, generate
ideas, explore possibilities, select an approach, and build a prototype or model of a
technological innovation that can help solve this program. They will design how
they might go about testing their product to ensure proof of concept, and rede-
sign based on the results of their testing. Finally, once students choose a variation
of their innovation that balances benefits and risks, then they must design a way
to market the innovation and convince the general public to use it (see Table 7.6).

Sample STEM Careers in the Ninth Grade STEM Road Map

Ninth grade is an ideal time for students to explore career possibilities. The website
O*NET OnLine (www.onetonline.org), based on the U.S. Department of Labor
statistics, is a valuable tool to learn about career options. The website explores a
wide range of occupations and shows types of tasks the professionals are expected
to perform, skills and education needed, the tools and technologies used in the
field, work styles that best suit the profession, and the wage and employment
134 Erin E. Peters-Burton et al.

TABLE 7.6 STEM Road Map—Ninth Grade Optimizing the Human Experience Theme:
Evaluating Human Impact on Nature

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
HS-ESS3-4 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
Practices CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP1, MP3, RI.9-10.1 Financial, Economic, Business
MP5, MP6, RI.9-10.2 and Entrepreneurial Literacy
MP7, MP8 RI.9-10.3 Civic Literacy
RI.9-10.4 Environmental Literacy
RI.9-10.6
RI.9-10.8
RI.9-10.10
HS-LS4-6 CCSS.Math. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
Content. CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
HS-BF.B.3 W.9-10.2a, W.9-10.2b, Critical Thinking and
W.9-10.2c, W.9-10.2d, Problem Solving
W.9-10.2e, W.9-10.2f Communication and
W.9-10.5 Collaboration
W.9-10.6
W.9-10.8
W.9-10.9a, W.9-10.9b
HS-ETS-4 CCSS.Math. Speaking and Information, Media and
Content. Listening Standards Technology Skills:
HS-BF.A.1 CCSS.ELA. Information Literacy
SL.9-10.1a, SL.9-10.1b, Media Literacy
SL.9-10.1c, SL.9-10.1d ICT Literacy
SL.9-10.2
SL.9-10.4
SL.9-10.5
Language Standards Life and Career Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Flexibility and Adaptability
L.9-10.3 Initiative and Self-Direction
L.9-10.4a-d Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
L.9-10.5 Productivity and Accountability
L.9-10.6 Leadership and Responsibility

trends for the occupation. Occupations can be searched on this site by keyword,
career cluster, industry, level of education and experience (Job Zone), amount of
expected growth of the industry (Bright Outlook), jobs in the green economy
sector, groups of occupations based upon work performed, or by STEM disci-
pline. A keyword search of ‘Earth systems’ brings up 544 occupations; the most
relevant listed as Earth drillers (except oil and gas), atmospheric, Earth, marine,
and space science teachers, geographers (bright outlook indication), geoscientists
(green job), and construction laborers (bright outlook and green job).
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 9–12 135

The STEM Road Map for Tenth Grade

In tenth grade, students will continue to explore STEM Road Map theme
inspired topics that align with grade-level academic content standards (e.g.
Common Core, Next Generation Science Standards). The topics for tenth grade
include: Healthy Living, Environmental Management, Modeling Ecosystems, Survival
and Reproduction, and Rebuilding the Natural Environment. Each topic is organized
around a challenge/problem or project that student teams are assigned to tackle
in the course of learning necessary content and skills in the various disciplines
(see Table 7.7).

TABLE 7.7 Tenth Grade STEM Road Map Themes, Topics, and Problems/Challenges

STEM Theme Topic Problem/Challenge

Cause and Healthy Living Student teams will address the problem of obesity in
Effect the U.S. through conducting research, interviewing
LEAD
key stakeholders locally, and developing a video
Science or
documentary and associated print materials to
English/
promote healthy living habits. Teams will present
Language Arts
their work to local city or county officials in an
effort to inform policy.
Innovation Environmental Students will create a computational simulation
and Progress Management to illustrate the relationships among management
of natural resources, the sustainability of human
LEAD
populations, and biodiversity.
Science
The Repre- Modeling Students will design, build, test, and rebuild a self-
sented World Ecosystems sustaining ecosystem, accompanied with a video that
presents how complex interactions in the ecosystem
LEAD
are, as well as the fragility of the ecosystem.
Science
Sustainable Survival and Student teams are challenged to create an app
Systems Reproduction (or storyboard for the app) based on probability
and statistics that models the phenomena that
LEAD
organisms with an advantageous heritable trait tend
Mathematics
to increase in proportion to organisms lacking the
trait. Students should include group and individual
behavior and environmental factors in the survival
and reproduction game.
Optimizing Rebuilding Student teams are challenged to create a new
the Human the Natural renewable energy company with a specific focus
Experience Environment on an innovative way to create energy in a cost-
effective manner. Teams will research current
LEAD
renewable sources of energy, then design and pitch a
Social Studies
company that will provide an innovative renewable
or Science
energy product. Teams will need to create a model
for the change in energy consumption in the U.S.
or the world if your company is successful.
136 Erin E. Peters-Burton et al.

Cause and Effect: Healthy Living

As Americans, we are bombarded with information about living a healthier life-
style daily through advertisements, the news, magazines, and food labels. Some-
times this information is conflicting and at many times, confusing. In order to
become more informed citizens, students are going to look at living a healthy
lifestyle in a way that is not common, by analyzing healthy living at a cellular
level. In this project, students can research at the cellular level why healthy eat-
ing and exercise result in optimal conditions for health. Students can explore
why certain plant-, animal-, and industry-produced foods can be either healthy
or unhealthy. Students can examine whole organism metabolism from a cellular
perspective, reflecting on how exercise is beneficial in a healthy lifestyle. Stu-
dents can find out why certain plants are healthy for us to eat while others are
poisonous (these plants are often in the same genus), as well as finding out what
the food industry creates and how that might affect the animals and us involved
on a cellular level. Students will continue their extensive research on this subject
by interviewing key stakeholders locally, such as school nutritionists or doctors.
To summarize all of the findings in a coherent way, students will communicate
what they have learned through a documentary and associated print materials
that espouse the practices they have found. Students will present their final prod-
ucts to local officials in an effort to inform policy (see Table 7.8).

Innovation and Progress: Environmental Management

Managing resources is a life skill that all students can learn and refine, and can
be applied to a range of topics from core academic ones such as using natural

TABLE 7.8 STEM Road Map—Tenth Grade Cause and Effect Theme: Healthy Living

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
HS-LS1-1 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
HS-LS1-7 Practices CCSS.ELA. Health Literacy
MP1, MP3, RI.9-10.1 Environmental Literacy
MP8 RI.9-10.2
RI.9-10.3
RI.9-10.4
RI.9-10.5
RI.9-10.6
RI.9-10.7
RI.9-10.8
RI.9-10.9
RI.9-10.10
(Continued)
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 9–12 137

TABLE 7.8 (Continued)

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
HS-ETS-4 CCSS.Math. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation
Content. CCSS.ELA. Skills:
HS-BF.B.4a W.9-10.1a. W.9-10.1b, W.9-10.1c, Creativity and Innovation
CCSS.Math. W.9-10.1d, W.9-10.1e Critical Thinking and
Content. W.9-10.2a, W.9-10.2b, W.9-10.2c, Problem Solving
HS-BF.B.4b W.9-10.2d, W.9-10.2e, W.9-10.2f Communication and
CCSS.Math. W.9-10.3a, W.9-10.3b, W.9-10.3c, Collaboration
Content. W.9-10.3d, W.9-10.3e
HS-BF.B.4c W.9-10.4
W.9-10.5
W.9-10.6
W.9-10.7
W.9-10.8
W.9-10.9a, W.9-10.9b
W.9-10.10
HS-LS2-3 CCSS.Math. Speaking Standards Information, Media and
Content. CCSS.ELA. Technology Skills:
HS-SSE.A.1 SL.9-10.2 Information Literacy
CCSS.Math. SL.9-10.3 Media Literacy
Content. ICT Literacy
HS-SSE.A.1a
Language Standards Life and Career Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Flexibility and Adaptability
L.9-10.3 Initiative and Self-Direction
L.9-10.4a-d Social and Cross-Cultural
L.9-10.5 Skills
L.9-10.6 Productivity and
Accountability
Leadership and
Responsibility

resources to daily household topics such as saving for college. In this project,
students will design methods to keep track of the relationships of manage-
ment of natural resources, sustaining human, plant, and animal populations,
and maintaining biodiversity. Students can use a range of tools to help them
computationally manage the resources, from an electronic spreadsheet to design-
ing a simulation. An example scenario can entail an opportunity where a small
wetland conservation organization has an interest in stopping the development
of a four-lane highway bridge over the wetland. In doing so, the organization
must first develop an inventory of what is sustained in the wetland and how the
138 Erin E. Peters-Burton et al.

systems work to sustain life and the environment. The organization must then
also determine what portions of the systems that are maintained will be affected
and determine the short- and long-term implications of building the highway.
Teachers are encouraged to partner with local conservation organizations and
ask professionals in the organization to come and hear the presentations of the
students. In enlisting local community members to evaluate the students’ work
authentically, students may become engaged and volunteer for conservation
management activities outside of the classroom (see Table 7.9).

TABLE 7.9 STEM Road Map—Tenth Grade Innovation and Progress Theme: Environmental
Management

NGSS Common Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Core Language Arts
Objectives Mathematics
HS-ESS3-3 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
Practices CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP1, MP2, RI.9-10.1 Health Literacy
MP3, MP4, RI.9-10.2 Environmental Literacy
MP5, MP6, RI.9-10.3
MP7, MP8 RI.9-10.4
RI.9-10.6
RI.9-10.8
RI.9-10.10
HS-ETS-1 CCSS.Math. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
Content. CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
HS-LE.A.1b W.9-10.2a, W.9-10.2b, Critical Thinking and
CCSS.Math. W.9-10.2c, W.9-10.2d, Problem Solving
Content. W.9-10.2e, W.9-10.2f Communication and
HS-LE.A.1c W.9-10.5 Collaboration
W.9-10.6
W.9-10.8
W.9-10.9a, W.9-10.9b
CCSS.Math. Speaking Standards Information, Media and
Content. CCSS.ELA. Technology Skills:
HS-LE.A.2 SL.9-10.1a, SL.9-10.1b, Information Literacy
SL.9-10.1c, SL.9-10.1d Media Literacy
SL.9-10.2 ICT Literacy
SL.9-10.4
SL.9-10.5
CCSS.Math. Language Standards Life and Career Skills:
Content. CCSS.ELA. Flexibility and Adaptability
HS-CED.A.1 L.9-10.3 Initiative and Self-Direction
L.9-10.4a-d Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
L.9-10.5 Productivity and Accountability
L.9-10.6 Leadership and Responsibility
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 9–12 139

The Represented World: Modeling Ecosystems

According to the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report of the United Nations Intergov-
ernmental Panel on Climate Change (2014) citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed sci-
entific studies, increasing global temperature means that ecosystems will change.
Lessened snow cover, receding glaciers, rising sea levels, and weather changes
influence ecosystems, causing some species to be forced out of their habitats,
while other species flourish. In this PBL, students will create a short documen-
tary about the complex interactions in a chosen ecosystem and explain how the
trends of current changes, if unchecked, can lead to a new ecosystem. Some
examples of ecosystem changes include terrestrial ecosystems and biodiversity
where warming of 3°C, relative to 1990 levels, means it is likely that global
terrestrial vegetation would become a net source of carbon and a 4°C increase
globally would lead to major extinctions (Schneider, et al., 2007); marine eco-
systems and biodiversity where a warming of 2°C above 1990 levels would result
in mass mortality of coral reefs globally (Schneider, et al., 2007); and freshwater
ecosystems where a 4°C increase in global mean temperature by 2100 (relative
to 1990–2000) would cause the extinction of many species of freshwater fish
(Schneider, et al., 2007). Producing a documentary allows students to be creative
while still convincing an audience of a change in ecosystems based on empirical
data. Students will acquire yet another style of communication through writing
narrative scripts for the video and learn to associate images with words and use
graphs effectively to communicate change (see Table 7.10).

Sustainable Systems: Survival and Reproduction

In the Age of Information, we deal with making sense of large amounts of
information that is constantly streamed through media outlets available 24 hours

TABLE 7.10 STEM Road Map—Tenth Grade The Represented World Theme: Modeling
Ecosystems

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
HS-LS2-1 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
HS-LS2-2 Practices CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
HS-LS2-4 MP1, MP3, RI.9-10.1 Civic Literacy
HS-LS2-6 MP8 RI.9-10.2 Health Literacy
RI.9-10.7 Environmental Literacy
RI.9-10.8
RI.9-10.10
(Continued)
140 Erin E. Peters-Burton et al.

TABLE 7.10 (Continued)

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
HS-LS3-3 CCSS.Math. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
Content. CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
HS-BF.A.2 W.9-10.1a. W.9-10.1b, Critical Thinking and
W.9-10.1c, W.9-10.1d, Problem Solving
W.9-10.1e Communication and
W.9-10.2a, W.9-10.2b, Collaboration
W.9-10.2c, W.9-10.2d,
W.9-10.2e, W.9-10.2f
W.9-10.4
W.9-10.6
W.9-10.8
W.9-10.10
HS-ETS-4 CCSS.Math. Speaking Standards Information, Media and
Content. CCSS.ELA. Technology Skills:
HS-SSE.B.3 SL.9-10.2 Information Literacy
SL.9-10.4 Media Literacy
SL.9-10.5 ICT Literacy
SL.9-10.6
Language Standards Life and Career Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Flexibility and Adaptability
L.9-10.2 Initiative and Self-Direction
L.9-10.6 Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility

a day. Students have the world of information at their fingertips by performing

an electronic data search of anything they desire through their smart phone or
computer. Being able to interpret statistics is a key part of making sense of the
information we receive in the modern world. For example, people use statistics
to interpret weather forecasts, predict disease and emergency situations, make
health and medical decisions, engage in political campaigns, consider insurance
options, and make decisions on consumer choices. In this PBL, students will gain
skills in probability and statistics by using this basis to design an app or a story-
board of an app that mimics the phenomena that organisms with advantageous
heritable traits tend to increase in proportion to those lacking the trait. In doing
so, students must first learn about the types of traits that might be advantageous
regarding group behavior, individual behavior, and/or environmental factors.
Then students will apply this knowledge to develop a systematic and logical app
(or storyboard for an app) that utilizes this knowledge and how the trait might
affect populations over time (see Table 7.11).
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 9–12 141

TABLE 7.11 STEM Road Map—Tenth Grade Sustainable Systems Theme: Survival and
Reproduction

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
HS-LS1-2 CCSS.Math.Practices Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
HS-LS1-3 MP1, MP2, MP3, MP4, CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
HS-LS1-4 MP5, MP6, MP7, MP8 RI.9-10.1 Environmental Literacy
RI.9-10.2
RI.9-10.3
RI.9-10.4
RI.9-10.6
RI.9-10.8
RI.9-10.10
HS-LS2-8 CCSS.Math.Content. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation
HSS-ID.A.1 CCSS.ELA. Skills:
CCSS.Math.Content. W.9-10.2a, W.9-10.2b, Creativity and
HSS-ID.A.2 W.9-10.2c, W.9-10.2d, Innovation
CCSS.Math.Content. W.9-10.2e, W.9-10.2f Critical Thinking and
HSS-ID.A.3 W.9-10.5 Problem Solving
CCSS.Math.Content. W.9-10.6 Communication and
HSS-ID.A.4 W.9-10.8 Collaboration
W.9-10.9a, W.9-10.9b
HS-LS4-1 CCSS.Math.Content. Speaking Standards Information, Media and
HS-LS4-3 HSS-ID.B.5 CCSS.ELA. Technology Skills:
CCSS.Math.Content. SL.9-10.1a, SL.9-10.1b, Information Literacy
HSS-ID.B.6 SL.9-10.1c, SL.9-10.1d Media Literacy
CCSS.Math.Content. SL.9-10.2 ICT Literacy
HSS-ID.B.6a SL.9-10.4
CCSS.Math.Content. SL.9-10.5
HSS-ID.B.6b
HS-ETS-3 CCSS.Math.Content. Language Standards Life and Career Skills:
HSA-SSE.B4 CCSS.ELA. Flexibility and Adaptability
L.9-10.3 Initiative and
L.9-10.4a-d Self-Direction
L.9-10.5 Social and Cross-Cultural
L.9-10.6 Skills
Productivity and
Accountability
Leadership and
Responsibility

Optimizing the Human Experience: Rebuilding the Natural

Environment
The inclusion of the category ‘Green Economy Sector’ in The O*NET OnLine
Database (2014) is a strong indication that future businesses will need to consider
142 Erin E. Peters-Burton et al.

not only their financial progress, but also their positive contributions to the
human experience, including careers that focus on rebuilding the natural envi-
ronment. In this PBL, students will connect to their prior knowledge about
energy production and the effects of this process on the natural environment to
create innovations in renewable sources of energy based on research evidence
in a cost-effective way. Various skills from different academic disciplines are
integrated into this PBL by requiring the students to design a company based on
their innovative idea and to develop a pitch for the marketability of the company,
focusing on how the innovation will optimize human experiences while being
mindful of the natural environment. Further, students will have to use predictive
skills to consider how their innovation will affect energy consumption and the
implications of this consumption over a long period of time. In effect, students
will be thinking about making the world a better place, being able to understand
career choices in this idea, and finding ways to sustain progress and conservation
in the same effort (see Table 7.12).

TABLE 7.12 STEM Road Map—Tenth Grade Optimizing the Human Experience Theme:
Rebuilding the Natural Environment

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
HS-PS3-3 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
Practices CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP1, MP3, RI.9-10.1 Financial, Economic, Business
MP5, MP6, RI.9-10.2 and Entrepreneurial Literacy
MP7, MP8 RI.9-10.3 Civic Literacy
RI.9-10.4 Environmental Literacy
RI.9-10.6
RI.9-10.8
RI.9-10.10
HS-LS2-7 CCSS.Math. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
Content. CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
HS-BF.A.1a W.9-10.1a. W.9-10.1b, Critical Thinking and
W.9-10.1c, W.9-10.1d, Problem Solving
W.9-10.1e Communication and
W.9-10.2a, W.9-10.2b, Collaboration
W.9-10.2c, W.9-10.2d,
W.9-10.2e, W.9-10.2f
W.9-10.4
W.9-10.5
W.9-10.7
W.9-10.8
W.9-10.9a, W.9-10.9b
W.9-10.10
(Continued)
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 9–12 143

TABLE 7.12 (Continued)

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
HS-ETS-3 Speaking Standards Information, Media and
CCSS.ELA. Technology Skills:
SL.9-10.1a, SL.9-10.1b, Information Literacy
SL.9-10.1c, SL.9-10.1d Media Literacy
SL.9-10.2 ICT Literacy
SL.9-10.4
Language Standards Life and Career Skills:
CCSS.ELA-Literacy. Flexibility and Adaptability
L.9-10.1a-b, L.9-10.2a-c, Initiative and Self-Direction
L.9-10.3a, SL.9-10.6 Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
Productivity and Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility

Sample STEM Careers in the Tenth Grade STEM Road Map

As mentioned previously, the inclusion of the categories of ‘Green Economy
Sector’ and ‘STEM Discipline’ fields on the opening page of the O*NET OnLine
occupations database (2014) is a strong indication that these types of jobs are
going to be central to a tenth grader’s career in the future. Categories of jobs
listed under Green Economy Sector include Agriculture and Forestry; Energy
and Carbon Capture and Storage; Energy Efficiency; Energy Trading; Environ-
ment Protection; Government and Regulatory Administration; Green Construc-
tion; Manufacturing; Recycling and Waste Reduction; Renewable and Energy
Generation; Research, Design and Consulting Services; and Transportation.
STEM Discipline occupations on the website include Chemistry, Computer
Science, Engineering, Environmental Science, Geosciences, Mathematics, Life
Sciences, and Physics/Astronomy. Researching the tasks, abilities, and education
needed for these occupations has the potential to motivate students to see that
the study of integrated fields and learning through PBL can help them prepare
for careers of the future. Teachers can scaffold these understandings for students
by demonstrating how the learning tasks students are performing in the PBLs are
identical to the list of tasks and abilities recognized by the Department of Labor
to be successful in the various STEM fields.

The STEM Road Map for Eleventh Grade

The eleventh grade year will engage students in exploring STEM Road Map
theme generated topics that also align with grade-level academic content stan-
dards (e.g. Common Core, Next Generation Science Standards) which include:
144 Erin E. Peters-Burton et al.

Standing on the Shoulders of Giants, Construction Materials, Radioactivity, Green

Building Rooftops, and Mineral Resources. Each of these topics is organized around
a challenge/problem or project that student teams are assigned to tackle in the
course of learning necessary content and skills in the various disciplines (see
Table 7.13).

TABLE 7.13 Eleventh Grade STEM Road Map Themes, Topics, and Problems/Challenges

STEM Theme Topic Problem/Challenge

Cause and Standing on the Student teams are challenged to create a
Effect Shoulders of museum display prototype that explains how
Giants chemists, beginning with Galileo Galilei,
have discovered the world around them
LEAD
including patterns of chemical properties,
Social Studies
creation of the periodic table, rates of
reactions, and large-scale production of
chemicals in the modern day.
Innovation Construction Student teams are challenged to use knowledge
and Progress Materials of molecular-level structure to examine the
collapse of the World Trade Center twin
LEAD
towers and develop a proposal and prototype
Science
for new or improved building materials that
could be incorporated into the design of future
high-rise buildings in U.S. cities.
The Repre- Radioactivity Student teams will be challenged to construct
sented World a scale model of the atom (virtually or
LEAD
physically) that will illustrate fission, fusion,
Mathematics
and radioactive decay. Teams will also prepare
a persuasive essay indicating potential future
uses or dangers of the energy sources.
Sustainable Green Building Student teams will work together to plan
Systems Rooftops and implement a rooftop mini-garden in
their community. This project will include
LEAD
securing sponsors for the mini-garden,
Social Studies/
developing a business model to sustain the
Science
work, and constructing a marketing plan to
make the products available to families in the
community. A key component of this work
will be developing the green plan.
Optimizing Mineral Resources Student teams will develop an op-ed article for
the Human a local publication or website that will evaluate
LEAD
Experience competing design solutions for developing,
Science/English/
managing, and utilizing mineral resources
Language Arts
based on cost-benefit ratios with both
qualitative and quantitative criteria.
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 9–12 145

Cause and Effect: Standing on the Shoulders of Giants

The phrase “Standing on the Shoulders of Giants” is attributed to Issac Newton
when he was giving a speech to the Academies, “If I have seen further it is by
standing on the shoulders of giants.” However, the metaphor was first recorded in
the 12th century and attributed to Bernard of Chartres (Merton, 1965). Regardless,
the meaning remains the same and refers to building your work on the work of
others and is an acknowledgement that even the most unique work has a founda-
tion in others’ ideas. Traditional textbooks rarely refer to how scientists build from
other work, and often communicate the contrary, that scientists think of ideas just
from a stroke of brilliance (e.g. Newton being hit on the head with an apple and
conjuring the law of gravitation in an afternoon). The intention of this PBL is to
help students to see how ideas continue to be elaborated by continuing research
over time, by having students create a prototype of an interactive museum installa-
tion that explains the progression of ideas about the nature of matter. The product,
an interactive museum display, gives students enough latitude to have technical
detail, while still needing to be scaled down from their own work, thus giving
students an opportunity to synthesize their own research. The museum installation
topics begin with Galileo Galilei, then proceed through various experiments with
chemical properties of matter, creation of the periodic table, rates of reactions, gas
laws, and large-scale production of chemicals in the modern day. The objective
for students is to link the ideas that are traditionally presented as singular genius
events, and thus demonstrate that everyone is capable of being a scientist, and that
scientists work as collaborators. The museum display should conclude with propos-
als about how chemistry may create better living conditions in the future, which
requires students to think about how the past informs the future (see Table 7.14).

TABLE 7.14 STEM Road Map—Eleventh Grade Cause and Effect Theme: Standing on
the Shoulders of Giants

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
HS-PS1-2 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
HS-PS1-5 Practices CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
HS-PS1-6 MP1, MP2, RI.11-12.1 Civic Literacy
MP3, MP4, RI.11-12.2
MP5, MP6, RI.11-12.3
MP7, MP8 RI.11-12.4
RI.11-12.5
RI.11-12.7
RI.11-12.8
RI.11-12.10
(Continued)
146 Erin E. Peters-Burton et al.

TABLE 7.14 (Continued)

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
HS-ESS1-3 CCSS.Math. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
Content. CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
HSN-Q.A.1 W.11-12.1a-e Critical Thinking and
W.11-12.2a-f Problem Solving
W.11-12.3a-e Communication and
W.11-12.4 Collaboration
W.11-12.5
W.11-12.6
W.11-12.7
W.11-12.8
W.11-12.9a-b
W.11-12.10
HS-ETS-1 Speaking Standards Information, Media and
CCSS.ELA. Technology Skills:
SL11-12.1a-e Information Literacy
SL11-12.2 Media Literacy
SL11-12.5 ICT Literacy
Language Standards Life and Career Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Flexibility and Adaptability
L.11-12.1a-b Initiative and Self-Direction
L.11-12.2a-b Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
L.11-12.3a Productivity and Accountability
L.11-12.4a-e Leadership and Responsibility
L.11-12.5a-b
L.11-12.6

Innovation and Progress: Construction Materials

In our busy modern world, it is easy to overlook the building blocks of the
magnificent engineering feats such as bridges, roadways, and the various mate-
rials used in constructing buildings of all shapes and sizes. The purpose of this
PBL is to guide students to learn about how construction materials are made,
the specifications that are necessary in different types of construction, and why
these materials work the way they do at a molecular level, through an investiga-
tion of the collapse of the World Trade Center twin towers. The field of struc-
tural materials science is a robust one, and recent movements in the field are
rapidly developing in biomaterials (Boom time for biomaterials, n.a., 2009). In
addition to building awareness of engineering achievements and learning about
new advances in materials science, students will also learn about how failures
inform future work, particularly in engineering. The proposal format of the
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 9–12 147

product of this PBL will assist in building student skills in technical writing and
should include detailed and coherent information, allowing for some creativ-
ity while still upholding rigorous accuracy in describing the natural (science
and mathematics) world and designed (engineering and technology) world (see
Table 7.15).

TABLE 7.15 STEM Road Map—Eleventh Grade Innovation and Progress Theme:
Construction Materials

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
HS-PS2-6 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
Practices CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP1, MP2, RI.11-12.1 Financial, Economic, Business
MP3, MP4, RI.11-12.2 and Entrepreneurial
MP5, MP6, RI.11-12.3 Literacy
MP7, MP8 RI.11-12.4 Environmental Literacy
RI.11-12.5
RI.11-12.7
RI.11-12.8
HS-ETS-3 CCSS.Math. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation
Content. CCSS.ELA. Skills:
HS-LE.B.5 W.11-12.1a, W.11-12.1b, Creativity and Innovation
W.11-12.1c, W.11-12.1d, Critical Thinking and
W.11-12.1e Problem Solving
W.11-12.2a, W.11-12.2b, Communication and
W.11-12.2c, W.11-12.2d, Collaboration
W.11-12.2e, W.11-12.2f
CCSS.Math. Speaking Standards Information, Media and
Content. CCSS.ELA. Technology Skills:
HSA-CED.A.2 SL.11-12.1a, SL.11-12.1b, Information Literacy
SL.11-12.1c, SL.11-12.1d Media Literacy
SL.11-12.2 ICT Literacy
SL.11-12.3
SL.11-12.4
SL.11-12.5
SL.11-12.6
Language Standards Life and Career Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Flexibility and Adaptability
L.11-12.1a Initiative and Self-Direction
L.11-12.4 Social and Cross-Cultural
L.11-12.5 Skills
L.11-12.6 Productivity and
Accountability
Leadership and Responsibility
148 Erin E. Peters-Burton et al.

The Represented World: Radioactivity

Radioactivity has been a subject of interest in developing clean energy sources
since the early 1930s. Fission is widely used in thermonuclear power generation,
although there are serious complications with containment and waste that still
need to be worked through. Fusion has been the focus of famous projects such
as the Manhattan Project, and although research has been conducted on fusion
for the past 80 years, generating more energy out of the reaction than is being
put into the reaction has not yet been overcome, rendering it a somewhat use-
less energy source. However, scientists, mathematicians, and engineers continue
to explore these phenomena in hopes of a breakthrough (see National Ignition
Facility in Livermore, California, and International Thermonuclear Experimen-
tal Reactor in the south of France). In this PBL, student teams are to look deeply
into the processes of fission, fusion, and radioactive decay to develop a physi-
cal or virtual scale model of the changes in composition of the nucleus and the
amounts of energy released. Scale modeling in this PBL could take on many
flexible forms such as visual modeling, computer simulations, and mathematical
modeling, all of which focus on the relative interactions in the descriptions of
the phenomena. Teams will also prepare a persuasive essay indicating potential
future uses or dangers of the energy sources (see Table 7.16).

TABLE 7.16 STEM Road Map—Eleventh Grade The Represented World Theme:
Radioactivity

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
HS-PS1-1 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
HS-PS1-4 Practices CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
HS-PS1-7 MP1, MP3, RI.11-12.1 Financial, Economic, Business
HS-PS1-8 MP4, MP7 RI.11-12.2 and Entrepreneurial Literacy
RI.11-12.3 Civic Literacy
RI.11-12.4 Environmental Literacy
RI.11-12.5
RI.11-12.7
RI.11-12.8
HS-ETS-2 CCSS.Math. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
Content. CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
HS-IF.B.4 W.11-12.1a, W.11-12.1b, Critical Thinking and
CCSS.Math. W.11-12.1c, W.11-12.1d, Problem Solving
Content W.11-12.1e Communication and
HS-IF.B.6 W.11-12.2a, W.11-12.2b, Collaboration
W.11-12.2c, W.11-12.2d,
W.11-12.2e, W.11-12.2f
(Continued)
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 9–12 149

TABLE 7.16 (Continued)

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
CCSS.Math. Speaking Standards Information, Media and
Content. CCSS.ELA. Technology Skills:
HSA-APR.D.6 SL.11-12.1a, SL.11-12.1b, Information Literacy
SL.11-12.1c, SL.11-12.1d Media Literacy
SL.11-12.2 ICT Literacy
SL.11-12.3
SL.11-12.4
SL.11-12.5
SL.11-12.6
Language Standards Life and Career Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Flexibility and Adaptability
L.11-12.1a, L.11-12.1b Initiative and Self-Direction
L.11-12.4 Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
L.11-12.5 Productivity and Accountability
L.11-12.6 Leadership and Responsibility

Sustainable Systems: Green Building Rooftops

Placing plants on rooftops of urban buildings (or urban greening) has long been
regarded as a way to aesthetically add more green space to areas dominated by
concrete, as well as contributing waste diversion, managing storm water runoff,
curbing urban heat island effects, and improving air quality. Additional benefits
include increasing energy efficiency, fire retardation (Köehler, 2004), reduction
of electromagnetic radiation (Herman, 2003), and noise reduction (Peck & Cal-
laghan, 1999). Clearly, green building rooftops have various beneficial outcomes.
The purpose of this PBL is to build an awareness of the phenomena of transfer of
energy. Student teams will work together to plan and implement a rooftop mini-
garden in their community. This project will include securing sponsors for the
mini-garden, developing a business model to sustain the work, and constructing
a marketing plan to make the products available to families in the community.
A key component of this work will be developing the green plan. Not only will
students learn about the environmental pros and cons of developing a rooftop
mini-garden, but they will also learn core 21st century skills in development of
the business model and market plan to connect to the community (see Table 7.17).

Optimizing the Human Experience: Mineral Resources

Citizens in a democratic society have a responsibility to contribute to the good
of the community and to be knowledgeable about controversial subjects. It is
150 Erin E. Peters-Burton et al.

TABLE 7.17 STEM Road Map—Eleventh Grade Sustainable Systems Theme: Green
Building Rooftops

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
HS-PS3-1 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
HS-PS3-2 Practices CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP1, MP3, RI.11-12.1 Financial, Economic, Business
MP7 RI.11-12.2 and Entrepreneurial Literacy
RI.11-12.3 Civic Literacy
RI.11-12.4 Health Literacy
RI.11-12.6 Environmental Literacy
RI.11-12.8
RI.11-12.10
HS-LS1-5 CCSS.Math. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
Content. CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
HS-BF.A.1c W.11-12.2a, W.11-12.2b, Critical Thinking and
W.11-12.2c, W.11-12.2d, Problem Solving
W.11-12.2e, W.11-12.2f Communication and
W.11-12.5 Collaboration
W.11-12.6
W.11-12.8
W.11-12.9a, W.11-12.9b
HS-ETS-4 CCSS.Math. Speaking Standards Information, Media and
Content. CCSS.ELA. Technology Skills:
HS-IF.C.7 SL.11-12.1a, SL.11-12.1b, Information Literacy
SL.11-12.1c, SL.11-12.1d Media Literacy
CCSS.Math. SL.11-12.2 ICT Literacy
Content. SL.11-12.4
HS-IF.C.8 SL.11-12.5
Language Standards Life and Career Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Flexibility and Adaptability
L.11-12.3a Initiative and Self-Direction
L.11-12.4a-d Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
L.11-12.5a-b Productivity and Accountability
L.11-12.6 Leadership and Responsibility

of particular importance in a democracy that its citizens are able to make deci-
sions based on evidence and are able to distinguish between a reliable and an
unreliable resource. The purpose of this PBL is to give students an opportunity
to write an opinion article based on evidence that is designed to be published in
a newspaper and to convince readers of the effectiveness of a particular design
solution for developing, managing, and utilizing mineral resources. In this activ-
ity, students will find reliable qualitative and quantitative resources to present
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 9–12 151

a cost-benefit analysis for their chosen mineral resource. The USGS Mineral
Resources Program (MRP) is an excellent resource of scientific information for
objective resource assessments and research results on mineral potential, produc-
tion, consumption, and environmental effects (see Table 7.18).

TABLE 7.18 STEM Road Map—Eleventh Grade Optimizing the Human Experience
Theme: Mineral Resources

NGSS Common Core Common Core Language 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Arts
Objectives
HS-PS3-3 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
Practices CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP1, MP2, RI.11-12.1 Financial, Economic, Business
MP3, MP4, RI.11-12.2 and Entrepreneurial Literacy
MP5, MP6, RI.11-12.3 Civic Literacy
MP7, MP8 RI.11-12.4 Environmental Literacy
RI.11-12.6
RI.11-12.8
RI.11-12.10
HS-ESS3-2 CCSS.Math. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
Content. CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
HSA-REI.D.10 W.11-12.1a, W.11-12.1b, Critical Thinking and
CCSS.Math. W.11-12.1c, W.11-12.1d, Problem Solving
Content. W.11-12.1e Communication and
HSA-REI.D.11 W.11-12.2a, W.11-12.2b, Collaboration
W.11-12.2c, W.11-12.2d,
W.11-12.2e, W.11-12.2f
W.11-12.4
W.11-12.5
W.11-12.7
W.11-12.8
W.11-12.9a, W.11-12.9b
W.11-12.10
HS-ETS-1 Speaking Standards Information, Media and
CCSS.ELA. Technology Skills:
SL.11-12.1a, SL.11-12.1b Information Literacy
SL.11-12.2 Media Literacy
SL.11-12.4 ICT Literacy
Language Standards Life and Career Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Flexibility and Adaptability
L.11-12.1a-b Initiative and Self-Direction
L.11-12.2a-c Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
L.11-12.3a Productivity and Accountability
L.11-12.6 Leadership and Responsibility
152 Erin E. Peters-Burton et al.

Sample STEM Careers in the Eleventh Grade STEM Road Map

The variety of integrated content and contexts in the PBLs taught during elev-
enth grade offer a foundation to explore a variety of careers. In doing so, teachers
may want to choose a specific career and go through the various indicators of
tasks and abilities and education during this year, because eleventh graders will
need to begin thinking about narrowing down and preparing for college or a
career. For example, a keyword search for ‘radioactivity’ in the O*NET OnLine
website mentioned in the ninth and tenth grade STEM Careers sections yields
the career of a nuclear engineer, marked with a green job notation. Examples
of the ten tasks listed on the website that a nuclear engineer would perform are:

• Perform experiments that will provide information about acceptable meth-

ods of nuclear material usage, nuclear fuel reclamation, or waste disposal.
• Conduct tests of nuclear fuel behavior and cycles or performance of nuclear
machinery and equipment to optimize performance of existing plants.
• Keep abreast of developments and changes in the nuclear field by reading
technical journals or by independent study and research.

Tools used in this job include desktop computers, facial shields, nuclear reactor
control rod systems, nuclear tools, and respirators. Knowledge required to be a
nuclear engineer as indicated on the website include an understanding of engi-
neering, chemistry, mathematics, physics, design, computers, public safety, secu-
rity, administration, and management. Skills of a nuclear engineer include active
listening, critical thinking, operations analysis, reading comprehension, speak-
ing, science, systems analysis, writing, complex problem solving, and monitor-
ing. A nuclear engineer would also need the qualities of problem sensitivity, oral
comprehension, oral expression, written comprehension, inductive reasoning,
category flexibility, and prioritizing. In the PBLs taught during eleventh grade,
teachers may want to actively incorporate the knowledge, skills, and abilities of
a particular career relevant to the problem and have students indicate when they
are enacting those qualities. In doing so, teachers may help students identify with
a career that they might not have previously considered.

The STEM Road Map for Twelfth Grade

The twelfth grade year will engage students in exploring STEM Road Map theme
generated topics that also align with grade-level academic content standards (e.g.
Common Core, Next Generation Science Standards) which include: The Business of
Amusement Parks, Creating the Next Smart Phone, Car Crashes, Creating Global Bonds,
and Dealing with Natural Catastrophes. Each of these topics is organized around a
challenge/problem or project that student teams are assigned to tackle in the course
of learning necessary content and skills in the various disciplines (see Table 7.19).
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 9–12 153

TABLE 7.19 Twelfth Grade STEM Road Map Themes, Topics, and Problems/Challenges

STEM Theme Topic Problem/Challenge

Cause and The Business of Student teams are challenged to create a
Effect Amusement Parks prototype for an amusement park ride powered
by a combination of electricity and magnetism.
LEAD
Teams will create a marketing and financial
Social Studies
plan for the ride, as well as a detailed risk
assessment to ensure safety.
Innovation and Creating the Next Student teams will create a model or a
Progress Smart Phone prototype of improvements for a smart phone
based on a needs analysis survey of friends,
LEAD
fellow students, and family. Students will
Science
need to explain all technical information
in a prospectus including wave behavior,
transmission, and storage.
The Represented Car Crashes Student teams will develop models and
World mathematical representations of different
LEAD
car crash scenarios to illustrate how analysis
Mathematics
of momentum and forces can inform law
enforcement of how the crashes occurred.
Sustainable Creating Global Student teams are challenged to build and
Systems Bonds implement an international blog focused on
energy consumption and links to climate
LEAD
change. The teams will identify potential
Social Studies/
school partners in three other countries to
Science
join the blog and share ideas. Each team will
prepare a presentation and white paper that
summarizes their findings from international
discussions and will provide an argument
for one mitigation strategy that could be
implemented locally and globally.
Optimizing Dealing Student teams are challenged to create
the Human with Natural marketing materials (including electronic and
Experience Catastrophes paper-based) that promote the development
of new luxury homes built on a fault line. In
LEAD
these materials student teams will demonstrate
Science
pros and cons of this natural hazard and
demonstrate the innovative safety features and
energy consciousness of the new development.

Cause and Effect: The Business of Amusement Parks

People who design and build amusement park rides are constantly innovating. In
this PBL, student teams are challenged to create a prototype for an amusement
park ride powered by a combination of electricity and magnetism. Teams can
154 Erin E. Peters-Burton et al.

acquire information about the current innovations of transportation where mag-

nets and electricity can optimize velocity and fuel economy such as the super-
conducting Maglev train in Central Japan. Teams will create a marketing and
financial plan for the ride, as well as a detailed risk assessment to ensure safety.
Researching and designing such innovative amusement park rides involves the
topics of electromagnetic radiation, electricity and magnetism, motors, genera-
tors, and transformers. Additionally, student teams will need to develop a theme
for the ride based on its characteristics, including a marketing and financial plan.
Finally, student teams need to consider the safety innovations that must accom-
pany any thrill ride. As the PBL is created, students will need to design the ride,
which requires not only knowledge of facts, but an overall understanding of how
the facts fit together (see Table 7.20).

TABLE 7.20 STEM Road Map—Twelfth Grade Cause and Effect Theme: The Business
of Amusement Parks

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
HS-PS1-3 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
Practices CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP1, MP2, RI.11-12.1 Environmental Literacy
MP3, MP5, RI.11-12.2
MP6, MP8 RI.11-12.3
RI.11-12.4
RI.11-12.6
RI.11-12.8
RI.11-12.10
HS-PS2-5 CCSS.Math. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
Content. CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
HS-LE.A.1, W.11-12.2a, W.11-12.2b, Critical Thinking and
HS-LE.A.1a W.11-12.2c, W.11-12.2d, Problem Solving
W.11-12.2e, W.11-12.2f Communication and
W.11-12.5 Collaboration
W.11-12.6
W.11-12.8
W.11-12.9a, W.11-12.9b
HS-ESS1-1 CCSS.Math. Speaking Standards Information, Media and
Content. CCSS.ELA. Technology Skills:
HS-TF.A.1 SL.11-12.1a, SL.11-12.1b, Information Literacy
SL.11-12.1c, SL.11-12.1d Media Literacy
SL.11-12.2 ICT Literacy
SL.11-12.4
SL.11-12.5
(Continued)
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 9–12 155

TABLE 7.20 (Continued)

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
HS-PS4-3 CCSS.Math. Language Standards Life and Career Skills:
HS-PS4-4 Content. CCSS.ELA. Flexibility and Adaptability
HS-IF.A.2 L.11-12.3 Initiative and Self-Direction
L.11-12.4a-d Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
L.11-12.5 Productivity and Accountability
L.11-12.6 Leadership and Responsibility
HS-ETS-2

Innovation and Progress: Creating the Next Smart Phone

Progressive technology development is characterized by responding to the needs
of the users. Successful technologies are designed to upgrade product perfor-
mance and improve product solutions with more effective techniques of analysis
of users’ needs. This PBL captures these principles in the overall objective to
create a model or prototype of an upgraded smart phone that is based on a
needs analysis. Smart phones are ubiquitous and perhaps indispensable in stu-
dents’ lives, but they may not have much of an idea of how they work. In order
to accomplish this, students must first understand the basics of wave behavior,
transmission, and storage, and apply these principles to the current structure of a
smart phone, including how a phone is like a transmitter and a receiver of radio
waves and the role of cell towers in that transmission. Then student teams must
develop a survey to find out what changes others may want to make to their cur-
rent smart phone. Once students have an understanding of how a smart phone
works, coupled with the knowledge of what other people would like in a smart
phone, they must create a model or prototype of an improved phone. The pre-
sentation of the model or prototype can serve as an assessment of how students
show what they know (see Table 7.21).

The Represented World: Car Crashes

As students in twelfth grade are learning to be new drivers, a PBL focusing on
analyzing the forces involved in different types of car crashes may be timely and
informative. There are many resources available such as videos, simulations, and
car manufacturer reports that can help students understand the forces on a driver
and passengers as well as impacts on cars. The Stapp Car Crash Journal published
annually by the Society of Automotive Engineers provides mathematical model-
ing and results of many scenarios. This PBL asks student teams to take relevant
information from the large range of materials on this well-studied phenomenon
and synthesize it into a model and mathematical representation, documenting
156 Erin E. Peters-Burton et al.

TABLE 7.21 STEM Road Map—Twelfth Grade Innovation and Progress Theme: Creating
the Next Smart Phone

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
HS-PS4-1 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
HS-PS4-2 Practices CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
HS-PS4-5 MP1, MP2, RI.11-12.1 Financial, Economic, Business
MP3, MP5, RI.11-12.2 and Entrepreneurial Literacy
MP6, MP8 RI.11-12.3 Environmental Literacy
RI.11-12.4
RI.11-12.5
RI.11-12.7
RI.11-12.8
HS-ETS-4 CCSS.Math. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
Content. CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
HS-LE.A.2 W.11-12.1a, W.11-12.1b, Critical Thinking and
CCSS.Math. W.11-12.1c, W.11-12.1d, Problem Solving
Content. W.11-12.1e Communication and
HS-LE.A.3 W.11-12.2a, W.11-12.2b, Collaboration
W.11-12.2c, W.11-12.2d,
W.11-12.2e, W.11-12.2f
Speaking Standards Information, Media and
CCSS.ELA. Technology Skills:
SL.11-12.1a, SL.11-12.1b, Information Literacy
SL.11-12.1c, SL.11-12.1d Media Literacy
SL.11-12.2 ICT Literacy
SL.11-12.3
SL.11-12.4
SL.11-12.5
SL.11-12.6
Language Standards Life and Career Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Flexibility and Adaptability
L.11-12.1a-b Initiative and Self-Direction
L.11-12.4 Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
L.11-12.5 Productivity and Accountability
L.11-12.6 Leadership and Responsibility

several different scenarios. Students can investigate car crash variables according
to orientations (head-on collision, side swiping), sizes of vehicles (car vs. truck),
or variables in momentum (fast vs. slow), in addition to other relevant variables
of their choosing. The intended audience for communication of the synthesis of
information is law enforcement, so students can direct their efforts to inform
police at the scene of an accident, provide evidence at a legal trial, or persuade
policy makers in traffic laws (see Table 7.22).
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 9–12 157

TABLE 7.22 STEM Road Map—Twelfth Grade The Represented World Theme: Car
Crashes

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
HS-PS2-2 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
HS-PS2-4 Practices CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP1, MP2, RI.11-12.1 Civic Awareness
MP3, MP4, RI.11-12.2 Environmental Literacy
MP5, MP6, RI.11-12.3
MP7, MP8 RI.11-12.4
RI.11-12.5
RI.11-12.7
RI.11-12.8
HS-ETS-3 CCSS.Math. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
Content. CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
HS-IF.B.4 W.11-12.1a, W.11-12.1b, Critical Thinking and
W.11-12.1c, W.11-12.1d, Problem Solving
W.11-12.1e Communication and
W.11-12.2a, W.11-12.2b, Collaboration
W.11-12.2c, W.11-12.2d,
W.11-12.2e, W.11-12.2f
HS-PS3-5 CCSS.Math. Speaking Standards Information, Media and
Content. CCSS.ELA. Technology Skills:
HSN-VM.B.5 SL.11-12.1a, SL.11-12.1b, Information Literacy
CCSS.Math. SL.11-12.1c, SL.11-12.1d Media Literacy
Content. SL.11-12.2 ICT Literacy
HSN-VM.B.5a SL.11-12.3
CCSS.Math. SL.11-12.4
Content. SL.11-12.5
HSN-VM.B.5b SL.11-12.6
Language Standards Life and Career Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Flexibility and Adaptability
L.11-12.1a-b Initiative and Self-Direction
L.11-12.4 Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
L.11-12.5 Productivity and Accountability
L.11-12.6 Leadership and Responsibility

Sustainable Systems: Creating Global Bonds

In our global economy and technologically oriented world, we are connected in
ways that couldn’t be imagined in the 1950s. These global connections among peo-
ple and resources have tremendous benefits, but also carry a great deal of responsi-
bility and negotiation to suit the needs of all members. Therefore, it is imperative
that students have educational experiences that require them to interact with people
158 Erin E. Peters-Burton et al.

who have different views in a positive way. This PBL challenges student teams to
build and implement an international blog focused on energy consumption and
links to climate change. The teams will identify potential school partners in three
other countries to join the blog and share ideas. Each team will prepare a presenta-
tion and white paper that summarize their findings from international discussions
and will provide an argument for one mitigation strategy that could be implemented
locally and globally. Because the issues of energy flow in the atmosphere, ocean,
and land that can contribute to climate change are vast and complex, students can
form working groups on different aspects of the problems in order for the work to
be manageable. The PBL helps students to develop communication and technology
skills by creating a blog, discovering and considering all sides of an issue based on
evidence, communicating with students from other countries in other contexts,
and negotiating with other perspectives to author the white paper and presentation
constructing an argument for one mitigation strategy (see Table 7.23).

Optimizing the Human Experience: Dealing with

Natural Catastrophes
Throughout the STEM Road Map there are several PBLs that focus on habitat
conservation and natural resources. Therefore, students should have quite a bit
of background knowledge from which they can draw and have a sense of the
importance of these topics for future generations. In this PBL, students will
create a marketing package, both electronic and paper-based, to promote the
development of new luxury homes on a fault line, explaining the safety features
and energy conscious innovations. For example, student teams can focus their
efforts on researching how new materials and new building procedures help
people be prepared for inevitable earthquakes in San Francisco. Students have the

TABLE 7.23 STEM Road Map—Twelfth Grade Sustainable Systems Theme: Creating
Global Bonds

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
HS-PS3-1 CCSS.Math. Reading Standards 21st Century Themes:
HS-PS3-4 Practices CCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP1, MP3, RI.11-12.1 Civic Literacy
MP8 RI.11-12.2 Health Literacy
RI.11-12.3 Environmental Literacy
RI.11-12.4
RI.11-12.5
RI.11-12.7
RI.11-12.8
RI.11-12.10
(Continued)
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 9–12 159

TABLE 7.23 (Continued)

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
HS-PS3-4 CCSS.Math. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
Content. CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
HSA-REI.B.3 W.11-12.1a, W.11-12.1b, Critical Thinking and
W.11-12.1c, W.11-12.1d, Problem Solving
W.11-12.1e Communication and
W.11-12.2a, W.11-12.2b, Collaboration
W.11-12.2c, W.11-12.2d,
W.11-12.2e, W.11-12.2f
W.11-12.3a, W.11-12.3b,
W.11-12.3c, W.11-12.3d,
W.11-12.3e
W.11-12.4
W.11-12.5
W.11-12.6
W.11-12.7
W.11-12.8
W.11-12.9a-b
W.11-12.10
HS-ESS2-4 CCSS.Math. Speaking Standards Information, Media and
Content. CCSS.ELA. Technology Skills:
HSA-REI.A.2 SL.11-12.1a, SL.11-12.1b, Information Literacy
SL.11-12.1c, SL.11-12.1d, Media Literacy
SL.11-12.1e ICT Literacy
SL.11-12.2
SL.11-12.5
HS-ESS3-6 Language Standards Life and Career Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Flexibility and Adaptability
L.11-12.1a-b Initiative and Self-Direction
L.11-12.2a-b Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
L.11-12.3a Productivity and Accountability
L.11-12.4a-e Leadership and Responsibility
L.11-12.5a-b
L.11-12.6

opportunity to learn about natural disasters or effects of climate change that they
may not have otherwise known about. The product for this PBL, a marketing
plan, is intentionally open-ended to allow for student creativity that may result
in a policy such as an emergency evacuation plan, a technology such as an app
that tracks information for residents, a structural innovation for buildings or
transportation, or other ways to enhance the lives of people who must face natu-
ral hazards daily. An emphasis on energy needs creates a higher level of rigor for
students to accomplish during this PBL. Of course, all of the innovations should
be based on evidence (see Table 7.24).
160 Erin E. Peters-Burton et al.

TABLE 7.24 STEM Road Map—Twelfth Grade Optimizing the Human Experience
Theme: Dealing with Natural Catastrophes

NGSS Common Core Common Core 21st Century Skills

Performance Mathematics Language Arts
Objectives
HS-PS3-3 Reading Standards
CCSS.Math. 21st Century Themes:
PracticesCCSS.ELA. Global Awareness
MP1, MP2,RI.11-12.1 Environmental Literacy
MP3, MP4,RI.11-12.2
MP5, MP6,RI.11-12.3
MP7, MP8 RI.11-12.4
RI.11-12.5
RI.11-12.7
RI.11-12.8
HS-ESS3 -1 CCSS.Math. Writing Standards Learning and Innovation Skills:
Content. CCSS.ELA. Creativity and Innovation
HS-BF.A.1b W.11-12.1a, W.11-12.1b, Critical Thinking and
W.11-12.1c, W.11-12.1d, Problem Solving
W.11-12.1e Communication and
W.11-12.2a, W.11-12.2b, Collaboration
W.11-12.2c, W.11-12.2d,
W.11-12.2e, W.11-12.2f
HS-ETS-2 CCSS.Math. Speaking Standards Information, Media and
Content. CCSS.ELA. Technology Skills:
HSA-REI.C.5 SL.11-12.1a, SL.11-12.1b, Information Literacy
CCSS.Math. SL.11-12.1c, SL.11-12.1d, Media Literacy
Content. SL.11-12.2 ICT Literacy
HSA-REI.C.6 SL.11-12.3
CCSS.Math. SL.11-12.4
Content. SL.11-12.5
HSA-REI.C.7 SL.11-12.6
CCSS.Math.
Content.
HSA-REI.C.8
Language Standards Life and Career Skills:
CCSS.ELA. Flexibility and Adaptability
L.11-12.1a-b Initiative and Self-Direction
L.11-12.4 Social and Cross-Cultural Skills
L.11-12.5 Productivity and Accountability
L.11-12.6 Leadership and Responsibility

Sample STEM Careers in the Twelfth Grade STEM Road Map

The variety of integrated content and contexts in the PBLs taught during twelfth
grade continue to offer a foundation to explore a variety of careers. In doing
so, teachers may want to choose a group of related careers and go through the
 The STEM Road Map for Grades 9–12 161

various indicators of prospect and growth during this year, because twelfth grad-
ers will need to begin thinking career sustainability for the long-term to meet
their life goals. On the www.onetonline.org website, there is a category of occu-
pations called ‘Bright Outlook’ which are expected to grow rapidly in the next
several years or are new and emerging fields. A search for the ‘Rapid Growth’
occupations, categorized by an employment increase of 22 percent or more over
the next ten years, yields 112 occupations, and the list of occupations can be
downloaded into an electronic spreadsheet with one button click. On the web-
site, teachers can find categories for each occupation, and for the twelfth grade
level the interests and work values categories will be detailed as a demonstration
of how the information can be used to support the PBLs. The interests under the
Bright Outlook occupation of actuary include conventional, investigative, and
enterprising. Conventional occupations describe those careers that tend to work
with data and details than with broad ideas. Investigative occupations involve
searching for evidence and solving problems. Enterprising occupations involve
initiating projects. Another characteristic of the job of actuary listed on the web-
site is work values, which include the offer of job security and good working
conditions, a feeling of accomplishment, and ability to make your own decisions
in this career. The extensive lists and descriptions of characteristics of each occu-
pation supplied by the Department of Labor on this website can help students
decide if they would like the types of work that a particular career requires and
whether there is growth, maintenance, or decline for positions in the field so that
twelfth graders can make informed decisions about their future in the workforce.

Summary
This chapter presented the STEM Road Map for grades 9–12 as an engaging, real-
world approach to integration of core content areas for implementation in high
school. With the use of the ideas presented in the STEM Road Map, instruction
can be transformed into coordinated modules of instruction. These modules
require teams of students to grapple with global and local challenges and prob-
lems as they master the content for their grade level. As students mature through
grade levels, the instruction becomes increasingly rigorous, which requires stu-
dents to develop skills and habits of mind necessary for success in future careers.
The spiraling approach of the STEM Road Map is intended to equip students
with the skills to be lifelong learners who can think flexibly, be informed con-
sumers of information, and be aware of possibilities for their future.

References
Card, S. (2009). Information visualization. In A. Sears & J.A. Jacko (Eds.), Human-computer
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Heer, J., Bostock, M., & Ogievetsky, V. (2010). A tour through the visualization zoo. Com-
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Herman, R. (2003). Green roofs in Germany: Yesterday, today and tomorrow. Paper
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Eng_Design_5-12.html#.U2utz_ldWSo
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www.onetonline.org/
PART III
Building Capacity for STEM
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8
DATA-DRIVEN STEM ASSESSMENT
Toni A. Sondergeld, Kristin L.K. Koskey,
Gregory E. Stone, and Erin E. Peters-Burton

Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education is by

design multidisciplinary. To provide the most authentic STEM learning envi-
ronment, instruction should be delivered in an integrated fashion with concepts
from across these disciplines infused throughout lessons focused on 21st century
skills and themes to address real-world challenges (Johnson, 2013). Assessments
of STEM learning, as a result, must align with this instructional approach to
elicit valid indicators of student STEM competencies. To assess STEM learning
effectively, teachers must adopt and develop a comprehensive assessment system
where students are given multiple opportunities to demonstrate their knowledge
through varied types of assessments (National Research Council, 2014). Fur-
ther, assessment data must then be used to inform STEM instructional decision-
making which allows for greater student learning to occur (Black & William,
2001; Sondergeld, Bell, & Leusner, 2010).
Assessments are tools teachers can use to determine student knowledge or
skill mastery at varying points during instruction. There are three main types of
assessments that can be used in a comprehensive assessment system: diagnostic,
formative, and summative. These assessment types differ based on time of deliv-
ery and purpose of data use. If an assessment is used for diagnostic purposes, eval-
uation of student knowledge is done before instruction (pre-assessment) to assess
students’ prior knowledge and skills and evaluate their strengths and weaknesses.
The data can then be used to inform lesson planning and differentiated instruc-
tion. Formative assessments are administered during instruction to determine
what students have learned over a short period of time, often the topic or lesson
of the day. When assessment results are used formatively, information on student
learning, or data, is used to determine gaps in student learning and remediate or
plan future lessons accordingly, as well as to inform students of their progress.
166 Toni A. Sondergeld et al.

Diagnostic and formative assessments are both used to inform instruction and
provide teachers with direction on what needs to be done next instructionally to
move student learning forward, thus grades on diagnostic and formative assess-
ments should not be given as the learning process is still underway. Summative
assessments, on the other hand, are given at the end of a larger learning segment
(i.e. unit, chapter, grading period, etc.) and result in some form of grade to indi-
cate what students have actually learned from instruction.
We strongly support this notion of teachers developing and using compre-
hensive assessment plans and the results to influence STEM teaching as pre-
scribed by national organizations such as National Council for the Teaching
of Mathematics (NCTM) (2013) and National Science Teachers Association
(NSTA) (2001). However, we also recognize that most teacher preparation pro-
grams focus more on instructional methods and less (if at all) on specific assess-
ment development and use strategies. In addition, national efforts to address the
integration of engineering education do not focus on assessment. Therefore,
teachers are challenged with the task of identifying existing or creating high-
quality assessments to align with STEM instruction when they may or may not
be fully prepared to tackle this job (Mertler & Campbell, 2005; Sondergeld,
2014). Although many districts do provide their teachers with instructional
resources that come with pre-made assessments, these assessments all too often
fall short in terms of quality, as they were not created by or in conjunction with
assessment experts. As such, the purpose of this chapter is to present a practical
guide to developing new STEM classroom assessments, and/or modifying cur-
rent STEM classroom assessments, to be better aligned with integrated STEM
curriculum and instruction focusing on learning of complex real-world con-
cepts and practices in order to represent student learning in a valid manner.
Additionally, in this chapter we provide guidelines and examples on how to use
STEM classroom assessment results.

Standards, Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment

Alignment
Quality STEM classroom assessments need to be purposefully aligned with state
standards, classroom curriculum, and instruction. One of the many responsibili-
ties of teachers is to unpack the state standards and use them as a roadmap for
developing classroom curriculum—or what is taught in the classroom. Once
what is to be taught in the classroom is determined, instructional methods (or
how we teach) can be decided upon. Classroom assessments then must align
with the three previously mentioned components of a high-quality STEM learn-
ing environment in order to validly measure student learning of STEM con-
tent. While this relationship is discussed here in a somewhat linear fashion, all
three classroom components influence each other while being simultaneously
impacted by state standards and should not necessarily be completed in this order
(see Figure 8.1). For example, backwards design (Wiggins & McTighe, 1998)
 Data-Driven STEM Assessment 167

State Standards

(Guide for STEM

classroom learning
environment)

Curriculum Instruction Assessments

(What STEM content (How we teach STEM (Measure of student

is taught) content) STEM learning)

FIGURE 8.1 Ideal interaction between state standards and classroom curriculum,
instruction, and assessments. State standards guide development of the classroom
learning environment, and classroom learning environment components all influence
each other.

recommends that assessments be designed from what is to be taught and once the
‘end point’ is clear, activities to facilitate learning can be developed.

Learning Objectives (LOs)

While states provide teachers with content standards and many districts give
curricular and/or pacing guides to assist with what content to teach at each grade
level, this information must be modified—or unpacked—into specific learning
objectives which then allow us to directly measure varying levels of student
STEM learning. Clearly defined and measurable (or observable) STEM learning
objectives (LOs) are critical in linking quality classroom instruction to assess-
ment. LOs tell us how we expect students to demonstrate their STEM learning
and what STEM content we want students to learn.
We begin with an example of a clearly defined and measurable possible STEM
LO: Predicts outcome of single displacement chemical reaction. ‘Predicts’ tells us how
we expect students to interact with the content and how we can observe if they
do this correctly (our assessment of them). ‘Outcome of single displacement chemi-
cal reaction’ specifies what content we want students to provide. A well written,
measurable LO should be written in a straightforward manner and answer the
question: How do I want my students to do what?
The how component of an LO also allows us to identify student skill level
needed for mastery. In a thorough STEM classroom assessment plan, it is impera-
tive that students are given an opportunity to be assessed at multiple levels of
learning. To ensure we capture student learning of lower-level skills (e.g. ability
to recall and explain content in own words) and higher-level problem-solving
skills (e.g. application of content in new ways), implementing a cognitive tax-
onomy when developing LOs is essential.
168 Toni A. Sondergeld et al.

Multiple cognitive taxonomies exist. We choose to focus on Anderson and

Krathwohl’s (2001) revised version of Bloom’s Cognitive Taxonomy (Bloom,
et al., 1956) in our chapter since it is widely used in science education. Regard-
less of the taxonomic author, taxonomies are classification systems that can be
used as a guiding framework when developing LOs. Taxonomies are hierarchi-
cal in that students need to master lower-level skills before higher skills. Fur-
ther, assessment of lower-level skills typically looks different than assessment
of higher-level skills because they require different levels of cognitive skill to
master. Figure 8.2 illustrates the theoretical hierarchical structure of Bloom’s
Revised Cognitive Taxonomy.
Bloom’s revised taxonomic levels, their respective definitions, measurable
keywords (verbs) at each level, and a STEM example are provided in Table 8.1.

Creating

Higher-Level
Evaluating Skills

Analyzing

Applying

Lower-Level
Understanding Skills

Remembering

FIGURE 8.2 Hierarchical structure of Bloom’s Revised Cognitive Taxonomy. Lower-

level skills need to be mastered before higher-level skills.

TABLE 8.1 Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy Defined with Keywords and STEM Examples

Taxonomic Level Definition Sample Keywords STEM Examples

Creating Putting parts Compose, Create, Design a chamber that
together into a Design, Formulate, will act as a closed
unique whole. Generate system for a chemical
reaction to demonstrate
the law of conservation
of mass.
Evaluating Judging the value Conclude, Compare, Justify if decomposition
of a product using Support, Criticize, reactions are necessary
specified criteria. Justify for a healthy ecosystem.
(Continued)
 Data-Driven STEM Assessment 169

TABLE 8.1 (Continued)

Taxonomic Level Definition Sample Keywords STEM Examples

Analyzing Breaking down Diagram, Outline, Deduce the type of
material into Deduce, Illustrate, chemical reactions that
component parts. Discriminate occur during cellular
respiration.
Applying Using previous Use, Solve, Produce, Solve for the limiting
knowledge in Compute, Organize reactant that will
new and different produce the amount of
settings. concrete needed for a
parking structure using
the chemical reaction
equations in the cement
hydration process.
Understanding Grasping the Explain, Give Examples, Give an example of
meaning of Summarize, Paraphrase a common chemical
material. reaction used in
manufacturing.
Remembering Remembering Define, List, Recall, List the six types of
previously learned Identify chemical reactions.
material.

To implement a comprehensive STEM classroom assessment plan, regardless of

the content being covered, some degree of lower-level skills (i.e. Remembering
and Understanding) and higher-level skills (i.e., Applying, Analyzing, Evaluat-
ing, and Creating) should be taught and assessed. The degree to which lower-
and higher-level skills is addressed in a lesson or unit will largely be determined
by student grade level, cognitive abilities, and curricular content.

Unpacking Standards to Develop Measurable LOs

Unfortunately, current state and/or national content standards do not typically
provide teachers with well-defined and observable LOs. Thus, teachers must
unpack their state adopted content standards in order to instruct and assess STEM
learning. When unpacking state adopted content standards to create functional
LOs there are four basic guidelines to follow:

1) Content is not an Objective—an action/skill stating what a student will

do along with the content must be identified.
• Poorly Written Example: Students read lab report.
• There is no skill here. Just because students can read the lab report does
not mean they understand what was in the report.
• Better Written Example: Interpret lab report results.
• This demonstrates student learning if they can interpret the results.
170 Toni A. Sondergeld et al.

2) Focus on Student Behavior—not on teacher’s actions.

• Poorly Written Example: Teach students six categories of chemical reactions.
• This does not indicate the student has learned anything just because the
teacher teaches.
• Better Written Example: Distinguishes among six types of chemical reactions
when given formulas.
• Focus is on the student. If students can distinguish they are showing what
they have learned.
3) Objectives are Unidimensional—focus on only ONE concept at a time
in an LO.
• Poorly Written Example: Define and give examples of physical and chemical
changes.
• This mixes multiple concepts into one LO making it so we cannot
clearly assess student learning of this LO well.
• Better Written Example: LO1: Define physical change. LO2: Give exam-
ples of physical changes. LO3: Define chemical change. LO4: Give examples
of chemical changes.
• Each LO now focuses on only one concept at a time and we can easily
assess which component(s) a student has or has not mastered.
4) Specify Cognitive Level—This helps clarify the level that assessment
items should target.
• Poorly Written Example: LO1: List the six types of chemical reactions.
LO2: Solve chemical reaction equations. LO3: Deduce the type of chemical
reaction when given a formula.
• LOs are reasonably written, however the taxonomic level is not pro-
vided making it difficult to determine if the appropriate level of learn-
ing is occurring for students.
• Better Written Example: LO1: List the six types of chemical reactions.
(Remembering); LO2: Solve chemical reaction equations. (Applying); LO3:
Deduce the type of chemical reaction when given a formula. (Analyzing)
• LOs now have taxonomic level identified showing that there may be
a need for additional lower-level LOs to be developed and assessed in
addition to the higher-level LOs.

To further illustrate the four basic principles of writing functional LOs we

draw upon the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) (2014). Our example of
unpacking NGSS comes from the grades 3–5 Energy section.

4-PS3-4. Apply scientific ideas to design, test, and refine a device that con-
verts energy from one form to another.

This NGSS standard combines multiple concepts into one standard and needs to
be unpacked into specific measurable LOs in order to more clearly assess student
 Data-Driven STEM Assessment 171

learning of individual concepts. The following LOs offer one example of how
this NGSS standard could be unpacked.

LO1: Design a device that converts energy from one form to another.
(Application)
LO2: Diagram energy transfer points in device. (Analyzing)
LO3: Explain types of energy transfer occurring in device. (Understanding)
LO4: Use data collected to modify energy conversion device. (Application)
LO5: Justify whether device transfers energy most efficiently compared to
prior developed device models. (Evaluating)

Assessment Tools
Once functional learning objectives are defined, the development of a STEM
classroom assessment plan can begin. A reasonable assessment plan in any STEM
classroom must be multi-faceted, primarily because the learning objectives that
govern the classroom are themselves multidimensional (National Research Coun-
cil, 2014). Additionally, a STEM classroom assessment plan should have both pre-
and post-assessments to assess student prior knowledge and determine student
knowledge growth. Assessments should be selected based on the need to appro-
priately measure the learning objectives in the most effective and efficient man-
ner. The learning objectives outlined in the STEM classroom tend to reflect the
full range of remembering through creating level expectations, and as a result it is
most sensible to employ a full range of objectives (e.g., multiple-choice) and self-
constructed (e.g. essay response and performance assessment) item types to mea-
sure those expectations. It is incumbent on the teacher to determine (1) which
item type is most effective and efficient for the learning objective being measured,
and (2) how to best develop the item being deployed. In this section, we review
the basic decision to be made on deployment of the item type and the fundamen-
tal rules associated with writing each type of item.
Items may be divided succinctly into two major categories: objective and
self-constructed. These groups depend largely on the intervention of the instruc-
tor during the grading process. Objective items may be graded with a key, and
require little or no grader interpretation. Answers are correct or incorrect when
considering objective items; no grading rubrics are needed, and no human inter-
pretation, or speculation, is required. Objective items include such item types
as multiple-choice, true/false, matching, and, when no partial credit is given,
fill-in-the-blank. Self-constructed items must be graded using a rubric, and thus
require teacher interpretation. The self-constructed category is very broad, and
includes traditional item types such as essays and short-answers, as well as port-
folio assessments, practical and performance assessments, projects, papers, and
other forms of rubric-graded evaluations. The key difference in the two assess-
ment types is teacher/grader interpretation. Interpretation allows for significantly
172 Toni A. Sondergeld et al.

deeper evaluation and understanding. It also encourages bias, distortion, and

what measurement experts call error.
Error is anything that impacts upon accurate assessment of student ability. It is
the combination of error and student ability that makes up an assessment score.
There are endless potential sources of error. Students may cause error by not get-
ting enough sleep before an assessment or feeling ill during an assessment. Teachers
may also introduce error to an assessment score by administering poorly developed
items, providing confusing directions, or using inconsistent grading practices.
It is important to realize that assessments in general are simply measurement
devices, designed to help teachers understand what students have mastered and
what they have not yet succeeded at learning. They are not meant as learning tools
per se, although once completed, they may be used as such. As a result, we must
treat them as measurement tools. Our goal in assessment is to maximize informa-
tion (the good information about what students can do with the material) and
minimize error (the bad information we cannot control, but cannot entirely get
rid of, in part because we can never make perfect tests). To do this, we must care-
fully match the needs of our learning objectives to the assessment types.
For over a century, objective items, particularly well-written multiple-choice
items, have demonstrated the ability to capture a great deal of information about
student skill while excluding extraneous error. Multiple-choice items get harder
to write as we move higher up the cognitive taxonomy. They are easiest when
written at the lower-levels (remembering, understanding, applying) and very dif-
ficult and impossible in some cases at the higher-levels of evaluation (analyzing,
evaluating, creating). In fact, they are so difficult and time–consuming to write
at the higher taxonomic levels that while they may be effective, they are not
efficient. It is recommended, therefore, that teachers strongly consider the use of
multiple-choice and/or other objective items when assessing LOs at the cogni-
tive taxonomic levels of remembering, understanding, and applying, but consider
alternative forms for higher taxonomic levels. Furthermore, applying is a cross-
over level, where both objective and self-constructed item types are appropriate.
Within this approach, which stresses the most effective and efficient model,
self-constructed items, including performance assessments, are best utilized for
assessing higher-level skills. The higher-level taxonomic objectives tend to be
multi-faceted, requiring complex thought processes, steps, and often take the
student significant time to complete. They also take significant time to grade.
Because of these dimensions, they are far better evaluated using a multidimen-
sional rubric than a simple correct/incorrect key. Further, they allow the teacher
to assess student thought process throughout the exercise, encouraging the evalu-
ation of development rather than of outcome alone.
The minimization of error and maximization of student ability information
requires both the selection of an appropriate item type and the deployment of
a reasonably well-written item. Teachers should be cognizant of the simple but
clear rules for the development of each type of item. Following these rules will
greatly improve the quality of information that emerges from the developed
 Data-Driven STEM Assessment 173

assessments and reduce much error introduced by poorly written items. The 20
guidelines compiled below for developing successful multiple-choice items come
from our experiences analyzing high- and low-stakes tests in multiple fields of
study, as well as the literature (see Haladyna, Downing, & Rodriguez, 2002).
Assessments written following these guidelines typically produce more reliable
results that are a better indication of student skill mastery.

Twenty Keys to Developing Successful Multiple-Choice Items

1) Create Plausible and Real Response Options. When constructing the options,
ensure that they are plausible and real. Ensure that the incorrect answers are rea-
sonable but clearly incorrect and do not make up nonsense terms. The ultimate
goal of the item is to differentiate between those who know the material and
those who do not. By adding tricky or unrealistic options, it makes it difficult to
differentiate in this regard as students quickly eliminate the unrealistic options.
2) Alphabetize/Logically Order Answer Options. By alphabetizing the
options (or ordering the numbers in the options) it will ensure that the answers
are random (i.e. there will not be too many of any one particular letter).
3) Do not Repeat Words in the Answer Options. If the same word or
words appear at the beginning of all the options, move those repeated words
(e.g. ‘the,’ ‘a,’ ‘an’) into the main stem of the item.
4) Answer Options should be Independent and Mutually Exclusive.
Selections in Option A, for example, should not appear in Options B, C, or D.
When this occurs, the items become known as complex multiple-choice items
and the functioning of the item is severely compromised. Each option should
be completely unique. If asking about a list or a sequence is desired, then a
form of a question other than a multiple-choice item should be selected.
5) Avoid the Use of Negatives (e.g., “Which of the following is not . . .” or
“All of the following are true except . . .”). While they are easy to write,
they are generally confusing and perform poorly. Research indicates that
items worded negatively are very confusing and generally cause more error
to be measured than ability.
6) Do Not Teach in the Question. Examinations are not meant as learning
exercises. Let the learning occur before and after the assessment. If the material
presented in the question is not directly needed for the question, exclude it.
7) Refer to a Learning Objective. Each item must refer to a learning objec-
tive. Ensure that all items closely match the objectives. What isn’t in the
objectives cannot be assessed.
8) All Items Should Present a Question (a Problem) in the Stem. Do
not make students read the stem (the question) and all the options before
they figure out what is being asked.
9) Avoid Using “All of the Above” and “None of the Above.” Items
with these options tend to perform poorly, causing greater errors and less
information to be measured because they are often the correct answers.
174 Toni A. Sondergeld et al.

10) Avoid Biased Language and Cultural References. Not all students come
from a single community or background. Multiple-choice items should be
biased, but only against those who do not know the material. They should not
be biased based on a student’s ethnic, gender, or socio-economic background.
11) Watch the Grammar and Parallel Content of the Options. Ensure
that all options are grammatically correct (particularly if they complete the
sentence in the stem of the question) and of parallel content. If the options
complete the sentence, make certain each option does so in a grammatically
correct fashion. Making certain the options are parallel reduces guessing.
For example, if the correct answer is a noun, ensure all options are nouns.
12) Keep the Lengths of the Options Similar. If the correct answer is very
short or very long compared to the incorrect options, students are often
cued to select that answer even if they do not know the content and this
defeats the purpose of the item.
13) Avoid Using Ambiguous Terms. Avoid using ambiguous terms like usu-
ally, often, or rarely. Be specific. When ambiguous words are used, students
are left wondering, “How often is often?” Instead, specify a percentage or
frequency of occurrence.
14) Avoid Abbreviations. Avoid abbreviations unless they are standard,
should be remembered, and are printed in textbooks. For example, if stu-
dents are learning about measurement and have learned that cm = centime-
ters, it would be acceptable to use such an abbreviation in an item.
15) Do Not Clue the Answer. Avoid using associations, phrases, or wordings
that are too similar between the question and the options.
16) Choose the Incorrect Answers Wisely. Create incorrect answers based on
common error or misconceptions when possible. This helps when diagnosing
where the specific problems are in student learning or teacher teaching.
17) Ensure There is Only One Correct Answer. Make sure your incorrect
options are not partially correct, and that your correct answer is by far the
best answer.
18) Testing Definitions. When testing definitions, place the word being assessed
in the question (stem) and the multiple definition possibilities as the options.
19) Be Simple, Direct, and Concise. Avoid presenting irrelevant information.
Ask yourself, “Does the student need this information to answer the question?”
20) Use a Straightforward Vocabulary. Do not use 100 words when 25 words
will do just fine. The language of each item should be written at the reading
level of the lowest student.

Ten Key Questions to Ask When Developing Self-Constructed

Assessments
It is important to remember the broad scope that the term self-constructed (or
constructed response) encompasses. The purpose of self-constructed items is to
 Data-Driven STEM Assessment 175

allow students to apply their understanding of concepts through free expression

without artificial restriction or prompting. In STEM education essays, includ-
ing math problems where students are asked to “show their work,” short answer
problems, papers, projects, presentations, so-called authentic assessments, and
portfolios are all part of the self-constructed toolkit. While each of these assess-
ment types is clearly different, they all share common elements, including the
need for clear and precise directions, and the requirements for rubric usage when
grading (discussed later in this chapter). The key principles addressed in this sec-
tion apply to all self-constructed assessments:

1) Does the assessment have a clear purpose that specifies the decision that will be made
resulting from the assessment? For example, will the results be used formatively
(to provide students with feedback to improve their learning) or summa-
tively (to provide a grade for students)? Will the assessment focus on process,
product, or both?
2) Have the observable aspects of student performance or product that will be judged been iden-
tified? Supply the performance criteria (i.e., the rubric) with the specific, observ-
able standards by which the student performances or products will be assessed. It
is preferable to limit the criteria to a reasonable and manageable number.
3) Can you provide an appropriate setting, where applicable, to complete the task and
ensure that all students can complete the assessment? Because self-constructed
projects are themselves multidimensional, the scoring rubric should result in
one or more scores that describe the performance.
4) Does the assessment evaluate an important aspect of the learning objectives, requiring
the student to demonstrate more than just facts, lists, definitions, etc.?
5) Does the assessment match the learning objectives in terms of performance, emphasis,
and weight given to the assignment (e.g., number of points in the grading scheme)?
6) Does the assessment require the students to apply their knowledge and skills to solve
new and novel problems?
7) When viewed in relation to the other assessments in the class, does this assessment
measure new information covering the range of content and behavior specified in the
learning objectives?
8) Is the assessment focused? Does it define a task with specific directions rather than
leaving the assignment so broad that almost anything would be acceptable?
9) Is the task defined by the assessment within a level of complexity that is appropriate
for the intellectual ability and maturity of the particular students? Make sure the
assessment is worded in a way that leads all students to interpret the assign-
ment in the way you intended.
10) Do the directions make clear all necessary items for completion, i.e., length, purpose,
and the basis for evaluation?

Annotated Example: You are an architect hired to create a new shopping

mall1. Using the building materials supplied in class, create a model of a
176 Toni A. Sondergeld et al.

shopping mall and demonstrate how you used at least two different geo-
metric principles in constructing the model2. (For instance, how would you
use geometry to build a perfect square?)3 Show all equations and how they
were used to create your model in a short paper (approximately three to five
pages)4. You and your fellow architect classmates will present your models
and your use of geometry to the class next week5. You will be graded on
the correctness of your use of the geometric principles in constructing your
model and your in-class explanation6.

Notes
1. Provides the student with a real-world, interesting problem, grounded in activity.
2. Indicates that all students will start from a level playing field (e.g. materials
supplied in class) and tells the students what they will physically do during the
project. In addition, it describes and connects the principles learned with the
action.
3. Provides a specific example of the physical/theoretical connection that may be
explainable.
4. Provides the student with an understanding of how they will communicate
part of their fundamental understanding (i.e. via a paper) and what should be
included in that paper. Also provides parameters for the length of the paper.
5. Provides the student with a further understanding of how they will communi-
cate the remainder of their understanding (i.e. via a presentation) and how that
presentation should be made.
6. Offers the student insight into how the project will ultimately be graded.

Developing and Using Rubrics

A rubric is a scoring tool for a self-constructed assessment that lists the criteria
for a piece of work. Rubrics indicate to all stakeholders ‘what counts.’ There are
multiple purposes for using rubrics in grading self-constructed assessments. Well-
constructed rubrics define quality for students and teachers—there is no guessing
about what needs to be done to earn full credit on a self-constructed assessment.
Quality rubrics allow students to accept more responsibility for their own learn-
ing and help students improve their work by using the rubric as a guide when
creating and/or revising assessments. Additionally, rubrics help teachers explain
why students received their grade on somewhat subjectively graded assessments.
Most importantly, rubrics are essential for ensuring fair and meaningful results to
self-constructed assessments.

Creating Different Types of Rubrics

Regardless of the type of rubric developed, there are two main characteristics
rubrics must possess. First, in developing a rubric you need to determine the eval-
uative criteria. This means deciding which factors or skills will be assessed. Ask
yourself: “What are the pieces of the puzzle that need to be graded in this STEM
 Data-Driven STEM Assessment 177

assessment?” Once the evaluative criteria are established, qualitative descriptions

of differences need to be formed. For each criteria being graded (piece of the
puzzle) a meaningful distinction between possible scores must be provided so
students understand what is expected to earn full credit and teachers are able to be
consistent with grading. There are two main types of rubrics: analytic and holis-
tic. Checklists may also fall into the category of grading tool for self-constructed
assessments but will not be discussed in this chapter.

Analytic Rubrics
When using an analytic rubric, each criterion (or piece of the puzzle) is graded
separately. Multiple scales may be used with different point values depending on
the importance of the criterion. Analytic rubrics give diagnostic information
providing for formative and descriptive feedback for students to use when revis-
ing assignments or completing future assessments. However, they often take a
considerable amount of time to create and may be tedious to apply. The follow-
ing illustrates a student task and corresponding analytic rubric (Table 8.2).

Student Task: Describe the concepts of potential and kinetic energy.

Give an example of each in your description. Write at least two complete
sentences and use your best spelling (6 pts possible).

TABLE 8.2 Analytic Rubric Example for Potential/Kinetic Energy Task

1) Student correctly explained terms

2 pts Answer was clear and fully correct with both potential and kinetic
energy described properly.
1 pt One or more parts of the answer were nearly correct, but the student
missed a key concept.
0 pts Student failed to provide correct answer.
2) Examples were clear and correct.
2 pts Both examples were appropriate.
1 pt One example was appropriate.
0 pts Neither example was appropriate.
3) Length
1 pt Two complete sentences used.
0 pts Less than two complete sentences used.
4) Grammar/Spelling
1 pt Minimal errors that do not impede understanding.
0 pts So many errors that meaning is unclear.
Score: _____ /6 pts
178 Toni A. Sondergeld et al.

Holistic Rubrics
This type of rubric evaluates all criteria (pieces of the puzzle) at the same time and
applies one scale across the entire rubric. Therefore, a student’s score is based on
the lowest competency demonstrated across all criteria. Holistic rubrics are often
considered more efficient to apply when grading a large number of assessments,
but lack formative and descriptive feedback. If a holistic rubric is on a scale of 0–4
and a student receives a score of 2, they will not know why they received this
score unless specific measures are taken to indicate strengths and weaknesses of
the student’s work. The following illustrates the same student task as before, but
shows a potential holistic rubric for grading the assessment instead (Table 8.3).

Student Task: Describe the concepts of potential and kinetic energy.

Give an example of each in your description. Write at least two complete
sentences and use your best spelling.

TABLE 8.3 Holistic Rubric Example for Potential/Kinetic Energy Task

4/A Both potential and kinetic energy are described properly; appropriate examples
of both types of energy are provided; writing is clear and well organized into
two or more complete sentences.
3/B Both potential and kinetic energy are described properly; examples of each
type of energy are provided but may not be appropriate; writing is clear and
organized into two or more complete sentences.
2/C Potential and kinetic energy are described but one description may not be
completely accurate; examples may not be appropriate; less than two complete
sentences are provided; writing needs editing.
1/D Energy forms are not completely accurate; examples are not provided; less
than two complete sentences are provided; writing needs significant editing.
0/F Essay is not about kinetic and potential energy and/or so many errors in
grammar and spelling make meaning impossible to interpret.

Strengths:
Areas for improvement:

When constructing a rubric, there are some questions you should ask yourself:

• What are the learning objectives? Does the rubric align with these?
• What are the pieces of the puzzle the student is expected to provide (specific
attributes to assess)?
• Should an analytic or holistic rubric be used to evaluate the assessment?
• Which criterion is the most to least important? Should these be weighted
differently?
• Are all achievement categories clearly distinct, or do they overlap?
• Will the final score produce a meaningful grade representative of the stu-
dent’s ability level?
 Data-Driven STEM Assessment 179

Sources of Error When Applying Rubrics

Recall that all assessment scores are comprised of two components: student abil-
ity and error. Failing to use rubrics in a standard and systematic fashion also
adds to error in assessment results. Every assessment will undoubtedly have
some degree of error associated with the score regardless of the type, and self-
constructed assessments are typically worse in this regard since student scores
are subjective as they are based on grader interpretation. Although we can never
eliminate error, we can minimize the error by making ourselves aware of com-
mon mistakes when scoring self-constructed assessments that lead to additional
error in assessment results.
Procedural flaws, or the way we use rubrics, can result in lack of consistency
when scoring student work. These flaws can occur when a rubric is being used
differently by multiple raters and is called inconsistent standards. If a student would
earn an ‘A’ if scored by one teacher and a ‘B’ if scored by a different teacher,
inconsistent standards are being applied. Rater drift is another type of procedural
flaw leading to additional error. This drift happens when an individual rater fails
to pay attention to the criteria established or changes how they grade the criteria
over time.
Personal bias errors are also common when scoring self-constructed assess-
ments. Changes in topic and prompt may lead to personal bias errors as the rater
may like one topic more than another and resultantly give the topic higher
grades. The carryover effect may take place when a teacher scores multiple self-
constructed responses (e.g. short answer or essay items) by the same student and
judgment of response to question 1 impacts judgment of response to question 2.
For example, if a student answers question 1 poorly, the rater may have a bad
feeling about the student’s performance when grading question 2. Finally, the
halo effect occurs when a teacher grades based on criteria that are not specified
in the rubric. For instance, if a student uses good grammar or provides a very
lengthy response their score may be higher even if their response does not fully
answer the item.
Scoring suggestions to keep in mind that will help reduce error are as follows:

• Converting rubrics to grades needs to be a logical process rather than a

mathematical process. If using a 1–4 point scale, should a 3 on this scale
be considered a 75 percent, which is typically a ‘C’ in most classrooms? Or
should a 3 really be viewed as a ‘B’?
• Score assessments anonymously to reduce personal biases.
• Score essays one topic/item at a time to increase consistency in scoring across
students.
• Score subject-matter separately than grammar, spelling, and mechanics.
• Have another set of knowledgeable eyes review your rubric and give you
feedback before implementing to ensure rubric is clear and aligned with
learning objectives.
180 Toni A. Sondergeld et al.

• Revise, revise, revise. The first time a rubric is crafted and used it will typi-
cally not work as well as you hope it will—this is quite normal. Make sure
you revise your rubric based on the flaws that you experience and try it again!
Resources to assist in constructing rubrics are provided in the Appendix.

Using Assessment Results to Inform Decision-Making

The use of assessment results to inform teaching is commonly referred to as Data-
Driven Decision Making (DDDM), which is the “systematic collection, analysis,
examination, and interpretation of data to inform practice and policy in edu-
cational settings” (Mandinach, 2012, p. 71). Researchers and practitioners have
found using student assessment data to inform practice increases student perfor-
mance (Alwin, 2002; Doyle, 2003; Peterson, 2007; Wayman, 2005). It is for this
latter reason that the U.S. Department of Education, particularly the Institute of
Education Sciences (IES), emphasizes the use of DDDM at the classroom, school,
district, state, and national levels for continuous improvement. After all, there is
no point investing time in administering and completing assessments if we don’t
use the results in some fashion beyond to determine students’ grades. As the U.S.
Secretary of Education, Arne Duncan (2009), shared, “Data gives us the road-
map to reform. It tells us where we are, where we need to go, and who is most
at risk. What we need to do to teach and how to teach it.”
The IES outlined five helpful recommendations on Using Student Achievement
Data to Support Instructional Decision Making (Hamilton, et al., 2009) that apply
across content areas including STEM education. The first two recommendations
are specific to teachers’ use of data at the classroom level: (1) use assessment data
as part of a continuous cycle of instructional improvement, and (2) teach students
how to analyze their own assessment data to set individualized learning goals.
Building a systematic process that is ongoing and cyclical so that each stage
in your process informs the next stage is key to implementing the first recom-
mendation. Many school districts now have a DDDM model outlined for teach-
ers to follow. If your district does not provide such a model, develop a process
that works for you. Six qualities should be reflected in this process as outlined in
Table 8.4. These qualities are based on what Mandinach (2012) communicates
are the six skills teachers need in order to exercise pedagogical data literacy.
These skills involve moving beyond marking how many questions students got
correct or incorrect or determining a student’s performance level based on rubric
ratings. Central to the process is to not only collect multiple forms of assessments,
but also triangulate the results to make informed decisions about the next steps
in instruction.
Hamilton et al. (2009) outline a four-step process that can be used as a guide
for implementing the second recommendation to scaffold students to partici-
pate in the DDDM process. Analyzing, evaluating, and creating are higher-level
thinking skills targeted in the STEM standards and thus it is reasonable to expect
TABLE 8.4 What to Include in Your DDDM Process

Quality Helpful Tips Example

Collect Data Collect multiple Performance Expectation MS-PS1-1 from NGSS—Develop models to describe the atomic
forms of data composition of simple molecules and extended structures: use rubric for ammonia and diamonds
(varying complexity) to find level of proficiency of Scientific and Engineering Practices—Developing
and Using Models; measure student learning of Disciplinary Core Ideas through objective items such
as multiple-choice items: different substances are made of different types of atoms, and Crosscutting
Concepts with self-constructed items such as essay prompts: create a visual system to describe types of
bonds; there may be overlap of constructs across assessments.
Organize Data Use a technology Input scores in electronic gradebooks, spreadsheets, or tablet applications organized by Science and
tool or instructional Engineering Practice, Disciplinary Core Idea, and Crosscutting Concept as well as by assessment
management implementation and by student.
system to assist in
organizing and
Analyze Data analyzing data
Summarize Data Identify patterns Look across Disciplinary Core Ideas, Crosscutting Concepts, and Practices for trends in individual
across the student learning, and across rating scales and items for validity.
assessment results
for individuals and
the class as a whole
Synthesize Data Triangulate the Determine proficiency by looking across assessment and across Disciplinary Core Ideas, Crosscutting
results from Concepts, and Practices.
multiple assessments
Prioritize Next Consider the most Determine the level of proficiency for the Performance Expectation, given the Assessment Boundary.
Actions pressing next If students can develop models of varying complexity accurately, the teacher can move on to more
steps to take in sophisticated material. If students can only develop simple models such as methane, the teacher should
instruction and set provide scaffolding for more learning opportunities before assessing the Performance Expectation
learning objectives again.
Note: DDDM Process Quality indicators come from Mandinach (2012).
182 Toni A. Sondergeld et al.

students to exercise these same skills to move their own learning forward. First
is to share the performance criteria with the students, which communicates the
student learning outcomes and highlights the most important criteria. In order
to monitor their own learning, students need a clear understanding of what they
are supposed to be able to do. Second is to provide constructive and efficient
feedback. Feedback should not only highlight the areas of strength and weak-
nesses, but also provide specific suggestions on how to improve (Brookhart &
Nitko, 2015). In order for students to use feedback on objective-type assessments
to make decisions about their own learning, rationales should be provided as to
why each distractor (incorrect option) was incorrect and why the correct answer
was correct. Oftentimes, feedback includes what the correct answer is but not
the why.
The third and fourth steps relate to scaffolding students to engage in the
DDDM process through providing students with tools to learn from their
feedback and analyze their own assessment results (Hamilton, et al., 2009). To
achieve these steps, teachers should assist students in organizing their assessment
results to provide a visual for them to track their growth and easily identify their
strengths and areas needing improvement. For example, have students docu-
ment how their answers compared to the correct answer or criterion, why the
answer was incorrect or why they did not achieve the highest rating, and what
goals they need to set to improve. Students are essentially engaging in their own
DDDM parallel to the teacher but asking themselves: “What do my assessment
results indicate about my progress towards the learning objectives?” “What are
my strengths?” “What areas do I need to improve?” “What goals should I set?”
and “What are my next steps to meet those goals?”
The types of data you will work with in this process will vary depending on
whether the assessment is objective or self-constructed. Objective-type assess-
ments produce ‘correct’ and ‘incorrect’ responses to analyze. If you are com-
fortable in using Excel or a similar program, an item analysis can be conducted
where you score each response as either correct (1), or incorrect (0), to then exam-
ine what percentage of students got each item correct and how highly related the
students’ performance on an item was to their overall score, along with a number
of other indicators of item quality.
Another simple way to analyze objective-type assessment data is to simply
create a matrix ordering the highest to lowest performing students in the left
column and the items across in subsequent columns as illustrated in Figure 8.3.
Organizing the data in this fashion can provide quick insight on individual stu-
dent performance, the performance of the class as a whole, and which items
might have unexpected response patterns that might indicate an assessment error
(e.g. incorrect key, item not linked with a standard, confusing item wording)
or misconception held by the students. Further, linking each item in the matrix
with the student learning objective or standard aligned helps to provide a visual
to detect patterns in performance related to specific standards to assist in making
 Assessment Item Total
(Standard Aligned) Score
1 2 31 4 5 6 72 82 92 102

Student (PS4.A) (PS4.A) (PS4.A) (PS4.B) (PS4.B) (PS4.B) (PS4.C) (PS4.C) (PS4.C) (PS4.C)
13 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 9
2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 8
3 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 7
4 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 7
5 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 7
6 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 4
7 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 4
8 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 3
9 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2
Total 8 8 8 6 7 5 3 3 2 1

FIGURE 8.3 Matrix of Results for an Objective-Type Assessment

Notes: Students are ordered from highest to lowest performing based on total score.
1
Some students who score low overall get Item 3 correct, perhaps indicating an issue with the item (Is the correct answer cued? Is the key
incorrect?).
2
Students, including the high performers, score low on the items aligned to standard PS4.C (Information Technologies and Instrumentation),
indicating that re-teaching might be needed.
3
Student 1’s pattern in scores reveals an anomaly on Item 9 (Is the key correct? Does the item wording need improvement? Does this student
need additional instruction on this concept?).
184 Toni A. Sondergeld et al.

more targeted decisions on areas of strength and needing improvement. Creating

a similar matrix for each item for each response option can further illuminate the
performance of the response options, such as whether the incorrect options were
selected at all or need to be replaced with better distractors and what incorrect
response options are being selected, pointing to what misconception to directly
address in instruction.
Rubrics produce more detailed data as to what degree a student mastered each
criterion, resulting in useful information to identify patterns in student learning.
Organizing rubric ratings in a similar fashion to that illustrated in Figure 8.4
provides an efficient visual of students’ areas of strengths and weaknesses to again
guide more targeted decisions for the next steps in instruction. The key question
to ask is whether the evidence from the assessment corroborates with the evi-
dence from the students’ other assessment results. If the results from across assess-
ments corroborate, then you can be more confident in using that data to inform
students’ learning and make an action plan for the next steps in instruction.
So, what do you do once you have collected, organized, summarized, and syn-
thesized the data? The answer to this question depends on the purpose of the
assessment. If the purpose is diagnostic, the data are used to inform areas of weak-
nesses to target, and determine what instructional strategies to implement to best
target those weaknesses. If the purpose of the assessment is formative, the data are
used to inform if students are on track and if not, what next steps are needed to
move learning forward. Considerations for each student and the class as a whole
should be made. This point is optimal for students to write individual goals as
they monitor their own progress or to reflect on their progress using a coding
system such as Red = Can’t do it, Yellow = Need improvement or Can do it with
help, Green = Can do it without help. Finally, if the purpose of the assessment is
summative, the data are used to inform to what degree the students mastered the
learning objectives and whether significant growth occurred from the pre- to
post-assessment. Summative assessment data can also be used in a formative way,
however. For instance, the data from an end of the unit summative project can be
used to inform next steps in instruction in that even though that unit is concluded,
general skills might continue to need to be targeted throughout the academic year.
In the example from Figure 8.4, we learned that students need additional scaffold-
ing in explaining solutions, which is a skill that can be targeted across units.
Regardless of the purpose of the assessment, after each assessment the data
can be used to inform students’ learning, your instruction, and the quality of the
assessment used. When reflecting on the students’ learning, ask yourself:

• “Are the students progressing?”

• “What are the students’ strengths and weaknesses?”
• “Where are the students in their learning compared to where they are
expected to be?”
• “Did the students’ performance significantly improve over time?”
 Criterion
(Standard Aligned)
Plan Carry Out Explain Use of Tools Use of a Appropriate Order and
Investigation Investigation Solutions1 to Solve a Variety of Use of Tools Expression of
Specific Methods in Length of Objects2
Problem Scientific
Investigations
Student (1-PS4-1, 3) (1-PS4-4) (1-PS4-1) (MP.5)
(1-PS4-1, 3) (1-PS4-4) (1.MD.A.1,
1.MD.A.2)
1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
2 3 3 2 3 3 3 3
3 3 3 2 3 3 2 3
4 3 3 2 3 2 2 3
5 3 3 2 3 2 2 3
6 3 3 2 2 2 2 3
7 3 3 2 2 2 2 3
8 3 2 1 2 2 3 3
9 2 2 1 2 2 2 3
Total 26 25 17 23 21 21 27

FIGURE 8.4 Matrix of Results for a Self-Constructed Type Assessment

Notes: Ratings range from 1–3 whereby 1 = Not Evident, 2 = Needs Improvement and 3 = Proficient.
1
Students have difficulty satisfying the criterion of Explain Solutions. Even the high performing students need improvement on this criterion.
2
Evidence from this assessment provides one indicator that students mastered Ordering and Expressing the Length of Objects.
186 Toni A. Sondergeld et al.

When reflecting on your instruction, ask yourself:

• “What remediation is needed?”

• “What modifications are needed in my instruction?”
• “Did I achieve my goals?”

Reflecting on the quality of the assessment tool is perhaps the least discussed in
the literature but is imperative to improving our assessments in terms of validity
and reliability.
Questions to ask when reflecting on the quality of the tool include:

• “Does the data indicate that an item needs revisions?”

• “Was the assessment the appropriate difficulty level?”
• “Did the assessment yield the intended information or does the prompt or
task need revision?”
• “Was the rubric easy to apply when rating students’ products or are revisions
needed on the rating scale or descriptors?”
• “Did the students understand the directions?”
• “Was sufficient time provided to complete the assessment?”

Conclusions/Summary
STEM classroom curriculum and instructional strategies are becoming necessarily
interdisciplinary and more rigorous to align with real-world challenges. To success-
fully assess STEM learning, it must be done through the use of a comprehensive
assessment plan aligned with clearly defined learning objectives at various cognitive
levels, incorporating multiple types of assessments, and using data to inform instruc-
tional decision-making. The alignment and integration of a STEM assessment plan
will make the process of instruction significantly more fruitful and fulfilling. Using
the practical strategies provided in this chapter to develop new STEM assessments or
revise current STEM assessments will lead to more effective assessment practices that
produce results more representative of actual student ability while minimizing error.

Resources

Resources for Creating and Implementing Rubrics

1) Factors to consider in weighting the criteria: www.teachervision.com/teaching-
methods-and-management/rubrics/4525.html?detoured=1
2) Electronic tools for creating rubrics:
a. Rubistar: http://rubistar.4teachers.org
b. Google Forms:

 www.educatorstechnology.com/2013/10/this-is-how-to-create-
rubrics-using.html
 Data-Driven STEM Assessment 187

 https://docs.google.com/templates?type=forms&q=rubric&sort=
user&view=public
 www.googlegooru.com/tips-for-teachers-using-google-forms-as-
grading-rubrics/

Resource for Conducting an Item Analysis

1) Fulcher (2014) provides a free tool for conducting an item analysis at: http://
languagetesting.info/statistics/excel.html

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9
SOCIOTRANSFORMATIVE STEM
EDUCATION
Alberto J. Rodriguez

One of the most significant advances of cross-cultural education research is that

it has served to debunk the tedious, tired, and tried models of cultural assimila-
tion (Banks & McGee, 2004). The predominant assimilationist ‘melting pot’
model has been clearly shown to be a cracked pot from the onset, and more
researchers, educators, and policy makers seem to be more willing to recog-
nize that it is indeed in the celebration of our cultural diversity that our great-
est strength lays as a nation now and in the future. However, the impacts of
research findings in this field on teacher practice, student learning, and policy
have been minimal primarily due to the disconnection between cross-cultural
education research and research on learning. In other words, the bulk of research
on cross-cultural education has focused on the affective domain and not on how
culturally/socially relevant teaching, curriculum, and/or policies may impact stu-
dents’ learning. While this work is indeed important, it is astonishing to see the
number of studies that focused on deficit models (i.e., what the teachers, parents,
students, and/or administrators are not doing or lacking), as well as the num-
ber of studies that focused on increasing engagement (participation) and posi-
tive attitudes (Banks & McGee, 2004). What we need then is a more systemic
approach by which the what (curriculum), how (pedagogy), and for whom (stu-
dents) are studied in harmony with who teachers are and the specific contexts of
their work. We have learned so much in the last five decades about the factors
that obstruct and/or facilitate teachers’ work and their students’ learning, yet we
continue to see significant gaps in academic achievement and engagement of
culturally and linguistically diverse students. Now that we have new standards
in science education calling for more cognitively challenging engagement and
integration across science, engineering, technology, and mathematics education,
we must take steps to better enact what we already know, and bring these ‘pieces
190 Alberto J. Rodriguez

of the puzzle’ together which have been generated from the research on cross-
cultural education and learning separately.
In this chapter, I hope to contribute to this process by first providing some
highlights about what we know regarding some of the key institutional and
sociocultural factors affecting the equitable access and success of diverse students.
This is followed by a brief description of sociotransformative constructivism
(sTc) as an alternative theoretical framework that merges cross-cultural education
(as a theory of equity and social justice) with social constructivism (as a theory
of learning). Finally, an example is provided to illustrate how STEM education
can be enacted through sTc. Regardless of the approach we may decide to use,
we must recognize that business as usual is unacceptable to meet the learning
needs of an increasing culturally and linguistically diverse student population.
We need to collaboratively develop a new sense of direction—a compass—to
guide our efforts, and these efforts need to be informed from promising educa-
tional research.

Sociocultural and Institutional Factors Affecting Diverse

Students’ Engagement and Achievement
It has been well established that there are many institutional and sociocultural
factors that obstruct culturally diverse students’ access and success in our schools.
In a 2004 monograph, Turning Despondency into Hope: Charting New Paths to
Improve Students’ Achievement and Participation in Science Education (Rodriguez,
2004), I describe in detail many of these factors. Sadly, the same issues still nega-
tively impact students and the professional lives of teachers today in spite of all
the advances we have made in educational research. In the last 50 years, we have
accumulated a great deal of research and generated many insights for what needs
to be done to enhance teacher preparation and increase students’ engagement
and achievement. We also know that when there is political will, strong and sup-
portive leadership, and a collaborative environment focused on student success,
even schools with limited resources begin to show significant progress. Due to
space limitations, I will only highlight some of the institutional and sociocul-
tural factors that influence student achievement and provide some suggestions
for addressing them.

Institutional Factors

Standardized Testing
There is no question that the punitive accountability of the No Child Left Behind
policy is a factor aggravating the educational opportunities of all students and
driving the professional lives of teachers. This is evident in the fact that sci-
ence and social studies are often pushed aside in elementary schools to make
 Sociotransformative STEM Education 191

more time for drill preparation before mandated language arts and mathematics
testing. This damaging trend is having a reprehensible impact on the future of
science education in the U.S. as thousands of students are denied access to the
joy of learning science and to better their understanding of the natural world
(Rodriguez, 2010a). While the emphasis on standardized testing over learning
for understanding is not going away any time soon, some schools have shifted
their cultures to focus on students’ needs first, and not on tests. Through this
approach, these schools have sought to focus on providing support to students
and their parents and on teacher professional collaboration. The report, Why
Some Schools with Latino/a Children Beat the Odds and Others Don’t (Waits et al.,
2006), is one of several studies that have been published in recent years—all with
similar findings. Success can be found if we seek to apply what we already know
from educational research, and if we allow teachers to apply what they learned
in their professional programs with a focus on students and not on teaching to
the test.

Class Sizes and Access to Equipment and Materials

There have been many reports calling for a reduction of class sizes, especially at
the elementary school level, but these essential calls for reform go unheeded. For
example, almost three decades ago, The National Commission on Teaching and
America’s Future (1996) proposed radical restructuring of our schools to increase
the number of teachers, reduce the average class size, reduce the number of
other staff, and increase planning time for teachers. It is unfortunate that signifi-
cant recommendations for enhancing students’ learning and enriching teachers’
professional lives are only taken up by other countries, but not here. When we
observe what other countries like Finland, which outperforms the U.S. in stu-
dent achievement, is doing, we find that they are essentially enacting what many
teacher education researchers have been proposing for years.
Now, with the advent of the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) (NRC,
2012), and the emphasis on scientific and engineering practices, the lack of
equipment and materials to carry out the kinds of hands-on engineering activi-
ties being expected, exacerbate the issue of large class sizes. Furthermore, Weiss
et al. (2001) conducted a national survey with approximately 6,000 teachers,
and they found that most teachers saw the lack of appropriate resources and
equipment as serious issues inf luencing the teaching of science and mathemat-
ics. In fact,

inadequate funds for purchasing equipment and supplies was labeled as a

serious problem by 25–35% of the respondents [teaching at the elementary,
middle and high school levels], inadequate facilities by 20–28%, and lack
of materials for individualized instruction by 16–27%.
(p. 101)
192 Alberto J. Rodriguez

Most teachers also stated that they did not have time to plan and/or discuss issues
related to the teaching of science and mathematics. In an extensive critique of
the NGSS, I argued that these new set of standards will fail to have the kind of
impact expected unless explicit arguments are included for securing appropriate
funding for professional development, equipment and materials, and for address-
ing issues of equity and diversity more consistently (Rodriguez, in press).

Sociocultural Factors

Parent Involvement
Even though parent involvement in their children’s education has been associated
with increased student achievement (Hill & Tyson, 2009), there are very few stud-
ies that focus on increasing parent involvement in science education. We are con-
ducting a review of significant reports and metastudies in order to identify ‘what
works’ and draw common strategies that could be applied and further investigated
in the science classroom context. So far, it has been interesting to realize that
taken-for-granted assumptions about what constitutes effective parent involvement
must be dispelled. For example, traditional forms of parent involvement, such as
participating in school activities, or assisting with homework, do not have as large
an impact on student achievement as just simply parents having high aspirations
for their children. That is, when parents make it explicit to their children that they
wish them to do well and to stay in school, this had a more significant impact on
student achievement (Rodriguez, Collins-Parks, & Garza, 2013). Similarly, it has
been consistently shown that peers and siblings play a significant and positive role
on academic achievement. Horn (1998) conducted a comprehensive analysis using
data from the National Education Longitudinal Study, which originally involved the
participation of 25,000 eighth-graders. At-risk students whose peers expressed a
strong interest in learning activities had 70 percent higher odds of pursuing higher
education in four-year colleges and almost 2.5 times the odds of enrolling in any
post-secondary institutions. In addition, students at risk who reported that their
friends planned to attend college had six times higher odds of doing the same.
There are several other strategies for increasing parent involvement, and sub-
sequently, student achievement that could be easily transferred to STEM educa-
tion contexts. What we need then is the political will to start enacting insights
drawn from educational research in general, and further investigate what works
in STEM education contexts specifically.

Second Language Learners

The cultural and linguistic diversity of the U.S. continues to increase dramati-
cally. The U.S. Census Bureau (2012) projects that the Anglo student population
will become a minority as early as 2022. Some school districts are realizing that
 Sociotransformative STEM Education 193

the cultural and linguistic makeup of their schools can also change very rapidly as
families seek better employment opportunities in non-urban areas as well. More
than ever, teachers face challenging demands—the pressure of standardized test-
ing, new sets of standards with a focus on engineering and scientific practices,
and continuing low material and professional support for meeting the needs of an
increasing language learners’ population. On the bright side, a growing body of
research highlights various pedagogical strategies that have a significant impact
on English Language Learners’ (ELLs) achievement and engagement. While class
sizes, standardized testing, and lack of professional development and material
support are major institutional factors that must be addressed as discussed above,
some of these pedagogical strategies provide windows of success for teachers and
students. Crowther (2010) and others have published comprehensive reviews of
the literature on strategies that work for conducting inquiry-based science with
ELLs that could be transferred to STEM education contexts. Buxton and Lee
(2014) reviewed various studies that showed that at the core of increased achieve-
ment and participation of ELLs was higher teacher expectations, responsive sup-
port, and using the students’ cultural backgrounds as resources in the classroom.
In other words, instead of using a deficit approach to work with ELLs, Buxton
and Lee (2014) found that “learning to recognize and value diverse views of the
natural world can simultaneously promote academic achievement and strengthen
[ELLs’] cultural and linguistic identities” (p. 208).
Another important myth that must be dismissed when working with ELLs is
the notion that they must develop specific language skills in English before being
exposed to more challenging science instruction. Buxton and Lee found several
studies that showed that a focus on hands-on and minds-on instruction with an
emphasis on academic and language literacy development in English benefits
ELLs. My own research in culturally diverse classrooms confirms this (Rodri-
guez, 2010b), and we also found that the same hands-on, minds-on inquiry-based
activities increased engagement and scientific discourse in the classroom for all
students. Students even learned pedagogical discourse, as we were surprised to
learn during the focus group interviews that they tended to accurately name the
pedagogical strategies used when describing what they found most useful and
engaging (e.g., concept mapping; predict, observe, and explain; problem-solving
scenarios, and so on).

Teacher Resistance to Pedagogical and Ideological Change

Two major factors influencing any progress we might eventually make on STEM
education in the U.S. remain seldom acknowledged—teacher resistance to ped-
agogical change and resistance to ideological change (Rodriguez & Kitchen,
2005). Resistance to ideological change has to do with an individual’s inability
to change his/her beliefs and values systems in response to specific social con-
texts. For example, some pre- and in-service teachers believe in a kind of ‘rugged
194 Alberto J. Rodriguez

individualism’ that has worked well for them and their families as members of the
predominant culture. Through this ideological lens, they believe that if students
from diverse backgrounds spoke English only, ‘worked hard enough,’ or had ‘car-
ing parents,’ they would do well in school (Rodriguez, 1998). This is just one
example of many, but it is enough to appreciate that a teacher could have the best
preparation in learning theory, content, and pedagogy, but if he or she has not
been well prepared to be a more culturally inclusive, respectful, and responsive
teacher, this individual would likely not be able to establish a productive profes-
sional relationship with students and their parents. The other side of this coin is
resistance to pedagogical change. This is defined as the resistance to changing
one’s perceptions of what constitutes being an effective teacher in today’s schools
(Rodriguez & Kitchen, 2005). Thus, a pre-service teacher, who has mainly been
exposed to traditional and transmissive pedagogy for 12–16 years and then is
exposed to student-centered, hands-on, culturally relevant pedagogy for 15 weeks
in a science methods course, while observing regular teachers implement trans-
missive approaches during student teaching, is most likely to end up mimicking
what appears to be ‘the safest practices.’ I have observed this pattern throughout
my career as a teacher educator and researcher in all the universities where I have
taught. While resistance to pedagogical change may be by choice (e.g. seeking
not to antagonize whatever relevant practice might exist in a particular school)
or lack of understanding and practice (e.g. fear of losing control of students dur-
ing hands-on activities), in any case, one cannot blame novice teachers. We must
instead ask teacher educators, policy makers, and school district administrators
why we are not using what we have learned from over five decades of research?
Why are we still preparing teachers in contradictory contexts? That is, what they
learn in methods courses is not what they observe during student teaching, and
it is likely not what they will be able to implement once they graduate. If we are
truly interested in having an impact on teachers’ practice, on school administra-
tors, and on policy makers, as well as in making the general public more aware of
the importance of culturally and socially relevant teaching and learning, we must
conduct more studies that more critically and purposely connect insights gathered
from cross-cultural education with those gathered from research guided by social
constructivism. Findings from these types of projects may help us develop a col-
lective sense of direction for establishing meaningful change at multiple levels.
Toward this end, next I describe an alternative framework, sociotransformative
constructivism, that I have found useful in guiding my work with teachers and
their students in culturally diverse contexts.

Moving Toward Sociotransformative STEM Education

Sociotransformative constructivism (sTc) is a theoretical framework that merges
social constructivism (as a theory of learning), with cross-cultural education (as
a theory of social justice) (Rodriguez, 1998, 2008). While findings from these
 Sociotransformative STEM Education 195

two fields of inquiry continue to be presented as separate and disconnected,

as discussed above, sTc argues that the individual’s cultural, social, historical,
and academic locations cannot be separated from the what (curriculum), how
(pedagogy), why (policies), for whom (students), and by who (teachers). It is this
artificial disconnect amongst the individual, context, teacher, curriculum, and
policies that generates one of the principal factors perpetuating the achievement
gap and the lack of impact of research on teachers’ practice and on students’
learning.
According to sTc, learning to teach for diversity and for understanding can be
accomplished by enacting four interconnected components: The dialogic con-
versation, authentic activity, metacognition, and reflexivity. Due to space con-
straints, these terms will only be explained briefly. The dialogic conversation
uses Bakhtin’s (1986) notions of speech genre. This involves engaging in a deeper
kind of dialogic exchange through which the goal is to understand not only
what is being said, but also the reasons (emotional tone, ideological and concep-
tual positions) the speaker chooses to use in a specific context. Thus, developing
trust amongst teachers and students is paramount to establishing a productive
learning community in which students’ identities and cultural experiences are
valued. The next component of sTc is authentic activity. Just as the name implies,
this aspect involves hands-on, minds-on activities that are also socioculturally
relevant and tied to the everyday life of the learner. The third element is meta-
cognition. This term is defined as the learner’s awareness and control of how he
or she learns (Idol & Jones, 1991). Thus, metacognition can be used as a powerful
tool to encourage learners to become more reflective about each other’s preferred
learning patterns, and how these interact in preventing or assisting in learning
new concepts. The final element, reflexivity, involves becoming critically aware
of how one’s own cultural background, socio-economic status, belief systems,
values, education, and skills influence what we consider important to teach/learn.
Through reflexivity, one becomes more aware of how issues of power determine
who has access to education and to better opportunities in life, and the role each
one of us plays in enriching a pluralist society. This aspect of sTc is particularly
useful in today’s schools because learners are also urged to reflect on the social
and cultural relevance of what they are being asked to consume and/or produce
as knowledge, as well as the role students could play in advancing knowledge
(Calabrese Barton, 2003).
sTc has been used successfully in various projects involving grades 4–12 teach-
ers and their students (Rodriguez, 2002, 2008, 2010a), and a teacher practice
observation protocol is being developed that should help scale up teacher profes-
sional development projects using the sTc framework. While sTc is not being
suggested as ‘a theory of everything,’ this alternative approach illustrates how
social constructivism and cross-cultural education could be merged purposely
and critically to teach for understanding and for diversity. Given the current
interest for a more integrated curriculum and the emphasis on STEM education
196 Alberto J. Rodriguez

as required by the NGSS, sTc might provide an effective vehicle for making
STEM education more culturally and socially relevant. Thus, we could define
sociotransformative STEM education as the teaching of science and/or math-
ematics with the integration of the other two disciplines (technology and engi-
neering) in a way that makes content knowledge culturally and socially relevant
for all students. By using this approach, students are exposed to real-world appli-
cations of technology and scientific tools to carry out meaningful problem-based
activities. These activities could have a local, national, or global focus, but they
will always be firmly grounded on students’ interests and sociocultural contexts.
The next section provides a brief description of how a popular activity can be
altered to enact sociotransformative STEM education. The various elements of
sTc are explained in (parentheses).

Making Ice Cream to Teach Sociotransformative STEM Education

Ice cream making is a popular activity carried out in classrooms at any level;
however, this hands-on activity is usually done minds-off and with little con-
nection to understanding STEM content. Below, I describe how this activity can
be done to integrate sociotransformative STEM education.
Before instruction, the teacher organizes the classroom into three learning
centers: Science and Mathematics, Engineering and Technology, and Analysis
and Write-Up. The number of centers is dependent on the size of the class, and
students will rotate to each center. It would be ideal for students to complete the
science and math center first, but the reality of most schools will prevent this
from happening due to limited access to lab equipment and supplies. Therefore,
we have found that learning centers are a powerful pedagogical strategy for
maximizing resources and keeping students engaged.
Next, students are organized in teams of three according to mixed ability,
cultural diversity, and same sex (note that gender is different than sex. Sex is a
biological construct (male, female, or both), whereas gender is a social construct
and represented in multiple ways). Same-sex grouping is an excellent way to
encourage girls to get more involved in science and manipulate equipment. Also,
by placing girls who are more assertive with other girls who are not, creates
opportunities for intergroup modeling. [Reflexivity: paying attention to issues of
equity and diversity in your specific context.]
Begin the activity with a POE (Predict, Observe, and Explain) to activate
students’ curiosity and prior knowledge. Ask the students to discuss in their
teams what would happen when half a cup of milk, one half teaspoon of vanilla,
and one tablespoon of sugar are added into a pint-size zip-lock bag (do not actu-
ally add the ingredients yet—allow students to visualize). Similarly, ask students
what would happen when you add two cups of ice and 6 tablespoons of salt into
a one-gallon zip-lock bag. After students make some predictions, ask what will
happen to the milk, sugar, and vanilla mixture when the pint-size bag is added
 Sociotransformative STEM Education 197

to the gallon-size bag (containing the ice and salt mixture). Students must write
their predictions on their POE sheet including arguments to support their pre-
dictions. Encourage students to be MetaThinkers and remind them to look at a
previously made poster on the wall that has the following questions: How did you
come up with that idea? Tell me more about what you were thinking. Show me what you
mean. [Metacognition: By reminding students about the MetaThinkers poster, the
teachers are encouraging students to reflect on how they and their partners learn,
and how they come up with ideas and arguments to support their thinking. Dia-
logic Conversation: By organizing students in mixed ability, ethnicity, and same
sex, the teacher is promoting opportunities for students and the teachers to share
their cultural experiences and learn more than just STEM content. For example,
a student from the east coast studying in southern California may share that he
has seen salt trucks come out during heavy snowfalls and that salt melts the ice.
Other students from rural areas may share that they have seen old-fashioned ice
cream makers at county fairs, and so on. Allowing students to bring their prior
knowledge and experiences in a supportive environment of trust enables produc-
tive dialogic conversations.]
After listening to the students’ predictions and arguments, allow students to
conduct the activity making sure at least one person will be in charge of record-
ing observations. If the school has access to probeware, such as the Vernier CBL
units and temperature probes (www.vernier.com), this technology is an excel-
lent way to demonstrate in real time and graphically the dramatic changes in
temperature as salt is added to the ice, and as the smaller bag with the vanilla,
sugar, and milk mixture is placed in the large bag. The teacher should work
with one group of students using either regular thermometers and plotting the
change in temperature or with the Vernier probes. This data will be used for
discussion later. For this example, let’s assume that we are using Vernier probes
and that one temperature probe was placed inside the milk mixture and the
other was placed in the ice/salt mixture. By connecting the CBL unit to a
laptop and projecting the changes in temperature for the whole class to see,
students are often shocked to discover how dramatically the temperatures drop
in both bags, but a lot more in the ice/salt mixture. This activity also cre-
ates a discrepant event—a phenomenon that is opposite to what is commonly
known or accepted. In other words, the teacher should ask why it is that the
temperature of the ice/salt mixture is below freezing point, yet it has turned
into a liquid. How is it possible that it is so cold that the milk mixture turned
into a solid (ice cream), yet the ice/salt mixture is a liquid? These questions and
the graph showing the changes in temperature on the screen generate a lot of
debate. [Authentic Activity: Students are carrying out an authentic inquiry activ-
ity similar to the work that scientists do. While they were following a given
procedure at first (for making ice cream), now they have generated their own
questions for investigating further and seeking to gather evidence to support
their hypothesis.]
198 Alberto J. Rodriguez

The teacher should print a copy of the graph created with Vernier probes (or
with the regular thermometers) for each group, and allow students to discuss
their observations (while they enjoy their ice cream). Students in the Science and
Mathematics Center will be required to come up with a hypothesis to explain
what they saw and prove it by conducting their own experiment. For example,
we have found that some children think that the fat in the milk has something
to do with this phenomenon. Others believe that the salt makes the ice ‘colder,’
so they design experiments that remove the salt variable. It is important to note
here that by this point students are being encouraged to use scientific discourse.
New terms such as mixtures, variables, hypothesis, chemical change, freezing
point, and physical change can now be explained ‘in use.’ In other words, using
Dewey’s approach that we learn best by doing, students can better appreciate
what these important terms mean through direct experiences. Also, at this junc-
ture, the teacher should point to a large poster of a Word Wall that includes
key terms in English and Spanish. The Word Wall is a pedagogical strategy
that ELLs find very useful. In our project classrooms, students become used to
writing key terms and definitions in their science journals without being told to
do so. [Authentic Activity, Dialogic Conversation, Reflexivity.] Most of the teachers
with whom we work explain that they always introduce all the key terms and
concepts first before doing an activity. They feel that students must have a ‘foun-
dation’ first before they can understand what is expected of them. We argued
that this is a transmissive approach that assumes students come with no prior
knowledge or experiences into the classroom. Also, we ask our participating
teachers to consider how this traditional approach tends to make science really
boring and detached from students’ lives. By the time teachers finish lectur-
ing and asking students to write down definitions, students are so uninterested
that it becomes difficult to capture their interest again. We have found that
the approach described herein keeps students excited and engaged in scientific
discourse.
In the Science and Mathematics Center, students are also being encouraged
to integrate mathematics computation and concepts by asking them to be aware
of the units of measurement. Since the U.S. is the only country in the world
that still uses the Imperial System of Measurement, and all children who might
come from different countries will know only metric, the activity includes a
requirement to use measurements only in the system the student knows least. In
addition, by asking students to closely examine and interpret the graph created,
students use higher-order thinking, and apply these insights for developing their
hypothesis and arguments. Again, students are encouraged to be MetaThinkers
throughout the whole process so that they can better understand how they and
their peers construct knowledge. [Metacognition, Authentic Activity.]
Students are allowed to test their hypothesis by carrying out their own exper-
iments. The teacher can have groups of students rotate to the center that has the
Vernier probes or thermometers, depending on what is available. In our projects,
 Sociotransformative STEM Education 199

elementary to high school students quickly become quite proficient in the use
of the Vernier probeware and require very little assistance (Rodriguez, 2008).
In the Engineering and Technology Center, students are required to invent an
ice cream-making device with the following constraints: (1) the device must be
environmentally friendly—no gas or electricity power; (2) no hard hand crank-
ing like the old-fashioned ice cream machines and students cannot allow their
hands to get cold like in the previous activity; (3) the device must produce enough
ice cream for three people (1/2 cup or 120 ml for each); and (4) the device must
be cost effective, i.e. yield a profit so that the proceeds could be donated to the
Heifer International Project for Ending Hunger and Poverty (www.heifer.org).
The top three devices which best meet the given criteria will be selected for a
school-wide fundraiser. Given the space constraints, the details of this activity
cannot be described here. However, one possible example is students modifying
a bicycle so that the back wheel can be used to rotate a large coffee can. Inside
this coffee can, a smaller coffee can (containing the milk, vanilla, and sugar
mixture) is placed and the ice and salt is poured around it. The challenge students
might face is deciding whether the large can should be attached horizontally or
vertically to the wheel and what kind of gears must be designed to meet the job.
This is an excellent opportunity to work with a local business specializing in gear
manufacturing (e.g. www.oerlikon.com/fairfield/en).
Students are of course required to first draw their design and consider all
possible options. They are urged to involve their parents and siblings in their
projects, as well as members of the business community to assist in the fundrais-
ing event. [All elements of sTc are included in this center, but it is important
to highlight metacognition and reflexivity here. Students are again asked to
be MetaThinkers and carefully listen and probe each other’s thinking to better
understand how they individually and collectively construct new knowledge.
In addition, through reflexivity, students are made aware of their privileged
position; that is, essentially ‘playing’ with a source of food we often taken for
granted. By engaging in a dialogic conversation and helping students understand
that many people in the U.S. (46 million or one in every six) live in poverty, the
class could discuss ways to help address this issue locally and/or globally. One
approach is contributing to the Heifer International Project through the proposed
fundraising activity. The goal is to help students recognize that they have agency
and power to effect positive social change individually and/or collectively. It is
important to note that the proposed engineering and fundraising projects are
real. Too many ‘engineering’ activities involve pretend projects (build a bridge)
in artificial contexts (e.g. for the poor people in X-country). These approaches
trivialize the Other’s real struggles, and fail to acknowledge their own efforts to
effect change for themselves. In addition, ‘pretend projects’ do nothing to help
students recognize and develop their potential as agents of change.]
In terms of making this activity more culturally inclusive and relevant, I have
already mentioned how the groups were organized, how the STEM content
200 Alberto J. Rodriguez

was set up to be more hands-on, minds-on and inquiry-based, and how stu-
dents’ choices and voices were included as they selected their own experiments
and engineering designs. In addition, this activity can be made more culturally
inclusive by the teacher adding a brief interactive discussion on the history of ice
cream while introducing the learning centers component of the activity. This
is also an excellent place to further contextualize the activity and use students’
prior knowledge and cultural experiences. For example, the teacher could ask
what experiences students have with ice and ice cream making. The teacher
could show a picture of Nancy Johnson, a woman from New York who first
invented the ice cream machine in 1843, and whose design is still used in modern
versions today. There are several websites with (often conflicting) information
about the history of ice cream that could be shared with students. They could
also be encouraged to investigate these websites and decide which are the most
reliable sources and why. Finally, the Analysis and Write-Up Center is simply a
space where students can rotate to continue investigating answers to their ques-
tions and figuring out where to gather the resources they need to test their
engineering design.
In terms of the STEM content knowledge covered during the activity, the
reader should note that main concepts are not ‘lectured’ to students, but experi-
enced in use. After the students have tested their experiments, the teacher could
explain that the freezing point depression of water is due to the salt. This means
that the physical property of water to always freeze at 32 °F/0 °C no longer
applies because it is not just water anymore (it is a mixture of salt and water). If
students are high school students, the teacher could explain the thermodynamics
of water molecules and how they interact with the sodium and chlorine ions to
lower the freezing point of water. Teachers could also choose to discuss the states
of matter and/or the nature of science with this activity. Regarding mathematics
concepts and skills, students graph and interpret data, conduct unit conversions,
make estimates and various other computations. The engineering process is
enacted with their design and construction project, technology is also integrated
with the Vernier probes to gather and interpret data. In addition, technology is
created to make their devices work (like the gears or connector needed to attach
the coffee can to the bicycle wheel). In short, this activity allows teachers to stress
various STEM concepts according to their desired learning objectives.

Conclusion
In this chapter, I highlighted some of the key institutional and sociocultural fac-
tors that continue to obstruct equal opportunities for the access and success of
culturally diverse students. I also pointed out that in the last 50 years we have
gathered a great deal of insights from educational research that remains unheeded
by policy makers and administrators. While politics and political slogans seem
to drive national educational policies, researchers are partially to blame as we
 Sociotransformative STEM Education 201

continue to mainly write and publish our work for own community of practice
and not for those on whom we base our work—teachers and students.
Regardless of what framework(s) we might end up choosing to guide edu-
cational research, teaching, curriculum, and/or policy, one fact is certain: We
cannot afford to continue responding to pervasive inequalities in our increas-
ingly culturally diverse schools with well-intended policies, political slogans,
or with research that has no impact on teaching practice or on student learn-
ing. It is imperative that we find our way out of this dangerous quagmire—we
need a sense of collective direction, we need a compass. Sociotransformative
STEM Education is one possible framework amongst others that may provide us
with a common sense of purpose to systematically integrate cross-cultural edu-
cation with social constructivism. In this way, we could simultaneously tackle
the achievement gap and rekindle students’ excitement about STEM education
connected to their everyday lives.

References
Bakhtin, M.M. (1986). In C. Emerson & M. Holquist (Eds.), Speech genres and other late
essays. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
Banks, J., & McGee, C. (2004). Handbook of research on multicultural education. San Fran-
cisco, CA: Wiley & Sons.
Buxton, C., & Lee, O. (2014). English language learners in science education. In N.
Lederman & S. Abell (Eds.), Handbook of research on science teaching (pp. 204–222)
(Vol. 2). New York: Taylor & Francis.
Calabrese Barton, A. (2003). Teaching science for social justice. New York: Teachers College
Press.
Crowther, D.T. (2010). Science for English language learners: Research and applications
for teacher educators. In A.J. Rodriguez (Ed.), Science education as a pathway to teaching
language literacy (pp. 163–182). Rotterdam, Netherlands: SENSE Publishing.
Hill, N.E., & Tyson, D.F. (2009). Parental involvement in middle school: A meta-analytic
assessment of the strategies that promote achievement, Developmental Psychology, 45(3),
740–763.
Horn, L. (1998). Confronting the odds: Students at risk and the pipeline to higher education.
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Associates.
The National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future (1996). What matters most:
Teaching for America’s future. New York: Author. (www.nctaf.org).
National Research Council (NRC) (2012). A framework for K-12 science education. Wash-
ington, DC: National Academies Press.
Rodriguez, A.J. (1998). Strategies for counterresistance: Toward sociotransformative con-
structivism and learning to teach science for diversity and for understanding, Journal
of Research in Science Teaching, 35(6), 589–622.
Rodriguez, A.J. (2002). Using sociotransformative constructivism to teach for under-
standing in diverse classrooms: A beginning teacher’s journey, American Educational
Research Journal, 39(4), 1017–1045.
202 Alberto J. Rodriguez

Rodriguez, A.J. (2004). Turning despondency into hope: Charting new paths to improve
students’ achievement and participation in science education. Southeast Eisenhower
Regional Consortium for Mathematics and Science Education @ SERVE. Tallahassee,
Fl. www.serve.org/Eisenhower
Rodriguez, A.J. (2008). The multiple faces of agency: Innovative strategies for effecting change in
urban school contexts. Rotterdam, Netherlands: SENSE Publishing.
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and student learning, Cultural Studies of Science Education, 5, 923–940.
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dam, Netherlands: SENSE Publishing.
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sity? A critique of the Next Generation Science Standards. Journal of Research in Science
Teaching.
Rodriguez, A.J., Collins-Parks, T., & Garza, J. (2013). Interpreting research on parent
involvement and connecting it to the science classroom, Theory into Practice, 52(1),
51–58.
Rodriguez, A.J., & Kitchen, R. (2005). Preparing prospective mathematics and science teachers
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rence Erlbaum Associates.
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Government Printing Office.
Waits, M.J., Campbell, H.E., Gau, R., Jacobs, E., Rex, T., & Hess, R. (2006). Why some
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Arizona State University
Weiss, I.R., Banilower, E.R., McMahon, K.C., & Smith, P.S. (2001). Report of the 2000
national survey of science and mathematics education. Chapel Hill, NC: Horizon Research, Inc.
10
EFFECTIVE STEM PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
Carla C. Johnson and Toni A. Sondergeld

Need for Professional Development to Change Practice

As the knowledge base on educational reform and improving teacher quality has
grown over the past decade (e.g., Darling-Hammond, 2010; Desimone, 2009;
Loucks-Horsley, Love, Stiles, Mundry, & Hewson, 2007; Putnam & Borko, 1997), it
has become more evident that traditional professional development formats do not
result in sustained improvement of teacher practice and/or student learning. Fortu-
nately, we know a great deal about what types of professional development experi-
ences translate into changes in teacher practice that are linked to growth in student
learning of STEM content and skills. Desimone (2009) conducted an extensive
review of published research in this area and developed a Core Conceptual Frame-
work for Professional Development that included five key components that were
consistently connected to programs that produced results in either teacher or student
outcomes. The Core Conceptual Framework for Professional Development requires
collective participation, active learning, coherence with policy, extended duration,
and a focus on learning new skills in the context of building content knowledge.
Each of the five components will be described in detail in the following paragraphs.

Collective Participation
The likelihood of teacher participation in professional development resulting in
change in teacher practice is increased when more than one teacher from any
given school is included in the opportunity (e.g., Desimone, Porter, Garet, Yoon, &
Birman, 2002; Johnson, Kahle, & Fargo, 2007). Further, collective participation also
improves the sustainability of change in teacher practice (e.g., Johnson, Fargo, &
Kahle, 2010). Teacher professional development (PD) is very constructivist in
nature, as teachers attend workshops with other teachers and engage in discourse
204 Carla C. Johnson and Toni A. Sondergeld

about their practice as they consider new strategies and grow their understanding
of content and of their own students. Unfortunately, less effort is placed on keep-
ing participants connected following the PD and participants devote their time to
implementing new practice and have little availability to reach out to those outside
of their school/district.
Recently, more PD programs have purposefully required teams of teachers to
participate and the results have indicated that informal and formal professional
learning communities are established. With teams of teachers from the same
district or building participating, teachers have an in-house support system for
implementing what are often challenging changes to their pedagogy. Collective
participation ensures more buy-in to the reform on the school level and provides
much-needed support to improve the odds of achieving intended outcomes for
teachers and students of the STEM PD program. Collective participation is also a
key component of PD focused on achieving integrated STEM instruction. Teams
of teachers should be provided time to plan together, as well as learning together
and reflecting on implementation of integrated STEM curriculum (such as the
STEM Road Map). Therefore, collective participation during PD and also dur-
ing school planning time is a critical component for adoption of the STEM Road
Map curriculum.

Active Learning
Active learning experiences within PD have been strongly linked to positive
teacher outcomes (Banilower & Shimkus, 2004; Darling-Hammond, 1997; John-
son & Fargo, 2010; Johnson, 2011). Moving from a teacher-centered classroom
toward implementing PBL and integrated STEM requires opportunities for teach-
ers to experience the curriculum they will deliver and acquire the new content
and skills in the context of the learner. Therefore, traditional PD formats of ‘sit and
get’ focus is not adequate and in many cases, these types of PD result in little to
no change in practice. Active learning should comprise at least 80 percent of the
duration of the PD program. The PD facilitators should model the use of skills as
they deliver new content to participants. Teachers should grapple with trying to
solve the same problems their students will be presented with and should also be
engaged in reflecting on how the new activities and/or curriculum might look in
their own classes and what types of accommodations will be necessary to meet the
needs of all learners. Next, participants should have opportunities to practice deliv-
ery of new instructional models and content with their peers in the PD setting.

Coherence
PD programs have the best chance of impact on teacher and student outcomes
when the goals of the PD program are aligned with policies at the school, district,
and state levels, as well as existing teacher beliefs regarding STEM. This is an area
 Effective STEM Professional Development 205

of challenge for some programs, as a focus on STEM or the teaching of science is

sometimes not a priority of a school and/or district due to increased high-stakes
testing pressures in the areas of mathematics and language arts (e.g., Fullan, 1993;
Johnson, 2013). However, for schools intending to adopt the STEM Road Map as
their curricular guide and tool for delivery of instruction, alignment should be a
non-issue. One challenge in the area of coherence may be existing teacher beliefs
regarding the integration of STEM across the curriculum, which is required for
STEM Road Map implementation. Schools/districts moving forward with the
STEM Road Map should spend some time in discussing the benefits of integra-
tion with teachers and provide support for teachers to learn and implement new
PBL pedagogy, as well as time to plan with other teachers.

Duration
We have learned a great deal regarding the duration of PD programs over the
past decade and now understand that for change in practice to take place, over
80 hours of PD must occur (e.g., Banilower, Heck, & Weiss, 2007; Cohen & Hill,
2001; Fullan, 1993; Guskey, 1994; Johnson & Fargo, 2010; Supovitz & Turner,
2001). Further, these contact hours should be spread across at least one academic
year of implementation to provide support for teachers as they are using the new
pedagogical content knowledge with their own students and reflecting on the
outcomes. Formats that have been used in many settings include five to ten days
of PD in the summer followed by monthly sessions on Saturdays or a released-
day from school. This allows the PD facilitator to provide just-in-time support
for teachers who may be struggling with implementation or may need to have
critical feedback from their peers on how things are working in their classrooms.
The duration of PD for teachers who are using the STEM Road Map curriculum
will also be essential to be delivered in this format to provide opportunities as
described above, but also to allow for teams of teachers to plan for delivery of the
various PBLs across the school year.

Content Knowledge
At the elementary and middle school levels, a focus on content knowledge within
PD has been fairly routine as most teachers in these grades do not have a bachelor’s
degree in the specific content area. Research has shown that the most effective
PD programs include new strategies taught within the context of the content that
will be delivered (e.g., Gonzalez, et al., 2004). The STEM Road Map will require
teachers to be familiar with some content (big ideas) from other disciplines in
order to engage in discourse with their students regarding their work on associ-
ated projects/problems. Therefore, PD focused on enabling teachers to implement
the STEM Road Map curriculum modules should have a clear and purposeful
focus on STEM content knowledge included in each grade level’s curriculum.
206 Carla C. Johnson and Toni A. Sondergeld

Further Support for the Components of Effective STEM

Professional Development
In addition to Desimone’s (2009) study, the Core Conceptual Framework for
Professional Development was examined in statewide implementations of STEM
PD programs funded through Race to the Top. The programs ranged from K-2
focus on mathematics, science and/or engineering, and literacy to elementary,
middle, and high school STEM focused PD. While specific content covered in
the PD varied, all programs were required to be developed with a focus on col-
lective participation, active learning, coherence with policy, extended duration,
and building content knowledge in order to be funded by the state initiative.
The overall findings revealed a positive impact overall for the state on enabling
teacher quality in STEM areas to be significantly improved as a result of par-
ticipation in the program (Johnson & Sondergeld, under review). More spe-
cifically, analysis of content knowledge assessments, surveys, and direct teacher
instructional observations data revealed that implementing the Core Conceptual
Framework for Professional Development in each of the STEM PD programs
led to significant increases in teacher content knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes
toward reformed-based STEM instruction, and implementation of reform-based
methods in the classroom across programs. Thus, regardless of the grade level
or content area focused on, the Core Conceptual Framework for Professional
Development demonstrated its effectiveness for promoting PD that improved
teacher quality.

Data-Driven Professional Development

When teachers are learning to implement new instructional practices learned
through PD, there is a need for regular and collaborative formative evaluation
(Guskey, 1997; Joyce & Showers, 2002). Formative evaluation means teachers,
administrators, and/or PD providers collaboratively examine standardized and
informal data sources to inform the direction and assess the effectiveness of PD
implementation. Data such as standardized test results, classroom pre-post assess-
ments, student and teacher surveys, and teacher observations should all be used
to inform decisions about PD.
Using data to drive decision-making in PD should not be linear in fashion.
Rather, it needs to be a cycle of inquiry used to provide information to PD devel-
opers and educators (The NEA Foundation for the Improvement of Education,
2003). This reflective cycle should be continuous and focus on questions such
as, “What are the most effective strategies for improving student learning?” and
“What are the instructional needs of my classroom?” (Hayes & Robnolt, 2010).
With these questions in mind, goals about classroom instruction and student
achievement can be collaboratively developed based on the data. To promote
this process of data-driven PD, time needs to be set aside for teachers and PD
 Effective STEM Professional Development 207

developers to meet and discuss data, goals, and the direction of PD. This also
means that PD developers must be flexible enough to modify PD content based
on student and teacher needs that become evident through this data-driven pro-
cess. Further, this process must be structured in such a way that teachers are
taught to collect, interpret, and use data, since this is not typically a skill teachers
learn in their traditional educational training.
Using a data-driven PD process allows teachers to take greater ownership
over their learning and implementation of the PD. When teachers are involved
in data-based discussions about the effectiveness of the PD in their classrooms,
they typically develop greater buy-in to the initiative. Resultantly, higher levels
of teacher buy-in have been shown to produce increased levels of implementa-
tion fidelity and greater chance of long-term initiative sustainability (Datnow &
Stringfield, 2000).

Creating Individual STEM Professional Development Plans

In today’s era of accountability, many states and districts require teachers to cre-
ate yearly Individual Professional Development Plans (IPDP) (e.g. Massachusetts,
New Jersey, Ohio, and Vermont). Oftentimes, these IPDPs are a component of
the state’s teacher evaluation system and templates for completing an IPDP are
frequently provided by states or school districts. Regardless of the state, IPDPs
serve as a tool to help teachers meet their professional learning needs with the
ultimate goal of improving student learning. Additionally, IPDPs need to be
aligned with state standards for teacher learning and continuous improvement,
and are typically evaluated for their effectiveness in providing teachers with the
skills needed to be effective in the classroom.
To develop a STEM IPDP, a five-step process should be undertaken: (1)
determine PD needs, (2) set goals, (3) identify resources, (4) develop timeline,
and (5) reflection. First, educators must self-assess to determine their PD needs.
Student data along with professional experiences should be used to drive this
stage. For instance, if a teacher notices her students are struggling in a particu-
lar area of the curriculum or realizes that due to content standard changes in
the state she will be teaching something new that she is not entirely confident
about, she might choose either of these areas to look for PD citing these reasons
as justification.
Once area(s) of needed PD are identified, specific goals related to the STEM
PD content should be set. These goals must also align with state PD standards,
and need to be measurable. One might think of a teacher’s STEM PD goal as
similar to a student learning target. With this in mind, a specific STEM PD
goal might be something like “Incorporate more integrated STEM project-based
learning into my classroom instruction.” This is measurable in that the teacher
can actually track if they do this or not by comparing what they did over the last
few years to after they receive integrated STEM PBL PD.
208 Carla C. Johnson and Toni A. Sondergeld

After specific PD goals are established, teachers need to identify where they
will be able to obtain the PD aligned with their goals and determine a timeline
for completion. Often school districts do not have the resources or expertise on
staff to enable delivery of individualized PD plans. Teachers should explore their
local universities and regional education centers as a source of potential profes-
sional growth opportunities. Also, with the increasing emphasis and focus on
STEM, many informal education agencies and business/industry partners have
sponsored workshops and learning experiences for teachers and students. As we
shared in this chapter, it is important to build a plan for your PD that includes
the key components of effective PD. Therefore, when you develop your plan you
should build a collection of experiences that are related that extend across the
academic year that include both short-term and long-term goals to be achieved
throughout the STEM PD.
Finally, teachers should be reflective of their STEM PD experiences since
their IPDP is most likely a component of their state’s teacher evaluation system.
STEM PD reflection should be a continuous process whereby teachers are exam-
ining their own confidence and beliefs about their new teaching content and
practices they are learning. It is also critical that teachers consider the impact of
their new STEM PD on their student learning as measured by classroom assess-
ments, standardized tests, and/or student attitudes toward doing STEM class-
work. Establishing a reflective feedback loop between STEM PD and teacher/
student outcomes allows school leaders to ensure educators are receiving the
tools needed to be successful in promoting student learning.

Planning for District Level STEM Professional Development

District level PD should be planned strategically with as much attention to indi-
vidualization for teachers as possible. It is clear that district level PD has histori-
cally focused on very general skills and strategies that all teachers are required
to attend. Unfortunately, this approach does not tend to the need for teachers
to continue to advance their individual pedagogical content expertise and most
who attend these types of sessions do not feel connected and likely do not receive
the intended benefit of the PD.
Schools that are planning to move toward implementing a grade-level program
or whole school STEM focus should approach PD for staff in a very collaborative
manner. First and foremost, teachers will need collaborative planning time beyond
any time that is provided within the PD to ensure success of implementation. This
is something that school leaders should consider and make necessary accommo-
dations for up front. Second, the PD should be structured to provide an interac-
tive overview of integrated STEM. Allow for teachers to participate in a STEM
learning environment and to discuss how they individually, and as a discipline,
fit within an integrated STEM context. Third, intensive PD on problem- and/
or project-based learning and engineering design thinking should be provided
to ensure all teachers are empowered to utilize this STEM pedagogy. A majority
 Effective STEM Professional Development 209

of the PD time should be focused on providing teacher teams facilitated time to

develop PBL topics and modules aligned with the context of the school—or to take
STEM Road Map modules and modify as necessary. Encourage teachers to imple-
ment at least two modules (four to five weeks) in the first year of the STEM effort.
Finally, district level PD should include a focus on measuring individual teacher
growth and the transformation of the learning environment. Encourage teach-
ers to engage in reflection on their practice and to use this as a way to iteratively
develop their own PD plans for the future.

References
Banilower, E.R., & Shimkus, E. (2004). Professional development observation study. Chapel
Hill, NC: Horizon Research.
Banilower, E.R., Heck, D.J., & Weiss, I.R. (2007). Can professional development make
the vision of the standards a reality? The impact of the National Science Foundation’s
Local Systemic Change Through Teacher Enhancement Initiative, Journal of Research
in Science Teaching, 44(3), 375–395.
Cohen, D.K. & Hill, H.C. (2001). Learning policy: When state education reform works. New
Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Darling-Hammond, L. (1997). Doing what matters most: Investing in quality teaching. New
York: National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). The flat world and education: How America’s commitment to
equity will determine our future. New York: Teachers College Press.
Datnow, A., & Stringfield, S. (2000). Working together for reliable school reform, Journal
of Education for Students Placed At Risk, 5(1), 183–204.
Desimone, L.M. (2009). Improving impact studies of teachers’ professional development:
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Desimone, L., Porter, A.C., Garet, M., Yoon, K.S., & Birman, B. (2002). Does pro-
fessional development change teachers’ instruction? Results from a three-year study,
Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 24(2), 81–112.
Fullan, M. (1993). Change forces: Probing the depth of educational reform. New York: Falmer.
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liams, T. (2004). Highlights from the Trend in International Mathematics and Science
Study (TIMSS) 2003. Washington, DC: National Center for Education and Statistics.
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mix of effective practices, Journal of Staff Development, 15(4), 42–50.
Guskey, T.R. (1997). Research needs to link professional development and student learn-
ing, Journal of Staff Development, 18, 36–40.
Hayes, L.L., & Robnolt, V.J. (2010). Data-driven professional development: The pro-
fessional development plan for a reading excellence act school, Reading Research and
Instruction, 46(2), 95–119.
Johnson, C.C. (2011). The road to culturally relevant science: Exploring how teachers
navigate change in pedagogy, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 48(2), 170–198.
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on science education reform, Journal of Science Teacher Education, 24(4), 693–715.
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Johnson, C.C., & Sondergeld, T. (under review). A statewide implementation of the criti-
cal features of professional development: Impact on teacher outcomes. The Journal of
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Joyce, B., & Showers, B. (2002). Student achievement through staff development (3rd ed.).
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Loucks-Horsley, S., Hewson, P.W., Love, N., & Stiles, K. (2007). Designing professional
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Putnam, R., & Borko, H. (1997). Teacher learning: Implications of new views of cogni-
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org/educatorindex.htm
11
EFFECTIVE PROGRAM
CHARACTERISTICS, START-UP,
AND ADVOCACY FOR STEM
Shaun Yoder, Susan Bodary, and Carla C. Johnson

The year 2007 was extraordinary for science, technology, engineering, and math-
ematics (STEM) education in Ohio. That year, the state’s elected officials made
an unprecedented commitment of more than $200 million in state funding to
support an array of cohesive STEM education policies, spanning the state’s pre-
K-20 education continuum (Ohio Business Alliance for Higher Education & the
Economy, 2007).
To understand how this major victory came about, we must look back to
2006, when STEM education in Ohio gained an unexpected champion. That
year, Nationwide Insurance, headquartered in Columbus, Ohio, surveyed its
36,000 employees to measure its future workforce needs. The results of the sur-
vey were shocking to then-CEO Jerry Jurgensen. It revealed that Nationwide’s
largest employment sector was neither insurance nor any other aspect of the
financial services industry. Instead, technology was its largest employment sec-
tor. The survey results—intended to help Nationwide plan for its future—came
on the heels of the company’s recent move to bring in a number of top-level
computer scientists from India because it could not find the needed talent in
Ohio (Kaplan, 2010).
The sobering survey results led Jurgensen to become a key voice in the cam-
paign for increased STEM education in Ohio’s schools. What followed was the
development of a powerful, multi-partner STEM-education coalition never
before seen in Ohio. With help from the Ohio Business Roundtable and Bat-
telle’s fledgling Ohio STEM Learning Network, Nationwide joined forces with
other Ohio-based businesses (e.g., Cincinnati Bell, GE Lighting, Marathon Petro-
leum, Diebold, etc.) and leaders from K-12, higher education, and philanthropy
to advocate for the prioritization of STEM education in the state’s upcoming
biennial budget. The coalition was by no means assured of success, however.
212 Shaun Yoder et al.

The state budget was being cobbled together in the midst of a crippling national
recession that dried up state revenue and was sure to result in across-the-board
budget cuts.
Despite the troubling economic environment, Ohio’s elected officials heeded
the call of the coalition and made STEM education a top priority. Of the $200 mil-
lion, they included funding to launch STEM schools and ‘Programs of Excellence’
($12.6 million), support students in STEM schools with state education aid ($2.9 mil-
lion), expand supplemental STEM programs ($3.5 million), increase the supply of
STEM teachers ($26.9 million), enhance STEM educator professional development
($9.3 million), attract undergraduates into STEM disciplines through scholarships
($100 million), and increase the supply of renowned STEM scientists and research-
ers across the state’s institutions of higher education ($50 million) (Kaplan 2010;
Ohio Business Alliance for Higher Education and the Economy 2007).
Today, Ohio’s 2008–2009 biennial budget serves as the exemplar for develop-
ing, informing, and advocating for STEM policies. It demonstrates the impor-
tance of focused coalitions of diverse partners from K-12, higher education,
business, philanthropy, and community joining hands to develop policy and
advocate for the funding and implementation of that policy. The Ohio Gen-
eral Assembly passed the budget by a near-unanimous margin in a historically
challenging fiscal environment. Nearly all members of the elected body viewed
STEM as an investment worth making. This was a clear testament to the advo-
cacy work pursued by partners.
Ohio represents just one success story in which key partners came together
to create an aligned set of STEM policies and advocate in support of them.
Other states have pursued similar approaches and have garnered similar results.
From Texas to Tennessee, partners have united to develop, inform, and advo-
cate for STEM education policies. Those same partners, in many cases, have
stayed the course to ensure implementation, refinement, and follow-through
at the local, regional, state, and national levels. And, while it may seem like
common sense, the process of implementing, refining, following through, and
sustaining a connected set of STEM policies stands as one of today’s greatest
innovations. Indeed, sticking to the long-term implementation of an identi-
fied set of policies is rare in education—where the field has become numb to
revolving policies.
In this chapter, we explore why cohesive STEM education and talent policies
are essential in today’s fiercely competitive global society—where student suc-
cess in STEM matters now more than ever. We outline four steps communities
can take to develop and set in motion policies that enable, support, and, in many
cases, result in real change. We also showcase examples of strong STEM policies,
successful advocacy approaches, and innovative tools that accelerate the work.
Finally, the chapter highlights key characteristics of effective STEM programs,
including processes used by a few states to transform traditional public and pri-
vate schools into STEM-focused schools.
 Effective Program Characteristics 213

Four Steps to Building and Enacting Effective STEM Policies

Nationwide Insurance’s dilemma is not limited to a single company or industry,
and most certainly not to a single state. The shortage of workers skilled in STEM
subjects is a well-documented crisis that must be addressed at the public policy
level. The reality is that Nationwide’s talent shortage—an experience shared by
many other U.S. companies—has its roots in the education system (Business-
Higher Education Forum, 2007). Put simply, it is an education pipeline issue.
Solving the pipeline problem requires the development and implementation of
smart, transformative policies directed toward a clear set of local, regional, state,
or national STEM-based goals and outcomes.
At its most basic form, Merriam-Webster defines policy as “a high-level over-
all plan embracing the general goals and acceptable procedures especially of a
governmental body.” From a STEM perspective, policy, and the making of that
policy, is far more complex. And, defining STEM for the purposes of developing
education and talent policies can be just as complicated because of the multi-
faceted nature of the acronym. Sure, STEM stands for science, technology, engi-
neering, and mathematics, but the acronym is greater than the sum of its parts.
From a teaching and learning perspective, STEM is a verb that emphasizes the
purposeful integration of the various disciplines in solving real-world problems
(Breiner et al., 2012).
Pockets of transformative STEM programs, practices, and partnerships exist
throughout the U.S., and they are marked by innovations that emerge when stu-
dents, teachers, and partners engage in teaching and learning based on real-world
work. When well executed, with critical input from practitioners and partners,
STEM education and talent policies have the potential to scale change across
change-resistant local education ecosystems.
We identify four key steps that community leaders and stakeholders can use
to enable and support the development and implementation of transformative
STEM policies (see Figure 11.1).

1) Collect and Use Relevant DATA to Rally Stakeholders, Inform

Goals, and Push Policy
Experienced STEM advocates know how important data are in securing multi-
sector partner support, making the case for policy action and whetting the appe-
tites of policy makers to enact transformative change. Nationwide’s workforce
survey is but one example of a localized data collection effort that resulted in
significant action. The same reaction could be triggered from the collection and
analysis of STEM-specific regional, state-, or national-level data.
Today, elected officials and policy makers at all levels are operating in chal-
lenging environments. With a national unemployment rate of 6.1 percent,
rebounding from the recession, but still not as low as the February 2008 rate of
214 Shaun Yoder et al.

1) Collect and use relevant 2) Build diverse, multi-sector

DATA to rally stakeholders, PARTNERSHIPS to drive
inform goals, and policy and advocacy
push policy

Transformative
STEM Policies

3) Develop GOALS and POLICIES 4) FOLLOW THROUGH and

based on data and seek transformative action
informed by multi-sector in a change-resistant
partners ecosystem

FIGURE 11.1 Transformative STEM Practices

4.9 percent, most public leaders hold job creation and talent development as top
priorities (Bureau of Labor Statistics, n.d.). Most seek a firm understanding of
their community’s future workforce needs, particularly in STEM. This creates
an opportunity for STEM-vested partners to use data to identify what the com-
munity’s future STEM-workforce and STEM-skills needs are, use those data to
attract and secure a diverse array of power partners to join the cause, and develop
transformative policies that will put the community on a trajectory for future
success.
But knowing the STEM data is just one piece of the puzzle. Advocates and
partners must also present the data in a clear and compelling way to stir discus-
sion, promote questions, and ignite a collective search for policy solutions. The
following are examples of the types of STEM-specific data that communities
might consider collecting based on a national-level dashboard. The national-level
data illustrate the powerful story that can be developed to pinpoint the problem
and drive toward solutions. Each community and state has its own story to tell.

Where to Begin? Understand Your Community’s STEM

Workforce Needs
It is well documented that STEM knowledge and skills are in high demand. And
regions, states, and the nation as a whole must be poised to capitalize on future
opportunities where the advantage goes to companies that are first to invent
and produce innovative products. From 2000 to 2010, the growth in STEM jobs
 Effective Program Characteristics 215

was three times greater than that of non-STEM jobs (Economics and Statistics
Administration, 2011). The U.S. Department of Commerce estimates that in the
coming years, STEM occupations will grow 1.7 times faster than non-STEM jobs
(U.S. Department of Commerce, 2012). Currently, STEM jobs comprise 20 per-
cent of all U.S. jobs (Rothwell, 2013), and the share of STEM occupations is
projected to increase by 26 percent between 2010 and 2020 (Carnevale, Smith, &
Strohl, 2013). Within this decade, 95 percent of STEM jobs will require some
postsecondary education and training, with approximately two-thirds requir-
ing a bachelor’s degree or better. Additionally, more than 75 percent of the top
25 jobs for 2014 identified by U.S. News and World Report (2014) were in the
STEM fields. According to a survey of Fortune 1000 companies, 89 percent con-
tinue to report ‘fierce’ competition in finding candidates to fill jobs requiring
four-year degrees in STEM-related fields (Bayer, 2013).
Despite a growing demand, the percentage of students earning STEM degrees
has not substantially changed in recent years (U.S. Department of Education,
2012a, 2012b). A new report by the labor-market analytics firm Burning Glass
Technologies (2014) reveals a clearer picture of this STEM-skills gap for entry-
level workers. Forty-eight percent of all entry-level jobs requiring at least a bach-
elor’s degree are in STEM fields, while only 29 percent of students graduate
with a STEM degree. What’s more, demand for STEM skills stretches beyond
the needs of STEM occupations to non-STEM fields, exacerbating shortages of
STEM talent. In fact, almost 50 percent of students who graduate with a bach-
elor’s degree in a STEM major do not enter a STEM occupation. Researchers
ascribe this diversion from STEM fields to interests, values, and pay (Carnevale,
Smith, & Strohl, 2011).
While these workforce data speak to what is happening at the national level,
they also offer a template for how local-, regional-, and state-level data might
be gathered to tell a more localized story. And many local and regional STEM
advocates have become masters of working with data organizations to collect
and mine reliable workforce data to galvanize action around a specific STEM
initiative. For instance, longtime Long Island, New York residents Ken White
(Brookhaven National Laboratory), Cheryl Davidson (Long Island Works Coali-
tion), and Mark Grossman (New York State Department of Labor Commission-
er’s Regional Representative for Long Island) knew that STEM was an economic
imperative for Long Island. Based on regional workforce employment trends,
high tech employers were having trouble identifying local talent to fill jobs. In
fact, Long Island’s largest employer, North Shore-LIJ Health System, struggled to
fill more than 1,000 technical positions due to a gap in the local applicant pool’s
ability to do the work. This, while at least 100,000 Long Islanders remained
unemployed and at least 20 percent of the island lived in poverty exacerbated by
the area’s high cost of living. Based on local data, White, Davidson, and Gross-
man created urgency and opportunity for STEM and capitalized on regional
economic development strategies already under development.
216 Shaun Yoder et al.

Just as Long Island partners did, community leaders should start by under-
standing how many STEM jobs are projected in the near future in their region or
state. With those data in hand, communities must then gain an understanding of
the condition of their ‘talent pipeline.’ In other words, is the pre-K-12 education
system successfully preparing students that are STEM capable? Is the postsecond-
ary system attracting and successfully graduating students with STEM degrees?
These two segments of the STEM pipeline ultimately determine the yield of
prospective STEM workers for a region or state.

Condition of Your Pre-K-12 STEM Education Pipeline: Is It Leaking?

Troubling STEM workforce data raise an important question: What is occurring
in the pre-K-12 segment of the STEM education pipeline? Based on national
student trends (Change the Equation, 2014) there is no question that the pre-
K-12 STEM education pipeline needs attention. State-administered assessments
in the elementary grades—as early as fourth grade—indicate that students are
not achieving at proficient levels in mathematics and science. This is cause for
concern. A comprehensive STEM education pipeline analysis conducted in New
Hampshire, widely considered a high achieving state, found that 51 percent of the
state’s fourth graders scored at a proficient or above level on the New England
Common Assessment Program (NECAP) in science. The situation was worse
for the state’s eighth graders, with only 31 percent scoring at that level (New
Hampshire Charitable Foundation, 2014). The narrowing of STEM skills begins
early in many states and localities. New Hampshire pursued an impressive STEM
education pipeline analysis to help drive its state-level STEM goal and policy
development, which is currently being led by the governor in conjunction with a
variety of public and private partners. The leaky pre-K-12 pipeline indicates that
many students are simply underprepared to move from one grade to the next and
unprepared for success in college and career. To effectively mitigate and stop leaks
in the pre-K-12 STEM education pipeline, communities must have a handle on
where they stand in the key benchmark areas. We use national-level data to illus-
trate how local, regional, and state communities might assess their benchmarks.
Formal and informal STEM learning opportunities: Nationally, elementary stu-
dents are spending less time in formal science instruction. The average amount
of time an elementary school student spent on science in 2009 was two hours
per week (Blank, 2012). Informal STEM learning is just as important as formal
STEM learning. It is proven to raise student confidence and classroom achieve-
ment in STEM and generate student interest in pursuing STEM studies and
careers (Thomasian, n.d.). Types of informal STEM learning programs include
those that provide pre-K-12 students after-school, end, and summer activities
over multiple years at institutions such as science museums, zoos, local universi-
ties, and research centers. Unfortunately, good, objective data that differentiate
those programs having the greatest impact do not exist at the national level.
 Effective Program Characteristics 217

Student performance in STEM: What does local student achievement look like
on mathematics and science state assessments, particularly in the fourth and
eighth grades? How are students performing on mathematics and science state
assessments in grades 9–12? The fourth-grade student performance on National
Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) in mathematics increased by only
0.2 points from 2011 to 2013, and a significant achievement gap continues to
separate the performance of White, Black, and Hispanic students. In 2013, White
fourth-grade students scored on average 250, while Black and Hispanic students
scored 224 and 231, respectively (U.S. Department of Education, 2012a, 2012b).
Internationally, the U.S. is slipping based on the performance of 15-year-olds.
Year 2012 PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) results indi-
cate that 12 countries had higher scores than the U.S. did in science and 17 had
higher scores in mathematics (U.S. Department of Education, 2012a, 2012b).
Rigorous standards in STEM: The majority of states have adopted college- and
career-ready standards in math and English/language arts, with schools and dis-
tricts being held accountable for student achievement in those subjects. Spe-
cifically, 43 states and the District of Columbia have adopted the Common Core
State Standards (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2014). Twelve states have
committed to adopt Next Generation Science Standards (Camins, 2014). However,
25 states do not hold schools accountable for meeting student performance tar-
gets in science (Change the Equation, 2014).
Rigorous course completion in STEM: Are students completing rigorous math-
ematics, science, engineering, and technology courses in grades 9–12? Today,
35 states have established graduation requirements that require all high school
graduates to complete college- and career-ready course requirements so that
earning a diploma ensures that a student is prepared for postsecondary education.
Teacher effectiveness in STEM: Are STEM-specific teachers masters of their
content, particularly in middle and high school? Do they know how to teach
STEM methods? Are they supported with high-quality STEM professional
development opportunities? Many states across the country have established
teacher evaluation systems to determine who their best teachers are and ways to
help support those teachers who struggle. While the systems are relatively new,
and some have not yet produced or published data, they hold promise for target-
ing support and growing teacher effectiveness in STEM and other disciplines
(Achieve, 2014).
Student success in STEM beyond high school: How many students go to col-
lege and do not require remediation in mathematics in their freshman year? An
August 2012 report notes that, nationally, too many first-time college freshmen
require remediation in mathematics or reading. Nearly 52 percent of students
who entered a two-year college enrolled in remediation while almost 20 percent
of those entering a four-year college required remediation (Complete College
America, 2012). These pre-K-12 data trends are concerning. That said, these can
be mitigated or even reversed over time through the development and enactment
218 Shaun Yoder et al.

of smart STEM education and talent policies. We discuss such innovative policies
later in the Goals and Policies section.

Condition of Your Local Post-Secondary STEM Pipeline: Is It

Yielding STEM Degrees?
The nation’s postsecondary pipeline also experiences widespread leakage, with
a range of factors hindering STEM degree production. For every 100 students
who pursue a bachelor’s degree, 28 choose to major in STEM, but only 15 earn
a STEM degree, and even fewer actually enter a STEM occupation (Chen &
Ho, 2012). Similarly, for every 100 students who pursue an associate’s degree,
only 31 earn a STEM degree (Chen & Soldner, 2013). To make matters worse,
data reveal that STEM students are more likely to switch majors to a non-STEM
major than non-STEM students are to change to a STEM major. Simply increas-
ing the number of students entering STEM majors will not necessarily translate
to higher STEM-degree production if postsecondary institutions do not also
stem the tide of students out of STEM majors. Just as we suggested gathering
benchmark data that speak to key transition points in the pre-K-12 segment of
the pipeline, similar benchmarks exist for the postsecondary side of the pipeline.
We suggest that communities have an understanding of the following postsec-
ondary benchmarks:
Academic preparation and math proficiency: Are first-time freshmen prepared for
success? Again, remediation rates should be considered.
Design of developmental and gateway courses: If students require developmental
or remedial coursework, then are those courses designed to promote continued
success and persistence? Are gateway courses, or those first-year courses all stu-
dents must pass to progress to the next level in a degree program (e.g. calculus
in an engineering program), designed to support student learning or to ‘weed
out’ students?
Early immersion to STEM courses as freshman: Data from the U.S. Department
of Education (2012a, 2012b) suggest that students who dive into their STEM
coursework as freshmen are more likely to experience success and finish in
STEM. Are students properly counseled and supported to take the threshold
number of STEM course hours in their first year?
STEM transfer policies: Does your state have clearly understood and followed
course transfer policies in place that compel four-year colleges to recognize and
accept course credit from two-year colleges?
Strong connection to the STEM workforce: Does the postsecondary experience
link students to actual work experience in the STEM field? Is industry satisfied
with the skill and preparedness level of candidates?
Production of effective STEM teachers: Do STEM educators enter the classroom
with an appropriate level of content knowledge? Do they have the pedagogical
understanding to prepare interdisciplinary lessons and engage with real-world
examples and partners?
 Effective Program Characteristics 219

Again, one might conclude that the challenges facing the STEM postsecondary
pipeline are insurmountable. The reality, however, is that smart and targeted
STEM policy development can help patch the leaky pipeline. We discuss such
innovative policies later in the Goals and Policies section.

2) Build Diverse, Multi-Sector PARTNERSHIPS to Drive

STEM Policy and Advocacy
Diverse, multi-sector partnerships are invaluable to the advancement of STEM
policy and advocacy. For starters, partners from pre-K-12, postsecondary, business,
workforce, philanthropy, and the community significantly enhance the collection
of sector-specific and localized STEM data. But perhaps the greatest benefit of
partner engagement is the resultant robust policy development and powerful voice
of advocacy. We have already referenced two examples—Ohio and Long Island—
where multi-sector partnerships brought fortitude, focus, and follow-through to
the STEM policy and advocacy table. In this section, we take a closer look at how
partnerships can be built and organized to gain the most traction.
Developing policy collaboratively with an array of partners—as opposed
to in isolation—brings together unique perspectives necessary for innovative,
transformative, and sustainable STEM policies. It puts into action the ‘collective
impact’ model, which adheres to the premise that better cross-sector engagement
and coordination leads to greater progress than the isolated intervention of indi-
vidual organizations (Hanleybrown, Kania, & Kramer, 2012).
While the specific collective impact model calls for the creation of formal
partnerships anchored in new types of non-profit management organizations,
the primary point, regardless of partnership structure (formal or informal), is
that everyone has a role to play in ensuring the development of the right STEM
policies: educators, business leaders, economic development advisors, workforce
professionals, and higher education administrators, to name a few. We use tenets
of the collective impact model to describe how to build lasting and impactful
partnerships (Kania & Kramer, 2011).

Building Effective STEM Partnerships

STEM-focused partnerships can take on many forms. Generally, local partner-
ships have been more informal in nature, though that is changing as local initia-
tives become more sophisticated. State- and nationally focused partnerships tend
to be more formally structured. Many are established networks. The structure
of the partnership should be driven by its community needs and corresponding
STEM policy goals, with form following function. However, there are some
attributes that newly developed STEM-focused partnerships should include.
First, leaders should focus on establishing a partnership that brings stakeholders
together to prepare the strongest STEM learning and achievement policies that
connect one segment of the education pipeline to the next. Whether the focus
220 Shaun Yoder et al.

is local, regional, state, or national, the partnership should reflect the horizon-
tal flow of education pipeline (as depicted in Figure 11.2). All sectors of the
pipeline—from pre-K-12, postsecondary, and workforce—should have a seat at
the table to analyze data, develop goals, identify policy solutions, and advance
those policies. Gathering these partners is critical, as national data indicate that
some of the greatest leakages in the STEM pipeline occur at transition points
where students are supposed to advance from one segment to the next.
Partners from across segments of the pipeline should be committed to the
STEM cause and be willing to authentically participate in the initiative—from
policy development to advocacy. Research has shown that through partnerships,
which advocate for STEM, overall STEM community awareness is significantly
increased (Sondergeld & Johnson, 2014). While targeted action may or may not
focus on all segments at once, having the right representation allows the partners
to develop the strongest possible solutions across the pipeline.
Partnerships should also be connected vertically (see Figure 11.3). This
means that local-level partnerships, where possible, are linked to state-level

Pre-K-12 Postsecondary Workforce

FIGURE 11.2 Horizontally Aligned STEM Partnerships

National
State
Local/Regional

FIGURE 11.3 Vertically Aligned STEM Partnerships

 Effective Program Characteristics 221

partnerships, and state-level partnerships are at least aware of and, in some cases,
tied to national-level efforts. These vertical linkages reinforce activities under-
way at each level, maximizing impact.
The STEM East partnership in Lenoir County, North Carolina, offers a
textbook example of vertical connectivity. This regional partnership knows
that the most effective change begins at the local level. One of four local
STEM communities in the state, Lenoir County has been battling an eco-
nomic downturn for more than 15 years. In its heyday, the regional economy
was driven by tobacco and textiles. But those jobs dried up as the local econ-
omy shifted from manufacturing to knowledge. For instance, DuPont, the
Fortune 100 Company which patented Dacron polyester fibers, has operated
a site in Lenoir County since 1953. At its prime, the factory employed nearly
4,000 workers. By 2005, it had fewer than 200 employees. Recognizing this
regional workforce data, Lenoir community leaders knew they had to find
a way to reshape the once textile-dependent workforce into a skills rich,
STEM-literate community. That’s what prompted local leaders to assemble a
STEM leadership team. This partnership was intentionally designed to be hor-
izontally aligned—with representatives from major local forces in education,
economic development, government, and business—including the Director
of Operations for aerospace industry giant Spirit Aero-Systems, which Lenoir
County fought hard to recruit to the region. The STEM leadership team
champions STEM community engagement and awareness building across the
region. Its work is anchored in a community visioning process that included
more than 200 people in the community, and the teachers, school leaders, and
partners who now drive the region’s thriving STEM strategies (Guillory &
Quinterno, 2013).
Lenoir County’s STEM East is fortunate to be linked to NC STEM, North
Carolina’s state STEM network. The county’s community-led effort was facili-
tated by NC STEM’s Community Visioning & Design Process, a step-by-step
plan for engaging all sectors of the community in visualizing, planning, and
building education efforts that mirror the area’s economic concerns (Guil-
lory & Quinterno, 2013). Other tools developed by NC STEM include a list of
STEM attributes, or ‘hallmarks of programmatic quality in STEM education,’
and the NC STEM ScoreCard (2013), titled “Strategies that Engage Minds.”
The ScoreCard is aimed at helping the public and decision-makers chart a
direction for the state’s STEM-related economic future. It is designed around
six domains that gauge the state’s progress in (1) STEM workforce and eco-
nomic impact, (2) informal education and STEM literacy, (3) strategic invest-
ments and innovation, (4) college and career readiness, (5) teacher quality and
leadership, and (6) policy support. These domains target areas that will propel
North Carolina forward in offering the best STEM learning opportunities in
the nation.
NC STEM does not operate in a vacuum. The state-level network is con-
nected to a multi-state STEM partnership known as STEMx. Created ‘by states,
222 Shaun Yoder et al.

for states’ and anchored at Battelle headquarters in Columbus, OH, STEMx

stands as a promising national-level partnership. Together, the 19 member states
of STEMx established a shared vision, mission, and goals and articulated a value
proposition for network membership. Member networks include those from Ari-
zona, California, Colorado, Georgia, Idaho, Indiana, Kentucky, Michigan, New
Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania,
Tennessee, Texas, Washington, and Washington DC. Similar to North Carolina’s
approach, each state-level network strives to maintain diverse partnerships that
are horizontally aligned. As part of the network, states share and disseminate
best practices aimed at accelerating STEM policies, practices, and partnerships.
STEMx features the tagline: Local Innovation. State Leadership. National Impact,
reinforcing the notion that vertically aligned partnerships matter.

Partnership Organizational Models

As mentioned earlier, local STEM partnerships tend to be organized informally.
This enables initiatives to be nimble and responsive to emerging needs of the
community. For instance, Dayton, Ohio’s regional STEM partnership originally
consisted of three primary partners: Dayton Regional STEM School, Dayton
Regional STEM Center, and the lead convening partner, EDvention, which was
intentionally established to be a simple, lean broker of opportunities and conve-
ner of focused partners. The partnership, which had more than 21 members on
its leadership council representing key horizontal partners, was purposely not
created as a standalone 501(c)(3) organization. Rather, it was housed within a
third-party organization so that it could focus efforts on partners and programs
and not have to worry about funding its own existence. Over time, the effort
morphed to become Learn to Earn Dayton, which maintains a broader focus on
regional academic achievement and degree attainment, with specific goals and
metrics along the education pipeline (Learn to Earn Dayton, n.d.). The Dayton
Regional STEM Collaborative, a companion effort, focuses on the STEM-talent
aspects of the Learn to Earn Dayton metrics and has attracted even more busi-
ness and higher education leadership. Lean staffing is supported by contributions
from partner organizations that have a vested interest in the region and joint
grant opportunities. Other partners provide on-loan experts and talent-based
resources aimed at advancing the work. Through nimble structures, the ini-
tiatives have harnessed the strongest champions, deepest supporters, and most
influential leaders to advance the work in the region.
At the state level, STEM partnerships tend to be organized more formally,
though only a few are incorporated 501(c)(3) organizations. The California
STEM Learning Network benefits from generous donors including the S.D.
Bechtel, Jr. Foundation, Chevron, Battelle, and the James Irvine Foundation,
among others. Washington STEM is fueled by generous support from The
 Effective Program Characteristics 223

Boeing Company, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, McKinstry Charitable

Foundation, The Microsoft Foundation and others. Leading partners in both
states determined that the 501(c)(3) approach was best to meet their states’ identi-
fied needs. That said, each has refined its approach over time to most effectively
respond to the states’ changing and evolving STEM needs.
Separate from establishing 501(c)(3) organizations, several states, including
Ohio and Tennessee, have codified the establishment of public–private part-
nerships through the enactment of legislation or executive order that forges
horizontal partnerships to jointly craft a statewide STEM agenda. The Ohio
legislature established a STEM Committee consisting of the state Superinten-
dent of Public Instruction, the Chancellor of the Board of Regents, the Director
of Development, and four members of the public with STEM and/or busi-
ness backgrounds. This state-level STEM committee was charged with dis-
tributing state funding for STEM schools and Programs of Excellence. The
Ohio STEM Learning Network was available to provide technical assistance
as needed. The Ohio statutory language essentially created a public–private
partnership—where the Ohio STEM Learning Network works in conjunction
with the STEM Committee to coordinate state-level private sector STEM part-
ners and investments.
Similarly, the Tennessee STEM Advisory Council was enacted by an execu-
tive order signed by the Governor. It specifies that the Council, which serves
as the leadership body of Tennessee’s STEM Innovation Network, consists of
the Commissioner of Education, Commissioner of Economic and Community
Development, Chair of the Senate Education Committee, Chair of the House
Education Committee, one representative from the State Board of Education,
one representative from the Tennessee Board of Regents, one representative
from the University of Tennessee, five representatives of STEM-related indus-
tries in the state, and two K-12 educators teaching in Tennessee public schools.
The Council advises the Tennessee Department of Education and the Tennessee
STEM Innovation Network on promoting and expanding STEM teaching and
learning. Other states, such as New York and Texas, have used public–private
partnerships to make significant blended public–private STEM investments to
support the development of new school models that directly connect to the
world of work.
Useful tools and resources are available to help communities build and sup-
port STEM networks. One such tool is the STEMx Sustainability Compass. A
joint project of STEMx, Battelle, and Education First, the self-assessment tool
is designed to help local, regional, and state coalition leaders and partners gauge
sustainability levels of their partnerships and offer materials and approaches to
strengthen their work over time (STEMx, n.d.). The Sustainability Compass rec-
ognizes that better goal and policy development results from a blend of public and
private horizontal partners that are connected, when possible, to vertical partners.
224 Shaun Yoder et al.

3) Develop GOALS and POLICIES Based on Data and

Informed by Multi-Sector Partners
With a firm understanding of the data and strong partnerships in place, the table is
now set for STEM goal and policy development. Together, partners must identify
a set of clear, measurable goals and the supporting policy strategies or activities
to accomplish them. The horizontally and vertically aligned partnerships should
drive the goal and policy setting process. In fact, goals and policies, in simplest
form, should mirror the structure of the partnerships (Figure 11.4 illustrates this
combined approach). From a horizontal perspective, STEM policies should be
strategically formulated to meet the needs of and close gaps between pre-K-12,
postsecondary, and workforce. The horizontal alignment reflects the continuous
flow of students and achievement in the pre-K-20 education pipeline. Vertical
policy alignment means that there are local connections to the state and national
levels. This maximizes resources and results in stronger, more informed policies.
Horizontal and vertical policy alignment reinforces the importance of building
horizontal and vertical partnerships at the front end of coalition development.
National

Pre-K-12 Postsecondary Workforce

State

Pre-K-12 Postsecondary Workforce

Local/Regional

Pre-K-12 Postsecondary Workforce

FIGURE 11.4 Horizontally and Vertically Aligned STEM Partnerships

 Effective Program Characteristics 225

Establishing Goals and Policies

In the DATA section of this chapter, we identified key data benchmarks that
speak to the condition of any pre-K-12 and postsecondary STEM education pipe-
line. These benchmarks help partners identify what is working well, illuminate
leaky points in the pipeline, and determine where STEM goals and policy strate-
gies are necessary to advance talent. Communities should consider these bench-
marks as a first order of business.
Next, partners must recognize the realities of the localized education ecosys-
tem. Lasting Impact: A Business Leader’s Playbook for Supporting America’s Schools
(Allan et al., 2014) suggests that education in America is largely local and each
city or town has its own ‘education ecosystem.’ Understanding how this eco-
system functions, including which horizontal partners contribute to student
achievement—not simply schools themselves, but non-profit organizations,
teachers’ unions, government agencies, businesses, faith-based organizations,
etc.—is essential to designing goals and policies that have the greatest short-term
and long-term impact.
Figure 11.5 illustrates the elements of a dynamic local pre-K-12 education
ecosystem. Goals and policies at every level should be student-focused, informed

Effective
Teachers

Embedded High
Technology Standards

Students

Informal
STEM Quality
Learning Curriculum

Formal
STEM
Learning

FIGURE 11.5 Pre-K-12 STEM Drivers

226 Shaun Yoder et al.

Horizontal
Strong, Sophisticated
and Vertical Clear Strong
Committed Data
Partner Metrics Accountability
Leadership Collection
Engagement

FIGURE 11.6 Five Supporting Enablers for PK-Postsecondary Success

by data, and use key ‘drivers’ critical to advancing STEM progress. Pre-K-12
STEM drivers include effective teachers, high standards, quality curriculum,
formal STEM learning, informal STEM learning, and embedded technology.
Certain enablers must be in place to support use of the drivers to set goals
and policies across the pipeline. The enablers create the right context for change
and ensure the ongoing follow-through and long-term success of STEM poli-
cies. These include strong, committed leadership; horizontal and vertical partner
engagement (as previously discussed); clear metrics; sophisticated data collection;
and strong accountability.
In the end, STEM policy development should seek transformational action
that results in improved student performance. STEM drivers must be used to
fashion goals and policies that strategically push an ecosystem to a new configu-
ration and level of performance (Allan et al., 2014). Such policies should help
leaders and administrators fundamentally rethink how things are done.
Partners have often depended upon a single driver or enabling element within
a single ecosystem to create impact. For instance, perhaps a business partner
developed a policy to provide supplies to a nearby school or to ‘adopt’ one school
building. Rarely have such parochial efforts been enough to push an ecosystem
to a new configuration and level of performance. Partners should consider what
combination of drivers is likely to produce significant long-term impact.

4) FOLLOW-THROUGH and Seek Transformative Action

in a Change-Resistant Ecosystem
We opened this chapter by discussing the success Ohio partners experienced in
advocating for a set of comprehensive STEM policies and investments. The truth
is that a great deal of time, collaboration, perseverance, planning, and follow-
through drove the success of the initiative. That work continues today.
Ohio’s state-level efforts to focus on STEM education date back to 2004,
when then-Governor Bob Taft commissioned a panel of horizontal partners
to make recommendations on ways to maximize the use of higher education
as a tool for economic growth. The panel recommended an intense focus on
STEM higher education. This recommendation helped trigger a ten-year focus
on STEM education.
Two years later, the Ohio STEM Learning Network (OSLN) was launched in
2006 by Battelle and the Ohio Business Roundtable. The OSLN led a process
 Effective Program Characteristics 227

to assign specific roles to key partners. For instance, Battelle, anchor partner to
the Ohio STEM Learning Network, was on point to handle member engage-
ment and the day-to-day functions of the partnership. The Teaching Institute
for Excellence in STEM (TIES) was charged with providing technical support
to network programs across the state. The third partner, the Education Council,
ensured that best practices were captured and disseminated to partners across the
network. Finally, the Ohio Business Roundtable led the network’s policy and
advocacy work. Its first order of business was to convene stakeholders to develop
a set of goals, policy strategies, and metrics to drive STEM policy and advocacy
in Ohio.
Once those goals were established, the Ohio STEM Learning Network gath-
ered key stakeholders from around the state and facilitated a process to iden-
tify the critical few items all could rally around and advocate for at the state
level. What followed was a coordinated set of advocacy activities that all partners
engaged in to secure support from key state leaders, agency directors, and elected
officials. Different partners were best positioned to do different things. And
some partners had never engaged in advocacy work before. From visiting legisla-
tors to providing testimony to crunching the data and making the case, mem-
bers of the Ohio STEM Learning Network focused on gaining policy change,
securing financial support, and gathering state-level champions to fuel the drive
toward reaching STEM education goals.
To guide partners, the Ohio Business Roundtable produced the Ohio STEM
AdvoKit, intended as a one-stop tactical advocacy guide. In its original form,
the AdvoKit contained an overview of the national and state STEM education
landscape; tailored sets of talking points for STEM advocates, including students,
parents, educators, employers, and community leaders; a STEM FAQ; clarifica-
tion of what STEM education is and isn’t; top-line messaging; and sample letters
of support that could be used by stakeholders to frame letters to the legislature
and the press. Today, the Ohio STEM Learning Network features the AdvoKit
as one of its key tools and others have used it as a platform to tailor for their
own state work. To view the document in full, please visit www.osln.org/wp-
content/uploads/2013/03/Ohio-AdvoKit.pdf. This tool proved essential in coor-
dinating stakeholder advocacy deployment and messaging.
The Ohio STEM Learning Network and its partners continue to follow
through on implementing STEM practices and identifying enabling policies
necessary for long-term goals. While 2008 might have been the beginning, it
was certainly not the end. Successive state budgets continue to honor STEM as a
critical investment to the state’s future, including the most recent Mid-Biennial
Review budget, which included several key provisions critical to the ongoing
success of STEM schools and the flexibility for innovation in STEM areas.
Other states have developed similar tactical tools to help partners advance
STEM teaching and learning in coordinated and sophisticated fashion. North
Carolina, for instance, used its ‘Do-It-Yourself Guide to STEM Community
228 Shaun Yoder et al.

Engagement,’ to engage and dispatch a broad range of community leaders to

support STEM education in a targeted way.
Similarly, the California STEM Learning Network maintains a strong focus
on STEM policy and advocacy. The state-level network offers tips on what local
community members can do to advance STEM education in schools and com-
munities across the state. To assist its members, the network issues regular publi-
cations to guide including a strategy roadmap to transform STEM education in
California, a policy brief that explained the importance of the Next Generation
Science Standards, and a brief aimed at rethinking teacher preparation and policy.
States across the nation are moving the STEM policy needle with the goal of
moving the STEM student achievement and talent needle. This work is challenging
and rests upon focused follow-through and long-term commitment. STEM goals
and policies are tools for students and teachers to make increased STEM achieve-
ment and degrees a reality. The four steps discussed in this chapter are tools for
communities and states to establish strong STEM goals and policies. If commu-
nity and state leaders use data to inform the policy, organize the right people,
recognize the right drivers to affect change, develop and advocate for the right
policies, and make adjustments based on what works, then far more students will
be prepared for college, careers, and engagement in a STEM-filled world.

Characteristics of Effective STEM Programs

There are clear characteristics of effective STEM programs emerging from the
national STEM education work. These were articulated in Figure 11.5 as the pre-
K-12 STEM drivers. Stakeholders involved in STEM education reform should
carefully consider the use of each pre-K-12 success driver to set STEM goals and
policies that promote innovation.

Effective Teachers
Research indicates that a classroom teacher’s effectiveness is more important—
and has more impact on student achievement—than any other factor controlled
by school systems, including class size or the school a student attends (e.g.
Darling-Hammond, 2010; Rivkin, Hanushek, & Kain, 2005). Thoughtful, skill-
ful educators are the backbone to delivering innovative STEM instruction across
elementary and secondary education. They understand the standards for what
students should know and are able to do. They know how to cleverly integrate
those standards throughout curriculum and instruction. Teachers drive formal
STEM learning and develop and deliver the hands-on, project-based instruction.
Advancing policies that effectively prepare new teachers and sharpen the effec-
tiveness of those already practicing, particularly in the STEM disciplines, will
have a positive impact on student performance.
 Effective Program Characteristics 229

Cutting-edge, research-based professional development opportunities (e.g.

Desimone, 2009; Johnson & Fargo, 2014) play a significant role in enhanc-
ing teacher effectiveness. Educators need exposure to high-quality professional
development that sharpens their craft in the classroom. The engagement of hori-
zontal partners, from business to higher education, often enhances innovative
professional development offerings. For instance, a STEM-related business might
open its laboratories to local teachers and give them an opportunity to work
alongside laboratory technicians, strengthening content knowledge and offering
real-world application, which can be transferred back to the classroom.
MC2 STEM, a Cleveland Metropolitan School District high school, maintains
three campuses located on site at the Great Lakes Science Center, GE Light-
ing’s Nela Park, and the Health Careers Center. The high school, established
through a public–private partnership, leverages the expertise of professionals on
each campus to deliver teacher professional development that focuses on cross-
training experiences and transdisciplinary instructional units. Industry partners
and professionals from higher education not only enhance professional develop-
ment opportunities, but they provide direct instruction to the students on many
occasions (MC2STEM High School, 2014). Ohio adopted a statewide policy to
establish and invest in STEM training centers, enabling MC2STEM to train edu-
cators in its district and across the state.

High Standards
Implementing rigorous STEM-related academic standards is a prominent, far-
reaching driver that can impact every student. States that implement rigorous
standards are setting expectations for what all students should know and be
able to do, regardless of where students receive their education. As state policy
makers consider adopting standards in mathematics, science, engineering, and
technology—whether through the Common Core State Standards (for mathemat-
ics), the Next Generation Science Standards, engineering standards, or other home-
grown standards—they should carefully consider how the standards promote
meaningful integrated STEM education opportunities. Integrating standards
across the STEM disciplines can significantly enhance the student learning expe-
rience. The real world is integrated by nature and an interdisciplinary approach
provides authentic contexts for learning (Ronis, 2007; Roth, 1993).
A Framework for K-12 Science Education offers a prime example of what this
disciplinary integration might look like for science standards. The Framework
suggests that K-12 science standards be built around three dimensions: (1) sci-
ence and engineering practices; (2) crosscutting concepts that unify the study
of science and engineering through their common application across fields; and
(3) core ideas in four disciplinary areas: physical sciences; life sciences; earth and
space sciences; and engineering, technology, and the applications of science. The
230 Shaun Yoder et al.

Framework goes on to indicate that these dimensions should be integrated into

standards, curriculum, and instruction.

Integrated Curriculum
Standards, which are typically set at the state level, allow local educators to choose
or design integrated curriculum and instruction tailored to the needs of their
students. Integrated STEM curriculum, as discussed throughout this STEM Road
Map as the pivotal component of STEM reform, brings together the content
disciplines for the purposes of teaching and learning—it makes learning more
relevant for students. It helps them form deeper understandings and build con-
nections among central concepts. Students become more interested and vested in
school when instruction is based on integrated curriculum (Berlin, 1994; Ber-
lin & White, 2012; George, 1996; Mason, 1996; Morrison & McDuffie, 2009).
This is often done in elementary grades through project- or problem-based learn-
ing units, and in high school via hybrid courses, career and technical education
programs, and focused STEM schools and programs. State policy, however, must
allow for such programs and courses, as well as provide appropriate waivers and
approvals as needed. This may also include rethinking traditional assessments to
ensure that more than just factual knowledge is being measured (Johnson, 2013).

Formal STEM Learning

Formal STEM learning most often occurs during the traditional school day. And
while the school day might be traditional, the teaching and learning approach is
anything but. An inquiry-based approach is prominent in many formal STEM
learning opportunities. When professional engineers encounter a problem in the
field, for instance, they implement a series of steps known as the engineering
design process. The learner is given the opportunity to ask questions; define
problems; model, plan, and conduct investigations; analyze and interpret data;
apply mathematics and computations thinking; construct explanations and solu-
tions; and communicate findings (Czerniak & Johnson, 2014). Inquiry-based
instruction is maximized though the use of integrated curriculum. Project-based
learning (PBL) is another approach to formal STEM learning. PBL experiences
require students to uncover and address real-world problems and share findings
with authentic audiences (Riordian, 2013). PBL features curriculum and directly
applies the engineering design process and inquiry-based learning (e.g., Czer-
niak & Johnson, 2014; Ronis, 2007; Roth, 1993).
Some regions and states have created and launched STEM schools to deliver
this type of learning experience. For instance, Ohio, North Carolina, Tennes-
see, Texas, and others launched STEM schools, in partnership with horizontal
and vertical partners, to completely transform the delivery of formal STEM
learning.
 Effective Program Characteristics 231

Such learning experiences can also take place as units within traditional schools.
Arizona, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, and Texas have enacted policy
changes that facilitate and promote new curricular and programmatic approaches
aimed at transforming existing public schools. Arizona’s approach is particularly
unique. The Arizona STEM Network, in partnership with the Maricopa County
Education Association (a key horizontal partner), established the STEM Immer-
sion Guide to help schools and districts integrate STEM education into curricu-
lum and instruction. The STEM Immersion Guide contains key design elements
that support the development of project-based, interdisciplinary STEM instruc-
tion and provides practical tools and information to assist teachers, administra-
tors, schools, and districts that want to improve student outcomes by integrating
STEM (Science Foundation Arizona, 2013).

Informal STEM Learning

Informal STEM learning is perhaps one of the greatest examples as to why hori-
zontal partners matter. If representatives from local museums, zoos, universities,
businesses, and research centers are at the table as the policies are being considered,
then there is greater chance that such partners would be committed to lending
their time, talent, and resources to execute joint strategies where they are needed
most.
Since most states do not consistently make informal science a partner in the
STEM agenda, the role of vertical partners becomes even more important for
regions. Consider that states provide only a small share of direct funding to
informal science institutions, while the majority of the funding comes from
the federal government, corporate and private foundations, and the general
public. The National Science Foundation (NSF) is interested in growing the
body of research that will help regions and states make the case for increased
support for informal STEM learning. NSF has dedicated up to $14.4 mil-
lion to advance new approaches to and evidence-based understanding of the
design and development of STEM learning in informal environments; provide
multiple pathways for broadening access to STEM learning experiences; and
advance assessment of informal STEM learning (National Science Foundation,
2014).
Local and state partners can maximize use of the informal STEM learning
driver by developing policies aimed at bringing formal and informal STEM
learning experiences together. This type of merger has the potential to fuel high
school internships for students, accelerate online course taking from third party
partners, proliferate team teaching opportunities where teachers couple with
STEM professionals, and increase student opportunity to earn credit from chal-
lenging out-of-school experiences. In some places, informal partners are also
developing their own pre-schools and professional development for pre-K-12
teachers. This driver is ripe for policy innovation.
232 Shaun Yoder et al.

Embedded Technology
STEM education should employ the latest technologies as tools for teaching and
learning—and as the content for learning. The ‘technology’ component of STEM
seeks to prepare students to understand, deploy, and, in many cases, develop tech-
nologies that are connected to real-world STEM applications. Technology is a part
of the learning experience; embedded in it, not apart from it.
Many ‘blended learning’ environments combine embedded technology, dif-
ferent pedagogical approaches, and unique classroom operations to help edu-
cators personalize learning for individual students. This often results in better
student outcomes. Models should be structured so that every student has oppor-
tunities for individualized learning and every teacher has the time and resources,
including data, to differentiate small group or one-to-one instruction. Technol-
ogy that is simply overlaid on an antiquated model of schooling increases the
costs of education and the challenges to improving student achievement.
Example state-level policies might include efforts to ensure sufficient Internet
connectivity for schools or to provide competitive funds to districts that use
technology and innovation to transform teaching and learning, such as Ohio’s
Straight ‘A’ Fund (Ohio Department of Education, 2014).
These six drivers, if positioned and used properly, have the potential to sig-
nificantly affect STEM student success in pre-K-12. They should command pri-
ority focus as communities determine STEM goals and policies. The drivers are
inextricably linked to STEM student success beyond high school.

STEM School/Program Start-Up Process

The STEM School start-up process is comprised of three main stages: strategic
planning, development, and implementation (Johnson, 2014). The strategic plan-
ning phase is focused on development of mission, vision, goals, objectives, and
intended outcomes from the desired STEM approach. This should be planned
collaboratively with a team that is representative of all stakeholders involved in
the effort, including K-12 and community partners.
The development phase consists of developing a plan for necessary teacher
professional development on new pedagogy, content, and technological skills.
A second component is curriculum development, where teams of teachers work
with expert STEM curriculum facilitators to develop integrated STEM curricu-
lum through modification of existing resources or generation of new ideas and
concepts that are designed to engage students in solving real-world problems. The
third component is development of school climate, including scheduling, teacher
collaboration time for planning, engagement of STEM experts and community
partners in co-teaching, field trips, planning of curriculum, and determining stu-
dent STEM experiences that will take place outside of the school walls.
The implementation phase is the actual beginning of the implementation
of the STEM School or program plan. During this phase there should be con-
siderable effort focused on providing teachers time to collaborate, refining and
 Effective Program Characteristics 233

revising of curriculum, assessment of fidelity of implementation, assessment of

teacher and student outcomes, and real-time professional development for teach-
ers and partners engaged in the work.
STEM Innovations, LTD, is one source that has provided support for the
STEM School/Program start-up process nationally for several years and will
work with school districts and other agencies to collaboratively develop an indi-
vidualized plan that will leverage existing resources. Purdue University also
has offered STEM School Planning Retreats for school corporations. State-level
STEM networks may also be a resource that would provide support to schools
and programs that are interested in implementing a STEM approach.

Bringing It All Together: A Look at Tennessee and Texas

Across the country, STEM partnerships are developing comprehensive STEM
goals and policies designed to transform the education ecosystem and achieve
long-term impact. Tennessee and Texas, among others, are employing multiple
drivers to accomplish their goals.
In August 2012, the Tennessee STEM Innovation Network, a state-level STEM
partnership, released Future-Ready Tennessee: Developing STEM Talent for 2018 and
Beyond. The strategic plan sets out to answer the question: “Will Tennessee have
the competitive and skilled workforce it needs to prosper in a STEM-driven
economy?” The plan (Tennessee STEM Innovation Network, 2012) used state
STEM data to inform development of four goals aimed at accelerating STEM
talent development:

1) Increase student interest, participation, and achievement in STEM;

2) Expand student access to effective STEM teachers and leaders;
3) Reduce the state’s STEM talent and skills gaps; and
4) Build community awareness and support for STEM.

Each goal is supported by a set of strategies and progress metrics that track
to the drivers discussed in this chapter. The first goal, for instance, identi-
fies four strategies including: establishing regional STEM innovation hubs to
bring horizontal partners together locally; launching STEM platform schools
to change the teaching and learning model; ensuring all students have access
to rigorous STEM courses; and identifying, developing, and sharing STEM
curriculum tools.
This state-level STEM strategic plan is significant because it is anchored in
data and builds upon broader, pre-existing state-level policy goals in K-12, higher
education, and workforce. It also identifies and capitalizes on the state’s STEM
assets—from institutions of higher education to high-tech health and research
organizations and global businesses—to enhance STEM teaching and learning
for students across the state. Tennessee has been using its strategic plan as a guide
for STEM policy and advocacy for the last two years.
234 Shaun Yoder et al.

Almost a decade ago, Texas launched T-STEM, an initiative squarely focused

on using pre-K-12 STEM drivers to transform the delivery of teaching and learn-
ing to students and affect the state’s broader education ecosystem. Then, the Texas
High School Project (now Educate Texas) partnered with the governor, Texas
Education Agency (TEA), and major philanthropists to start 36 STEM schools
to serve students in greatest need. Today, T-STEM aims to empower teachers,
inspire students, and advance studies in STEM. The public–private initiative
includes academies, professional development centers, and networks aimed at
improving instruction and academic performance in science and mathematics-
related subjects at secondary schools.
The goals of the T-STEM Academies are clear: increase the number of stu-
dents entering postsecondary studies and careers in STEM; promote quality
school leadership that support school redesign efforts, quality teacher recruit-
ment, and improved teacher preparation; and assist in long-term educational
and economic development and alignment of the STEM fields (Communities
Foundation of Texas, 2014a, 2014b).
Parallel to launching T-STEM Academies, the state launched T-STEM Cen-
ters, which are located at universities and regional education service centers,
to create new STEM instructional materials and provide high-quality profes-
sional development. They coordinate with industry and business, which provide
resources to T-STEM Academies. To connect the work of T-STEM Academies
and T-STEM Centers, the state also launched the T-STEM Network, which
offers professional development, exemplary profiles, and other STEM education
resources.
To scale its T-STEM Academies with fidelity across the state, the initiative
created a T-STEM Academy Blueprint and established a rigorous process for
existing schools to gain the STEM designation in concert with TEA. T-STEM
Academies use the T-STEM Design Blueprint, Rubric, and Glossary as a guide-
post to build and sustain STEM schools that focus on mission-driven leadership;
school culture and design; student outreach, recruitment, and retention; cur-
riculum, instruction, and assessment; strategic alliances; and academic advance-
ment and sustainability. The T-STEM Rubric also addresses the five supporting
enablers. To date, 70 T-STEM Academies and seven blended Early College
High School/T-STEM Academies serve more than 40,000 students across the
state. Impact is even more far-reaching thanks to the T-STEM Network, which
ensures dissemination of best practices across the Lone Star State (Communities
Foundation of Texas, 2014a, 2014b).

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APPENDIX A
Sample STEM Module One: Grade 7

Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

STEM ROAD MAP CURRICULUM MODULE OVERVIEW

STEM Road Map Module Theme and Grade Level:

Cause and Effect, Grade 7

STEM Road Map Module Topic: Transportation—Motorsports

Lead Discipline: Science

Module Summary
Students will take on the role of design engineers as they work in teams to design,
within a set of design constraints, an innovative prototype vehicle with a new
safety aspect and powered by energy transformations. As they move through the
module, students will investigate types of energy; energy transformations; the
Law of Conservation of Energy; the concepts of speed, friction, aerodynamic
drag; and the engineering design process (EDP). The module will culminate in
the design project, The Automotive X-Challenge. Students will participate in a
race day event in which cars will compete for speed and will present their design
to industry professionals to be judged for design, innovation, teamwork, and
presentation quality. The academic content standards and 21st Century Skills for
this module can be found in Tables A.1.1 and A.1.2.

Established Goals/Objectives
The goals for this module are for students to be able to:

• understand the physics concepts of motion, force, and energy (Science);

• utilize the EDP in an authentic, real-world problem situation (Engineering);
240 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

• make connections to the historical, economic, geographic, and cultural

aspects of motorsports (Social Studies);
• utilize appropriate mathematics practices and content to complete authentic
tasks (Mathematics);
• communicate learning and experiences through various forms of writing and
speaking while effectively using relevant vocabulary and grammar (English/
Language Arts);
• build mastery of relevant 21st Century Themes and Skills.

The desired outcomes and assessment plan for this module can be found in
Tables A.1.3 and A.1.4.

Science (NGSS Performance Objectives)

Motion and Stability (MS-PS2); Energy (MS-PS3); Engineering Design (MS-ETS1)

Students will understand that there are different forms of energy with unique
characteristics; understand the concepts of speed, friction, and aerodynamic
drag; and understand the elements of the EDP. Students will apply their under-
standing of energy, energy transformations, speed, friction, aerodynamic drag,
materials, and the EDP by working in teams to design a vehicle powered by
energy transformations, and will be able to discuss the design process and the
energy transformations that power their vehicle. Student teams will investigate
a topic of their choice related to motorsports and will present their designs and
topical research projects through oral and visual presentations.

Driving Question/Problem for Students to Solve

How can we design and build a mode of transportation that is powered by energy
transformations?

Launch
Introduce unit by showing video of Automotive X-Prize (www.youtube.com/
watch?v=car1X_YElxk). Discuss automotive innovations and concept of engineer-
ing design. Present invitation/flyer for a class X-Challenge to design a prototype car.

LESSON PLAN #1—TRANSPORTATION—MOTORSPORTS

Lesson Title: Start Your Engines

Lesson Summary
This lesson introduces the X-Challenge unit. The concept of innovative car
design will be introduced via a video and discussion. Engineering as a profes-
sion will be introduced using racecar designers as an exemplar. Students will be
TABLE A.1.1 Content Standards Addressed in STEM Road Map Module—Transportation—Motorsports

NGSS Performance Outcomes Common Core Common Core

Standards Mathematics Standards English/Language Arts Standards
MS-PS2-1. Apply Newton’s CCSS.Math.Practice.1. Make CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RL.7.1. Cite several pieces of textual
Third Law to design a solution to sense of problems and persevere in evidence to support analysis of what the text says explicitly as
a problem involving the motion of solving them. well as inferences drawn from the text.
two colliding objects. CCSS.Math.Practice.2. Reason CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RL.7.7. Compare and contrast a written
MS-PS2-2. Plan an investigation abstractly and quantitatively. story, drama, or poem to its audio, filmed, staged, or multimedia
to provide evidence that the change CCSS.Math.Practice.3. Construct version, analyzing the effects of techniques unique to each
in an object’s motion depends on viable arguments and critique the medium (e.g. lighting, sound, color, or camera focus and angles
the sum of the forces on the object reasoning of others. in a film).
and the mass of the object. CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.7.1. Write arguments to support claims
CCSS.Math.Practice.4. Model
MS-PS2-3. Ask questions about with mathematics. with clear reasons and relevant evidence.
data to determine the factors that CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.7.1a. Introduce claim(s), acknowledge
CCSS.Math.Practice.5. Use
affect the strength of electric and alternate or opposing claims, and organize the reasons and
appropriate tools strategically.
magnetic forces. evidence logically.
CCSS.Math.Practice.6. Attend to
MS-PS2-5. Conduct an CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.7.2. Write informative/explanatory
precision.
investigation and evaluate the texts to examine a topic and convey ideas, concepts, and
experimental design to provide CCSS.Math.Practice.7. Look for
information through the selection, organization, and analysis of
evidence that fields exist between and make use of structure.
relevant content.
objects exerting forces on each CCSS.Math.Practice.8. Look for
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.7.2a. Introduce a topic clearly,
other even though the objects are and express regularity in repeated
previewing what is to follow; organize ideas, concepts, and
not in contact. reasoning.
information, using strategies such as definition, classification,
comparison/contrast, and cause/effect; include formatting (e.g.
headings), graphics (e.g. charts, tables), and multimedia when
useful to aiding comprehension.
(Continued)
TABLE A.1.1 (Continued)

NGSS Performance Outcomes Common Core Common Core

Standards Mathematics Standards English/Language Arts Standards
MS-PS3-1. Construct and interpret CCSS.Math.Content.7.RP.A.1. CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.7.2b. Develop the topic with
graphical displays of data to Compute unit rates associated relevant facts, definitions, concrete details, quotations, or other
describe the relationship of kinetic with ratios of fractions, including information and examples.
energy to the mass of an object and ratios of lengths, areas, and other CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.7.6. Use technology, including the
to the speed of an object. quantities measured in like or Internet, to produce and publish writing and link to and cite
MS-PS3-2. Develop a model to different units. sources as well as to interact and collaborate with others,
describe that when the arrangement CCSS.Math.Content.7.RP.A.2. including linking to and citing sources.
of objects interacting at a distance Recognize and represent CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.7.7. Conduct short research projects to
changes, different amounts of proportional relationships between answer a question, drawing on several sources and generating additional
potential energy are stored in the quantities. related, focused questions for further research and investigation.
system. CCSS.Math.Content.7.NS.A.3. CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.7.8. Gather relevant information from
MS-PS3-5. Construct, use, and Solve real-world and mathematical multiple print and digital sources, using search terms effectively;
present arguments to support the problems involving the four assess the credibility and accuracy of each source; and quote or
claim that when the kinetic energy operations with rational numbers. paraphrase the data and conclusions of others while avoiding
of an object changes, energy is CCSS.Math.Content.7.EE.B.3. plagiarism and following a standard format for citation.
transferred to or from the object. Solve multi-step, real-life and CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.7.9. Draw evidence from literary or
MS-ETS1-1. Define the criteria mathematical problems posed with informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research.
and constraints of a design problem positive and negative rational numbers
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.SL.7.1. Engage effectively in a range of
with sufficient precision to ensure in any form (whole numbers,
collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led)
a successful conclusion, taking fractions, and decimals), using tools
with diverse partners on grade 7 topics, texts, and issues, building
into account relevant scientific strategically. Apply properties of
on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly.
principles and potential impacts on operations to calculate with numbers
people and the natural environment in any form; convert between CCSS.ELA-Literacy.SL.7.1a. Come to discussions prepared,
that may limit possible solutions. forms as appropriate; and assess the having read or researched material under study; explicitly draw
reasonableness of answers using mental on that preparation by referring to evidence on the topic, text, or
computation and estimation strategies. issue to probe and reflect on ideas under discussion.
MS-ETS1-2. Evaluate competing CCSS.Math.Content.7.EE.B.4. CCSS.ELA-Literacy.SL.7.1b. Follow rules for collegial
design solutions using a systematic Use variables to represent quantities discussions, track progress toward specific goals and deadlines,
process to determine how well they in a real-world or mathematical and define individual roles as needed.
meet the criteria and constraints of problem, and construct simple CCSS.ELA-Literacy.SL.7.1c. Pose questions that illicit
the problem. equations and inequalities to solve elaboration and respond to others’ questions and comments with
MS-ETS1-3. Analyze data from problems by reasoning about the relevant observations and ideas that bring the discussion back on
tests to determine similarities and quantities. topic as needed.
differences among several design CCSS.Math.Content.7.SP.A.1. CCSS.ELA-Literacy.SL.7.1d. Acknowledge new information
solutions to identify the best Understand that statistics can be expressed by others and, when warranted, modify their own
characteristics of each that can be used to gain information about a views.
combined into a new solution to population by examining a sample
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.SL.7.3. Delineate a speaker’s argument and
better meet the criteria for success. of the population; generalizations
specific claims, evaluating the soundness of the reasoning and the
MS-ETS1-4. Develop a model to about a population from a sample
relevance and sufficiency of the evidence.
generate data for iterative testing are valid only if the sample is
representative of that population. CCSS.ELA-Literacy.SL.7.4. Present claims and findings,
and modification of a proposed
Understand that random sampling emphasizing salient points in a focused, coherent manner
object, tool, or process such that an
tends to produce representative with pertinent descriptions, facts, details, and examples;
optimal design can be achieved.
samples and support valid use appropriate eye contact, adequate volume, and clear
inferences. pronunciation.
CCSS.ELA-Literacy.SL.7.5. Include multimedia components
and visual displays in presentations to clarify claims and findings
and emphasize salient points.
TABLE A.1.2 21st Century Skills Addressed in the STEM Road Map Module

21st Century Skills Learning Skills and Teaching Strategies Evidence of Success
Technology Tools (from
P21 framework)

21st Century Financial, Economic, • Draw connections between academic content • Students can discuss the variety of jobs that
Interdisciplinary Business, and and a variety of career pathways using a variety support the motorsports industry.
Themes Entrepreneurial Literacy of resources including videos and classroom • Students can discuss the role of motorsports in
guests. the U.S. economy.
• Highlight the importance of motorsports and • Students create a cost-effective prototype.
manufacturing to the U.S. economy. • Students can create a compelling presentation to a
• Provide students with budget constraints for diverse audience highlighting the benefits of their
their prototype designs. prototype design.
Learning and Creativity and Innovation • Teach and facilitate student use of • Students can implement the EDP in a group
Innovation Skills Critical Thinking Engineering Design Process (EDP) setting to create and present a prototype within
and Problem Solving throughout unit and design challenge. budgetary and engineering constraints with
Communication and • Facilitate group work and instruct students on evidence of collaboration.
Collaboration use of design journals. • Design journals reflect students’ critical thinking and
are used to draw connections between ideas and
concepts presented in class and the prototype designs.
Information, Information, • Have students use technology to research their • Student presentations include information from
Media, and Communications and group motorsports topic. Internet research and/or multimedia presentation
Technology Skills Technology (ICT) Literacy • Provide students with opportunities to incorporate techniques.
multimedia elements into presentations. • References are acknowledged and cited where
• Support appropriate use of technology appropriate.
resources and proper use of sources (i.e. citing
sources appropriately).
Life and Career Flexibility and Adaptability • Scaffold student group work through a series • Team projects are completed on time with evidence
Skills Initiative and Self-Direction of investigations/lab activities to support team of participation by all team members.
Social and Cross-Cultural prototype design and topical research efforts. • Students present to peers, industry professionals,
Skills • Use EDP to teach flexibility (through and teachers using appropriate language and
Productivity and Accountability redesign), time management, and goal professional demeanor.
management. • Students are able to respond to questions
• Provide guidelines and practice opportunities for regarding the design process and teamwork.
student presentations emphasizing professionalism
and inclusivity of all team members.
 Appendix A 245

TABLE A.1.3 Desired Outcomes and Monitoring Success

Desired Outcome Evidence of Success in Achieving Identified Outcome

Students will understand the Performance Tasks Other Measures
elements of the engineering • Students will maintain design • Collaboration
design process and use the journals (individual activity rubric
process to apply the concepts worksheets, Engineer It!
introduced in the unit and the worksheets, and reflections).
findings from their inquiry • Students will design a working
activities to the final design prototype car (team).
challenge. • Student teams will research and
present on a topic of their choice
(team).
• Students will be able to discuss how
they applied their understanding of
energy transformations and other
concepts introduced in the unit to
their designs (individual and team).

TABLE A.1.4 Assessment Plan

Major Group Products • Prototype vehicle (evidence of incorporation

of science concepts; evidence of innovation and
creativity; evidence of use of EDP principles; evidence
of collaboration—see prototype design rubric)
• Topical research project (evidence of use of
multiple sources of information)
• Presentation (use of appropriate information and
language; use of good presentation skills; response to
audience questions; use of audiovisual aids; evidence of
collaboration—see presentation rubric)
Major Individual • Lab reports
Products/Deliverables • Design journal ref lections
• Topical quizzes
• Participation in prototype design and presentation

introduced to the driving question for the unit and receive an invitation to par-
ticipate in the Automotive X-Challenge. The elements of the engineering design
process (EDP) will be introduced and students will use the EDP in a mini design
challenge. The timeline for the implementation of this module can be found in
Tables A.1.5 and A.1.6.

Essential Question(s)
• What skills will we use to design a solution for the unit’s challenge?
• What do engineers do and how do they do their work?
TABLE A.1.5 STEM Road Map Module Timeline—Weeks One through Three

Day 1 (Lesson 1) Day 2 (Lesson 1) Day 3 (Lesson 2) Day 4 (Lesson 2) Day 5 (Lesson 3)
Start Your Engines Start Your Engines Let’s Get Energetic! Let’s Get Energetic! Materials Matter
Launch the module. Students use EDP in a mini Introduce potential/ Introduce Law of Introduce concept of
Introduce challenge, design challenge. Introduce kinetic energy as the two Conservation of materials science and
engineering design design journals. major categories of energy. Energy. Explore energy gravitational potential
process (EDP). Energy flow game. transformations and energy. Ball drop lab
energy sources for cars. activity.

Day 6 (Lesson 3) Day 7 (Lesson 4) Day 8 (Lesson 4) Day 9 (Lesson 5) Day 10 (Lesson 5)
Materials Matter Stretching It Stretching It Rubber Band Racers Rubber Band Racers
Students investigate Elastic Potential Energy. Data analysis for Rubber Introduce speed and Reflect on Rubber Band
materials used in race Introduce/demonstrate Band Shooters. Effect of begin Rubber Band Racers design and draft
cars and safety aspects concept. Rubber Band heat on elastomers. Racers. ideal materials list for
of current technologies. Shooters activity. challenge.

Day 11 (Lesson 6) Day 12 (Lesson 6) Day 13 (Lesson 7) Day 14 (Lesson 7) Day 15 (Lesson 7)
Fact or Friction? Fact or Friction? Ready, Set, Race: The Ready, Set, Race: The Ready, Set, Race: The
Introduce Friction. Students research racetrack X-Challenge X-Challenge X-Challenge
Demonstrations and materials and reflect on Team planning, identify Brainstorm, sketch Continue design sketches,
Roll Down Test inquiry the role of friction in their and research problem, designs, make budget. purchase materials.
activity. X-Challenge design. brainstorm.
TABLE A.1.6 STEM Road Map Module Timeline—Weeks Four and Five

Day 16 (Lesson 7) Day 17 (Lesson 7) Day 18 (Lesson 7) Day 19 (Lesson 7) Day 20 (Lesson 7)
Ready, Set, Race: The Ready, Set, Race: The Ready, Set, Race: The Ready, Set, Race: The Topical research
X-Challenge X-Challenge X-Challenge X-Challenge Ready, Set, Race: The X-Challenge
Build, test, evaluate, Build, test, evaluate, Build, test, evaluate, Build, test, evaluate, Topical research. Create
redesign. redesign. redesign. redesign. presentation materials.

Day 21 (Lesson 7) Day 22 (Lesson 7) Day 23 (Lesson 7) Day 24 (Lesson 7)

Ready, Set, Race: The Ready, Set, Race: The Ready, Set, Race: The Ready, Set, Race: The
X-Challenge X-Challenge X-Challenge X-Challenge
Create presentation Design presentation day. Design presentation day. Reflecting on designs,
materials, practice review feedback from
presentation. industry ‘judges.’
248 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

Established Goals/Objectives
• Students will understand that engineers work in teams to design products.
• Students will understand that engineers use a process (the EDP) to do their work.
• Students will understand that engineers work within design constraints, and
that they must consider multiple objectives when designing products.
• Students will understand that engineers and other manufacturing industry
professionals must be able to present their work to multiple audiences.
• Students will understand and be able to use design journals as a reflective tool
to prepare for their design challenge.
• Students will be able to apply the EDP to a group design challenge.
• Student teams will present their designs to the class.

Time required: Two days

Necessary Materials
• Audiovisual equipment (Internet access) to show videos
• Design journals—three ring binders with dividers
• Snow-Proof School materials—50 index cards and one roll of office tape per
three to four students; metal washers for weights to test designs
• EDP graphic handouts
• Engineer It! worksheet handouts

Teacher Background Information

This lesson provides an introduction to the unit using the Automotive X-Prize as
a ‘hook’ for the unit’s culminating design challenge and driving question. The key
vocabulary that students will learn in this module are listed in Table A.1.7. The orig-
inal Automotive X-Prize, sponsored by Progressive Insurance, awarded $10 million
in 2010 to three teams that designed safe, affordable, fuel-efficient vehicles that could
be marketed to consumers (see http://auto.xprize.org/ for more information). The

TABLE A.1.7 Key Vocabulary—Lesson One

Key Vocabulary Definition

Engineering Applying math and science skills to solve real-world problems
by designing solutions or products.
Engineering Design A series of steps engineers use to come up with solutions to
Process problems (identify problem; brainstorm; design; build; test
and evaluate; redesign; share solution).
Innovate To do something in a new way or have new ideas about how
something can be done.
Collaborate To work with another person or group to achieve something.
Prototype An early model of a product or process used for testing and
from which other forms are developed.
 Appendix A 249

X-Prize principles of innovative design and marketability will be used throughout

the unit to scaffold students’ understanding of science principles and to provide a
gateway connection to the motorsports and manufacturing industries.
Engineering is introduced as a career connection in this unit with a particular
emphasis on design engineers in the motorsports industry. Students will be chal-
lenged to act as engineers, using engineering thinking (the EDP) to ultimately
work in teams to build their vehicles.
An in-depth knowledge of auto racing is not necessary to teach this unit,
however some background will be helpful. A summary of each car series’
specifications can be found at www.indycar.com/Fan-Info/INDYCAR-101/
The-Car-Dallara/Car-Comparisons.
Students may be familiar with the concept of race engineers in motorsports and
may not understand the difference between race engineers and design engineers.
Race engineers are individuals who act as a conduit between the race driver and
race mechanics. They provide drivers with critical information about strategy and
respond to drivers’ feedback about the car’s performance. This information is used
to make adjustments to improve the car’s handling and performance. Race engi-
neers typically have a design engineering background (see www.formula1.com/
news/features/2009/9/9885.html for a discussion of the role of Formula One race
engineers). In contrast, design engineers work primarily in a manufacturing setting.
Your students may be familiar with the scientific method but may not have
experience with the EDP. Students should understand that the processes are simi-
lar but are used in different situations. The scientific method is used to test pre-
dictions and explanations about the world. The EDP, on the other hand, is used
to create a solution to a problem. In reality, engineers use both processes and your
students’ experience will reflect this. They will use the scientific method within
the research and knowledge building phase of the EDP as they engage in their
inquiry activities and will use the EDP during their final X-Challenge design
challenge. A good summary of the similarities and differences in the process can
be found at www.sciencebuddies.org/engineering-design-process/engineering-
design-compare-scientific-method.shtml. A graphic representation of the EDP is
provided at the end of this lesson. It may be useful to post this in your classroom.
The X-Challenge design challenge is a team-based challenge. You may wish to
assign teams now or you may choose to observe student group work for the first
two lessons before assigning teams. These teams should be composed of four to
six students each. Research suggests that teacher-designated teams comprised of
students with ability levels are preferable for project- and problem-based learning
units (Belland, Glazewski, & Ertmer, 2009; Oakley, Felder, Brent, & Elhajj, 2004).

Lesson Preparation
This unit will culminate with a Race Day event during which students will
present their designs and a related research project. Inviting outside guests to
assess projects and talk to students about their design process and what they have
250 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

learned adds real-life context to students’ work and requires that they prepare
presentations that are engaging and professional.
Have available:

• audiovisual equipment with Internet access to show videos;

• copies of X-Challenge Invitation (option: this can be used as a cover for stu-
dent design journals);
• copies of EDP graphic;
• copies of Snow-Proof School building challenge;
• supplies for Snow-Proof School building challenge;
• copies of Engineer It! design process sheets for each student;
• students’ design journals/lab notebooks (three-ring binder with dividers).

Learning Plan Components

Introductory Activity/Engagement

Science Class
• Show video of Automotive X-Prize: www.youtube.com/watch?v=car1X_
YElxk.
• Discuss what the problem was and the relevance of the problem to society
and the industry (limited resources, cost efficiency, safety, etc.).
• Tell students that they will be challenged to create a vehicle that uses no traditional
fuel in the X-Challenge and that they will use the same processes that the X-Prize
teams did. Have students brainstorm about what the X-Prize teams needed to
consider (fuel efficiency, weight, parts withstanding rapid acceleration, etc.).
• Have students brainstorm about what they will need to consider in creating a fuel-
free car. Ask students to recall who the winners in the mainstream category ended
up competing against? Discuss the concept of constraints and that people who
design things often work within a set of constraints or goals they need to meet.
• Introduce the concept of engineering:
 Ask students who designs things like cars (engineers).
 Show “What is Engineering?” video: www.youtube.com/watch?v=bip
TWWHya8A.
 Discuss that students will be assuming the role of engineers for this unit.
 Ask students how many people were involved in designing each of the
X-Prize cars. Point out that engineers work in teams.
 Ask students to name different sorts of engineers (civil, mechanical,
nuclear, materials, chemical, electrical). Ask students to consider what
sorts of engineers design cars (mechanical).
 Have students brainstorm about what makes an individual a good team
member (create a class list). Make sure that students understand that
they will be assessed on their teamwork for this unit.
 Appendix A 251

• Introduce the concept that engineers use a process:

 Introduce EDP.
 Discuss similarities/differences with scientific method.
 Introduce the concept of prototypes as a preliminary or first model that
is often on a small scale.
 Option: Show video about EDP: www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/
phy03.sci.engin.design.desprocess/what-is-the-design-process/.
• Introduce Design Journals (three sections: Engineer It!, Lab/Activity Work-
sheets, Reflections). Explain that they will be used:
 as lab notebooks to store lab/activity worksheets;
 to reflect on activities and make connections with the X-Challenge;
 to track their use of the EDP using Engineer It! worksheets.
Note—these journals can be kept electronically using the worksheets as
templates for students to set up their own journals in Word or other word
processing software.
• Distribute Team Member Expectations page, review expectations and have
each student sign and place in the front of their Design Journal notebooks.

Activity/Investigation

Science Class: Use EDP in the Snow-Proof School Challenge

Introduce the Snow-Proof School Challenge: Ask students to recall a recent heavy win-
ter (i.e. 2014). Heavy snows were a concern for schools and other public buildings
since there was a possibility that they could collapse under the weight of the snow.
This was especially a problem in states that usually do not experience heavy snows
and where buildings are not designed with the expectation that roofs will need to
support this extra weight. Many school principals and maintenance workers actually
shoveled snow off roofs to ensure that they didn’t collapse (show pictures). Introduce
the idea that students will act as engineers to design a snow-proof school building
(discuss what sort of engineers design buildings—architects, civil engineers).
• Have students form teams of three to four.
• Distribute Snow-Proof School Challenge description.
• Distribute Engineer It! sheets.

Teams should work collaboratively to solve the challenge. Each student should
complete an entry in their Design Journal and present their designs to the class.
Mathematics connections: math practices (constructing buildings), geom-
etry (what shapes were best design for function), measurement (using precision
in constructing buildings).
ELA connections: writing (Design Journals), speaking and listening skills
(group discussion and group work), reading (current events related to racecars).
Social Studies connections: economics (budget constraints, resource limi-
tations), geography (examining regions with high snowfall).
252 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

Explain

Science Class
• Introduce EDP;
• Emphasize teamwork components of EDP;
• Prototypes.

Extend/Apply Knowledge: What opportunities will students have to apply

what they have learned through their work in this lesson explicitly, if any?
Social studies connections: Student groups will conduct research on the
locations in the U.S. where the racing industry has a presence and explore how
this has impacted local culture and quality of life.
Mathematics connections: Students will gather data on the impact on the
local economy for one region with a racing industry presence.
English/Language Arts connections: Students will utilize writing skills
to develop a one-page overview of their selected region in the U.S. and the racing
industry presence outlining the pros and cons of living in a region with this type
of sports industry.

Assessment
Performance tasks:

• Completion of Snow-Proof School Challenge;

• Engineer It! sheets (Design Journal);
• One-page overview paper.

Other measures:

• Assessment of collaboration skills.

Internet Resources
Racecar information/series comparisons: http://sports.yahoo.com/irl/news?slug=txindy
carseriesprimer and www.indycar.com/Fan-Info/INDYCAR-101/The-Car-Dallara/Car-
Comparisons.
What is Engineering? www.youtube.com/watch?v=bipTWWHya8A
IndyCar Factory information: www.indycarfactory.com/about.html
Interview with Luca Pignacca, Chief Designer at Dallara (2012): www.youtube.com/
watch?v=8-eMjny_PJ
Progressive Insurance X-prize: http://auto.xprize.org/
X-Prize video: www.youtube.com/watch?v=car1X_YElxk
Engineering Design Process video: www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/phy03.sci.
engin.design.desprocess/what-is-the-design-process
Engineering design process versus scientific process, summary:
www.sciencebuddies.org/engineering-design-process/engineering-design-compare-
scientific-method.shtml
 Appendix A 253

Engineer It!

Name: Date:
Project/Activity:

Identify the
Step 1:
Problem

State the problem:

Identify the conditions that must be met to solve the problem:

Identify anything that might limit the solution (cost, availability of materials,
safety):

Step 2: Research &

Brainstorm

If you did any research, summarize your findings here:

Brainstorm! What solutions do you and your team imagine?

Plan
Step 3: Design &
Sketch

Include a sketch or sketches here (you may include additional sheets). Label and
include materials you need:
254 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

Why did you choose the design?

List the materials you will need for your prototype.

Step 4: Build

Did your building process go as expected? What turned out differently than you
thought it would when you designed and sketched your ideas?

Did you need additional materials? If so, list them here:

Test &
Step 5: Evaluate

How did you test your prototype?

What were the results of your tests?

What are the strengths of your design?

What are the weaknesses of your design?

Did your design solve the problem?

Improve
Step 6: the
Design

What changes would help your design perform better?

 Appendix A 255

Step 7: Present
Solutions

How will you share your design?

Decide who will present various aspects of your design and the design process.
List team member responsibilities here:

The Snow-Proof Challenge

Your Challenge
Design and build a prototype building that has at least three surface levels (base-
ment, mid-floor, and roof), that is at least 20 cm high, and can support as much
weight as possible.

Design Rules
• Materials are 50 index cards and one roll of office tape.
• Cards can be folded but not torn.
• No piece of tape can be longer than 2 inches.
• Building cannot be taped to the floor or table.
• Building must have a roof surface on which to put the test weights (washers).
• Time to design and build: 40 minutes.
• Height is measured from the ground to the roof level.
• Tower must support the weight for at least ten seconds.

LESSON PLAN #2—TRANSPORTATION—MOTORSPORTS

Lesson Title: Let’s Get Energetic!

Lesson Summary
This lesson introduces the concept of energy as the ability to do work, the idea
that all forms of energy fall into the categories of potential and kinetic energy,
the concept of energy transformations, and the Law of Conservation of Energy.
Students explore energy and energy transformations through teacher demonstra-
tions, an interactive game, and energy inquiry stations. Students will work in
256 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

their design teams to brainstorm and research energy sources for cars, the impli-
cations of each of these energy sources, and discuss what energy sources they
could use to power their X-Challenge vehicle.

Essential Question(s)
• What is energy?
• What are the different ways things can have energy?
• How is energy transferred from one thing to another?
• In what ways could your X-Challenge car be powered?

Established Goals/Objectives
• Students will understand that energy is the ability to do work.
• Students will be able to identify various types of energy (sound, light, heat,
chemical).
• Students will be able to differentiate between potential and kinetic energy.
• Students will understand that one form of energy can be converted to another.
• Students will be able to discuss and identify energy transformations and trace
the conversion of one form of energy to another.
• Students will understand and discuss the Law of Conservation of Energy.
• Students will create a database of energy sources for cars.

Time Required: Two classes

Necessary Materials
Introduction and Demonstration: Transformation Stations:
• Flashlight (battery-operated), • Transformation Station Instructions
• Jump rope, (one to two per station),
• Ball (to bounce), • Transformation Station Student
• Toy car, Record sheets (one per student),
• One plastic container of sand, about • Transformation Station materi-
two-thirds full, als (see materials lists in station
• One thermometer, instructions).
• Energy Flows worksheets (one per
student).

Teacher Background Information

The classic definition of energy, the ability to do work, may be difficult for stu-
dents to conceptualize. Energy can be introduced as a physical property of objects.
Unlike color, mass, etc., however, energy is better understood by what it can do,
rather than how it looks or feels, so that we define energy as the ability to do work.
 Appendix A 257

TABLE A.1.8 Key Vocabulary—Lesson Two

Key Vocabulary Definition

Energy The ability to do work; work is done whenever something
moves.
Work Using a force to move an object a distance.
Potential Energy Energy stored in an object because of its state or position.
Kinetic Energy Energy of motion.
Energy Transformations When one type of energy is converted to another type.
Temperature A measure of the amount of heat in an object or substance.
Thermal Energy Heat. The internal energy in substances caused by the
movement of atoms.
Mechanical Energy The energy of a moving object.
Electrical Energy The energy of electrons moving through a substance.
Chemical Energy Energy stored in the bonds in atoms and molecules; released
when chemical compounds change or react.
Nuclear Energy The energy that holds the nucleus of an atom together.
Gravitational Potential The energy of a place or position.
Energy
Elastic Potential Energy Energy stored in objects by applying force.
Sound Energy The movement of energy through substances in longitudinal
waves.

All energy falls into two major categories: potential and kinetic. All other
varieties of energy fall into one of these two categories. There are many differ-
ent forms of energy. The Energy handout may be a useful way to organize this
visually for students.
Although students will design their X-Challenge cars with a limited set of
materials, this is a useful time for them to brainstorm about how the cars could be
powered. As an option, this activity may lead to a discussion of renewable versus
non-renewable energy sources and energy conservation. The National Energy
Education Project (NEED) provides a curriculum guide containing information
and student resources for renewable and non-renewable energy sources. It can be
accessed online at www.need.org/files/curriculum/guides/Energy%20Flows.pdf.

Lesson Preparation
• Have materials available for introductory activity at the start of class.
• Assemble sand demonstration materials.
• Prepare copies of Energy organizer chart to share with class in a discussion.
• Set up Transformation Stations.
• Prepare copies of Transformation Station instruction sheets.
• Prepare copies of Transformation Station student record sheets.
258 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

Learning Plan Components

Introductory Activity/Engagement

Science Class
Begin the class with asking one student to turn on a flashlight, one to jump rope,
one to bounce a ball, one to roll a toy car down a ramp. Ask students what it took
for each of these actions to occur? What else happens when we do these things?
Ask students to brainstorm about the question: “What is Energy?” Lead stu-
dents to an understanding that any kind of work or change requires energy, so
energy is the ability to do work or change something.

Activity/Investigation

Science Class

1) Sand Energy Demonstration

1) Place the bulb of a thermometer about halfway to the bottom in the middle
of a plastic container filled about two-thirds with sand.
2) After about 30 seconds, read the temperature of the sand.
3) Remove the thermometer and place the lid on the plastic container. Make
sure the lid is sealed all the way around the container.
4) Have each student shake the container vigorously for a few seconds (a total
of about 2.5 minutes).
5) Remove the lid and submerge the thermometer bulb under the sand for
about 30 seconds. Read the temperature of the sand.

Ask students:

• Why did the temperature change? (Kinetic energy of particles—particles

bouncing off one another produced heat and therefore an increase in
temperature.)
• Where did the energy for the temperature change come from?

Lead students to an understanding that one kind of energy can be transformed

to another kind of energy (i.e. kinetic energy of shaking to heat energy, etc.).

2) Energy Flow Activity

Discuss as a class the flow of energy from the students’ breakfast that morn-
ing through the energy transformations that ultimately result in an increase in
 Appendix A 259

temperature of the sand. Tracing this energy flow can be an introduction to

the Law of Conservation of Energy. Students should understand that energy
is not created or destroyed, but can be transformed to another kind of energy.
Ask students to consider what the source is of most of the energy on Earth (the
Sun). Have students write in their journals regarding where their energy comes
from and where it goes on a daily basis. Point out to students that they should
consider the flow of energy to them, but that the ways they expend energy may
not necessarily be expressed as a flow (for instance, they may conclude energy
by breathing, thinking, growing, digesting food, etc.). Have students share their
ideas.

3) Transformation Stations
Divide students into four groups. Leave a copy of the station instructions at
each of the four stations and give each student a record sheet. Students should
have about eight minutes at each station to investigate what types of energy are
involved in energy conversions.

• Station #1: Wind up flashlight. Mechanical to electrical to light energy.

• Station #2: Music box. Mechanical to sound.
• Station #3: Baking soda and vinegar balloons. Chemical to mechanical energy.
• Station #4: Sand jars. Mechanical to thermal.

Mathematics connections: Students will utilize conversion formulas to cal-

culate temperature conversions. Students will also create an energy audit and
will project how much money a household could save in one month using fluo-
rescent bulbs rather than incandescent bulbs.
ELA connections: Student teams will develop a blog advocating for their
selected choice of alternative energy.
Social Studies connections: Students will explore the use of alternative
energy sources in the U.S. for a variety of purposes. Further, students will learn
what types of alternative energy sources are in use in their community.

Explain

Science Class
• Energy is the ability to do work; a physical property that is observed by its
effects.
• All energy falls into two categories: potential and kinetic.
• Potential energy is energy stored in an object because of its state or position;
kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
• One type of energy can be converted to another.
260 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

• There are numerous forms of energy that fall within the larger two categories
of energy.
• Law of Conservation of Energy.

Extend/Apply Knowledge

Science Class
Students work in groups to brainstorm ideas for energy sources for design chal-
lenge cars. Create a class database of energy sources for the design challenge and
discuss the feasibility of each.
Mathematics connections: Introduce kinetic energy calculations (k=1/2mv2)
and calculate the kinetic energy of various items; conduct a home energy audit and
calculate cost of energy used in a week.
ELA connections: Research alternative energy sources and write position
papers about their usefulness or create a brochure to advertise energy alternatives.
Social Studies connections: Discuss government role in energy conserva-
tion (for example, tax credits for energy efficient appliances).

Assessment
Performance tasks:
• Completion of Transformation Stations.
• Transformation Station record sheets.

Other measures:
• Observation of participation/collaboration in brainstorming session.

Internet Resources
NEED Energy Flows resources: www.need.org/files/curriculum/guides/Energy%20
Flows.pdf

Transformation Stations Overview

Station #1: Light Up My Life

Students will be provided with two wind-up LED flashlights at this station.
They will investigate how long the flashlight remains illuminated relative to
how many times they turn the crank in order to investigate the relationship
between the input of mechanical energy and the output of light energy.

Materials: two crank flashlights, two timers, station instructions

 Appendix A 261

Station #2: Making Music

At this station students will be provided with two transparent manually operated
music boxes. Students will observe what happens inside the music box as they wind
it up and think about how the sound is generated and how it reaches their ears.

Materials: two transparent music boxes, station instructions, plastic drinking

straws (six per student), scissors (one per student), masking tape (two rolls)

Station #3: Sand Shakers

This station is a variation on the sand temperature demonstration. Two containers
of sand, one completely full (so little movement is possible when shaken) and one
about one-third full. Students will measure and record initial temperatures and make
hypotheses about what will happen when they shake each container for two minutes.

Materials: two containers of sand (one full, the other one-third full), two ther-
mometers, timer, station instructions

Station #4: Blow It Up!

At this station students will use baking soda and vinegar to create a chemical
reaction to blow up a balloon. They will be provided with two flasks, each with
100 ml of vinegar, and two quantities of baking soda (1½ tsp and ½ tsp). They will
put the baking soda into balloons using a funnel and then attach the balloons to
the vinegar flasks. Students should see that the balloon with the smaller amount
of baking soda is smaller and be able to conclude that more chemical reagents
results in more chemical energy, which is transformed to mechanical energy to
blow up the balloons.

Materials: eight flasks of vinegar (two per student group), baking soda (pre-
measured for each group), balloons, safety glasses, station instructions

Transformation Station Instruction Sheets

Station #1: Light Up My Life

You will investigate how long the flashlight remains illuminated in relation to how
many times they turn the crank and record your observations on your record sheet.

Materials
• Two wind-up LED flashlights
• Two timers
262 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

Procedure
1) Turn the crank once. What happens?
2) Now, have one person timing and another turning the crank. Turn the
crank exactly one cycle. Time how long the light stays lit.
3) Next, turn the crank one more cycle. How long did the flashlight stay lit? Is
it brighter?
4) Repeat step 2, cranking one additional cycle each time and timing how
much longer the light stays on.

Station #2: Making Music

Have you ever wondered how a music box works? At this station you will
be able to see what happens within the music box when you wind it up
and make your own musical instrument. Record your observations on your
record sheet.

Materials
• Two transparent music boxes
• Drinking straws
• Scissors
• Masking tape

Wind up the music box. What do you see? What do you hear? Record your
observations.
Now, try to make a musical instrument that will play different notes using six
plastic drinking straws per person (hint: you will need to blow across the top of
the drinking straws to make a sound!).

Station #3: Sand Shakers

Think about what happened to the sand in the demonstration at the beginning
of class. What do you think will happen with these two containers? Will the
amount of sand in them make a difference?

Materials
• Two containers of sand, one completely full and one about one-third full
• Two thermometers
• One timer
 Appendix A 263

Procedure
1) Make a hypothesis about what will happen to the temperature of the sand
in each of the two containers when you shake them. Record this on your
record sheet.
2) Use the thermometer to find the temperature of the sand. Record it on your
record sheet.
3) Put lids on the containers. Choose two people to shake the containers and
one person to time.
4) Shake the containers for two minutes.
5) Take the lid off and measure the final temperatures for each container.
Record this on your record sheet.
6) Repeat steps 3 and 4 with different people shaking the containers.

Station #4: Blow It Up!

You will see a chemical reaction at this station and you will capture the prod-
ucts of the reaction inside a balloon. Vinegar reacts with baking soda and
turns into carbon dioxide and water. What do you think will happen to the
balloon?

Materials
• Two flasks, each with 100 ml of vinegar
• Two pre-measured quantities of baking soda (1½ tsp and ½ tsp)
• Two balloons
• Funnel
• Safety glasses (one per student)

Procedure
1) Be sure that everyone in the group is wearing safety glasses.
2) Attach the balloon opening to the funnel and use the funnel to add the
smaller amount (½ tsp) of baking soda to the balloon.
3) Without allowing the baking soda to fall into the flask, attach the balloon
to the flask with the vinegar.
4) Once the balloon is firmly attached to the flask, lift the balloon so the bak-
ing soda empties in to the flask.
5) Observe what happens and touch the balloon to see if it feels warm or cold.
Record your observations on your record sheet.
6) Repeat the procedure with a new balloon, vinegar flask, and the larger
amount of baking soda (1½ tsp).
264 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

Transformation Station Student Record Sheets

Name:

Light Up My Life

Number of Cranks Amount of Time Light Remains Lit (Seconds)

1

What happens when you crank the flashlight more? Why do you think this is?

What energy transformations do you think are happening here (hint: the flash-
light has a battery inside it)?

Transformation Station Student Record Sheets

Name:

Making Music
1) What did you see when you wound the music box?

2) How do you think that what you see inside the music box creates sound
(hint: think about what happens to the surface of a drum when you hit it)?

3) How do you think that your straw instrument makes sound? How is that the
same as the way the music box makes sound?

4) What energy transformations do you think are happening?

 Appendix A 265

Transformation Station Student Record Sheets

Name:

Sand Shakers
1) State your hypothesis—what do you think will happen when you shake the
two containers? Will it be different or the same for the two containers?

2) Record your data:

Quantity Beginning End Change in Beginning End Change in

of Sand in Temperature Temperature Temperature Temperature Temperature Temperature
Container Trial 1 Trial 1 Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 2 Trial 2
Full

Not Full

3) Was your hypothesis correct?

4) What energy transformations do you think are happening?

Transformation Station Student Record Sheets

Name:

Blow It Up!
1) What happened when you put the first amount of baking soda into the
balloon?

2) Touch the balloon. Does it feel warm or cold? Why do you think this might be?

3) What happened when you put the second amount of baking soda into the
balloon? Was it different than the first amount of baking soda?

4) What energy transformations do you think are happening in the reaction?

266 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

LESSON PLAN #3—TRANSPORTATION—MOTORSPORTS

Lesson Title: Materials Matter

Lesson Summary
This lesson introduces the role of materials in energy transformations and in
car design. Students will investigate the Law of Conservation of Energy and
the effect of materials in energy transformations in the Ball Drop activity
and will calculate gravitational potential energy. A discussion of the different
materials and their performance in the Ball Drop activity serves to segue into
a discussion of materials used in car design. If student design teams for the
X-Challenge have not already been formed, teams should be chosen during
this lesson. Student design teams will investigate the various materials used in
IndyCar racecars and the effect of those materials on car performance. Design
teams will present their findings to the class. The design team research project
will be an opportunity to discuss roles of team members, using the various
members of a racing team to illustrate the division of duties and collaboration
that occurs in successful teams.

Essential Question(s)
• What effect do position and weight have on gravitational potential energy?
• What energy transformations can we observe and how can we account for
the Law of Conservation of Energy?
• How can we work effectively as a team to accomplish a goal?

Established Goals/Objectives
• Students will understand and observe the Law of Conservation of Energy.
• Students will understand the relationship of position and weight in gravita-
tional potential energy and make appropriate calculations.
• Students will understand qualitatively the role of materials in elastic potential
energy.
• Students will construct bar graphs using the results from their Ball Drop
investigation.
• Students will understand that materials have different properties and observe
the effect of materials on energy transformations.
• Students will understand the various roles of race team members and apply
that understanding to their own teamwork.
• Student teams will investigate racecar materials and their effect on car
performance.
• Student teams will present findings.
 Appendix A 267

Time required: Two classes

Necessary Materials

Introductory Activity: Ball Drop Activity:

• One rubber ball (basketball) • Three balls per student group (golf ball,
• One foam ball tennis ball, rubber ball)
• Audiovisual equipment • One scale or balance per student group
(Internet access) • Two meter sticks per student group
• One chair per student group
Driving in a Material World Group
• Calculators (one per student)
Research Project:
• Student Internet access (energy calcula-
• Internet access
tor and graphing)
• Audiovisual equipment for
presentations

Teacher Background Information

The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed, but can be transformed. In the case of dropping a ball, you transfer
energy from your muscles to the ball when you lift it, giving it gravitational
potential energy, or the energy gained by an object as its height increases. After
you drop the ball, its gravitational potential energy is converted to kinetic energy,
which will continue to increase until the ball hits a surface, at which point the
kinetic energy is transformed into other forms of energy (some into sound, some
thermal from friction, some elastic potential energy from the deformation of the

TABLE A.1.9 Key Vocabulary—Lesson Three

Key Vocabulary Definition

Law of Conservation of Energy can be neither created nor destroyed; instead it is

Energy transformed from one form to another.
Elastic Potential Energy Energy stored as the deformation of an elastic object such as
a spring or an elastomer.
Gravitational Potential The energy an object possesses because of its position in
Energy the gravitational field (i.e. its height). Calculated as GPE =
m × g × h where m = mass in kg, g = acceleration of gravity
(9.8 N/kg), and h = height in m.
Materials Science A field that deals with the discovery and design of material.
Rebound To bounce or spring back from force of impact.
268 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

ball when it hits the ground). The elastic potential energy is the reason that the
ball bounces or rebounds. This is an example of an inelastic collision, in which
part of the kinetic energy changes to another form of energy after a collision.
A car crash is an example of an inelastic collision since when cars collide, the
kinetic energy transfers to sound, thermal energy, and the mechanical energy
that causes the cars to change shape.
Body materials for racecars are chosen with weight and safety consider-
ations. In their materials research, students may find references to carbon fibers,
aluminum, and reinforcing materials such as Zylon. They should make the
connection that the weight of body materials affects car performance (speed)
and safety.

Lesson Preparation
• Assemble materials for introductory activity (one rubber ball, one foam ball),
• Prepare Ball Drop activity materials,
• Ball Drop Worksheets (one per student),
• Design journal reflection sheets (one per student),
• Collaboration rubrics (one per student, optional).

Learning Plan Components

Introductory Activity/Engagement

Science Cass
Introduce the class with the video of the racecar tire bouncing: www.youtube.
com/watch?v=3tMJ8U-2ZMU.
Ask students what energy transformations they see. Ask them what happens
to the energy in the tire. Introduce the Law of Conservation of Energy.
Refer to the Energy Flows worksheet from the last lesson and ask if there was
more or less energy in the energy inputs (right side) than the energy outputs
(left side) (if all energy outputs are accounted for they should be equal). If
students feel that the two sides don’t balance, what do they think happened to
the extra energy?
Have two students bounce a rubber ball (basketball, etc.) to each other. Have
students diagram the trajectory of the ball they see and work as a class to label the
energy transformations they see including gravitational potential energy, elastic
potential energy, thermal energy, sound energy, and kinetic energy.
Now repeat the ball bouncing activity with a foam ball. Ask students what
they observe about the differences in how the two balls behave. Introduce the
idea that different materials have different properties and that this is important
in designing products, including cars.
 Appendix A 269

Activity/Investigation

Science Class

1) Ball Drop Activity

Students will investigate the Law of Conservation of Energy and calculate gravi-
tational potential energy (GPE) of various balls to investigate the effect of the
ball’s weight and position on its GPE and the effect of its material on its elastic
energy (see Ball Drop activity student worksheets at the end of this lesson).
Materials: three balls per student group (about four students): golf, tennis, and
rubber ball; scales on which to measure ball weights in grams; two meter sticks
per group; one chair per group (to stand on for 200 cm drop); Ball Drop activity
lab sheet (included at the end of this lesson).
Give each group three balls: a golf ball, a tennis ball, and a rubber ball. Allow
students to ‘experiment’ with bouncing each ball for one minute. Remind students
that this is a ball drop activity and that they should drop rather than throw the ball.
Each student group will set up a testing station to investigate rebound heights.
This will require attaching a meter stick to a vertical surface (i.e. a wall) at the
approximate point of rebound for the balls.
Students should first weigh each of the three balls and record their weights on
their lab record sheet (they will use these to calculate GPE for each ball at each
height).
Students will then drop each type of ball four times from 100 cm and then
200 cm and measure the rebound heights (for first rebound) using a meter stick.
Students should also observe how many times the ball bounces. These results
should be recorded on the lab record sheet.
After the trials for each ball are completed, students should calculate the aver-
age heights of the first rebound for each ball and the average number of rebounds.
Students should graph their results on a bar graph (one bar graph for each
drop height).
To extend this activity, students may also calculate GPE for each ball from
each height (GPE = mass (in kg) × gravity (9.8 N/kg) × height (in meters)).
Hold a class discussion about how the different materials behaved and why
they might act differently. Use this as a transition to have students think about
why racecars are made of specific materials.

2) Driving in a Material World

Show students a picture of an IndyCar. Ask them to observe what kinds of mate-
rials they see in the car. Tell students that their first design team task will be to
research materials used in racecars. Each team will be assigned a materials topic
to research (body materials, tire materials, materials for safety, engine materials).
270 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

Teams will make a five-minute multimedia presentation for the class at the
end of the lesson. This should include:
• factual information;
• history;
• pictures/videos;
• oral narration.

Ask them how they think that their team (of four to six students) will work
together to finish this project and their design challenge.
Team members should decide on roles (i.e. research facts, research history,
find pictures/videos, create PowerPoint, act as narrator, etc.).
After Ball Drop data analysis and materials presentations are complete, stu-
dents can make a Design Journal entry using the ‘Design Journal Reflection’
sheet to relate the findings to their X-Challenge design.

Mathematics connections: Calculate fuel usage in a typical IndyCar race and

compare this to data on public transportation and personal transportation. Students
will also work on unit conversions. Finally, students can determine if the purchase
price of a hybrid vehicle is warranted—meaning will the consumer come out
ahead on gasoline savings after the initial cost of ownership difference is negated?
ELA connections: In language arts, students will conduct research on the
pros and cons on the use of seatbelts and airbags in personal vehicles and will
develop a public service announcement (PSA) targeting adolescents with their
desired messaging regarding the use.
Social Studies connections: Civics—discuss government role in safety
(seatbelt, child seat laws) and safety innovations that come from racecars.

Explain

Science Class
• Law of Conservation of Energy
• Gravitational Potential Energy
• Elastic Potential Energy

Unit conversions (cm to m; g to kg)

Extend/Apply Knowledge

Science Class
Apply findings from Ball Drop and Material World activities to design challenge
via Design Journal reflection.
 Appendix A 271

Assessment
Performance tasks:
• Completion of Ball Drop activity,
• Ball Drop worksheet (make three copies for the three trials per group),
• Design journal reflection entries.

Other measures:
• Observation of participation/collaboration in materials research project (col-
laboration rubric attached at the end of this lesson).

Internet Resources
Racecar tire bouncing video: www.youtube.com/watch?v=3tMJ8U-2ZMU
Energy Calculator web tool: http://easycalculation.com/physics/classical-physics/potential-
energy.php
Graphing web tool: http://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/createagraph/default.aspx

Ball Drop Worksheet

Name:

Procedure:
1) Weigh each of the three balls and record their weights (in grams).
2) Designate one person to drop the ball, one person to hold the meter stick
vertically to measure rebound height, one person to observe the rebound
height, and one person to observe the number of bounces.
3) Measure 100 cm from the floor.
4) Hold ball #1 at 100 cm and drop it (NOTE: be sure to drop, not throw the
ball).
5) Observe the height of the first rebound (or how high it bounces) in cm and
the number of bounces before the ball comes to a rest. Record this.
6) Repeat for four trials.
7) Switch roles (choose a new person to drop the ball, a new person to hold
the meter stick, etc.).
8) Measure 200 cm from the floor.
9) Repeat procedure for four trials from this height.
10) Repeat procedure for the other ball materials.
11) Calculate average rebound heights and numbers of bounces.
12) Construct a bar graph for each ball material at each drop height.
272 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

BALL #

Material/type of ball: Mass of ball:

100 cm Drop Height 200 cm Drop Height

Trial # Rebound Height Number of Rebound Height Number of
(cm) Bounces (cm) Bounces
1
2
3
4
Total of all trials
Average
(Total/4)

Design Journal Reflection Template

Name Date:

Name of activity/idea:

Summary of findings:

Ref lection (for example, “I was surprised when . . .”, or, “I wonder what would
happen if . . .”):

Connection to design challenge (for example, “Car tires are made of a mate-
rial similar to rubber bands. The findings from this activity make me think that
we should think about when we design our prototype.”):

Any other thoughts, ideas, or sketches (this is a space for you to include
anything else you might be thinking about that will relate to your prototype
design):
 Collaboration Rubric (30 points)

Student Name: Team Name:

Individual Below Standard Approaching Standard Meets or Exceeds Standard Student
Performance (0–3) (4–7) (8–10) Score
Individual • Student is unprepared • Student is usually prepared • Student is consistently prepared
Accountability • Student does not communicate • Student sometimes communicates • Student consistently communicates
with team members and does not with team members and manages with team members and manages tasks
manage tasks as agreed upon by tasks as agreed upon by the team, but as agreed upon by the team; student
the team not consistently discusses and reflects on ideas with the
• Student does not complete or • Student completes or participates in team
participate in project tasks some project tasks but needs to be • Student completes or participates in
• Student does not complete tasks reminded project tasks without being reminded
on time • Student completes most tasks on time • Student completes tasks on time
• Student does not use feedback • Student sometimes uses feedback • Student uses feedback from others to
from others to improve work from others to improve work improve work
Team • Student does not help the team • Student cooperates with the team but • Student helps the team solve problems
Participation solve problems; may interfere may not actively help solve problems and manage conflicts
with teamwork • Student sometimes expresses ideas, • Student makes discussions effective by
• Student does not express ideas poses relevant questions, elaborates clearly expressing ideas, posing questions,
clearly, pose relevant questions, or in response to questions, and and responding thoughtfully to team
participate in group discussions participates in group discussions members’ questions and perspectives
• Student does not give useful • Student provides some feedback to • Student gives useful feedback to others
feedback to other team members team members so they can improve their work
• Student does not volunteer to • Student sometimes volunteers to help • Student volunteers to help others if
help others when needed others needed
Professionalism • Student is impolite or disrespectful • Student is usually polite and • Student is consistently polite and
and Respect for to other team members respectful to other team members respectful to other team members
Team Members • Student does not acknowledge • Student usually acknowledges and • Student consistently acknowledges and
or respect others’ ideas and respects others’ ideas and perspectives respects others’ ideas and perspectives
perspectives
274 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

LESSON PLAN #4—TRANSPORTATION—MOTORSPORTS

Lesson Title: Stretching It

Lesson Summary
This lesson will focus on elastic potential energy and will build on students’
understanding of the role of materials in design by focusing on the role of elas-
tomers in racecar design and performance. A demonstration with a rubber band
testing stand will introduce the concept that the amount of energy stored in
an elastomer changes as force is applied to it. Students will conduct an inquiry,
Rubber Band Shooters, into how the amount of stretch and width of rubber
bands affects potential and kinetic energy and will graph results. Connections
to racecar tires and tire manufacturing will be made through video clips and
discussion.

Essential Question(s)
• What affects the amount of energy stored in an elastomer?
• How are properties of elastomers used in racecar tire design and manufactur-
ing and how do these properties affect performance?

Established Goals/Objectives
• Students will observe and investigate the properties of elastomers and elastic
potential energy.
• Students will understand the concept of thermal energy.
• Students will be able to use their understanding of elastomers to discuss the
properties and performance of racecar tires.
• Students will discuss the technology and careers associated with tire manu-
facturing in Indiana.
• Students will understand and discuss how the properties of elastomers affect
tire design and racecar performance.
• Students will create line graphs using the results of their inquiry.

Time required: Two classes

Necessary Materials
Introductory Activity: Rubber Band Testing:
• Audiovisual equipment (Inter- • Testing stand
net access) • Milk jug
 Appendix A 275

• Slinky • Sand
• Spring • Paper funnel
• Snake-in-a-can • Various width rubber bands
• Calculators
Rubber Band Testing:
• Internet access (optional for
• One ruler per group
graphing)
• One meter stick per group
• Three (6.5–7.5-cm-long) rubber
• Masking tape or chalk to mark
bands per group, one each of the fol-
ground
lowing widths: 1 mm, 3 mm, 6 mm
• Calculators
• Internet access (optional for Heat It Up (optional):
graphing • Rubber band testing stand
• Heat lamp
• Thermometer
• Masking tape
• Duct tape
• Push pin
• Ice cube

Teacher Background Information

Elastomer is simply an umbrella term for the family of materials commonly
referred to as rubbers. The word elastomer is derived from ‘elastic polymers,’
reflecting that they are composed of long chainlike molecules, or polymers,
that can recover their shape after being stretched. Under normal conditions the
chains of molecules are coiled, but straighten out when the material is stretched.
When releasing the stretch, the molecules spontaneously return to their coiled
shape (the ‘snap’ of a rubber band).

TABLE A.1.10 Key Vocabulary—Lesson Four

Key Vocabulary Definition

Elastomer A natural or synthetic material that has elastic properties.

Elastic Potential Energy Potential energy stored as a result of deforming an elastic
object, such as stretching a spring; equal to the work done to
deform the object.
Thermal Energy Energy possessed by an object or a system due to the
movement of particles within the object or system; a type of
kinetic energy.
Force Any influence that changes the motion of an object.
276 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

Most rubber bands are manufactured using natural rubber because of its
superior elasticity. Natural rubber is obtained by tapping the bark of the rub-
ber tree to extrude latex, which hardens and becomes elastic when exposed
to air.
Temperature changes affect elastomers in an unexpected way. When a rubber
band is heated it contracts and expands when cooled. This property has to do
with the properties of entropy and the fact that the molecules are coiled in the
‘resting’ state of a rubber band. For an explanation of these properties, see www.
physlink.com/education/askexperts/ae478.cfm.
Racecar tires are the most obvious use of elastomers in their design. These
tires typically contain more synthetic elastomers than natural rubber (approxi-
mately 65 percent synthetic on average). Reinforcing materials such as carbon
black and silica are also added to the elastomeric makeup of tires. The major
difference between racecar and passenger car tires is that they are made with
efficiency—moving as quickly as possible without sticking too much to the
road—as the primary goal. Therefore the tires are soft so that they grip the road,
but have no treads. Because the tires are soft, the material needs support from
the rubber around it, which is part of the reason that racecar tires have no treads.
If there were treads, the grooves would allow the soft rubber to move too much
and it would overheat. When tires overheat, the properties of the rubber change
and the tire becomes oily resulting in potential slippage.
Tire manufacturing is an example of advanced manufacturing—manufacturing
that uses highly technical processes and employs technically skilled people in
a variety of roles. For an overview of the racecar tire manufacturing process,
visit Hoosier Racing Tire’s description of their manufacturing process at www.
hoosiertire.com/index.htm.
Students may be familiar with the image of racecars weaving when they are
in warm-up laps. This weaving action allows the tires to warm up for maximum
grip, since the tire becomes literally sticky when it warms. In drag racing, on the
other hand, there is not typically time or space for warm-up laps, so a solvent is
poured on the asphalt and the drivers spin the rear wheels in it to heat their tires
for maximum grip at the start of the race.
Elastomers are used in other facets of automotive manufacturing as well.
They are increasingly being used to make lightweight auto body components
and are used in various seals and gaskets, engine and transmission mounts, and
brakes. Many of these are manufactured using an injection molding process in
which the heated material is injected into a mold where it cools and hardens into
the shape of the mold.
This lesson will connect to product (tire) quality control in the Rubber Band
Testing stand demonstration. Details about how Bridgestone Tires quality tests its
products can be found at www.bridgestonetrucktires.com/us_eng/real/magazines/
bestof3/speced3_quality_control.asp.
 Appendix A 277

Lesson Preparation
• Assemble Rubber Band Testing stand:

 Cut a 2" × 4" to between 3 and 4 ft in length, making sure both ends are
square.

 Make base that is approximately 10" × 12" from ¾ plywood or from
2" × 10".

 Screw 2" × 4" to base.

 Cut top piece from 1" × 4" that is approximately 8" long and screw to
top of 2" × 4".

 Drill hole in top piece at least 5" from the front of the 2" × 4".

 Get an empty ½ gal. milk jug and large rubber band.

 Insert rubber band through milk jug handle and then loop rubber band
through itself and pull tight.

 Attach free end of rubber band to the hook on the stand.

 Take a sheet of paper and make a filling cone. Make sure the end of the
cone can fit into the opening on the ½ gal. milk jug. Tape or staple the
cone into its final shape.
• Make paper funnel.
• Prepare Rubber Band Shooter activity supplies.
• Prepare Testing It worksheets.
• Prepare Rubber Band Shooters worksheets.

Learning Plan Components

Introductory Activity/Engagement
Remind students of the importance of materials they investigated in the last les-
son. Show Anatomy of a Pit Stop graphic (from Lesson 3) and ask what part of
the car gets the most attention during a pit stop (tires).
Ask students to recall what tires are made of (rubber/elastomers). How do
they think tires are made?
Show video of tire manufacturing: www.youtube.com/watch?v=0BSgWKLkv9o.
Ask students if this was what they expected a tire factory to look like?
What kinds of jobs did they see people doing? Introduce the idea that
advanced manufacturing requires people with all kinds of technical skills,
including computer programming, robotics, and the skills to operate high-
tech equipment.
Ask students what properties they think are important for manufacturers to
consider when producing racecar tires (speed, safety, wear, etc.).
Ask the students to recall the definition of elastic potential energy (potential
energy stored by deforming an elastic object). Ask students to brainstorm some
items that have elastic potential energy (rubber band, balls, tires, springs).
278 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

Demonstrate with a slinky, a spring, and a ‘snake-in-a-can.’

Ask what happens to the elastic potential energy in each case. Elastic poten-
tial is converted to kinetic energy; ask students to indicate what type of kinetic
energy (mechanical, sound, small amount of heat).
Tell students that they will investigate the relationship between elastic poten-
tial energy and kinetic energy using rubber bands.
Tell students that they will be considering the properties of elastomers in this
lesson—the same properties that tire manufacturers and racecar teams need to
consider when manufacturing and using tires.

Activity/Investigation
Students will observe and investigate the properties of elastomers and potential
to kinetic energy transformations through a series of observations and activities.

1) Rubber Band Testing Stand

Introduce the idea of quality control—which products need to be tested to
ensure that they meet quality standards. Ask where this might be a part of the
EDP (test/evaluate and redesign).
Ask students why this is important (safety, quality of product, manufacturer
reputation). Ask them why this might be important for a product such as a tire
(potential for blowouts, accidents, etc.).
Tire manufacturers, as well as other types of manufacturers, test a sample of
their products—that means that they choose some tires at random as they come
off the assembly line and test them to be sure that they are of good quality. They
do this in two ways: non-destructive and destructive tests. Ask students what
they think the difference is. Ask them to name some non-destructive tests for
tires (x-rays, weight, visual inspections); and some destructive tests (tire is cut
into pieces so they can be looked at microscopically to make sure the compo-
nents are the correct size, shape, and position within the tire; tire is punctured
to determine resistance to damage; performance testing—tires are mounted on
wheels and they spin against a surface for hours).
Tell students that the class as a group will be testing rubber bands to see how
much work can be done to a rubber band.
Show students the testing stand. Tell students how much one cup of sand
weighs (356 grams). Start with a thin rubber band. Ask them how many cups
they think they can put into the milk jug before the rubber band will break.
Ask them if this is destructive or non-destructive testing. Attach the rubber
band onto the testing stand and onto the handle of the milk jug. Use the filling
cone to add sand by one cup (or increments of one cup with students calculating
weights). Measure how much the band stretches with each added increment of
weight.
 Appendix A 279

Record the length and change in weights in a chart visible to the class and
have students enter into their Testing It worksheets.
Ask students what kind of energy the rubber band has (potential). When the
band breaks, ask what kind of energy the band had (mechanical). Point out that
before the band broke it was storing mechanical energy—that was its potential
energy.
Ask students how this would be useful to a manufacturer who wanted to know if
the rubber band was strong enough for a certain task. How would they express that?
Remind them of their calculations for gravitational potential energy (GPE) in
the last lesson. Ask how they might calculate the energy that was stored in the
rubber band before it broke? [Stored energy = force x change in length where
the force is the weight applied to the rubber band. So, elastic potential energy =
change in length x weight applied.]
Calculate the stored energy for the first band (using the highest weight before
the band broke) as a class. Students will record this on their Test It worksheet.
Repeat with various width rubber bands—ask students to predict what they
think will happen with thicker rubber bands and to guess what weights they will
hold. Record the weights and length changes on a class chart as you go.
Have students work in pairs to calculate the stored energy for each band and
graph this data (using stored energy on the x-axis and change in length on the
y-axis). This will be most effective if all band sizes are plotted on one graph.
An option is to use a graphing web tool such as Graphing web tool: http://nces.
ed.gov/nceskids/createagraph/default.aspx.
Ask students what they observe from their graphs (most energy is stored when
the rubber band is highly stretched; wider bands can store more energy without
breaking, etc.).
Students will reflect on this demonstration along with the following activities
in their design journals at the end of the lesson.

2) Rubber Band Shooters

[This activity requires an open space for students to shoot rubber bands approxi-
mately 10 meters; this space should be marked in increments of 1 m for each
group using sidewalk chalk if outside, masking tape if inside.]
Remind students that the vehicles they design will be powered by energy
transformations. The last activity observed mostly energy being stored as potential
energy. Now, they will observe that energy being converted into kinetic energy.
Remind students that they observed gravitational potential energy (related to
the height of the object off the ground) in the Ball Drop activity. Now they will
observe elastic potential energy.
Ask students if they have shot a rubber band. How does the band generate
energy? Point out that they are doing work on the band, providing the energy to
the band that is then converted to kinetic energy when released.
280 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

Explain the procedure to students and ask them what they think will hap-
pen with thicker rubber bands—will they travel farther, not as far, or the same
length? Why do they think that?

Procedure (see Rubber Band Shooters procedure sheet and worksheet):

• Students should work in groups of four.
• Each group will have three rubber bands of similar length (6½ − 7½ cm) and
varying widths (1 mm, 3 mm, 6 mm).
• Each group will have a ruler with cm markings, a meter stick, and a level
surface from which to shoot their rubber bands (optional if outside, but with-
out a surface students should take care to hold their ruler shooter level and at
about the same height for each trial).
• Groups will mark off 10 meters in increments of 1 meter (marking each
meter with sidewalk chalk or masking tape).
• Students will pull each of their rubber bands back to three lengths (10 cm,
15 cm, 20 cm) and ‘shoot’ their rubber bands, conducting four trials for each
of the three pull lengths. After each trial they will measure the distance trav-
eled and record on their Stretching It worksheet. They will repeat this for
each of the three widths of rubber bands (students should take care to keep
their ruler shooters level and at the same distance from the ground for each
trial).
• After they have completed their trials, students will compute average dis-
tance traveled for each of the trials.
• Students will construct either a line graph (preferably on one graph) for the
amount of stretch (on x-axis) and distance traveled (on y-axis) for each rubber
band. Option: students can use a web graphing tool such as the NCES kids’
graphing tool at http://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/createagraph/default.aspx.

Explain

Science Class
• Elastomers
• Elastic Potential Energy
• Thermal Energy

Mathematics connections:
• Mean/average
• Types of graphs and graphical representations of data

Social Studies connections: Biodegradability of plastics and recycling;

History: Space Shuttle Challenger and O-rings
 Appendix A 281

Extend/Apply Knowledge

Science Class
Students may complete Design Journal reflections based upon their activities in
this lesson. They will consider what implications the properties of elastomers and
the energy conversions they observed have for their car designs.
Mathematics connections: Students will calculate standard deviations for
their Rubber Band Shooters data.
ELA connections: Student teams will research the use of plastics in tooth-
paste (or other unusual uses of materials for the benefit of society) and discuss in
the larger groups. Student groups will develop position papers that will be shared
with the community based upon their findings.
Social Studies connections: Students can apply their understanding of the
thermal properties of elastomers to their understanding of the cause of the Space
Shuttle Challenger disaster (historical event).

Assessment
Performance tasks:
• Test It Chart—project on overhead for students to copy in their journal;
• Rubber Band Shooters Worksheet;
• Design Journal reflection entries.

Internet Resources
Explanation of rubber band properties: www.physlink.com/education/askexperts/ae478.
cfm
Tire manufacturing video: www.youtube.com/watch?v=0BSgWKLkv9o
Hoosier Tire Manufacturing Process: www.hoosiertire.com/index.htm
Graphing web tool: http://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/createagraph/default.aspx
282 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

Testing It Worksheet

Name:

Rubber Band # , Width mm

# Cups of Weight of Sand Length of Change in Length Energy

Sand (# cups× 367 Rubber Band ( final length— (weight ×
grams) original length) change in length)

Rubber Band Shooters Worksheet

Name:

Procedure:

1) Mark your starting spot for shooting your rubber bands.

2) Place a mark (chalk or masking tape) every 1 meter from your starting spot
for 10 meters.
3) Record the width (in mm) of your first rubber band.
4) Place your ruler on a flat surface if possible, or be sure that your ruler is
parallel to the ground.
5) Place the rubber band around the end of your ruler and pull it back to a
stretch of 10 cm.
6) Release the rubber band.
7) Measure the distance traveled using your marks and your meter stick.
Record the distance in the table.
 Appendix A 283

8) Repeat for three more trials (NOTE: be sure to keep your shooter level and
at the same distance from the ground for each trial).
9) Pull the rubber band back to a distance of 15 cm and repeat for four
trials.
10) Pull the rubber band back to a distance of 20 cm and repeat for four
trials.
11) Repeat procedure for the other two widths of rubber bands.
12) After all trials are complete, compute the average distance the rubber bands
traveled for each trial.
13) Construct a line graph for the amount of stretch (on x-axis) and distance
traveled (on y-axis) for each rubber band (plot on same graph).

Rubber Band # , Width: mm

Trial Distance Traveled

10 cm stretch 15 cm stretch 20 cm stretch
1

Total

Average (Total ÷ 4)

LESSON PLAN #5—TRANSPORTATION—MOTORSPORTS

Lesson Title: Rubber Band Racers

Lesson Summary
This lesson will build upon students’ understanding of the effect of stretching an
elastomer on its potential energy and will introduce the concept of speed. Stu-
dent design teams will construct a rubber band racer using a set of simple materi-
als and the EDP. Students will calculate the speed of their racers and teams will
participate in a race. Students will reflect on design features that enhanced or
detracted from the performance of the various teams’ racers. Students will reflect
on the role of the materials in their racer and consider what materials might have
284 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

made their car perform better. Student design teams will begin to draft an ideal
materials list for their X-Challenge car designs.

Essential Question(s)
• How does car design affect speed?

Established Goals/Objectives
• Students will be able to state the definition of speed.
• Students will be able to calculate speed.
• Students will understand the relationship between potential energy and
speed.
• Student teams will design and build a vehicle powered by rubber bands.
• Students will be able to relate their findings from building a rubber band car
to their X-Challenge design challenge.

Time required: Two classes

Necessary Materials
Introductory Activity: For Each Design Team:
• Audiovisual equipment (Internet • Four CDs
access) • Four plastic plates (small)
Speedy Olympics: • Six rubber bands (various widths)
• Stopwatch (one per each group • Four unsharpened pencils (or wooden
of four students) dowels)—be sure that the pencils or
dowels fit inside of the straws and can
Rubber Band Racers: turn freely
• Engineer It! worksheets (one per • Four drinking straws
student) • Five metal paper clips
• Rubber Band Racers challenge • One piece of corrugated cardboard
description (one per student) (about 8" × 8")
• Extra washers to add weight to • One piece of foam board (about
cars 8" × 8")
• Four metal washers (¼ inch)
• Ten craft sticks
• Scissors
• One roll masking tape
• Meter stick
• Stopwatch
 Appendix A 285

TABLE A.1.11 Key Vocabulary—Lesson Five

Key Vocabulary Definition

Speed The path covered by an object over an amount of time. Speed =

Distance/Time. Does not depend on the direction of travel.
Velocity The change in position (or displacement) of an object over an
amount of time. Depends on the direction of travel. Velocity =
Displacement/Time.

Teacher Background Information

In this lesson you will introduce students to the concept of speed. Speed is a sca-
lar quantity described as a magnitude regardless of direction that represents how
much distance was covered during a specified amount of time.

Average speed = total distance/time.

Students will understand the concept of speed based upon a car speedometer.
Be sure not to interchange the terms speed and velocity, however. Velocity
is a vector quantity (depends on magnitude and direction) that measures total
displacement.

Average velocity = displacement/time.

This distinction is important in considering motorsports since races are often

conducted on a circular track, meaning that if a car begins and ends at the same
spot, its average velocity is 0 although its speed may be nearing 200 mph! You
may wish to introduce the concept of velocity to your students.
For a more complete description of this distinction (along with a video), see:
http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/speed-and-velocity-difference-
and-examples.html#lesson.
You may wish to review some designs for rubber band cars before the students
create their Rubber Band Racers. There are numerous videos online, including:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=v3pbVAYkGf0.

Lesson Preparation
• Prepare Rubber Band Racers Challenge description.
• Prepare Engineer It! worksheets.
• Assemble Rubber Band Racer ‘kits’ with sets of supplies for each design
team.
286 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

Learning Plan Components

Introductory Activity/Engagement

Science Class
Begin the lesson with asking students how the winner of an IndyCar race is
determined (the fastest). Ask them how much time difference they think there
usually is between the first and second finishers (can be seconds or tenths of
seconds). Ask them to guess what the time difference was in the closest IndyCar
race ever. To answer, show video of top ten closest IndyCar races in history:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=HI8MnBrUdhE.
Ask students what speed is. Guide students to an understanding that speed is
distance traveled in a certain amount of time and can be calculated as Speed =
Distance/Time. Emphasize the importance of units in speed.
Introduce the technology behind race timing using the diagram from the
IndyCar Fan Info page to emphasize how important it is to measure speed to
very precise standards.
Tell students that in this lesson they are going to create rubber band vehicles that
can go as fast as possible and measure the speed of rubber band vehicles they create.

Activity/Investigation

Science Class

1) Speedy Olympics
Divide students into groups and assign each an activity to do ‘the fastest’ (for exam-
ple running, doing jumping jacks, pushing an eraser with their noses, doing push
ups, bouncing a ball, crawling). Provide each team with a stopwatch. Have the
teams practice with some members doing the activity and some timing/measuring
(or counting repetitions in a given time). After they’ve practiced for 5–10 minutes,
have each group present their ‘Speedy Olympic’ skill and time or measure the
results (i.e. distance/time or repetitions/time). Enter this onto a class data table.
Ask students for those activities they can calculate speed and for those they
cannot (they cannot calculate speed for jumping jacks or push ups because there
is no distance involved). Ask student groups to calculate speed for the activities
involving distance and share answers as a class. Discuss the importance of units
(i.e. steps per minute or feet traveled per five seconds).

2) Rubber Band Racers

Have students brainstorm about what factors affect speed in a racecar. Compile
a class list.
 Appendix A 287

Introduce the activity by telling students that their design teams are going
to have a chance to practice designing a car. They will be given only limited
materials to use and only the remainder of this class period and the first half of
the next class meeting to complete their cars. This means that they will need to
use the EDP strategically.
Ask students to name the steps in the EDP. Distribute Engineer It! worksheets
and the Rubber Band Racers project description.
Each design team should receive the following materials:

• Four CDs
• Six plastic plates (small)
• Six rubber bands (various widths)
• Four unsharpened pencils or wooden dowels
• Four drinking straws
• Five metal paper clips
• One piece of corrugated cardboard (about 8" × 8")
• One piece of foam board (about 8" × 8")
• Four metal washers (¼ inch)
• Ten craft sticks
• Scissors
• One roll masking tape
• Meter stick
• Stopwatch

Students should use Engineer It! worksheets to organize their work.

The constraints are as follows:

• The car can be powered by no more than three rubber bands.

• It must travel at least 3 meters.
• The car may not be propelled by human inputs (pushing).
• Rubber bands may not be used to ‘slingshot’ the car.
• Only the materials provided can be used in the construction of the car.
• The car must have at least three wheels.
• They have only 50 minutes to design, build, and test their vehicles.

Watch for teams that are having difficulty in designing their car and be prepared
to ask them guiding questions such as: “How could you attach your axle (pencil)
to the car so that your axle can still turn freely?” (bend paperclips around the
axle or put the axle inside the straw).
After the designated amount of time, each team should post its average speed
and distance traveled (based upon three trials). Students may need a reminder of
how to convert meters to centimeters. You may have students ‘compete’ in a race
to determine which car is the fastest.
288 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

After the fastest car has been identified, tape four metal washers to the back of
the car and retime the trial. Add four more washers and time again. Ask students
to reflect on how the extra weight affected the speed.

Mathematics connections: Unit conversions, meters to centimeters, algebra,

speed calculations.
ELA connections: Student groups will research state mandated speed limits
in at least four states across the U.S. and develop a risk/benefit analysis related to
higher speed limits and travel.
Social Studies connections: Students will examine the geography, indus-
try, population, accident, and commerce in their four assigned states and use this
data to make conclusions about the speed limits related to quality of life.

Explain

Science Class
Introduce the concepts of speed and velocity and the difference between the two.
You may need to introduce the concept of axles before the rubber band racer
activity. Students should understand that axles in cars are steel rods that connect
the tires to the car and turn the wheels when the driver accelerates. Axles hold the
majority of the weight of the car and are a critical component in its design.

Extend/Apply Knowledge

Science Class
Based upon their experiences building the rubber band racer, design teams should
begin to compile a list of materials they think would be useful in constructing
their prototype car for the X-Challenge. This can be done in individual design
teams or as a whole-class brainstorming session. Compile a list of student ideas
and ask students to discuss the rationale behind material choices.
Students should complete a Design Journal reflection based upon this lesson.

Mathematics connections: Extend understanding of unit conversion to Eng-

lish measurement system/metric system conversions (for example miles per hour
to kilometers per hour).
ELA connections: Students research the history of the English and metric
measurement systems and write a composition comparing the two systems, their
histories, current-day use, and their opinion about which is the more efficient
system to use.
Social Studies connections: Discuss the development of the automo-
bile and how the innovations associated with automotive technology (safety,
 Appendix A 289

efficiency, speed, development of interstate highway systems, etc.) have influ-

enced society.

Assessment
Performance tasks:
• Completion of Rubber Band Racers,
• Engineer It! worksheets,
• Design Journal reflections.

Internet Resources
Speed versus velocity (for teacher reference: portions of this explanation/video contain dis-
cussions of scalar versus vector measurements): http://education-portal.com/academy/
lesson/speed-and-velocity-difference-and-examples.html#lesson.
Information on IndyCar timing/speed calculations: www.indycar.com/Fan-Info/
INDYCAR-101/Understanding-The-Sport/Timing-and-Scoring.
Sample design for rubber band car (for teacher reference: note that students may create
alternative designs—if the car works, there is no right or wrong design!): www.youtube.
com/watch?v=v3pbVAYkGf0
Video of top ten closest IndyCar finishes: www.youtube.com/watch?v=HI8MnBrUdhE.

Rubber Band Racers Design Challenge

In this activity your design team will be challenged to create a rubber band pow-
ered car using the provided set of materials. Your objective is to create a car that
travels the greatest distance in the shortest time.
The rules for this challenge are:

• The car can be powered by no more than three rubber bands.

• It must travel at least 3 meters (How many centimeters is that?).
• The car may not be propelled by human inputs (pushing).
• Rubber bands may not be used to ‘slingshot’ the car.
• Only the materials provided can be used in the construction of the car. The
meter stick and stopwatch may not be used in the construction.
• The car must have at least three wheels.
• You have only 50 minutes to design, build, and test your cars. You must
complete three trial runs with your completed design.

Your team should conduct at least three timed trials in the ‘Test and Evalu-
ate’ step of the engineering design process (EDP). You will be racing your
car against the other teams’ cars, so your goal is to make your car as fast as
possible!
290 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

Record the times for your three trials on your Engineer It! worksheets using
a chart like this one:

Trial # Distance Traveled Time Elapsed (in Speed (cm/second)

(in centimeters) seconds)
1

Average Speed

LESSON PLAN #6—THE AUTOMOTIVE X-CHALLENGE

Lesson Title: Fact or Friction?

Lesson Summary
This lesson introduces the concept of friction through demonstrations and
inquiry activities. The overarching objective is for students to understand fric-
tion and the effect of various materials on the amount of friction. A discussion
of whether friction is ‘good or bad’ will be followed by an inquiry activity,
Frictional Forces, in which students investigate the effects of various ‘roadway’
materials on friction. Connections will be made to racecar tires and race-
track materials (optional). Students will reflect on the role of friction in their
X-Challenge car design.

Essential Question(s)
• What is friction?
• What effect do various materials have on the amount of friction?

Established Goals/Objectives
• Students will have a conceptual understanding of friction.
• Students will observe the effect of surface materials on friction.
• Students will research racetrack materials and their effect on friction.

Time required: Two classes

 Appendix A 291

Necessary Materials:
Introductory Activity: For Each Student Group:
• Audiovisual equipment (Inter- • Small box (about 5" × 5")
net access) • Washers or pennies (100)
• 20 ounce plastic bottle (empty) • String (3 feet)
• 1 pound uncooked rice • Masking tape (one roll)
• Pencil • Plastic sandwich bag
• Tennis ball • Six unsharpened pencils
• Five marbles
Frictional Force:
• Five rubber bands
• Frictional Forces worksheet
• Surfaces of different rough-
(one per student)
ness (sandpaper, aluminum foil,
• Scale/balance (to measure in
wax paper, plastic wrap, non-skid
grams)
drawer liner)

Teacher Background Information

This lesson introduces the concept of friction. Atoms and molecules sliding over
each other cause friction. A rough surface produces more friction than a smooth
surface, but no matter how smooth a surface appears, it is still ‘rough’ at the
atomic level. Friction causes kinetic energy to be converted to thermal energy
and therefore some amount of heat is always generated through friction.
There are several types of friction, but these fall into two major categories:

1) Static friction is friction between two items that are not moving (adhesion
or electrical friction/static electricity).
2) Kinetic friction is friction between two moving objects (this encompasses
rolling friction, sliding friction, and fluid friction).

Friction does not depend on the amount of contact surface area of the two bodies
or on the relative speed of the two bodies in contact. The major consideration for
friction is the type of surface.
Students will investigate the effect of various surfaces on kinetic friction in
order to gain a qualitative understanding of friction.

TABLE A.1.12 Key Vocabulary—Lesson Six

Key Vocabulary Definition

Forces Pushes or pulls on an object.
Friction The resistance that one surface or object encounters when moving
over another; the force that opposes sliding motion.
292 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

Friction is an important factor in racecar design. Tires need enough friction

to stay on the track without slipping. However, too much friction will slow the
car down. Brake pads need a high amount of friction to stop a car effectively
while automakers seek to produce engine pistons with very low friction (see
www.caranddriver.com/features/everything-you-ever-wanted-to-know-about-
pistons-feature for an explanation of pistons).
Student X-Challenge designs will consider friction primarily in their choice
of wheel materials and axle rotation. This lesson is geared toward introducing
friction in a qualitative manner and will not introduce the mathematical formu-
las associated with calculating frictional forces.
Although students will not have a choice of road surfaces in their X-Challenge
design, they may be interested in the development of the course materials at
the Indianapolis Speedway. The original 1909 racing surface was crushed stone
sprayed with tar. After the first automobile race (in August, 1909) on the track,
management realized that a paved surface was necessary for safety. Later that year,
over 3 million paving bricks, each weighing 9.5 pounds, were laid to create a new
surface. This led to the track’s nickname, ‘The Brickyard.’ In 1961, the track was
resurfaced with asphalt. In 2004, the track was resurfaced with a Steel Slag Stone
Mastic Asphalt formula that research showed to be very smooth and very dura-
ble (see www.acs.org/content/acs/en/pressroom/newsreleases/2013/september/
indy-500-track-continues-to-foster-better-technology-for-everyday-driving.
html for more detailed information).

Lesson Preparation
• Prepare materials for introductory demonstrations.
• Prepare Snow Day Friction! worksheets if student group option is chosen.
• Prepare Fictional Forces worksheets.
• Prepare Fictional Forces activity materials.
• Prepare Design Journal reflection worksheets (one per student).

Learning Plan Components

Introductory Activity/Engagement

Science Class
Begin class by asking students if they think that you can pick up 20,000 grains
of rice with a pencil.
Conduct the following demonstration (Floating Rice):

• Use a funnel to fill a 20-ounce water/soda bottle with rice (you’ll need
almost a pound to fill it nearly to the top).
 Appendix A 293

• Have student volunteers put a full-size pencil into the rice bottle and stab it
into the bottle continuously. Ask them what happens as they continue to stab
the pencil into the rice (gets more difficult to move).
• Stab the pencil into the rice a few more times (using quick stabs—the goal is
for the pencil to get ‘stuck’). At some point you should be able to carefully
lift the bottle by just holding the pencil.

Ask the students what they think is happening.

Now hold a piece of paper parallel to the ground and drop it. Ask students
what is happening.
Tell students that what they are seeing is friction at work. Ask students what
friction is and develop a definition as a group. (Friction is a force that works in
the opposite direction of motion; it is the force two surfaces exert when they rub
against each other.)
Ask students if friction is good or bad?
Roll a tennis ball across the floor and allow it to stop at a point in the middle
of the floor (without hitting a wall). Ask students to predict what would happen
to the ball if there were no friction.
Show video, ‘A World Without Friction’ (www.youtube.com/watch?v=
7EPwwMU94OA) to introduce the concept that there are different types of fric-
tion (static and kinetic). Have students brainstorm some examples of each.

Activity/Investigation

Science Class
Begin the investigation by asking students how friction is important for racecars (tires
need to grip the track, but not too much). Ask students what they think is different
about racecar tires than regular car tires (racecar tires are ‘slicks’—have no treads). Lead
students to an understanding that friction depends on the types of surfaces touching.
Introduce the Frictional Forces activity by telling students that they are going
to investigate the effects of surfaces on friction. Students are challenged to design a
device to measure friction using their understanding of the EDP. The second option
will require a longer amount of time and a greater amount of student autonomy.
Challenge student design teams to design a friction-testing device. Students
will use the Engineer It! worksheets and the EDP to design and build their
device. The amount of time you allow for this challenge is up to you, but make
sure that students know how much time is available to them.

Mathematics connections: Students will construct graphs and make calcula-

tions related to friction.
ELA connections: Students write a short story based in a world in which
there is no friction.
294 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

Social Studies connections: Students will conduct research on how necessary

commodities are delivered to Alaska on roads that are frequently covered in ice.

Explain

Science Class
Forces—students should understand the concept that forces are pushes or pulls on an
object and those forces have direction (for instance, gravity has a downward pull).
Difference between gravity and friction—students should understand that
gravity is always a downward pull; friction always pushes or pulls in the direc-
tion opposite of the direction that the object is sliding (or would slide with no
friction). Friction always acts parallel to the surfaces in contact.
Friction—students will need to understand the concept of friction qualitatively
and that friction is a force that is exactly large enough to prevent sliding; if another
force is applied that is large enough to overcome friction, the object will slide.
Energy transformations and friction—as the forces on an object overcome
friction, potential energy is converted to kinetic energy. The force of friction
works to convert kinetic energy into thermal energy.

Extend/Apply Knowledge

Science Class
Students will complete a Design Journal reflection for the X-Challenge based
upon their findings from the Frictional Forces activity. Students should concen-
trate on identifying areas in their car design that might be affected by friction
(wheels, axles) and the implications for materials in their car designs.
Prompt students to think about the exterior and mechanics of the car (brakes,
tires, axles, other rotating parts).
As an extension, students may include research on racetrack materials and
their effect on friction in their Design Journal reflections.
Extend the activity by prompting students to consider the interior of the car
and where friction is important (anywhere where driver grip is needed such as
steering wheel, gear shifter, accelerator, brake pedal, seat, etc.).

Assessment
Performance tasks:
• Frictional Forces worksheet
• Design Journal Reflection

Internet Resources
A World Without Friction: www.youtube.com/watch?v=VUfqjSeeZng.
 Appendix A 295

Explanation of engine pistons and friction: www.caranddriver.com/features/everything-

you-ever-wanted-to-know-about-pistons-feature.
History of Indianapolis Speedway track material: www.acs.org/content/acs/en/pressroom/
newsreleases/2013/september/indy-500-track-continues-to-foster-better-technology-
for-everyday-driving.html.

Frictional Forces
Your design team will take on the role of product designers in auto manufactur-
ing. Car brakes work through friction so it is important to be able to measure
friction of different types of brake pads since when the driver presses the brake
pedal it is these brake pads that make contact with the brake rotors to make the
tires stop turning and stop the car.
Your team is responsible for devising a way to measure the kinetic friction of
various materials your company is considering using on brake pads.
Your design must follow these rules:

• You may use only the materials provided (see materials list).
• You must have a way to measure the friction of the various materials.
• You must be able to compare friction between the materials.
• You must complete your design and record data for each surface material
within the time your teacher designates.

Materials List:
• Small box (about 5" × 5")
• Washers or pennies (100)
• String (3 feet)
• Masking tape (one roll)
• Plastic sandwich bag
• Six unsharpened pencils
• Five marbles
• Five rubber bands
• Scale/balance (to measure in grams)
• Surfaces of different roughness: (sandpaper, aluminum foil, wax paper, plastic
wrap, non-skid drawer liner)

LESSON PLAN #7—TRANSPORTATION—MOTORSPORTS

Lesson Title: Ready, Set, Race: The X-Challenge

Lesson Summary
This lesson is comprised of the design challenge that students have been work-
ing toward in the previous lessons. Using their understanding of the scientific
296 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

concepts and engineering design process (EDP) incorporated in the unit, stu-
dents will use the EDP to design, build, test, redesign, and present their car
designs. Teams will be presented with specific goals for each class period to
support their teamwork and use of the EDP. Student teams will choose one
motorsports-related topic to research as a group. The lesson will culminate with
presentations and a race event.

Essential Question(s)
• How can we use our understanding of energy and forces to design a proto-
type car powered by energy transformations?

Established Goals/Objectives
• Students will be able to apply their understanding of science concepts to
design and build a prototype car within the specifications and constraints
they are given.
• Students will be able to use the EDP to design and build their design.
• Student teams will identify one topic of interest related to racing to investigate.
• Students will create presentation materials based upon their designs and topi-
cal research.

Time Required: 12 classes

Necessary Materials
• X-Challenge Student Packets
• Engineer It! X-Challenge worksheets
• Parts Warehouse
• Access to audiovisual equipment with Internet access for video
• Student technology access for project research and presentation preparation
• Materials for student research project presentations

Teacher Background Information

This lesson represents the culminating design challenge for the unit. Student
teams will have some autonomy in the design process, but you should give stu-
dents an overview of what they should accomplish each day during the process.
X-Challenge Engineer It! worksheets are included at the end of this lesson and
provide an outline of what students should accomplish each day.
• Design and build their prototype car using all steps of the EDP.
• Complete a team research project and presentation on one of the racing
industry-related topics provided.
 Appendix A 297

The challenge culminates with a ‘Race Day.’ Inviting guest judges to assess projects
and talk to students about their design process and what they have learned adds
real-life context to their work and requires that they prepare presentations that
are engaging and professional. You should begin to think at least a week ahead
about whom you might invite to judge projects. It is preferable to ask industry
representatives at least two to three weeks ahead of time in order for them to plan
appropriately.
Students should be prepared to give a brief team overview of their car design
and design process to judges and to present their research projects to the class and
to the guest judges.
Students should be reminded throughout the design and building process to
refer to what they know about various types of energy, energy transformations,
materials, friction, and aerodynamics and be prepared to talk about these con-
cepts with the guest judges.
You will act as the manager of the Parts Warehouse. Guidelines for the Parts
Warehouse are included in the student packet. You may incorporate these materi-
als at your discretion; blank spaces were left on the materials list so that you may
add materials and prices if you wish. You may choose to create a scarcity of some
items (i.e. if there are six design groups, provide only four of each body style). You
may have teams visit the Parts Warehouse to purchase their supplies all at one time,
or you may create a sequence in which each team can purchase one item (or one
lot of the same item) at each visit.

Lesson Preparation
• Prepare the ‘Parts Warehouse’ including any additional items from student
parts requests lists.
• Prepare student X-Challenge packets.
• Prepare copies of daily X-Challenge Engineer It! worksheets.
• Prepare collaboration rubrics.

Learning Plan Components

Introductory Activity/Engagement

Science Class
Remind students that the X-Challenge ‘officially’ begins today and that their
teams will use the next 12 class periods to create a prototype vehicle and also to
investigate a topic of their team’s choice about motorsports.
Show the Dallara Italy video: www.youtube.com/watch?v=FgTRNJ32fWA.
Ask students to name the jobs they saw people doing in the video. Connect
this with the teamwork students will participate in during their challenge.
298 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

Activity/Investigation

Science Class
Student teams will use the EDP to create a prototype vehicle for the X-Challenge.
Mathematics connections: Students calculate the speeds of their vehicles
and calculate averages over a number of trials.
ELA connections: Students utilize technology to research a motorsports-
related topic and create a presentation on that topic.

Explain

Science Class
• Remind students about the steps of the EDP.
• Remind students about science concepts from the unit:
 Types of energy
 Energy transformations

 Friction

 Aerodynamics
Mathematics connections: Remind students about speed calculations, speed
versus velocity, calculating averages.
ELA connections: Discuss research skills, citing references, presentation skills.
Social Studies connections: Students can explore the economics of the
racing industry, as well as examine resource scarcity around the globe.

Extend/Apply Knowledge

Science Class
Students use their understanding of motorsports and manufacturing careers to
research a topic related to the racing industry.

Assessment
Performance tasks:
The X-Challenge will be assessed in four ways:
1) Collaboration (assessed during Lesson 9)—each student will be assessed on
collaboration during the module and will use the collaboration rubric
provided earlier in the module (individual grading—30 points, rubric
attached).
 Appendix A 299

2) Engineering Design documentation (assessed during Lesson 10)—each team

member will submit a completed set of three Engineer It! design worksheets
(included at the end of this lesson) for the project (individual grading—30
points).
3) Final Design (assessed during Lesson 10)—judges will use the design
rubric to assess the team’s car design (team grading—30 points, rubric
attached).
4) Research Presentation (assessed during Lesson 10)—judges will use the pre-
sentation rubric to assess the team’s presentation and research project (team
grading—30 points, rubric attached).

NOTE: The design judging and research presentations are included in Lesson
10. Rubrics are attached to this lesson for reference and are also included in
Lesson 10.

Internet Resource
Dallara Italy video: www.youtube.com/watch?v=FgTRNJ32fWA.
 PROTOTYPE DESIGN RUBRIC (30 POINTS)
Team Name:
Team Below Standard Approaching Standard Meets or Exceeds Team Score
Performance (0–2) (3–4) Standard
(5–6)
Creativity and • Design reflects little cre- • Design reflects some cre- • Design reflects creative use
Innovation ativity with use of materi- ativity with use of materi- of materials, a sound under-
als, lack of understanding als, a basic understanding of standing of project purpose,
of project purpose, and no project purpose, and limited and distinct innovative
innovative design features innovative design features design features.
• Design is impractical • Design is limited in practi- • Design is practical and
• Design has several elements cality and function functional
that do not fit • Design has some interesting • Design is well-crafted and
elements, but may be exces- includes interesting ele-
sive or inappropriate ments that are appropriate
for the purpose
Conceptual • Design incorporates no or • Design incorporates some • Design incorporates several
Understanding few features that reflect features that reflect a limited features that reflect a sound
conceptual understanding conceptual understanding conceptual understand-
of science concepts (energy of science concepts (energy ing of science concepts
types, energy transfor- types, energy transfor- (energy types, energy
mations, frictions, and mations, frictions, and transformations, frictions, or
aerodynamics) aerodynamics) aerodynamics)
Designed Within Speci- • Design violates challenge • Design meets most chal- • Design meets all challenge
fied Requirements rules and/or specifications, lenge rules and/or specifi- rules and/or specifications
design is not finished cations, design is finished • Design is finished on time
• Design team exceeded bud- on time • Design team stayed within
get by more than 10% ($30) • Design team exceeded bud- budget
get by less than 10% ($30)
Performance • Vehicle does not function • Vehicle functions, but does • Vehicle travels the required
or faces substantial problems not travel the required distance
(more than one pit stop) distance • Team requires one or no
in traveling the required • At least one pit stop is pit stops
distance required
Design Presentation • Team members are unable • Team members articulate • Team members articulate
to articulate their design their design process, but not their design process clearly
process clearly or coherently and coherently
• Team members are unable • Team members make • Team members clearly refer
to identify or justify design some reference to science to science concepts when
features in terms of science concepts when discussing discussing design features
concepts design features • Team members clearly
• Team members speak in a • Team members mostly outline the advantages of
manner inappropriate to the speak in a manner appropri- their design
audience (slang, poor gram- ate to the audience but pre- • Team members speak in a
mar, mumbling) sentation may be confusing manner appropriate to the
or not engaging to audience audience and are engaging
and concise
Sources of Information • Team uses only one source • Team includes more than one • Team includes multiple
for research source for research sources for research
• Team does not include • Team includes some • Team includes complete
references to information references to sources of references for each source of
sources information information
(Continued)
(Continued)
Team Below Standard Approaching Standard Meets or Exceeds Team Score
Performance (0–2) (3–4) Standard
(5–6)
Ideas and Organization • Team does not have a main • Team has a main idea or orga- • Team has a clear main idea
idea or organizational nizational strategy, but it is not and organizational strategy
strategy clear or coherent • Presentation includes
• Presentation does not • Presentation includes either both an introduction and
include an introduction an introduction or conclu- conclusion
and/or conclusion sion, but not both • Presentation is coher-
• Presentation is confusing • Presentation is somewhat ent, well organized, and
and uninformative coherent, but not well informative
• Team uses presentation time organized, and is somewhat • Team uses presentation time
poorly informative well and presentation is nei-
• Team uses presentation time ther too short nor too long
adequately, but presentation
may be somewhat too long
or too short
Presentation Style • Only one or two team • Some, but not all, team • All team members partici-
members participate in the members participate in the pate in the presentation
presentation presentation • Presenters make eye contact
• Presenters do not look at • Presenters make some eye with the audience and refer
audience, read notes contact with audience, but to notes only occasionally
• Presenters are difficult to rely on notes • Presenters are easy to
understand • Most presenters are under- understand
• Presenters use language standable, but volume may • Presenters use appropriate
inappropriate for audi- be too low or some present- language for audience (no
ence (slang, poor grammar, ers may mumble slang or poor grammar,
frequent filler words such as • Presenters use some and infrequent use of filler
‘uh,’ ‘um’) language inappropriate words such as ‘uh,’ ‘um’)
for audience (slang, poor
grammar, some use of filler
words such as ‘uh,’ ‘um’)
Visual Aids • Team does not use • Team uses some visual • Team uses well-produced
any visual aids in the aids in the presentation, visual aids or media that
presentation but they may be poorly clarifies and enhances
• Visual aids are used but do executed or distract from presentation
not add to the presentation the presentation
Response to Audience • Team fails to respond to • Team responds appropri- • Team responds clearly and
Questions questions from audience or ately to audience questions in detail to audience ques-
responds inappropriately but responses may be brief, tions and seeks clarification
incomplete, or unclear of questions
304 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

The Automotive X-Challenge Overview

Your team is challenged to design and build an innovative prototype car pow-
ered by energy transformations. You will use the science concepts you have
learned during the unit and your Design Journal reflections to help you with
this process. Your team will have a budget of $300 X-bucks to spend. Your team
will present their design in an oral presentation to judges on Race Day and must
be able to answer questions about the design, team process, and science concepts
associated with your car.
Your team will have seven class periods to complete the X-Challenge and
create a presentation for the challenge judges.
There are two parts to the X-Challenge:

1) Team car design and design presentation

2) Team research project and presentation

Your team will choose one racing industry-related topic from the list below to
research. You will include your findings as part of your X-Challenge presenta-
tion. Your team will create a presentation based upon your research project. This
can be a display board, a media presentation, a creative oral presentation (for
example a mock debate or mock trial), a brochure, or another creative method of
presenting your research findings.

1) Race Guide—Create a race-watching guide that will attract new fans to

watch IndyCar races. The guide should be informational but also should
highlight reasons why non-fans should watch IndyCar races.
2) Women in Racing—Women are involved in car racing at all levels, from
racecar designers to the pit crew. Choose three women involved in racing and
highlight their accomplishments and what they did to achieve their successes.
3) Sport or Show? There is a debate about whether car racing should be classi-
fied as a sport or simply as entertainment. Research opinions about this and
the justifications for each and present both sides of the argument.
4) Safety—Research the various safety innovations that the racing industry uses
to keep drivers, crews, and fans safe. What safety features in passenger cars
come from racecar design?
5) Fashion and Design at the Track—Investigate the fashion elements of racing
and what the racing industry does to make cars and drivers make a statement.
6) Racing: Then and Now—Investigate the history of car racing. What has
changed over the years? How has the history influenced the development of
modern-day racing?
7) Ways to Race—Research the different types of auto racing. Provide an over-
view of each one and highlight similarities and differences of the different
types of racing.
 Appendix A 305

Constraints
Your team will be given a budget of $300 X-bucks to build your prototype.
Your X-bucks will be accepted at the Parts Warehouse.
• You may return or exchange items at the warehouse, but keep in mind that
there may be limited availability of some items.
• You can trade items with other design teams, but you may not buy and sell
items with other groups—only the Parts Warehouse accepts X-bucks!
• If you run out of money before your design is over, you may apply for a loan
from the Parts Warehouse manager. Keep in mind that your design will be
judged on cost-effectiveness and you should make every effort to stay within
budget.
• You should record all of your transactions in your financial ledger (journal).

Each team will be provided with a no-cost start-up kit that contains scissors,
masking tape, safety glasses, a meter stick, and a timer. All items used in the team’s
design must be purchased from the Parts Warehouse.
The following are the items and their prices (in X-bucks) that are available in
the Parts Warehouse:

Styrofoam block—$50
Wood block—$35
Cardboard box—$40
Tires/wheels (black plastic tire material)—$40 each
CDs—$10 each
Wooden disks—$25 each
Spindles—$25 each
Drinking straws—$10 for four
Wooden skewers—$20 for two
Pipe cleaners—$10 for four
Pencils—$10 for two
Rubber bands, 6 mm—$40 for two
Rubber bands, 3 mm—$30 for two
Rubber bands, 1 mm—$20 for two
Balloons—$30 for two
Waxed paper—$10 per linear foot
Aluminum foil—$10 per linear foot
Poster board—$20 per half sheet
Craft sticks—$10 for five
Paper cups—$30 for four
Baking soda—$30 for ½ cup
Vinegar—$20 for ¼ cup
306 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

Plastic spoons—$10 for two

Paper clips—$10 for five
Wire hanger—$15 each
Cotton balls—$10 for ten
Index cards—$10 for ten
String—$10 for 3 feet
Toothpicks—$10 for ten
Wooden clothespins—$10 for four
Set of poster paints and brushes—$20
Stickers—$10 per sheet

Your car must be designed according to the following rules:

• Your car must be able to travel at least 3 meters.
• Your car must travel in a straight line.
• You may use only the materials in your start-up kit and materials purchased
from the Parts Warehouse.
• Your vehicle must use at least one energy transformation to power it and it
may not be powered by a force applied by a person (you can’t push your car
to make it go!).
• Once your energy conversion has started, you may not touch your device.
• All team members must participate in both the car design and the research
project.
• On Race Day, teams will have one minute to prepare their cars at the starting
line.
• If your car breaks down during a race, you will be given one pit stop of three
minutes to repair your vehicle and then begin the race again.

The evaluation of your X-Challenge project is composed of four parts:

1) Collaboration—your teacher will assess you on collaboration, or how well
you work with your team, during the unit—30 points
2) Engineering Design Process documentation—each team member
will submit a completed Engineer It! design worksheet for the project—30
points
3) Final Design—judges will use a design rubric to assess the team’s car
design—30 points
4) Project Presentation—judges will use the presentation rubric to assess the
team’s presentation and research project—30 points

Your team will create a presentation for your research topic to present to your
classmates, teacher, and guests. You will have five minutes to make your pre-
sentation and five minutes to answer questions.
 Appendix A 307

Your Engineer It! X-Challenge sheets are included at the end of this packet.
Here are a few pointers:
• Remember to refer to your Design Journal reflections when you are cre-
ating your design—it may include some useful information about energy
transformations, friction, and aerodynamic drag that could be useful.
• The X-Challenge judges will ask you about your design process on Race Day,
so be sure that all team members are familiar with all stages of the design. Be
sure to be able to talk about your design decisions, the science concepts you
considered, and testing and redesigning work.

X-Challenge Engineer It!

Name:

1) Name Your Team!

Our team name is:

2) Identify the Problem and Constraints

• State the problem:

• Identify the conditions that must be met to solve the problem:

• Identify anything that might limit the solution (cost, availability of

materials, safety):

3) Ideas
• Is there anything from your Design Journal reflections that might be
helpful? Summarize that here:

• Brainstorm! What solutions do you and your team imagine?

4) Team Planning
Record your team’s plan here. Remember, everyone needs to be involved
in both your car’s design and your research project, but if some of your
team members want to take on special tasks, you can record that here.
(For instance, you may wish to have an ‘accountant’ to keep track of the
308 Janet Walton and James M. Caruthers

budget. Do you have someone who is very good at drawing who will
make sketches? Is someone great at putting together multimedia presen-
tations? Are there any other tasks team members want to lead?)

5) Design Features
• Based on your brainstorming in the last class, what features do you
want to include in your car?

• Include a sketch or sketches here. Label your sketches:

6) Why did you choose this design?

7) Materials
• What materials do you think you will need (see the Parts Warehouse
list)? List them here:

• How much will those parts cost in X-bucks?

8) Decide on your research project topic with your team. Record

the topic here:

9) Test and Evaluate

• How did you test your prototype?

• What were the results of your tests?

• What are the strengths of your design?

• What are the weaknesses of your design?

10) Improve Your Design

What changes would help your design perform better? Record your
ideas and make changes to your design!
 Appendix A 309

11) Present/Share Your Car Prototype Design

Decide who will present various aspects of your design and the design
process. List team member responsibilities here:

12) Present Your Research Project

How will your team present your research topic?

Decide who will present various aspects of your presentation. List team
member responsibilities here:

References
Belland, B.R., Glazewski, K.D., & Ertmer, P.A. (2009). Inclusion and problem-based
learning: Roles of students in mixed-ability group. RMLE Online: Research in Middle
Level Education, 32(9), 1–19.
Oakley, B., Felder, R.M., Brent, R., & Elhajj, I. (2004). Turning student groups into effec-
tive teams. Journal of Student Centered Learning, 2(1), 9–34.
This page intentionally left blank
APPENDIX B
Sample STEM Module Two: Grade K

Jennifer Suh

STEM ROAD MAP CURRICULUM MODULE OVERVIEW

STEM Road Map Module Theme and Grade Level:

The Represented World, Grade K

STEM Road Map Module Topic: Patterns on Earth and

in the Sky

Module Summary
In this investigation, the students will begin to see patterns as they emerge dur-
ing the year from a solar, weather perspective in the sky and the adaptability of
animals on Earth. The problem/challenge for this unit is: A Petting Zoo needs you
to investigate how the patterns of the sky and the animals on Earth adapt to changes over
one year and create a year-long calendar to demonstrate what you have observed through-
out the year. Create a presentation for the Petting Zoo to explain to their customers the
changes that animals experience over a year.
Much of the observations the students will make can be recorded in their
class STEM notebooks and used as talking points during this unit. The lead
discipline of this unit’s theme revolves around mathematics, so much of the
observations will take the form of quantitative relationships backed by qualita-
tive observations and aligning the different patterns of the sky and animals.
Data can be collected using illustrations of the cycles of the Sun, Moon, sea-
sons, and how animals adapt to these changing conditions. Weather observa-
tions can also be collected and analyzed based on the seasons. This unit can
span the entire school year so that the students can understand how patterns of
the sky and the Earth change. If there was a pond or river/stream located close
312 Jennifer Suh

to the schoolyard, it would be an excellent area to make these observations and

note the patterns that change throughout the year. The capstone project at the
end of this unit might include a year-long calendar that illustrates the changes
in the Sun, Moon, seasons, and animals that the students’ observed. The map-
ping of content standards associated with this theme/topic can be found in
Table A.2.1 and the 21st Century Skills that are included in this module are
located in Table A.2.2. Potential careers to explore: meteorologist, astronomer,
ecologist, and animal husbandry.

Established Goals/Objectives
The goal for this PBL is for students to learn and demonstrate their knowledge
about weather patterns and how animals on Earth adapt to their changing envi-
ronment. Students will learn to:
• understand change and observable patterns of weather that occur from day
to day and throughout the year;
• make connections that change is something that happens to many things in the
environment based on observations made using one or more of their senses;
• summarize daily weather conditions noting changes that occur from day to
day and compare weather patterns that occur from season to season;
• learn about animal characteristics and how they adapt to their environment.

The specific Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) addressed are:

• K-ESS2-1 Use and share observations of local weather conditions to describe
patterns over time.
• K-ESS3-1 Use a model to represent the relationship between the needs of
different plants and animals (including humans) and the places they live.
• K-PS3-1 Make observations to determine the effect of sunlight on Earth’s
surface.
• K-LS1-1 Use observations to describe patterns of what plants and animals
(including humans) need to survive.

The prerequisite key knowledge for this module is found in Table A.2.3. The
desired outcomes and assessment plan can be found in Tables A.2.4 and A.2.5.

Challenge and/or Problem for Students to Solve

A Petting Zoo needs you to investigate how the patterns of the sky and the animals
on Earth adapt to changes over one year and create a year-long calendar to demonstrate
what you have observed throughout the year. Create a presentation for the Petting Zoo to
explain to their customers the changes that animals experience over a year. Compelling
question for this unit is: How do the patterns on Earth, including cycles of the Sun,
Moon, and seasons, impact animals on Earth?
TABLE A.2.1 Content Standards Addressed in STEM Road Map Module—Patterns on Earth and in the Sky

NGSS Performance Objectives Common Core Mathematics Common Core ELA

K-ESS2-1. Use and share CCSS.Math.Practice.MP7. Look for CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.K.1. With prompting and support,
observations of local weather and make use of structure. ask and answer questions about key details in a text.
conditions to describe CCSS.Math.Practice.MP8. Look CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.K.3. With prompting and support,
patterns over time. for and express regularity in repeated describe the connection between two individuals, events,
K-ESS3-1. Use a model to reasoning. ideas, or pieces of information in a text.
represent the relationship CCSS.Math.Content.K.CC.B.4. CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.K.2. Use a combination of
between the needs of different Understand the relationship between drawing, dictating, and writing to compose informative/
plants and animals (including numbers and quantities; connect explanatory texts in which they name what they are writing
humans) and the places they counting to cardinality. about and supply some information about the topic.
live.
CCSS.Math.Content.K.MD.A.1 CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.K.5. With guidance and support
K-PS3-1. Make observations Describe measurable attributes of from adults, respond to questions and suggestions from peers
to determine the effect of objects, such as length or weight. and add details to strengthen writing as needed.
sunlight on Earth’s surface. Describe several measurable attributes CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.K.7. Participate in shared research
Discuss and describe different of a single object. and writing projects.
types of weather.
CCSS.Math.Content.K.MD.A.2 CCSS.ELA-Literacy.SL.K.1. Participate in collaborative
K-LS1-1. Use observations Directly compare two objects with a conversations with diverse partners about kindergarten topics
to describe patterns of what measurable attribute in common, to and texts with peers and adults in small and larger groups.
plants and animals (including see which object has ‘more of’/‘less
humans) need to survive. CCSS.ELA-Literacy.SL.K.5. Add drawings or other visual
of’ the attribute, and describe the
displays to descriptions as desired to provide additional detail.
difference. Classify objects and count the
number of objects in each category. CCSS.ELA-Literacy.SL.K.3. Participate in collaborative
conversations with diverse partners about kindergarten topics
CCSS.Math.Content.K.MD.B.3
and texts with peers and adults in small and larger groups.
Classify objects into given categories;
count the numbers of objects in each CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RL.K.1. With prompting and support,
category and sort the categories by count. ask and answer questions about key details in a text.
TABLE A.2.2 21st Century Skills Addressed in the STEM Road Map Module

21st Century Skills Learning Skills and Teaching Strategies Evidence of Success
Technology Tools ( from P21 framework)
21st Century Global Awareness Teachers will allow students to Students will tell if they have traveled
Interdisciplinary Themes Civic Literacy explore weather patterns in other to different locations around the Earth
parts of the world. and if they have experienced different
weather patterns.
Learning and Innovation Creativity and Innovation Using the 4Cs, teachers will Students will collaboratively think about
Skills Critical Thinking and Problem launch a challenge to create an the needs of a newborn farm animal.
Solving improved habitat for animals at They will be creating a presentation
Communication and Collaboration the Petting Zoo. called the Petting Zoo infomercial and
will be able to use their creativity.
Information, Media, and Information Literacy Teachers will use several different Students will learn more background
Technology Skills Media Literacy web resources and books to build knowledge using the website resources
ICT Literacy students’ background knowledge and books to design their final product.
for this project.
Life and Career Skills Flexibility and Adaptability Teachers will monitor students Students will work together to make a
Initiative and Self-Direction engaged in collaborative projects plan for their projects throughout the
Social and Cross-Cultural Skills to assess their group cooperation unit. Students will work effectively in
Productivity and Accountability skills and their leadership skills. collaborative groups and be clear about
Leadership and Responsibility roles of each member.
TABLE A.2.3 Prerequisite Key Knowledge

Prerequisite Key Knowledge Application of Knowledge Differentiation for Students Needing Knowledge
Students should know about zoos This is important because they will need to learn There may be students with varied exposure and
and petting zoos. about how people care for the animals and how familiarity with zoos or farms. Provide many
they adapt to their environment. They will need books, websites, and video clips of animals at the
to think about the habitats, pens, and enclosures zoo or the farm. Provide farm animal toys and
that the pets live and play in during the year. other zoo animals so they can play pretend zoo.
Students should know about This is important because they will build on the There may be students who have lived in areas with
weather and how it affects our prior knowledge of being familiar with different four seasons and others who have lived in other
daily lives. weather patterns. regions of the U.S. without the four seasons. Use
this difference as a teachable moment for students to
share about different places with different climates.
Students should know that tools This is important because they will be building Provide many everyday tools and technology that
and technology help us in our ways to improve the current habitat for one of are an example of an engineering design.
daily lives and that is a result of the petting zoo animals. In addition, they will
engineering design. see how wool or down can be used to make
warmer coats for people.
316 Jennifer Suh

TABLE A.2.4 Desired Outcomes and Monitoring Success

Desired Outcome Evidence of Success in Achieving Identified Outcome

Students will explain Performance Tasks Other Measures
how people and Students will create the Students will have formative
animals adapt to the Petting Zoo Calendar of assessment through each
weather and seasonal Events and Infomercial that lesson that assesses their
change through their feature appropriate activities understanding of changes
Petting Zoo’s Calendar for different seasonal visits in weather, season, and
of Events project. to the Petting Zoo that animal adaptability to
will demonstrate their the environment. There
understanding of changes in are multiple formative
season and the different ways assessments that teachers
animals adapt to the change. can collect from Science,
Literacy, Math, and
Social Studies mini-lesson
activities.

TABLE A.2.5 Assessment Plan

Major Group Products • Petting Zoo—Calendar of Events created by the class

(photo calendar with student drawings representing
the seasonal change and how animals will adapt to
the changes).
• Infomericial to advertise the Calendar of Events at
the Petting Zoo—video presentation.
• Graph of weather patterns throughout the unit.
• Model of an improved habitat for one of the Petting
Zoo animals and an engineering design of an
enhancement to the habitat.
Major Individual • Graph daily weather and use it to compare patterns.
Products/Deliverables Explore ways we can use materials to decrease the
temperature of an area from the Sun. Graph weather
over a period of time several times throughout the
year. Compare weather patterns using graphing data.
• Choose a favorite animal and build a model habitat for it.
• Create a calendar representing the seasonal change
and how animals will adapt to the change.

Launch
Plan a field trip to the Petting Zoo. (Ideally it should be a field trip to the Petting
Zoo but if that is not possible, arrange for a virtual field trip or a guest speaker
from a petting zoo, farm, or zoo with at least one animal.)
The Petting Zoo owner/visitor can make the project more authentic by shar-
ing that they need help attracting more visitors to the Petting Zoo by making
people more aware of the events that happen at their Petting Zoo year-round.
 Appendix B 317

The job is for the kindergarten students to learn more about the seasonal change
and how animals adapt to that change to be able to share with the visitors what
to look for when they visit the Petting Zoo.

Resources

School-Based Individuals
Art teachers can provide lessons on drawing farm animals and discuss how to
draw a landscape of a petting zoo. The media specialist can provide books, web-
sites, and videos about farm animals and how animals adapt to their environment
and seasons.

Technology
Age-appropriate website resource collection can be created for kindergarten stu-
dents to access as they are doing research on their animal and about the local
Petting Zoo.

Community
Contacting a local petting zoo will be important to the authenticity of the proj-
ect. If there is no local petting zoo, a local farm or an animal zoo will be helpful
to contact to get a field trip arranged and/or have a guest speaker from the zoo
or farm visit the class.

Materials
Modeling materials:
• Clay,
• Toy animals,
• Construction paper,
• Children’s magazine.

LESSON PLAN—A GLANCE AT WEEKS 1–2—PATTERNS IN

OUR WORLD: KINDERGARTEN STEM UNIT

Lesson Title: Patterns in Our World and How It

Impacts Living Things

Lesson Summary
This lesson is part of a unit that focuses on student understanding of patterns
in nature, natural cycles, and changes that occur both quickly and slowly over
time. An important idea represented in this unit is the relationship among Earth
318 Jennifer Suh

patterns, cycles, and changes, and their effects on living things. The topics devel-
oped include noting and measuring weather and seasonal changes, which will
connect to later lessons on how these impact animals’ behaviors. The timeline for
this module can be found in Tables A.2.6, A.2.7, and A.2.8.

Essential Question(s)
What questions will guide student learning in this lesson?
• What patterns do we have in our world?
• How do we respond to these patterns daily and throughout the year?

Established Goals/Objectives
Students will understand (big ideas/key knowledge), know, be able to do what
(key skills)?

• Observe and identify daily weather conditions—sunny, rainy, cloudy, snowy,

windy, warm, hot, cool, and cold.
• Predict daily weather based on basic observable conditions.
• Chart daily weather conditions.
• Identify characteristics of the different seasons.
• Recognize that plants, animals, and people adapt to the changing seasons in
different ways.

The key vocabulary for this module is located in Table A.2.9.

Time required: Ten days

Necessary Materials
• Outdoor access and window from the classroom,
• Calendar,
• Weather graph,
• Internet access.

Teacher Background Information

Studying the weather is a great way to learn about observations and patterns and
to help us prepare for upcoming days based on the weather predictions. For kin-
dergarteners, weather pattern is easily seen and recorded because weather happens
daily and can be easily seen and recorded. There are lots of daily and seasonal
patterns that occur in weather. Use words to describe the sky (sunny, mostly
sunny, partly cloudy, and cloudy) and words for precipitation (dry, rain, snow,
TABLE A.2.6 STEM Road Map Module Schedule Weeks One and Two

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5

Students will be introduced Students will observe local Students will learn how Students will learn Students will observe
to the ‘Patterns on Earth’ as weather and record their people adapt to their how people participate local weather
they play a Scavenger Hunt observation and pretend to environment by playing in different weather and record their
for Patterns in our World be weather reporters. ‘Dressing for the Weather.’ activities. Science, Math, observation.
(Go outdoors). Science and Language Arts: Science and Engineering: and Language Arts: Vote Science and Math: Graph
Science and Language Arts: Use weather vocabulary to Brainstorm technology to keep and create a table of their the weekly weather
List all the patterns in our tell about the weather. people warm or cool. favorite things to do in pattern and compare the
world. different weather/seasons. results.

Day 6 Day 7 Day 8 Day 9 Day 10

Students will learn about the Students will learn about Students will learn about Students will learn about Students will display
center of our solar system, what makes day and the Moon and its phases and reason for seasons. Science the landscape including
the Sun, and read and sing night. Science and Art learn about the reflection of and Art Integration: ‘Dance’ changes in animals
about the Sun. Integration—‘Dance’ the the sunlight on the Moon. the revolution around the and plants throughout
Language Arts: Read the fable rotation on Earth’s axis with Science and Language Arts: Sun. Read the book The the seasons. Science,
The North Wind and the Sun. a light source to model day Read Papa, Please Get the Reason for Seasons by Gail Language and the Arts:
and night. Moon for Me by Eric Carle. Gibbons. Make a season wheel
with photos or magazine
cutouts to show the
landscape.
TABLE A.2.7 STEM Road Map Module Schedule Weeks Three and Four

Day 11 Day 12 Day 13 Day 14 Day 15

Plan a visit to the Petting Zoo
Students will read Students will identify animal Students will identify Students will identify animal Students will identify animal
about a true story called characteristics of goats that characteristics of a characteristics of chickens characteristics of sheep and
Beatrice’s Goat and help human needs and what horse that helps human that help human needs and geese that help human needs
retell how one goat can they need to survive. needs and what they what they need to survive. and what they need to survive.
sustain a family’s need. Science and Math: How much need to survive. Science and Social Studies: Science and Engineering: Learn
milk does the goat produce? Social Studies: Learning Learn about the life cycle of a about the wool that sheep produce
about how horses provide chicken and about the goods it and the down that geese produce
transportation. produces. that warms people. Weatherproof
technology.

Day 16 Day 17 Day 18 Day 19 Day 20

Students will create a Students will create a visual Students will create a Students will learn about Students will learn about how
calendar for Spring. display of events at the calendar for Summer: how animals adapt to the animals behave in the Fall.
Science, Math, and Petting Zoo in the Spring. Learn about life cycles Summer. Science and Language Arts:
Language Arts: Baby Science, Math, and Language of animals. Science and Language Arts: Read a blog post from ‘Ask a
animals are born in Spring. Arts: Read the book, Is Your Science and Language Students will create a visual Naturalist’ (post 84) from the
Learn names to describe Mama a Llama? Arts: Create a life cycle display of events at the Petting Charlotte Nature Museum about
baby animals and how Matching Activity—parent and chart of a given animal. Zoo in the Summer. what animals do in the Fall.
many babies they give birth young.
to at one time. How do adult animals care for
their babies?
TABLE A.2.8 STEM Road Map Module Schedule Week Five

Day 21 Day 22 Day 23 Day 24 Day 25

Students will continue to Students learn about how Students learn about how Students will participate Petting Zoo infomercial.
learn how cold-blooded animals not only prepare animals not only prepare in shared writing to Students will present
animals behave in the Fall. for Winter, but use coats for Winter, but use explain how the four their calendar and make
Science and Language Arts: and fat deposition to hibernation and migration seasons impact animals’ an infomercial for visitors
Read a blog post from ‘Ask a survive in the cold. to survive in the cold. adaptability to the about the Calendar of
Naturalist’ from the Charlotte Science and Language Science and Language Arts: environment. Events and highlights to
Nature Museum and learn Arts: Research to learn how Teacher models how one Science and Math: Students look forward to at the
about what cold-blooded animals use coats and fat can research to learn about put together their drawings Petting Zoo.
animals do in the Fall. deposits to keep warm. how animals hibernate and of the different behaviors of
migrate. animals and create a Calendar
of Events.
322 Jennifer Suh

TABLE A.2.9 Key Vocabulary

Key Vocabulary Definition

Weather The state of the atmosphere at a place and time as regards heat,
dryness, sunshine, wind, rain, etc.
Season One of the four periods of the year (spring, summer, autumn, and
winter).
Sun (solar) The star that is the center of the solar system, around which the
planets revolve and from which they receive light and heat.
Moon (lunar) The Earth’s natural satellite, orbiting the Earth.
Temperature A measure of the warmth or coldness. Use words like hot, warm,
cool, cold, freezing.
Precipitation Falling products of condensation in the atmosphere, such as rain,
snow, or hail.
Cycle A repeated pattern; a sequence of a series of events that occur in a
natural order.

hail, and sleet). Measuring temperature may be difficult for the kindergarteners,
but exposing them to the temperature will make them learn that it is measurable
and that there are tools like a thermometer (technology) that help measure how
hot or cold it is outside. Using words like hot, cold, warm, and freezing will help
students to associate temperature with the weather and seasons.

Lesson Preparation
The series of lessons will take place over two weeks. This provides a glance at the
two-week unit on weather and seasons and cycles on Earth.

Learning Plan Components

Introductory Activity/Engagement

Science Class
Discuss the patterns in our world. Play ‘Scavenger Hunt for Patterns in Our
World.’ They will go outside and look for patterns. Some may look for visual
patterns with colors, shapes, and plants. Connect their observations with pat-
terns we have like day and night, life cycle of a plant, Moon phases, seasons, and
weather patterns. As a class, students can pretend to be a weather reporter—can
they predict the weather?

Mathematics Class
Use the calendar to record the weather and use a graph to chart the pattern each
day and throughout the unit. Students will collect data using observations. The
 Appendix B 323

class can represent data using different displays such as tables and graphs (bar
graphs or picture graphs).

ELA Class
Use communication skills to discuss patterns in our world.

Read Aloud Book

Fable: The North Wind and the Sun by Gregory McNamee. Have students retell
the story and vote for what they think is stronger, the wind or the Sun. Another
great read aloud when talking about the patterns of day and night is the book
Papa, Please Get the Moon for Me by Eric Carle. Students will learn about the
Moon and its phases and about how the reflection of the sunlight illuminates
the Moon.

Social Studies Class

Teachers can connect geography, climate, and time of day. Teachers can also
locate where we live and the climate in our region. Another extension is looking
back at patterns like day and night and how in some parts of the world it is day
when it is nighttime in other locations.

Activity/Investigation

Science Class
Divide the students into groups and have them investigate the four seasons.
Have students fold a piece of paper into four sections. Then have the students
list four types of weather (one per section) and draw a picture for each. Draw
and label in each box a type of weather. Use the pictures that students drew to
create a class season wheel. Play dress up with clothing that matches with the
weather pattern.

Mathematics Class
Integrate Calendar Math with weather data. After a few weeks, have students
read their weather chart and make a bar graph. Other ways to show how to
keep track is to use tally marks to show the quantity or use the numeral next
to each weather icon to summarize the total number of days recorded with that
weather pattern. Use icons to record the daily weather on the weather graph
and at the end of the week, ask questions like: “How many days this week were
recorded as sunny?” “How many days did we have rain?” “Compare sunny and
cloudy days?” “Which did we have more of?” “Less of?” Comparing is one of
324 Jennifer Suh

the meanings for subtractions because we are looking for the difference between
two quantities. Look and listen for students who may be subtracting or counting
on to find the difference.

ELA Class
Read aloud Too Hot? Too Cold? Keeping Body Temperature by Caroline Arnold and
Annie Patterson.
Watch a segment of a weather forecast on a news show. Let students be the
‘weather person’ who looks out a window or goes outside to collect daily obser-
vations and then tells the class about the:
• sky—sunny, mostly sunny, partly cloudy, cloudy;
• precipitation—dry, rain, snow, hail, sleet;
• temperature—hot, warm, cool, cold, freezing.

Sing weather songs (“Rain, Rain, Go Away,” “Mr. Golden Sun,” “You Are
My Sunshine”).

Social Studies Class

Show the map of our world and show where we live and how that explains our
climate. This may be abstract for students so elicit some of their background
knowledge by asking: “Have you visited family living very far from our
neighborhood?” “What do you remember about the weather there?” “Did
anyone go to a really hot tropical place before on any trips?” “How about a
really cold snowy place during winter?” This might trigger some conversa-
tion. If not, tell a story about your trips to very warm climates during your
family vacations.

Explain

Science Class
How do people keep warm? How do animals stay warm in winter (fur, feath-
ers)? Show students artifacts like a fur coat, fake feathers, or alligator boots/
purse to demonstrate the different textures of animals. Let the students use their
five senses to describe the animal artifacts. Pick a few animals like a reptile or
mammal and talk about them. For example, reptiles are cold-blooded and have
scales to cover their skin. Create a three-column chart and label the columns fur,
feathers, and scales. Brainstorm what type of animals might have fur, feathers,
and scales.
 Appendix B 325

Mathematics Class
Sorting and Categorizing Activity:
Make a T-chart of clothing for hot weather and for cold weather:

Clothing for hot weather Clothing for cold weather

ELA Class
The T-chart combined with visuals in science class can be used as an opportunity
to engage the students in sharing writing on a large poster to explain what the
chart was about (see science class lesson).

Social Studies Class

Look around the globe and talk about how people from different regions dress
differently based on climate.

Extend/Apply Knowledge
What opportunities will students have to apply what they have learned through
their work in this lesson explicitly, if any?

Science Class
How do animals stay warm or dry? Draw a scene with a season and people and
animals in the drawing showing how they stay warm.

Mathematics Class
Summarize the weather graph and count and tally the total number of days in
each category. Use that chart to be the ‘meteorologist’ and talk about the pattern
we have had in our weather.
326 Jennifer Suh

ELA Class
Use picture vocabulary cards to match picture cards of weather patterns: clear,
cloudy, cold, fair, fall, hot, rainy, spring, summer, sunny, temperature, warm, windy,
winter. Ask the students to think back to the weather report they have seen on
TV. Ask students whose job it is to give these reports and to research and make
predictions about the weather (meteorologists).

Social Studies Class

Use the map to show where we live and what our climate is like in different regions
of North America. Learn about how people specialize in a job and a meteorologist
is a specialized job that helps the community. Ask students how the meteorologist
helps them in their daily lives or when their family is planning an event.

Assessment
Performance tasks:
• Create a flip book (Table A.2.10) with weather patterns and draw people, ani-
mals, and plants in the picture to show how they respond to the weather pattern.
Other measures:
Mathematics class:
• Sorting clothing with weather pattern;
• Sorting and Categorizing Activity;
• Make a T-chart of clothing for hot weather and for cold weather.

Internet Resources
Journey North. (2014, September 2). Fall 2014 teacher resources. Retrieved from www.
learner.org/jnorth/season/
Regents of the University of California Berkeley. (2000). Eye on the sky. Retrieved from
http://cse.ssl.berkeley.edu/first/EyeontheSkyWeatherJournal/weather.asp
Special Education Technology British Columbia. (2006, August 14). Sorting outfits for
seasons. Retrieved from www.setbc.org/pictureset/resource.aspx?id=280
TVOKids. (n.d.). Seasons. Retrieved from www.tvokids.com/games/sticksandseasons
TVOKids. (n.d.). Dressing based on weather. Retrieved from www.bbc.co.uk/wales/bobinogs/
games/game.shtml?1

Books
Arnold, C., & Patterson, A. (2013). Too hot? Too cold? Keeping body temperature just right.
Watertown, MA: Charlesbridge.
Carle, E. (1986). Papa, please get the moon for me. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Gibbons, G. (1996). The reason for seasons. New York: Holiday House.
McNamee, G. (2004). The north wind and the sun and other fables by Aesop. Einseideln:
Daimon Verlag Press.
TABLE A.2.10 Weather Pattern Flip Book Rubric

Objectives Excellent Good Fair Needs Improvement

Student can identify and describe 4 3 2 1
at least three different weather Student can identify Student can identify Student can identify Student cannot
patterns (i.e. sunny, rainy, snowy, more than three at least three different at most two different identify different
cloudy, windy) with specific different weather weather patterns weather patterns weather patterns and/
characteristics of the weather. patterns and describe and describe the and describe the or can name one but
the characteristics. characteristics. characteristics. cannot describe the
characteristics.
Drawing shows elements of 4 3 2 1
weather (i.e. clouds in the sky, Drawing shows Drawing shows Drawing shows one Drawing does not show
raindrops, and puddles). elements of weather some distinguishable sign of weather. any distinctive elements
with lots of details. elements of weather. of weather.
Drawing shows people, animals, 4 3 2 1
or plants responding to weather Drawing shows people, Drawing shows Drawing may show There is no evidence that
(i.e. dressed for the weather with animals, and/or plants people, animals, and/ either people or other anyone or anything is
umbrella, raincoat, rain boots). responding to weather or plants responding to things responding to responding to weather.
with details. weather. weather.
328 Jennifer Suh

LESSON PLAN—A GLANCE AT WEEKS 3–5:

KINDERGARTEN STEM UNIT

Lesson Title: Patterns in Our World and How It Impacts

Living Things

Lesson Summary
Introduce the PBL project with a field trip to the Petting Zoo and a book called
Beatrice’s Goat by Page McBrier.
To launch the PBL project for this unit, students will learn about goats using
the book Beatrice’s Goat. The following lesson will launch a series of lessons
where students can learn more about what animals need to survive and how they
adapt to different seasons. This will prepare them for the PBL project in creating
a year-long calendar for the Petting Zoo.

A Petting Zoo needs you to investigate how the patterns of the sky and the animals
on Earth adapt to changes over one year and create a year-long calendar to demonstrate
what you have observed throughout the year. Create a presentation for the Petting Zoo to
explain to their customers the changes that animals experience over a year.

Essential Question(s)
What questions will guide student learning in this lesson?
• How do different animals, plants, and people adapt to the changing seasons?

Established Goals/Objectives
Students will understand (big ideas/key knowledge), know, be able to do what
(key skills)?
• Use observations to describe patterns of what plants and animals (including
humans) need to survive.
• Use a model to represent the relationship between the needs of different
plants and animals (including humans) and the places they live.
• Participate in shared research and writing projects.
• Add drawings or other visual displays to descriptions as desired to provide
additional detail.

Time required: Launching a three-week project (15 days)

Necessary Materials
• Beatrice’s Goat by Page McBrier,
• Books about animals and how they adapt to seasonal change,
 Appendix B 329

TABLE A.2.11 Key Vocabulary

Key Vocabulary Definition

Adapt To change in response to the environment or situation.
Adaptation A change that a living thing goes through so it fits better with its
environment.
Camouflage Coloring or covering that makes animals, people, and objects look
like their surroundings.
Environment The natural world of the land, sea, and air.
Hibernate An extended period of deep sleep that allows animals to survive
Winter extremes.
Migrate The seasonal movement of animals from one region to another.

• Modeling clay,
• Plastic toy animals,
• Video camera,
• Drawing paper,
• Crayons.

Teacher Background Information

Teachers will need basic knowledge about goats and the changes they go through
throughout the season.

Lesson Preparation
Teachers will need basic knowledge of farm animals or petting zoo animals:
sheep, lamb, ponies, rabbits, goats, pigs, and llamas. A good doe (a female goat)
can produce from one-quarter to half a gallon (one to two quarts) of milk a
day. Woolly and hairy animals should be sheared before the start of hot weather.
Spring shearing allows sheep to have adequate wool growth to keep them cool
in the summer and avoid sun burning, and a full wool coat in the winter to keep
them warm. Sheep and goats should not be sheared in extreme heat.

Learning Plan Components

Introductory Activity/Engagement

Science Class
Animals on the Farm and how they help humans.
Students will learn about farm animals and how they help humans. Farm
animals produce goods for humans. Animal scientists study animals and learn
330 Jennifer Suh

ways to help animals grow strong and healthy. When animals grow well
and stay healthy, a farmer can produce more meat, milk, or eggs for human
consumption.

Mathematics Class
Billy Goat Math—Goat Milk?
How Much Milk Can a Goat Produce?
More people consume milk and milk products from goats worldwide than
from any other animal. Goat milk is used for drinking, cooking, and baking.
It is also used to make cheese, butter, ice cream, yogurt, candy, soap, and other
body products. In addition to milk, dairy goats provide meat, leather, and fiber.
Measurement concepts:

• A good doe can produce from one-quarter to half a gallon of milk a day.
Show how much milk that is by using a milk carton.
• Compare your weight to a full-grown goat. Newborn kids average about two
pounds at birth, but grow quickly. The average adult weight is 75 pounds.
Compare with students’ weights.

ELA Class
Literature connection—Beatrice’s Goat by Page McBrier. Read aloud Beatrice’s
Goat by Page McBrier. Have students retell the story. This is a story about how a
goat saves Beatrice and her family.

Social Studies Class

Goods animals produce as natural resources. With the teacher’s help, find the
country that Beatrice is from on the map. Generate a list of goods that a goat can
provide as a natural resource for humans.

Activity/Investigation

Science Class
Learning about animal characteristics. Students will watch videos about the dif-
ferent animals and what the unique characteristic means to the animal and his
life. Fur, color, size, eye, ear, nose size, teeth, etc. are important points to discuss.
Questioning should encourage thinking skills: How would this animal get food?
What kinds of food could he eat? Where would he be able to survive? etc. Learn
about baby animals on farms. Gather video resources and books on baby animals.
Discuss how animal babies grow fast and research which animal grows the fast-
est: a calf, a chick, or a piglet?
 Appendix B 331

Mathematics Class
A day in the life of a goat. Model this class math book after Chimp Math by
Ann Nagda that tells a day in the life of a baby chimpanzee using time (cal-
endar, clocks). Make a similar class book called Goat Math using the informa-
tion about a goat’s day.

ELA Class
Designing a pen. Describe the plan for the designed pen and shed for your billy
goat for all four seasons. Billy goats play in the yard in the Spring–Fall. Goats grow
a thick, fuzzy undercoat of cashmere to keep them warm during the Winter, so
adults are usually fine in unheated goat barns in most of North America.

Social Studies Class

Job specialization. Students learn about a basic economic idea about job special-
ization. Introduce students to people who specialize in working with animals:
farmers, veterinarians, naturalists, biologists, and zoologists.

Explain

Science Class
• Animal diaries. Students will learn about how an animal lives and write a
diary of an animal as shared writing.
• Students learn animal characteristics of a horse that helps human needs and
what they need to survive. Activity: Horses and Ponies: Providing transportation.
• Students learn animal characteristics of a chicken that helps human needs and
what they need to survive. Activity: The life cycle of a chicken.
• Students learn animal characteristics of a sheep that helps human needs and
what they need to survive. Activity: Learn about the wool that the sheep produces
that warms people.

Mathematics Class
What kind of animal is your favorite at the zoo? Read Tiger Math and learn about
a baby tiger’s life while learning to graph.

ELA Class
• Read the book Is Your Mama, a Llama?
• Matching Activity—parent and young.

Discuss how adult animals care for their babies.

332 Jennifer Suh

Extend/Apply Knowledge

Science Class
Create a Calendar of Events. Students use the pictures to make a scene of all four
seasons and what animals do in the Spring, Summer, Fall, and Winter and tell a
story to the class. Students learn about how animals not only prepare for Winter,
but use coats and fat deposition, hibernate, and migrate to survive in the cold.

Mathematics Class
Calendar math. Students will use their knowledge of the sequence of the 12
months to create a Calendar of Events at the Petting Zoo.

ELA Class
Work on the presentation, Petting Zoo Infomercial Video. Read Petting Zoo by
Gail Tuchman. Discuss the lives of the Petting Zoo animals. Students will create
and present their Calendar of Events and make an infomercial for visitors about
the Calendar of Events and highlights to look forward to at the Petting Zoo.

Social Studies Class

Specializations. Learn about the specialized jobs that people have at the Petting
Zoo or at a local farm to help with raising and caring for animals.

Assessment
Performance tasks:
• Create a Calendar of Events at the Petting Zoo: A Petting Zoo needs you to
investigate how the patterns of the sky and the animals on Earth adapt to changes
over one year and create a year-long calendar to demonstrate what you have observed
throughout the year. Create a presentation for the Petting Zoo to explain to their
customers the changes that animals experience over a year.
• Create a Petting Zoo Infomercial Video: Students will present their calendar
and make an infomercial for visitors about the Calendar of Events and high-
lights to look forward to at the Petting Zoo (Table A.2.12).

Extension
Building a pen and shed: Choose an animal and design and build a shelter for
them. Students will use the information they learned about the different animals
TABLE A.2.12 Calendar of Events and Infomercial Rubrics

Calendar of Events at the Petting Zoo

Objectives Excellent Good Fair Needs Improvement
Student can identify and 4 3 2 1
describe characteristics of Student can identify Student can identify Student can identify Student cannot name
all four seasons (Spring, and describe and describe the seasons but may the four seasons
Summer, Fall, and Winter). characteristics of all characteristics of all not describe in as or describe the
four seasons and in four seasons and in much detail for some characteristics of the
order with details. order. of the seasons. different seasons.
Student can show a sequence 4 3 2 1
of numbers on the calendar. Student can count Student can count Student can count up Student has difficulty
from 1–12 and name from 1–12 and name some of the numbers counting from 1–12
the 12 months in some of the 12 months from 1–12 for the 12 for the 12 months in
the year fluently and in the year but with months in the year. the year.
without any prompt. some prompting.
Student has illustrated four 4 3 2 1
seasons to create a Calendar Drawing shows Drawing shows Drawing shows one Drawing does not
of Events poster. elements of seasons some distinguishable sign of the seasons show any distinctive
with lots of details. features of the seasons. but needs more elements of the
details. seasons.
Drawing shows how animals 4 3 2 1
at the Petting Zoo respond Drawing shows Drawing shows Drawing may show There is no evidence
to the changing seasons (i.e. animals responding animals responding to an animal responding of showing an
giving birth to young in to weather with the season. to the season but animal responding to
Spring or sleeping inside the details. needs more details. weather.
shed in the Winter).
(Continued)
TABLE A.2.12 (Continued)

Infomercial about Visiting the Petting Zoo

Objectives Excellent Good Fair Needs Improvement
Using their Calendar of 4 3 2 1
Events poster, the student Student is expressive Student is expressive Student shares an Student needs
can highlight an event that with their oral with their oral event but is not very to develop oral
people should come to see. language skill and language skill. coherent. presentation skills.
has a dramatic flair.
Student can talk about 4 3 2 1
and explain how different Student shares a Student can talk Student can talk Student has difficulty
animals respond to the lot of background about and explain about how different talking about how
seasonal change (i.e. baby knowledge about how different animals animals respond to different animals
farm animals born in Spring animals and how respond to the the seasonal change respond to the
time; sheep shearing in the they respond to seasonal change. but could add more seasonal change.
Spring time to shed the seasonal change. details.
Winter wool coat).
 Appendix B 335

to design their pen. For example, goats are excellent at crawling through small
gaps or climbing over fencing. How do you design the fencing on the pen so
your goat does not escape? In addition, your goats will need a place to go in the
Winter and when it’s raining. Goats with thick coats may be able to withstand
colder temperatures.

Internet Resources
Charlotte Nature Museum. (2014). What do animals do in autumn? Retrieved from www.
charlottenaturemuseum.org/blog/post/84/What-do-animals-do-in-autumn
PBS Kids. (2014). Baby animals. Retrieved from http://pbskids.org/dragonflytv/show/
babyanimals.html
Scholastic. (2014). Study jams: Animal adaptations. Retrieved from http://studyjams.scholastic.
com/studyjams/jams/science/animals/animal-adaptations.htm
Sheppard Software. (n.d.). Animal classification: reproduction. (Baby animals!). Retrieved from
www.sheppardsoftware.com/content/animals/kidscorner/kc_classification_babies.htm
Smithsonian National Zoological Park. (n.d.). Kid farm at the national zoo: Caring for
goats. Retrieved from http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/KidsFarm/InTheBarn/Goats/
care.cfm

Books
Dunn, M.R. (2011). Owls (Nocturnal animals). Mankato, MN: Capstone Press.
McBrier, P., & Lohstoetler, L. (2004). Beatrice’s goat. New York: Aladdin Publishing.
Markle, S. (2013). What if you had animal teeth? New York: Scholastics Books.
Markle, S. (2014). What if you had animal hair? New York: Scholastics Books.
Nagda, A., & Bickel, C. (2000). Tiger math. New York: Holt and Company.
Nagda, A., & Bickel, C. (2002). Chimp math. New York: Holt and Company.
National Geographic. (2010). National geographic wild animal atlas: Earth’s astonishing ani-
mals and where they live. Washington, DC: National Geographic Books.
Tuchman, G. (2013). Scholastic discover more reader level 1: Petting zoo. New York: Scholastic
Books.
Whipple, L., & Carle, E. (1989). Animals animals. New York: Philomel Books.
This page intentionally left blank
APPENDIX C
Sample STEM Road Map Module Curriculum
Planning Template

Carla C. Johnson, Erin E. Peters-Burton, and

Catherine Koehler

STEM ROAD MAP CURRICULUM MODULE OVERVIEW

STEM Road Map Module Theme and Grade Level:

STEM Road Map Module Topic:

Module Summary
Identify how the project fits into the big picture, develops authentic skills, and
embraces habits of mind of the discipline.

Established Goals/Objectives
Students will understand (big ideas/key knowledge), know, be able to do what
(key skills)?

• What are the big ideas (cross cutting themes) in the project?
• How does it address science and engineering practices?
• How does it address mathematics and language objectives?

Challenge and/or Problem for Students to Solve:

338 Carla C. Johnson et al.

Content Standards Addressed in STEM Road Map Module

Next Generation Science Standards Common Core Mathematics Common Core ELA

21st Century Skills Addressed in the STEM Road Map Module

21st Century Skills Learning Skills and Teaching Evidence of

Technology Tools Strategies Success
(from P21 framework)
21st century
interdisciplinary themes
Learning and innovation
skills
Information, media, and
technology skills
Life and career skills

Launch
To launch inquiry and spark curiosity. (This is how you will launch the PBL.)

Prerequisite Key Knowledge

What are the key concepts that are most important for students to know in each
discipline for the unit?
 Appendix C 339

Prerequisite Key Knowledge Application of Knowledge Differentiation for Students

Needing Knowledge

Desired Outcomes and Monitoring Success

Identify student outcomes to be met through the unit. Some students may be
successful given only the desired outcomes, while other students may need scaf-
folding by providing benchmark goals along the way. Students can use these
desired outcomes to self-monitor and check that they are progressing in a posi-
tive direction.

Desired Outcome Evidence of Success in Achieving Identified Outcome

Performance Tasks Other Measures

Assessment Plan
Define the products and artifacts for the project. Be sure to include a vari-
ety of assessments for learning that are closely tied to the content, learning
skills, and technology tools outcomes. The products and criteria must align
with the objectives and outcomes for the project. State the criteria for exem-
plary performance for each product. Plan for assessments that provide student
feedback as the project progresses and provide for a culminating appraisal of
performance or product with an accompanying rubric that clearly assesses the
learning targets.

Major Group Products

Major Individual Products/Deliverables
340 Carla C. Johnson et al.

Resources
School-based Individuals:
Technology:
Community:
Materials:

STEM Road Map Module Timeline—Five Weeks

STEM Road Map Module Schedule Week One—Very brief sentence

about activities of the day.

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5

Launch the module.

STEM Road Map Module Schedule Week Two

Day 6 Day 7 Day 8 Day 9 Day 10

STEM Road Map Module Schedule Week Three

Day 11 Day 12 Day 13 Day 14 Day 15

STEM Road Map Module Schedule Week Four

Day 16 Day 17 Day 18 Day 19 Day 20

STEM Road Map Module Schedule Week Five

Day 21 Day 22 Day 23 Day 24 Day 25

 Appendix C 341

LESSON PLAN #1—TOPIC—GRADE LEVEL

Lesson Title:

Lesson Summary
Summarize the lesson/mini-abstract

Essential Question(s)
What questions will guide student learning in this lesson?

Established Goals/Objectives
Students will understand (big ideas/key knowledge), know, be able to do what
(key skills)?

Time required:

Necessary Materials

Standards Addressed in STEM Road Map Module Lesson

Next Generation Science Standards:
Common Core Mathematics:
Common Core ELA:
21st Century Skills:

Key Vocabulary Definition

Teacher Background Information

What content does the teacher need to know about to deliver this lesson? Brief
summary.
342 Carla C. Johnson et al.

Lesson Preparation
What will the teacher need to plan ahead of time for this lesson?

Learning Plan Components

Introductory Activity/Engagement
Describe how you will launch the lesson, gain student attention/interest, etc.

Science Class

Mathematics Class

ELA Class

Social Studies Class

Activity/Investigation
How will students dig deeper? Research, creating something, experimenting/
testing, collecting other data.
 Appendix C 343

Science Class

Mathematics Class

ELA Class

Social Studies Class

Explain
What components will the teacher explain/discuss/teach to students in this
lesson?

Science Class

Mathematics Class
344 Carla C. Johnson et al.

ELA Class

Social Studies Class

Extend/Apply Knowledge
What opportunities will students have to apply what they have learned through
their work in this lesson explicitly, if any?

Science Class

Mathematics Class

ELA Class
 Appendix C 345

Social Studies Class

Assessment
Performance tasks:

Other measures:

Internet Resources
This page intentionally left blank
ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

Ian C. Binns, Assistant Professor of Science Education, University of North

Carolina at Charlotte

Mark A. Bloom, Associate Professor of Biology, Dallas Baptist University

Susan Bodary, Principal, Education First

Jonathan Breiner, Associate Professor of Chemistry, University of Cincinnati

Lynn A. Bryan, Professor of Science Education, Purdue University

Steven R. Burton, Science Outreach Coordinator, Loudoun County Public

Schools

Brenda M. Capobianco, Associate Professor of Science Education, Purdue

University

James M. Caruthers, Professor of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University

Jennifer Drake-Patrick, Assistant Professor of Literacy, George Mason University

S. Selcen Guzey, Assistant Professor of Science Education, Purdue University

Carla C. Johnson, Associate Dean for Engagement and Global Affairs and
Professor of Science Education, Purdue University
348 About the Contributors

Catherine Koehler, Assistant Professor of Science Education, Southern Connecticut

State University

Kristin L.K. Koskey, Associate Professor of Education Foundations, University

of Akron

Amanda Laurier, Curriculum Designer, Johns Hopkins University

Andrea R. Milner, Assistant Professor of Science Education, Adrian College

Tamara J. Moore, Associate Professor of Engineering Education, Purdue University

Carolyn Parker, Assistant Professor of Science Education, Johns Hopkins University

Chea L. Parton, Research Assistant in English Education, Purdue University

Erin E. Peters-Burton, Associate Professor of Science Education and Educational

Psychology, George Mason University

Jennifer Rankin, Assistant Professor of Mathematics and Language Arts

Education, Frostburg State University

Alberto J. Rodriguez, Professor of Science Education, Purdue University

Gillian H. Roehrig, Professor of Science Education, University of Minnesota

Padmanabhan Seshaiyer, Professor of Mathematics, George Mason University

Toni A. Sondergeld, Assistant Professor of Educational Assessment, Bowling

Green State University

Gregory E. Stone, Professor of Research and Measurement, University of Toledo

Jennifer Suh, Associate Professor of Mathematics Education, George Mason

University

Juliana Utley, Associate Professor of Mathematics Education, Oklahoma State

University

Janet Walton, Visiting Assistant Professor of STEM Education, Purdue University

Shaun Yoder, Senior Consultant, Education First

INDEX

Page numbers in bold refer to tables, italics refer to figures; numbers in parentheses refer to grade

active learning 203, 204, 206 item analysis and 187; keywords 168–9;
actuaries 105, 161 learning objectives (LOs) and 167–71;
advocacy, STEM 212, 214, 219, 220, matrices and 182–4, 185; multiple-
226–7 choice 171–4, 181; objective 171, 182,
aerodynamics 106, 239, 298 183; petting zoo (K) and 316; rubrics
aerospace engineers 113 176–80, 184, 186–7; self-constructed
agriculture 109–10, 129, 143 171–2, 174–6, 182, 185; smart phones
alternative energy 119, 259, 260. See also (12) and 155; state standards and
renewable energy; solar energy; thermal 166–7, 169–71; STEM integration and
energy 25; STEM notebooks (K-2) and 43;
America COMPETES Act 17–18 STEMx Sustainability Compass and
amusement parks (6) (12) 44, 98, 100, 101, 223; summative 165–6, 184; teachers
152, 153–5 and 166; tools 171–6
analytic rubrics 177 astronomers 51, 312
Anderson, L.W. 168 atoms (11) 144, 148, 181
animals (K) 318, 319, 324, 325, 329–35. at-risk students 192
See also goats (K); petting zoo (K) audio engineers 58
app creation 135, 140, 159 authentic contexts 26, 27–8, 126, 195,
aquariums/terrariums (3) 69, 73–5 197, 198
architects 104–5 automotive x-challenge (7) 290–309;
Arizona STEM Network 231 engineer it! 240, 284, 298–9, 306–9;
art 41–2, 43, 66, 96, 125 fact or friction? 246, 290–5; overview
assessments 165–87; backwards design 304–7; ready, set race: the x-challenge
166–7; benchmark 216, 218, 224; 246–7, 295–304; transportation/
Bloom’s Revised Cognitive Taxonomy motorsports and 107, 239
and 168–9; Data-Driven Decision Automotive X-Prize 240, 248–9, 250
Making (DDDM) and 180–6;
diagnostic 165–6, 184; errors and baking soda and vinegar balloons (7) 259,
171–2, 179–80; formative 165–6, 261, 263, 265
184; integrated curriculum and 230; ball drop activity (7) 266–9, 270–2
350 Index

Beatrice’s Goat (McBrier) 320, 328–9, 330 class sizes 191, 228
benchmark assessments 216, 218, 225 Clever Crazes for Kids (website) 42, 76
biodiversity 125, 135, 137, 139 climate 57, 59, 97, 324–6
biology 78, 124, 331 climate change 99, 130, 139, 153, 158
biomedical engineers 113 climate change mitigation (5) 87, 92–4
Black students 217 climatologists 59, 76–7
Bloom’s Revised Cognitive Taxonomy coalitions, STEM 211–12
168–9 cognitive taxonomies 167–9
blow it up! (7) 259, 261, 263, 265 collaboration 31, 97, 126, 273, 298, 306
Breiner, Jonathan 16 collective impact model 219
bridges 114, 117 collective participation, teacher 203, 205,
Burning Glass Technologies 215 206
Bush Administration 17 college 3, 217, 218. See also postsecondary
business of amusement parks, the (12) pipeline
152, 153–5 Common Core State Standards in English
business/industry partners 208, 211, 212. Language Arts (CCSS-ELA) and
See also multi-sector partnerships Mathematics (CCSS-M): eighth grade
Buxton, C. 193 115–16, 118, 119, 121; eleventh grade
145–6, 147, 148, 150, 151; fifth grade
California STEM Learning Network 222, 88, 89, 90–1, 92, 93–4; first grade 54,
228 55, 56–7, 58; fourth grade 80, 81, 82,
car crashes (12) 152, 153, 155–7, 268 83, 84–5; grades K-2 and 42–3, 66;
car design (7) 266, 268, 295–8, 304–7 grades 9-12 and 124–5; grades 6-8 and
carbon cycling 127, 130, 139 96; grades 3-5 and 69; kindergarten 45,
career awareness. See STEM careers 46, 48, 49, 313; mathematical thinking
Carnegie Foundation 3, 4 and 30; as national standard 28; ninth
carpenters 121–2 grade 128, 129–30, 131, 132–3, 134;
cause and effect: eighth grade and 114–16; Race to the Top and 18; second grade
eleventh grade and 144–6; fifth grade 61, 62–3, 64, 65; seventh grade 107,
and 86–7; first grade and 51–2; fourth 108–10, 111, 112, 241–3; sixth grade
grade and 79; grades K-2 and 41, 42; 99–100, 101, 102, 103, 104; states and
grades 9-12 and 125; grades 6-8 and 217, 229; STEM Road Map and 4, 20,
97; grades 3-5 and 69; kindergarten 41, 66; tenth grade 136–7, 138, 139–40,
and 44–5; ninth grade and 126–8; 141, 142–3; third grade 71–2, 73, 74,
problem-/project-based learning (PBL) 75, 77; twelfth grade 154–5, 156,
and 20; second grade and 59–60; 158–9, 160
seventh grade and 106–7; sixth grade communication 42, 97, 98, 100–1, 102,
and 98–100; as STEM theme 6; tenth 126
grade and 135–7; third grade and communication by sound (1) 52–3, 54
70–1; twelfth grade and 153–5. See also communities, STEM 213–28; benchmark
individual topics areas and 216–8, 224; California STEM
Census Bureau, U.S. 192 Learning Network and 221, 227;
change over time—our schoolyard garden Lenoir, North Carolina and 220–1;
(2) 42, 63–5 local partnerships and 219–20, 222;
changing environment, the (natural policy development and 212–13, 227–8;
hazards) (2) 42, 59–60, 61 STEMx Sustainability Compass and
changing world, the (window box 223; tools, resources for 223; workforce
gardens) (1) 52, 54–5 needs and 214–16
characteristics, effective STEM 228–32 compost (5) 69, 86, 87, 91–2
chemical energy 257, 259, 261 conservation, energy 69, 142, 153, 239,
chemistry 116, 124, 143, 144, 145, 168–70 260. See also Law of Conservation of
Chimp Math (Nagda) 331 Energy
civil engineers 66, 85, 90, 105 conservation, water (4) 79, 84–5
 Index 351

conservation organizations 129, 137–8 earth and sky patterns (K): content
construction materials (11) 144, 146 standards and 313; petting zoo and
construction occupations 120–2, 134 45–6, 311–18, 320, 321, 328–9, 332–5;
content knowledge 27, 205, 206 seasons and 45–6, 311–4, 315–24, 326,
Core Conceptual Framework for 328–9, 332–5; STEM Road Map and
Professional Development 203–6 44; weather and 45–6, 311–13, 315–19,
cost estimators 113 318–327, 333
cost-benefit analyses 100, 102, 144, 150–1 earth drillers 134
creating the next smart phone (12) 152, earth formation (9) 126, 127–8
153, 155, 156 earth on the move (8) 114–16, 126
critical thinking 4, 31, 68, 97, 126, 152. earth sciences 19, 124, 125, 229. See also
See also 21st century skills earth and sky patterns (K); earth
cross-cultural education 31, 189–94, formation (9); earth’s spheres (9);
201. See also cultural inclusivity; earth’s systems (5) (9)
sociotransformative constructivism (sTc) earthquakes 79, 102–3, 115, 158
Crowther, D.T. 193 earth’s spheres (9) 127, 130, 131
cultural inclusivity 26, 27–8, 194–6, earth’s systems (5) (9) 69, 87–8, 125, 126,
199–201 127, 130–3
curriculum, integrated 229–30 earth/space sciences 229
ecological sustainability 69
Dallara, Italy 252, 297, 299 ecologists 51, 59, 312
data collection, STEM 180–6, 206–7, 214, economists 114
215, 224–6, 233 ecosystem preservation (3) 70, 73–5
database administrators 113 ecosystems 70, 74–5, 92, 110, 226–8.
Data-Driven Decision Making (DDDM) See also education ecosystems
180–6. See also data collection, STEM ecosystems modeling (10) 125, 135, 139–40
Davidson, Cheryl 215 EDP (engineering design process). See
day and night (K) 319, 322, 323 engineering design process (EDP)
Dayton Regional STEM 222 Educate Texas 234
decision models 114, 117–18 Education Council 227
Department of Commerce, U.S. 215 education ecosystems 225–6
Department of Education, U.S. 18, 180, Education First 223
218 education pipeline (pre-K-12) 213, 216–18,
Department of Energy, U.S. 83 223. See also postsecondary pipeline
Department of Labor, U.S. 133–4, 143, 161 EDvention 222
design engineers 106, 249 effective STEM program characteristics
design journals, transportation- 228–32
motorsports (7): automotive eighth grade 114–23
x-challenge and 294, 305, 307; elastic potential energy 257, 266–8, 270,
materials matter and 270, 272–3; 274–9
rubber bands and 279, 281, 288; start elastomers 274–81
your engines and 246, 248, 251; student electrical energy 257, 259
success evidence and 245; 21st century electricity 153–4
skills and 244 electromagnetic radiation 125, 149, 154
design justification 25 elementary schools 33. See also grade
Desimone, L.M. 203, 206 overviews
dialogic conversation 195, 197, 198, 199 eleventh grade 143–52
differentiated instruction 165, 231 embedded technology 225, 232
disciplinary core ideas 9, 19, 28, 68, 181 enablers 226, 234
documentaries, student 102, 106, 111–12, endangered species 56
127, 132, 135, 136, 139 energy. See energy transformations (7);
drivers, Pre-K-12 STEM 225 Law of Conservation of Energy; let’s get
Duncan, Arne 180 energetic! (7); individual types of energy
352 Index

energy, renewable 69, 78, 135, 142, 143 design; engineering design process
energy, solar 69, 78, 79–81, 120 (EDP); engineering habits of mind;
energy, sound 257, 259, 261, 268, 278 engineering thinking; engineers
energy, thermal 120, 257, 259, 268, 275 engineering design 5, 9, 30, 91, 101,
energy alternatives 119, 259, 260. 125–6, 133, 146–7
See also renewable energy; solar energy; engineering design process (EDP):
thermal energy compost (5) and 91; definition of 30;
energy carbon capture and storage 143 design justification and 25; Internet
energy conservation 69, 142, 153, 239, resources and the 252; rainwater
260. See also Law of Conservation of analysis (5) and the 90; snow-proof
Energy school challenge (7) and the 252;
energy consumption 142, 153, 158 transportation-motorsports (7) and the
energy conversions 170–1, 258–60 34, 106, 239, 249, 251; X-Challenge (7)
energy efficiency 143, 149 and the 295–6
energy flow activity 258–9 engineering habits of mind 9, 15–16, 25,
energy modeling 125 30. See also engineering thinking
energy production 142 Engineering in K-12 Education (National
energy trading 143 Research Council) 32–3
energy transformations (7) 106, 239, 255, Engineering in K-12 Education:
266–8, 294, 296, 298 Understanding the Status and Improving
engineer it! (7): automotive x-challenge the Prospects (National Academy of
and 298–9, 306–9; fact or friction? and Engineering) 8–9
293, 296; rubber band racers and 285, Engineering is Elementary kit 33
287, 289, 290; start your engines and engineering thinking 5, 30, 34, 208–9,
245, 248, 250, 251; worksheets/design 249. See also engineering habits of
journals 253–5, 306–9 mind
engineering: Engineering in K-12 engineers 50, 143. See also individual types
Education (National Research Council) of engineers
32–3; Engineering in K-12 Education: English Language Learners’ (ELLs) 192–3,
Understanding the Status and Improving 194, 198
the Prospects (National Academy of English/language arts (ELA): eighth
Engineering) 8–9; Engineering is grade and 114, 115, 116, 117, 119, 120;
Elementary kit 33; failures and 5, 146; eleventh grade and 144, 146–7; fifth
Framework for K12 Science Education, grade and 90, 91, 93; fourth grade and
A (National Research Council) and 19, 80–1, 84; grades 9-12 and 124; high-
229; historical curriculum initiatives stakes testing and 204–5; kindergarten
and 15; Internet resources and 252; and 44, 47–8, 319–21, 323, 325, 326,
jobs/workforce and 13; K-12 and 9, 330–2; Next Generation Science Standards
17; kindergarten and 43–4; learning (NGSS), K-2 and 41; ninth grade and
centers and 196–9; learning from the 127, 129; seventh grade and 106, 108,
past (8) and 114; Minnesota and 33; 109, 110, 112, 251, 252, 270; sixth
National Academy of Engineering grade and 100, 102; STEM and 4, 5, 28,
(NAE) 8, 9, 17, 28; natural hazards (2) 34; tenth grade and 135; third grade
and 60; nature of engineering (NOE) and 72, 73, 75; twelfth grade and 158.
10; practices and 30, 32–3; Standards for See also Common Core State Standards in
K-12 Engineering Education (National English Language Arts (CCSS-ELA) and
Academy of Engineering/NAE) 28, Mathematics (CCSS-M); transportation-
32–3; as STEM career (10) 143; STEM motorsports (7)
definition and 16–17; STEM integration environment 97, 125, 135, 136–8, 141–3,
and 23–5, 32–3; STEM Road Map and 329. See also climate change; climate
4, 28–9; teacher content knowledge change mitigation (5); ecologists;
and 27; transportation-motorsports ecosystem preservation (3); green
(7) and 240, 250. See also engineering economy sector
 Index 353

environmental engineering technicians geographers 51, 59, 134

104, 122 geography 44, 47, 56, 57, 86, 87–9, 120
environmental engineers 66, 122 geology 86, 127–8
environmental management (10) 125, 135, geoscientists 122, 134, 143
136–8 geotechnical engineers 94
environmental scientists 78, 103–4, 113, global bonds (12) 152, 153, 157–9
143 Global Climate Change (GCC) 59
erosion and weathering management (9) global competitiveness 13–14, 17, 217
127, 129–30 global models (9) 125, 126, 127, 130, 131
erosion modeling (4) 79, 81–2 global warming 98, 99, 139. See also
errors, assessment 171–2, 179–80 climate change
global water quality (6) 98, 101–2, 103,
fact or friction? (7) 246, 290–5 126
farmers 331 GMOs (genetically modified organisms)
federal funding 17–19 (7) 97, 106, 111–12, 126
field station mapping (4) 79, 80 goals and policies, STEM 224–6, 233
fifth grade 86–94 goats (K) 320, 328–32, 335
Finland vs. U.S. student achievement 191 grade overviews: K-2 41–3; 9–12 124–6;
first grade 51–9 6–8 96–7; 3-5 68–9
fission 144, 148 graphic artists 94
501(c)(3) organizations 222 gravitational potential energy (GPE) 257,
floods 102–3 266, 267, 268, 269, 279
food 111, 113, 119, 129, 136 gravity 294
footprint reduction (3) 70, 76 green building rooftops (11) 144, 149,
force 275, 290–5 150
formal and informal STEM learning green construction 143
opportunities 216, 225, 230–1 green economy sector 134, 141–2, 143
fossils 79, 116–17 Green Schools Initiative 76
fourth grade 78–86 Grossman, Mark 215
Framework for 21st Century Learning growth (1) 56–7
(Partnership for 21st Century
Learning) 10 habitats, U.S. (K) 42, 44, 47, 48
Framework for K-12 Science Education, habitats—local and far away (1) 42, 52, 56
A (National Research Council) 19, 30, habitats—our changing environment (2)
32–3, 229 59–60
Framework for STEM Integration in Hamilton, L. 180
the Classroom (National Research healthy living (10) 135, 136–7
Council) 5 hearing specialists 58
Fred Rogers Center 47 Heifer International Project for Ending
freshman (college) remediation 217, 218 Hunger and Poverty 199
friction 106, 239, 246, 290–5, 298 hibernation 321, 329, 332
fusion 144, 148 high schools 33–4, 125, 217, 218. See also
future transportation (3) 70, 72 grade overviews
Future-Ready Tennessee: Developing STEM higher level thinking skills 15, 168, 172.
Talent for 2018 and Beyond (Tennessee See also engineering habits of mind;
STEM Innovation Network) 233 engineering thinking
Hispanic students 217
Galilei, Galileo 144, 145 historians 122
gardens. See plants and gardens History of Hydropower (website) 83
gateway courses 218 holistic rubrics 177, 178
genetic disorders (7) 106, 108–10, 126 Hoosier Tires 276, 281
genetically modified organisms (GMOs) horizontal alignment STEM partnerships
(7) 97, 106, 111–12, 126 220, 221, 224, 230–1
354 Index

Horn, L. 192 seventh grade and 106, 107–9; sixth

horticulturalists 59 grade and 98, 100–1; as STEM theme
human experience optimization: eighth 6–7; tenth grade and 135, 136–8; third
grade and 115, 120, 121; eleventh grade and 70, 72, 73; twelfth grade and
grade and 144, 149–51; fifth grade 153, 155, 156. See also individual topics
and 87, 92–4; first grade and 52, 57, inquiry based instruction 230
58; fourth grade and 79, 84–5; grades Institute of Education Sciences (IES) 180
K-2 and 41, 42; grades 9-12 and 125; integrated curriculum 230
grades 6-8 and 97; grades 3-5 and 69; integrated instruction 124–5
kindergarten and 44, 47–9; ninth grade Integrated STEM. See STEM integration
and 127, 133, 134; problem-/project- integrator, STEM 25
based learning (PBL) and 20; seventh inter/multidisciplinary approach 4–5, 9, 25
grade and 106, 111–12; sixth grade and international school partners 158
98, 102–3; as STEM theme 8; tenth International Technology Education
grade and 135, 141–3; third grade and Association (ITEA) 17, 28
70, 76, 77; twelfth grade and 153, International Thermonuclear
158–60. See also individual topics Experimental Reactor 148
human impact, nature (9) 125, 126, 127, IPCC Fifth Assessment Report 139
129, 133, 134 Is Your Mama, a Llama? (Guarino) 320, 331
human impacts, climate (6) 98, 99–100
hurricanes 102–3 jobs/workforce 3, 13, 213–16, 218, 220.
hydrologists 94 See also global competitiveness;
hydropower efficiency (4) 79, 83 postsecondary pipeline
hydrosphere 87, 90 Johnson, Nancy 200
hypotheses 197–8 journalists 50, 85–6
Jurgensen, Jerry 211
ice cream, sociotransformative STEM and
196–200 kindergarten 43–51. See also earth and sky
impact minimization (8) 114, 119–20, 126 patterns (K)
Indianapolis Speedway 292, 295 kinetic energy 177–8, 257, 259–60, 267,
Individual Professional Development 268, 278, 279. See also potential energy
Plans (IPDP) 207–8 kinetic friction 291, 295. See also friction
IndyCars 106–7, 249, 252, 266, 269–70, Krathwohl, D.R. 168
286, 289, 304
inelastic collision 268 land use planning 63
influence of the waves (1) 51–2, 53 landslides 127, 129
infographics 130 language arts. See Common Core State
informal and formal STEM learning Standards in English Language Arts
opportunities 216, 225, 231 (CCSS-ELA) and Mathematics
information, media, and technology skills (CCSS-M); English/language arts
31, 244, 315. See also 21st century skills (ELA)
information and media literacy 31, 97, 126 Lasting Impact: A Business Leader’s Playbook
infrastructures 118 for Supporting America’s Schools (Allan,
infusion (engineering) 9, 17 et al.) 224
innovation and progress: eighth grade and Law of Conservation of Energy 106, 239,
114, 116, 117; eleventh grade and 144, 255, 259, 266–70
146–7; fifth grade and 87–9; first grade lead teachers 96, 125
and 52–4; fourth grade and 79–81; Learn to Earn Dayton 222
grades K-2 and 41, 42; grades 9-12 and learning and innovation skills 31, 244,
125; grades 6-8 and 97; grades 3-5 315. See also 21st century skills
and 69; ninth grade and 127, 129–30; learning centers 196
problem-/project-based learning learning from our past (8) 114, 116–18, 126
(PBL) and 20; second grade and 60–3; learning objectives (LOs) 25, 167–71, 172
 Index 355

Lee, O. 193 330–2; learning centers and 196–8;

Lenoir County, North Carolina 221 nature of mathematics (NOM) 10;
let’s get energetic! (7) 246, 255–65 New England Common Assessment
levees 69 Program (NECAP) and 216; Next
life and career skills 31, 244, 315. See also Generation Science Standards (NGSS),
21st century skills K-2 and 41; practices and 29, 30,
life in space/space travel (7) 106, 107–8 34, 76; Project 2061: Science for All
life sciences 19, 143, 229 Americans (American Association
light 51–2, 108, 260, 261–2, 264 for the Advancement of Science)
light up my life (7) 260, 261–2, 264 (AAAS) and 15; second grade and
lobbyists 122 60, 63; seventh grade and 106, 107,
local/regional STEM partners 224–5 108, 109, 112; sixth grade and 98, 99,
logisticians 113–14 100; state assessments and 217; STEM
Long Island, New York 215 integration and 23–5, 27; teacher
content knowledge and 27; tenth grade
Maglev trains 69, 153–4 and 135, 140; third grade and 70–1, 72,
magnetism 72, 153–4 76; twelfth grade and 153, 154, 155–6.
making music (7) 259, 261, 262, 264 See also Common Core State Standards in
Mandinach, E.B. 180 English Language Arts (CCSS-ELA)
Manhattan Project, the 148 and Mathematics (CCSS-M);
manufacturing 143, 298 transportation-motorsports (7)
mapping (4) 78, 79, 80 matrices 182–4, 185
mapping (engineering) 9 matter 125, 145
Maricopa County Education Association MC2 STEM (Cleveland) 229
231 mechanical energy 257, 259, 260, 261,
marine ecosystems 139 268, 278
marketing managers 105 media literacy. See information, media,
material assembly (2) 42 and technology skills
material engineers 65–6 medical sonographers 120
material science and space (2) 60–3 medicine 105, 109, 114, 116, 117, 120
materials design 61–2, 125. See also metacognition 195, 197, 198, 199
construction materials (11) meteorologists 51, 76–7, 312
materials matter (7) 246, 266–73 microbiologists 105, 113
materials science 60–3, 146, 267 middle schools 33. See also grade
mathematical thinking and reasoning overviews
30–1 migration 321, 329, 332
mathematicians 30, 50, 78 mineral resources (11) 143–4, 149–51
mathematics: actuaries and 105; Minnesota 33
Benchmarks for Science Literacy modeling ecosystems (10) 125, 135,
(American Association for the 139–40
Advancement of Science/AAAS) models, global 125, 126, 127, 130, 131
and 15; as career 143; eighth grade module curriculum planning template
and 114, 115, 116, 117, 119, 120; 337–45
eleventh grade and 144, 148; fifth modules, STEM instructional 34, 66
grade and 87, 88, 89, 91, 93; first moon 319, 322, 323
grade and 52, 53, 54–5; fourth grade Moore, Tamara J. 5
and 80, 81–2; freshman (college) motion 42, 70, 72
remediation and 217; grades 9-12 and motorsports. See transportation-
124; high-stakes testing and 204–5; motorsports (7)
historical curriculum initiatives and 14; multimedia 89, 127–8
international student scores and 217; multiple-choice items 171–4, 181
jobs/workforce and 13; kindergarten multi-sector partnerships 214, 219–26,
and 43–4, 46, 311, 319–21, 322–3, 325, 230–1
356 Index

music 43, 52–3, 66, 96, 125 nature, human impact on (9) 126, 127,
music box (7) 259, 261, 262, 264 129, 133, 134
nature of engineering (NOE) 10
nanotechnologists 66 nature of mathematics (NOM) 10
NASA (National Aeronautics and Space nature of science (NOS) 9–10
Administration) 18, 61–2, 107–8, 133 nature of technology (NOT) 10
Nascar 106–7. See also IndyCars; nature patterns. See world patterns/living
transportation-motorsports (7) things impact (K)
Nation at Risk, A (National Commission New England Common Assessment
on Excellence in Education) 15 Program (NECAP) 216
National Academy of Engineering (NAE) New Hampshire 216
8, 9, 17, 28 New Mexico 231
National Academy of Science (NAS) 13 New York 215, 223, 231
National Aeronautics and Space Newton, Issac 145
Administration (NASA) 18, 61–2, Newton’s Third Law 241
107–8, 133 Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS):
National Assessment of Educational California STEM Learning Network
Progress (NAEP) 217 and 228; eighth grade and 115, 118,
National Association for the Education 119, 121; eleventh grade and 145–6,
of Young Children (NAEYC) 41–3, 147, 148, 150, 151; engineering design
47, 66 and 29–30; equipment, class size and
National Commission on Teaching and 191; fifth grade and 88, 89, 90–1, 92,
America’s Future 191 93; first grade and 54, 55, 56–7, 58;
National Council for the Teaching of fourth grade and 80, 81, 82, 83, 84–5;
Mathematics (NCTM) 166 grades K-2 and 41, 66; grades 9-12 and
National Education Longitudinal Study 192 124–5; grades 6-8 and 96; grades 3-5
National Energy Education Project and 69; infusion and 9; kindergarten
(NEED) 257, 260 and 45, 46, 48, 49, 312, 313; learning
National Ignition Facility 148 objectives (LOs) and 170–1; ninth
National Oceanic and Atmospheric grade and 128, 129–30, 131, 132–3,
Administration (NOAA) 18 134; second grade and 61, 62–3, 64, 65;
National Research Council (NRC) 3, 15, seventh grade and 107, 108–10, 111,
32–3 112, 240, 241–3; sixth grade and 99,
National Science and Technology Council 101, 102, 103, 104; as standard 19–20,
(NSTC) 18, 19 28; standards integration and 17; states
National Science and Technology Summit and the 217; STEM curriculum and 4;
17–18 tenth grade and 136–7, 138, 139–40,
National Science Education Standards 141, 142–3; third grade and 71–2, 73,
(NSES) 15, 19 74, 75, 77; twelfth grade and 154–5,
National Science Foundation (NSF) 14, 156, 158–9, 160
16, 18, 231 ninth grade 126–34
National Science Teachers Association No Child Left Behind 190
(NSTA) 166 noise reduction 149
national STEM partners 224–5 North Carolina 220–1, 227, 231
National Weather Service 71 North Shore-LIJ Health System 215
Nationwide Insurance 211, 213 North Wind and the Sun, The (McNamee)
natural catastrophes (12) 152, 153, 158–60 319, 323
natural environments, rebuilding (10) NRC (National Research Council) 3, 15,
125, 135, 141–3 32–3
natural hazards (2) 60 nuclear energy 257
natural hazards (6) 98, 102–3, 104, 126. nuclear engineers 152
See also natural catastrophes (12) nuclear field 152
naturalists 331 nurses, registered 105
 Index 357

ONET OnLine (website) 133–4, 161 partnerships and 212, 214, 219–26,
ONET OnLine Database (website) 141–2, 230–1; professional development and
143, 152 204–5, 206, 228; sociotransformative
Obama Administration 18–19 constructivism (sTc) and 195,
objective assessments 171, 182, 183. 200–1; states and 212, 226–8, 233;
See also multiple-choice items transformative 214, 225; workforce
occupations, STEM 214–6, 218. See also needs and 213–16
STEM careers; individual careers policy makers 3, 194, 213–14, 229
Ohio STEM education 211–12, 222–3, political scientists 122
226–9, 230, 231 population density (7) 106, 109–11
Opportunity Equation, The (Carnegie postsecondary education 215, 217–19, 226
Foundation) 3–4 postsecondary pipeline 216, 218–20,
optimizing the human experience. See 223–4, 233
human experience optimization potential energy 177–8, 257, 259–60,
optometrists 57–8 284. See also elastic potential energy;
orchestras 52–3 gravitational potential energy (GPE)
our changing school environment (K) 42, practices, STEM 29–31
44, 49 precipitation 322, 324
our school yard garden (2) 42, 63–5 predict, observe, explain (POE) 196
pre-K-12 pipeline 213, 216–18, 223
Papa, please get the moon for me (Carle) 319, prior knowledge 26, 126, 128, 142, 315
323 probability and statistics 140
parent involvement 192 probeware 197–9
partners, STEM 211–12, 213, 214, 219–26, problem-/project-based learning (PBL):
228. See also states definition of 20, 32; eighth grade
Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21) 31 and 114–15; eleventh grade and 144,
patterns and the changing world (1) 52, 152; fifth grade and 87; first grade
54–5 and 52; fourth grade and 79; inquiry
patterns on the earth and in the sky (K). based learning and 230; integrated
See earth and sky patterns (K) curriculum and 229–30; kindergarten
pedagogy 193–4, 195 and 44; ninth grade and 126–7;
performance assessments. See assessments professional development and 204,
periodic tables 144, 145 208–9; second grade and 60; seventh
petting zoo (K) 45–6, 311–18, 320, 321, grade and 106; sixth grade and 98;
328–9, 332–5 STEM integration and 5, 26; student
physical education 41–2 thinking and 8; tenth grade and 135;
physical sciences 19, 229 third grade and 70; twelfth grade 153.
physics 44–5, 124, 143 See also individual topics
plants and gardens: compost (5) 91 and; professional development 19, 33, 191–2,
earth and sky patterns (K) 312, 313, 203–9, 212, 228–9, 231, 233
318, 319 and; green building rooftops Programme for International Student
(11) 143–4, 149, 150 and; healthy Assessment (PISA) 217
living (10) 136 and; horticulturalists Progressive Insurance 248, 252
59; our school yard garden (2) 42, Project 2061: Science for All Americans
63–5; rainwater analysis (5) and (American Association for the
89–90; window box gardens (1) 52, Advancement of Science) (AAAS) 15, 19
54–5 Project Lead the Way (PLTW) Gateway to
plate tectonics 79, 114, 115 Technology 33
policies, STEM 213–28; data and 213–19, promotions managers 105
224–6; definition of 213; drivers/ prototype design rubric (transportation-
enablers and 226; education pipeline motorsports) (7) 300–3
and 216–19; horizontal/vertical P21 Framework (Partnership for
alignment and 224–6; multi-sector 21st Century Skills) 31
358 Index

public policy. See policies, STEM; states roll of physics in motion, the (roller
public-private partnerships 228–9, 233–4. coasters) (K) 44–5
See also multi-sector partnerships rubber bands (7) 246, 274–83, 283–90
Punnett Squares 108–9 rubrics 176–80, 184, 186–7, 273, 300–3,
327
race day event 107, 239, 249, 297, 304
race engineers 249 sand energy/shakers (7) 258, 259, 261,
Race to Space 14 262–3, 265
Race to the Top 18, 206 scavenger hunt for patterns (K) 319, 322
racecars (7): fact or friction? and 290, 292, school administration 194, 204–5, 208–9,
293, 294; Internet resources and 252; 225
materials matter and 266, 268, 269–70, school climate development 232
271; rubber band racers and 246, school nutritionists 136
283–90; stretching it and 274, 276, 277. schoolyard engineering (5) 86–7, 88
See also automotive x-challenge (7); science: education history of 14–15; eighth
race day event grade and 114, 115, 116, 119; elementary
radioactivity (11) 144, 148–9, 152 schools and 216; eleventh grade and
rainwater analysis (5) 69, 86, 87, 89–91 144, 145, 146–7, 151; fifth grade and
reaction rates 144, 145 87, 90, 91, 92–4; first grade and 57;
ready, set race: the x-challenge (7) 246–7, fourth grade and 79–80, 83; Framework
295–304 for K-12 Science Education, A (NRC)
Reason for Seasons, The (Gibbons) 319 and 19, 29–30, 32–3, 229; grades K-2
rebuilding the natural environment (10) and 41–2, 43; grades 9-12 and 124;
125, 135, 141–3 grades 6-8 and 96; grades 3-5 and
recreational STEM (3) 70, 72–3, 74 68–70; high-stakes testing and 204–5;
recycling and waste reduction 143 international student scores and 217;
reflexivity 195, 196, 198, 199 jobs/workforce and 13; kindergarten
registered nurses 105 and 43, 44, 319–21, 322, 324, 325,
remediation 217, 218 330–2; learning centers and 196–8;
renewable energy 69, 78, 135, 142, 143. modules and 34; National Academy
See also solar energy; thermal energy of Science (NAS) 13; National Science
represented world, the: eighth grade and Technology Council (NSTC)
and 114, 116–18; eleventh grade and 18, 19; National Science Foundation
144, 148–9; fifth grade and 87, 89–91; (NSF) 18; national science standards
first grade and 52, 54–5; fourth grade 15; nature of science (NOS) 9–10; New
and 79, 81–2; grades K-2 and 41, 42; England Common Assessment Program
grades 9-12 and 125; grades 6-8 and (NECAP) and 216; ninth grade and
97; grades 3-5 and 68–9; ninth grade 127–8, 127; No Child Left Behind and
and 127, 130; problem-/project-based 190–1; practices and 29; Project 2061:
learning (PBL) and 20; second grade Science for All Americans (American
and 60, 63–5, 64; seventh grade and Association for the Advancement of
106, 108–9; sixth grade and 98, 100–1, Science) (AAAS) 15, 19; second grade
102; as STEM theme 7; tenth grade and 60, 63; seventh grade and 106, 108,
and 135, 139–40; third grade and 70, 109, 110, 112, 281, 298; sixth grade and
72–3, 74; twelfth grade and 153, 155–7. 98, 99, 100, 101–2; state assessments and
See also earth and sky patterns (K); 216, 217; STEM integration and 23–5;
individual topics teacher content knowledge and 27;
Rising Above the Gathering Storm (National tenth grade and 135; third grade and
Academy of Science) 13–14 70, 76; transportation-motorsports (7)
rock formations 79 and 106, 240; twelfth grade and 153.
rocks/fossils 116–17 See also Next Generation Science Standards
Rodriguez, Alberto J. 193 (NGSS)
Roehrig, Gillian H. 4 Science and Engineering Practices 9
 Index 359

scientific illustrations 43, 59 standardized tests 190–1

scientific inquiry 29, 125 Standards for K-12 Engineering Education
scientific method 249, 251, 252 (National Academy of Engineering/
scientists 50 NAE) 28, 32–3
seasons (K) 45–6, 311–14, 315–24, 328–9, Standards for Technological Literacy 28
332–5 standing on the shoulders of giants (11)
second grade 59–66 144, 145–6
seismic activity 69, 79. See also Stapp Car Crash Journal, The 155
earthquakes start your engines (7) 240, 245, 246,
seismologists 85–6 248–51
self-constructed assessments 171–2, 174–6, state standards 166–7, 169–71, 207–8
182, 185 states 33, 211–12, 215–17, 219–24, 226–34.
semiconductor processors 122 See also individual states
seventh grade 105–14. See also static friction 291
transportation-motorsports (7) statisticians 94, 105
shadows data (schoolyard engineering) statistics and probablity 140
(5) 86–7 sTc (sociotransformative constructivism)
sixth grade 97–105 190, 194–200
smart phones (12) 152, 153, 155, 156 STEM: content areas and 4; definitions
snow day friction! 292 of 16–17, 213; engineering and 4, 5,
snow-proof school challenge 250, 251–2, 9; English/language arts (ELA) and
255 4, 5; federal government and 17–19;
social relevance 26, 27–8, 194–6 global competitiveness and 13–14;
social studies: eighth grade and 114, 116, inter/multidisciplinary approach
117–18, 119, 120; eleventh grade and and 4, 9; jobs/workforce and 3, 13;
144; fifth grade and 87, 89–90, 92; first mathematics and 4; National Science
grade and 52, 56, 57; fourth grade and and Technology Council (NSTC) goals
79, 82, 83, 84; grades 9-12 and 124; and 18; nature of 9–10; Next Generation
kindergarten and 44, 47, 326, 330–2; Science Standards (NGSS) and 19–20;
modules and 34; National Association practices 29–31; science education
for the Education of Young Children history and 14–15; social studies and 5;
(NAEYC) and 41–2; ninth grade and teachers and 18, 19; teams, student and
127; No Child Left Behind and 190–1; 5; technology, engineering infusion
second grade and 60, 64–5; seventh and 9–10. See also STEM careers;
grade and 106, 108, 110, 111–12; sixth STEM integration; STEM Road Map
grade and 98, 100, 102, 103; STEM and Overviews; STEM themes; individual
5, 66; tenth grade and 135; third grade grades; individual topics
and 70, 75; twelfth grade and 153. STEM careers: eighth grade and 120–2;
See also transportation-motorsports (7) eleventh grade and 152; environmental
Society of Automotive Engineers 155 preservation and 118–19; fifth grade and
sociotransformative constructivism (sTc) 94; first grade and 57–9; fourth grade
190, 194–200 and 85–6; future career explorations
software developers 122 and 66; grades K-2 and 42, 43, 49–51,
soil erosion 78, 79, 81–2, 90, 94, 129 65–6, 331, 332; ninth grade and
solar energy 69, 78, 79–81, 120 133–4; seventh grade and 113–14; sixth
sound 51–4, 58, 108 grade and 103–5; STEM drivers and
sound energy 257, 259, 261, 268, 278 225; tenth grade and 143; third grade
space 62, 97, 126, 229 and 76–8; twelfth grade and 160–1;
space life/travel (7) 106, 107–8 websites and 42, 76, 133–4, 141–2, 143,
speed 106, 239, 268, 283–90, 298 152, 161. See also individual careers
Spirit Aero-Systems 221 STEM drivers, Pre-K-12 225
stakeholders 136, 213, 219–20, 228. STEM Immersion Guide (Arizona) 231
See also multi-sector partnerships STEM Innovations, LTD 233
360 Index

STEM integration 23–34; characteristics 79, 83; grades K-2 and 41, 42; grades
of 24–6; content/context 9-12 and 125; grades 6-8 and 97;
integration and 24; definition of grades 3-5 and 69; kindergarten and
23–4; engineering and 4–5, 24–5, 44, 48; ninth grade and 127, 130–3;
29–30, 32–4; Framework for STEM problem-/project-based learning
Integration in the Classroom (National (PBL) and 20; second grade and 60,
Research Council) 5; instruction 63–5; seventh grade and 106, 109–11;
practices and 29–31; K-12 continuum sixth grade and 98, 101–2, 103; as
and 33–4; overview of 34; problem-/ STEM theme 7–8; tenth grade and
project-based learning (PBL) and 5, 135, 139–41; third grade and 70, 73–5;
31–2; teachers and 26–9; 21st century twelfth grade and 153, 157–9. See also
skills and 5, 31 individual topics
STEM leadership teams 221 swing set construction (3) 72–3
STEM Master Teacher Corps 19 systems theory 131–2
STEM notebooks/journals 43, 46, 55,
59, 63, 311. See also design journals, Taft, Bob 226
transportation-motorsports (7) Teacher Corps programs 17–18, 19
STEM Road Map Curriculum Module teachers: change resistance and 193–4;
Planning Template 10, 337–45 educational leadership and 27; effective
STEM Road Map overviews: eighth grade STEM and 217, 218, 225, 228–9;
and 114–15; eleventh grade 144; fifth engineering and 8–9; high school
grade 87; first grade 52; fourth grade 124–5; K-2 STEM Road Map themes
79; grades 9-12 124–6; grades K-2 42, and 42–3; lead teachers (9-12) and 125;
66; grades 6-8 and 96–7; grades 3-5 resources lack and 191–2; as STEM
68–9; kindergarten 44; ninth grade drivers 225; STEM integration and
126–7; second grade 60; seventh grade 26–9; STEM road map curriculum and
106; sixth grade 98; tenth grade 135; 4, 124; STEM school start-up and 232;
third grade 70; twelfth grade 153. STEM training and 18, 19; teams of 33,
See also individual topics 204, 209, 231, 232. See also assessments;
STEM School start-up process 232–3 Data-Driven Decision Making
STEM themes 4, 6–8, 20. See also (DDDM); professional development
cause and effect; human experience Teaching Institute for Excellence in
optimization; innovation and progress; STEM (TIES) 227
represented world, the; sustainable teams, community 232
systems teams, student 5, 24, 25, 32. See also
STEMx (multi-state STEM partnership) individual topics
221–2, 223 teams, teacher 33, 204, 209, 231, 232
Straight ‘A’ Fund, Ohio’s 232 technology: as critical STEM component
“Strategies that Engage Minds” (NC 43; Data-Driven Decision Making
STEM) 221 (DDDM) and 181; early childhood
stretching it (7) 246, 274–83 education and 47; embedded 231–2;
student achievement 190–1, 192, 195, 217, Framework for K-12 Science Education,
228. See also assessments A (Framework) (NRC) and 19,
sun, the (K) 46, 311–12, 313, 319, 322, 323 229; genetic disorders (7) and 109;
sun’s role, earth life (8) 114, 115, 120, 121, habitats-near and far (1) and 56;
126 International Technology Education
survival and reproduction (10) 135, Association (ITEA) 17, 28; jobs/
139–41 workforce and 13; learning centers and
survival on earth-water (1) 42, 52, 57, 58 196–9; nature of technology (NOT) 10;
sustainable systems: eighth grade and 114, practices and 29; STEM definition and
118–20; eleventh grade and 144, 149, 16–7; teacher content knowledge and 27
150; fifth grade and 87, 91–2, 92; first technology literacy 28, 31. See also 21st
grade and 52, 56–7; fourth grade and century skills
 Index 361

tectonic plates 79, 114, 115 and 240, 245, 246, 248–51; teacher
temperature probes 197–9 background information and 248–9,
temperatures 71, 258–9, 261, 262–3, 322, 324 256–7; timeline of 246–7; 21st century
templates 10, 337–45 skills and 244. See also automotive
Tennessee STEM 223, 230, 233 x-challenge (7); design journals,
tenth grade 135–43 transportation-motorsports (7)
terrariums/aquariums 3, 69, 73–5 T-STEM (Texas) 234
terrestial ecosystems 139 tsunamis 102–3
Tevithick, Richard 72 Turning Despondency into Hope: Charting
Texas 223, 231, 234 New Paths to Improve Students’
thermal energy 120, 257, 259, 268, 275 Achievement and Participation in Science
thermonuclear power 148 Education (Rodriguez) 190
third grade 69–78 twelfth grade 152–61
Third World countries 116 21st century skills: definition of 25, 31;
Tiger Math (Nagda) 331 eighth grade and 115–16, 118, 119–20,
tires 274, 276, 277, 278, 281, 292 121; eleventh grade and 145–6, 147,
Too hot? Too cold? Keeping body temperature 148, 149, 150, 151; fifth grade and 88,
just right (Arnold and Patterson) 324 89, 90–1, 92, 93–4; first grade and
topographers 85–6 54, 55, 56–7, 58; fourth grade and
tornadoes 102–3 80, 81, 82, 83, 84–5; grades K-2 and
trains 72. See also Maglev trains 42–3; grades 9-12 and 124–5, 126;
transformation stations 259–65 grades 6-8 and 96, 97; grades 3-5
transformative STEM policies 214 and 69; interdisciplinary themes and
transportation: earth formation (9) and 244; kindergarten and 45, 46, 48, 49,
127, 129; footprint reduction (3) and 314; ninth grade and 128, 129–30,
76; grades 6-8 and 97, 126; local 131, 132–3, 134; Partnership for 21st
departments of transportation 117; as Century Skills (P21) 31; second grade
STEM career (10) 143; third grade and and 61, 62–3, 64, 65; seventh grade
70, 76; urban planners and 86 and 34, 107, 108–10, 111, 112, 240,
transportation-motorsports (7) 239–309; 244; sixth grade and 99–100, 101, 102,
assessment and 245, 252; cause and 103, 104; tenth grade and 136–7, 138,
effect and 106–7; content standards and 139–40, 141, 142–3; third grade and
241–3; engineer it! and 253–5; English/ 71–2, 73, 74, 75, 77; twelfth grade and
language arts and 240, 259, 260, 281, 154–5, 156, 158–9, 160
288, 293, 298; essential questions 21st Century Skills Framework 4, 28
and 245–6; fact or friction? and 246,
290–5; goals, objectives 239–40, 248; United Nations Intergovernmental Panel
Internet resources 252; launch and on Climate Change 139
240; learning plan components and urban planners 66, 85–6
250–2; lesson preparation and 249–50; U.S. Census Bureau 192
let’s get energetic! and 246; materials U.S. Department of Commerce 215
matter and 246, 266–73; mathematics U.S. Department of Education 180, 218
and 240, 251, 252, 259, 260, 270, 280, U.S. Department of Energy 83
281, 288, 293, 298; module summary U.S. Department of Labor 133–4, 143, 161
34, 239; NGSS (Next Generation Science U.S. News and World Report 215
Standards) and 240; outcomes and 245; USGS Mineral Resources Program
overview of 106–7; ready, set race: (MRP), the 151
the x-challenge and 246–7, 295–304; Using Student Achievement Data to Support
rubber bands and 246, 274–9, 279–83, Instructional Decision Making (Hamilton,
283–90; snow-proof school challenge et. al) 180
and 250, 251–2, 255; social studies and
240, 251, 252, 259, 260, 270, 280, 281, velocity 285, 288, 298
288–9, 294, 298; start your engines Vernier probes 197–9, 200
362 Index

vertical alignment STEM partnerships Weiss, I.R. 191

220, 222, 224, 230, 231 wetlands 137–8
veterinarians 331 White, Ken 215
volcanos 69, 79, 102–3, 115 White students 217
Why Some Schools with Latino/a Children
Walt Disney Company 78 Beat the Odds and Others Don’t (Waits
Washington STEM 222 et al.) 191
water: alternative sources of 119; change wind up f lashlight (7) 259, 260, 261–2,
over time—our schoolyard (2) and 63, 264
64; global water quality (6) 98, 101–2, window box gardens (1) 52, 54–5
103, 126; green building rooftops Word Walls 198
(11) and 143–4, 149; hydrologists 94; workforce. See jobs/workforce
hydropower efficiency (4) 79, 83; world patterns/living things impact (K)
rainwater analysis (5) and 69, 86, 87, 319–21. See also goats (K); petting
89–91; soil erosion (4) and 82; survival zoo (K)
on earth-water (1) 42, 52, 57, 58 World Trade Center twin towers 144, 146
water conservation (4) 78, 79, 84–5 World Wildlife Foundation 56
waterwind turbines 87
waves (1) 42. See also influence of the x-challenge. See automotive x-challenge (7)
waves (1) x-challenge engineer it! (7) 240, 284,
weather (K) (3) 70–2, 311–13, 315–19, 307–9
318–27, 333. See also climatologists; X-prize. See Automotive X-Prize
meteorologists; snow-proof school
challenge zoologists 331