INSTAGRAM -@codeatul : CREATE BY - ATUL KUMAR (LINKEDIN) DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM APPLICATIONS, OTHER DBMS USERS tt Storage area Relational Hierarchic Flat files ew database es Popes vamerCREATE BY - ATUL KUMAR (LINKEDIN) What is Database INSTAGRAM “ecodeatu! The database is a collection of inter-related data which is used to retrieve, insert and delete the data efficiently. It is also used to organize the data in the form of a table, schema, views, and reports, etc. For example: The college Database organizes the data about the admin, staff. students and faculty etc. Using the database, you can easily retrieve, insert, and delete the information. Database Management System e Database management system is a software which is used to manage the database. For example: MySQL. Oracle, etc are a very popular commercial database which is used in different applications. DBMS provides an interface to perform various operations like database creation, storing data in it, updating data, creating a table in the database and a lot more. It provides protection and security to the database. In the case of multiple users, it also maintains data consistency. DBMS allows users the following tasks: ¢ Data Definition: It is used for creation, modification, and removal of definition that defines the organization of data in the database. < Data Updation: It is used for the insertion, modification, and deletion of the actual data in the database. ¢ Data Retrieval: It is used to retrieve the data from the database which can be used by applications for various purposes. -Gem - Ge =n ll YOWNLOAD POF FROM TELEGRAM a Gonna Bua GNOTES GALLERY ae @aprivamar= User Administration: It is used for registering and monitoring users, maintain data integrity, enforcing data security, dealing with concurrency control, monitoring performance and recovering information corrupted by unexpected failure. Characteristics of DBMS e It uses a di ital repository established on a server to store and manage the information. It can provide a clear and logical view of the process that manipulates data. - DBMS contains automatic backup and recovery procedures. = Itcontains ACID properties which maintain data in a healthy state in case of failure. - Itcan reduce the complex relationship between data. Itis used to support manipulation and processing of data. < Itis used to provide security of data. INSTAGRAM -@codeatul e It can view the database from different viewpoints according to the requirements of the user. Advantages of DBMS. - Controls database redundancy: It can control data redundancy because it stores all the data in one single database file and that recorded data is placed in the database. ¢ Data sharing: In DBMS, the authorized users of an organization can share the data among multiple users. - Easily Maintenance: It can be ea: of the database system. ly maintainable due to the centralized nature < Reduce time: It reduces development time and maintenance need. DOWNLOAD PDF FROM TELEGRAM CODING BUGS ENOTES GALLERY @putiamer= Backup: It provides backup and recovery subsystems which create automatic backup of data from hardware and software failures and restores the data if required. © multiple user interface: It provides different types of user interfaces like graphical user interfaces, application program interfaces Disadvantages of DBMS INSTAGRAM -@codeatul © Cost of Hardware and Software: It requires a high speed of data processor and large memory size to run DBMS software. « Size: It occupies a large space of disks and large memory to run them efficiently. © Complexity: Database system creates additional complexity and requirements. - Higher impact of failure: Failure is highly impacted the database because in most of the organization, all the data stored in a single database and if the database is damaged due to electric failure or database corruption then the data may be lost forever. DATABASE What is Data? Data is a collection of a distinct small unit of information. It can be used in a variety of forms like text, numbers, media, bytes, etc. it can be stored in pieces of paper or electronic memory, etc. Word ' information.’ It is plural of the word datum. ata’ is originated from the word ‘datum’ that means ‘single piece of DOWNLOAD PDF FROM TELEGRAM CODING BUGS ENOTES GALLERYIn computing, Data is information that can be translated into a form for efficient movement and processing. Data is interchangeable. What is Database? A database is an organized collection of data, so that it can be easily accessed and managed. You can organize data into tables, rows, columns, and index it to make it easier to find relevant information. Database handlers create a database in such a way that only one set of software program provides access of data to all the users. The main purpose of the database is to operate a large amount of information by storing, retrieving. and managing data. INSTAGRAM -@codeatul There are many dynamic websites on the World Wide Web nowadays which are handled through databases. For example, a model that checks the availability of rooms in a hotel. It is an example of a dynamic website that uses a database. There are many databases available like MySQL. Sybase. Oracle. MongoDB, Informix, PostgreSQL. SQL Server, etc. Modern databases are managed by the database management system (DBMS). SQL or Structured Query Language is used to operate on the data stored in a database. SQL depends on relational algebra and tuple relational calculus. isplay the image of a database. A cylindrical structure is used to. NNLOAD PDF FROM TELEGRAM BL CODING BUGS ENOTES GALLERYEvolution of Databases The database has completed more than 50 years of journey of its evolution from flat- file system to relational and objects relational systems. It has gone through several generations. The Evolution File-Based 1968 was the year when File-Based database were introduced. In file-based databases, data was maintained in a flat file. Though files have many advantages, there are several limitations. One of the major advantages is that the file system has various access methods, ¢.g.. sequential, indexed, and random. It requires extensive programming in a third-generation language such as COBOL, BASIC. Hierarchical Data Model 1968-1980 was the era of the Hierarchical Database. Prominent hierarchical database model was IBM's first DBMS. It was called IMS (Information Management System). In this model, files are related in a parent/child manner. Below diagram represents Hierarchical Data Model. Small circle represents objects. DOWNLOAD PDF FROM TELEGRAM i CODING BUGS [NOTES GALLERY“50d God \ IN, OOO Like file system, this model also had some limitations like complex implementation, lack structural independence, can't easily handle a many-many relationship, etc. Network data model Charles Bachman developed the first DBMS at Honeywell called Integrated Data Store (IDS). It was developed in the early 1960s, but it was standardized in 1971 by the CODASYL group (Conference on Data Systems Languages). In this model, files are related as owners and members, like to the common network model. Network data model identified the following components: Network schema (Database organization) DOWNLOAD PDF FROM TELEGRAM SICODING BUGS CINOTES GALLERYSub-schema (views of database per user) e Data management language (procedural) This model also had some limitations like system complexity and difficult to design and maintain. Relational Database 1970 - Present: It is the era of Relational Database and Database Management. In 1970, the relational model was proposed by E.F. Codd. Relational database model has two main terminologies called instance and schema. ‘The instance is a table with rows or columns INSTAGRAM -@codeatul Schema specifies the structure like name of the relation, type of each column and name. This model uses some mathematical concept like set theory and predicate logic. The first internet database application had been created in 1995. During the era of the relational database, many more models had introduced like object-oriented model, object-relational model, etc. Cloud database Cloud database facilitates you to store, manage, and retrieve their structured, unstructured data via a cloud platform. This data is accessible over the Internet. Cloud databases are also called a database as service (DBaaS) because they are offered as a managed service. DOWNLOAD PDF FROM TELEGRAM I CODING BUGS ENOTES GALLERYSome best cloud options are: e AWS (Amazon Web Services) e Snowflake Computing ¢ Oracle Database Cloud Services c Microsoft SQL server c Google cloud spanner Advantages of cloud database Lower costs Generally. company provider does not have to invest in databases. It can maintain and support one or more data centers. Automated INSTAGRAM -@codeatul Cloud databases are enriched with a variety of automated processes such as recovery, failover, and auto-scalin: Increased accessibility You can access your cloud-based database from any location, anytime. All you need is just an internet connection. NoSQL Database A NoSQL database is an approach to design such databases that can accommodate iety of data models. NoSQL s\ s for "not only SQL." It is an alternative to traditional relational databases in which data is placed in tables, and data schema is perfectly designed before the database is built. a wide an NoSQL databases are useful for a large set of distributed data. Some examples of NoSQL database system with their category are: DOWNLOAD PDF FROM TELEGRAM SICODING BUGS CINOTES GALLERYce MongoDB, CouchDB. Cloudant (Document-based) ce Memcached, Redis, Coherence (key-value store) c HBase, Big Table, Accumulo (Tabular) Advantage of NoSQL High Scalability NoSQL can handle an extensive amount of data because of scalability. If the data grows, NoSQL database scale it to handle that data in an efficient manner. High Availability NoSQL supports auto replication. Auto replication makes it highly available because, in case of any failure. data replicates itself to the previous consistent state. Disadvantage of NoSQL Open source NoSQL is an open-source database, so there is no reliable standard for NoSQL yet. Management challenge Data management in NoSQL is much more complicated than relational databases. It is very challenging to install and even more hectic to manage daily. GUl is not available GUI tools for NoSQL database are not easily available in the market. Backup Backup is a great weak point for NoSQL databases. Some databases, like MongoDB. have no powerful approaches for data backup. GRAM -@codeatul LOAD PDF FROM TELEGRAM Ij ING BUGS NOTES GALLERYThe Object-Oriented Databases The object-oriented databases contain data in the form of object and classes. Objects are the real-world entity, and types are the collection of objects. An object-oriented database is a combination of relational model features with objects oriented principles. It is an alternative implementation to that of the relational model Object-oriented databases hold the rules of object-oriented programming. An object- oriented database management system is a hybrid application. The object-oriented database model contains the following properties. Object-oriented programming properties © Objects > Classes ¢ Inheritance = Polymorphism - Encapsulation Relational database properties Atomicity « Cons' = Integrity © Durability Concurrency tency = Query processingGraph Databases A graph database is a NoSQL database. It is a graphical representation of data. It contains nodes and edges. A node represents an entity, and each edge represents a relationship between two edges. Every node in a graph database represents a unique identifier. Graph databases are beneficial for searching the relationship between data because they highlight the relationship between relevant data. fo \ \\ manager located in Employee | Company city | \ ¢/ / ° = NA” Graph databases are very useful when the database contains a complex relationship and dynamic schema. It is mostly used in supply chain management, identifying the source of IP telephony. DBMS (Data Base Management System) Database management System is software which is used to store and retrieve the database. For example, Oracle, MySQL, etc.; these are some popular DBMS tools. DBMS provides the interface to perform the various operations like creation, deletion, modification, etc. DBMS allows the user to create their databases as per their requirement. DBMS accepts the request from the application and provides specific data through the operating system. DBMS contains the group of programs which acts according to the user instruction. It provides security to the database.Advantage of DBMS < Controls redundancy Itstores all the data in a single database file, so it can control data redundancy. ¢ Data sharing An authorized user can share the data among multiple users. - Backup e It providesBackup and recovery subsystem. This recovery system creates automatic data from system failure and restores data if required. Multiple user interfaces - It provides a different type of user interfi like GUI, application interfaces. Disadvantage of DBMS Size It occupies large disk space and large memory to run efficiently. Cost DBMS requires a high-speed data processor and larger memory to run DBMS software. so it is costly. Complexity DBMS creates additional complexity and requirements. RDBMS (Relational Database Management System) The word RDBMS is termed as ‘Relational Database Management System.’ It is represented as a table that contains rows and column.RDBMS is based on the Relational model; it was introduced by E. F. Codd. A relational database contains the following components: « Table c Record/ Tuple ce Field/Column name /Attribute ¢ Instance ¢ Schema co Keys An RDBMS is a tabular DBMS that maintains the security, integrity, accuracy, and consistency of the data. Types of Databases ‘There are various types of databases used for storing different varieties of data: Creep Distributed Geers Cer 1) Centralized Database It is the type of database that stores data at a centralized database system. It comforts the users to access the stored data from different locations through several applications. These applications contain the authentication process to let users access data securely. An example of a Centralized database can be Central Library that carries a central database of each library in a college/university.Advantages of Centralized Database It has decreased the risk of data management, i.e., manipulation of data will not affect the core data. Data consistency is maintained as it manages data in a central repository. It provides better data quality, which enables organizations to establish data standards. It is less costly because fewer vendors are required to handle the data sets. Disadvantages of Centralized Database The size of the centralized database is large, which increases the response time for fetching the data. It is not easy to update such an extensive database system. If any server failure occurs, entire data will be lost, which could be a huge loss. 2) Distributed Database Unlike a centralized database system, in distributed systems, data is distributed among different database s' connected via communication links. Such links help the end-users to a tems of an organization. These database systems are ss the data easily. Examples of the Distributed database are Apache Cassandra, HBase, Ignite, etc. We can further divide a distributed database system into:< Homogeneous DDB: Those database systems which execute on the same operating system and use the same application process and carry the same hardware devices - Heterogeneous DDB: Those database systems which execute on different operating systems under different application procedures, and c hardware devices. Advantages of Distributed Database < Modular development is possible in a distributed database, i.e., the system can be expanded by including new computers and connecting them to the distributed system. ¢ One server failure will not affect the entire data set. 3) Relational Database This database is based on the relational data model, which stores data in the form of rows(tuple) and columns(attributes), and together forms a table(relation). A relational database uses SQL for storing, manipulating, as well as maintaining the data. E.F. Codd invented the database in 1970. Each table in the database carries a key that makes the data unique from others. Examples of Rel: MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle. etc. nal databases are Properties of Relational Database ‘There are following four commonly known properties of a relational model known as ACID properties, where: A means Atomicity: This ensures the data operation will complete either with success or with failure. It follows the ‘all or nothing’ strategy. For example, a trans ction will either be committed or will abort.C means Consistency: If we perform any operation over the data, its value before and after the operation should be preserved. For example. the account balance before and after the transaction should be correct. i. . it should remain conserved. I means Isolation: There can be concurrent users for accessing data at the same time from the database. Thus, isolation between the data should remain isolated. For example, when multiple transactions occur at the same time, one transaction effects should not be visible to the other transactions in the database. D means Durability: It ensures that once it completes the operation and commits the data, data changes should remain permanent. 4) NoSQL Database Non-SQL/Not Only SQL is a type of database that is used for storin: of data sets. It is not a relational database as it stores data not only in tabular form but in several different ways. It came into existence when the demand for building modern applications increased. Thus, NoSQL presented a wide variety of database technologies in response to the demands. We can further divide a NoSQL database a wide range into the following four types: a. Key-value storage: It is the simplest type of database storage where it stores every single item as a key (or attribute name) holding its value, together.b. Document-oriented Database: A type of database used to store data as JSON- like document. It helps developers in storing data by using the same document- model format as used in the application code. c. Graph Databases: It is used for storing vast amounts of data in a graph-like structure. Most commonly, social networking websites use the h database. d. Wide-column stores: It is si milar to the data represented in relational databases. Here, data is stored in large columns together, instead of storing in rows. Advantages of NoSQL Database e Itenables good productivity in the application development as it is not required to store data in a structured format. e Itis a better option for managing and handling large data sets. + It provides high scalability. = Users can quickly access data from the database through key-value. 5) Cloud Database A type of database where data is stored in a virtual environment and executes over the cloud computing platform. It provides users with various cloud computing s (SaaS, PaaS, IaaS, etc.) for accessing the database. There are numerous cloud platforms, but the best options are: servic = Amazon Web Services(AWS) © Microsoft Azure Kamatera e PhonixNAP © ScienceSoft - Google Cloud SQL, ete.6) Object-oriented Databases The type of database that uses the object-based data model approach for storing data in the database system. The data is represented and stored as objects which are similar to the objects used in the object-oriented programming language. 7) Hierarchical Databases It is the type of database that stores data in the form of parent-children relationship nodes. Here, it organizes data in a tree-like structure. Ce] at] Hierarchical Database Data get stored in the form of records that are connected via links. Each child record in the tree will contain only one parent. On the other hand, each parent record can have multiple child records. 8) Network Databases It is the database that typically follows the network data model. Here, the representation of data is in the form of nodes connected via links between them. Unlike the hierarchical database, it allows each record to have multiple children and parent nodes to form a generalized graph structure. 9) Personal DatabaseCollecting and storing data on the user's system defines a Personal Database. This database is basically designed for a single user. Advantage of Personal Database = Itis simple and easy to handle. It occupies less storage space as it is small in size. 10) Operational Database The type of database which creates and updates the database in real-time. It is basically designed for executing and handling the daily data operations in several businesses. For example, An organization uses operational databases for managing per day transactions. 11) Enterprise Database Large organizations or enterprises use this database for managing a massive amount of data. It helps organizations to increase and improve their efficiency. Such a database allows simultaneous access to users. Advantages of Enterprise Database: Multi processes are supportable over the Enterprise database. It allows executing parallel queries on the system. What is RDBMS RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management Systems.. All modern database management systems like SQL, MS SQL Server, IBM DB2. ORACLE, My-SQL and Microsoft Acc are based on RDBMS. Itis called Relational Data Base Management System (RDBMS) because it is based on relational model introduced by E.F. Codd.How it works Data is represented in terms of tuples (rows) in RDBMS. Relational database is most commonly used database. It contains number of tables and each table has its own primary key. Due to a collection of organized set of tables, data can be accessed easily in RDBMS. Brief History of RDBMS During 1970 to 1972, E.F. Codd published a paper top the use of relational database model. \ RDBMS is originally based on that E.F. Codd’ ational model invention. What is table mR t The RDBMS database uses tal io data. A table is a collection of related data entries and contains rows col s to store data. A table is the simple: f data storage in RDBMS. Let's see the example ~C table. 1 Ajeet 24 | B.Tech 2 aryan 20 CA 3 Mahesh 21 | BCA4 Ratan 22 MCA 5 Vimal 26 BSC What is field Field is a smaller entity of the table which contains specific information about every record in the table. In the above example, the field in the student table consist of id, name, age, course. What is row or record A row of a table is also called record. It contains the specific information of each individual entry in the table. It is a horizontal entity in the table. For example: The above table contains 5 records, Let's see one record/row in the:table. 1 Ajeet ; 24 B.Tech What is column A column is a vertical entity in the table which contains all information associated with a specific field in a table. For example: "name" is a column in the above table which contains all information about student's name.Ajeet Aryan Mahesh Ratan Vimal NULL Values The NULL value of the table specifies that the field has been left blank during record creation. It is totally different from the value filled with zero or a field that contains space. Data Integrity There are the following categories of data integrity exist with each RDBMS: Entity integrity: It specifies that there should be no duplicate rows in a table. Domain integrity: It enforces valid entries for a given column by restricting the type, the format, or the range of values. Referential integrity: It specifies that rows cannot be deleted, which are used by other records. User-defined integrity: It enforces some specific business rules that are defined by users. These rules are different from entity, domain or referential integrity.Difference between DBMS and RDBMS Although DBMS and RDBMS both are used to store information in physical database but there are some remarkable differences between them. The main differences between DBMS and RDBMS are given below: 1) 2) 4) 5) DBMS RDBMS a DBMS applications store RDBMS applications store data as file. data in a tabular form. In DBMS, data is generally sto In RDBMS, the tables have an identifier « either a hierarchical form | primaty key and the data values are stored navigational form. ' form of tables. Normalization is not prese Normalization is present in RDBMS. DBMS. DBMS doesnot apply RDBMS defines the integrity constraint security with regards to for the purpose of ACID manipulation, (Atomocity, Consistency, Isolation and Dural property. DBMS uses file system to in RDBMS, data values are stored in the fo data, so there will be no re tables, so a relationship between these data \ between the tables. will be stored in the form of a table as well.6) DBMS has to provide some un RDBMS system supports a tabular structure methods to access the ; data and a relationship between them to acce information. stored information. 7) DBMS does not su RDBMS supports distributed database. distributed database. 8) DBMS is meant to be for RDBMS is designed to handle large organization and deal with . amount of data. it supports multiple users. data. it supports single user. 9) Examples of DBMS are Example of RDBMS are systems, xml etc. mysql, postgre, sql server, oracle etc. After observing the differences between DBMS and RDBMS, you can say that RDBMS is an extension of DBMS. There are many software products in the market today who are compatible for both DBMS and RDBMS. Means today a RDBMS application is DBMS application and vice-versa. DBMS vs. File System File System Approach File based systems were an early attempt to computerize the manual system. It is also called a traditional based approach in which a decentralized approach was taken where each department stored and controlled its own data with the help of a data processing specialist. The main role of a data processing specialist was to create the necessary computer file structures, and also manage the data within structures and design some application programs that create reports based on file data.Users Users Users Roll_no, Sub_id Roll_no, StName Sub_Name St_Name, Course Course ‘Course Phone_no, Roomete. Sub_Name Address, Marks ete. Room, Sub,Name Marks ete. In the above figure: Consider an example of a student's file system. The student file will contain information regarding the student (ie. roll no, student name, course etc.). Similarly, we have a subject file that contains information about the subject and the result file which contains the information regarding the result. Some fields are duplicated in more than one file, which leads to data redundancy. So to overcome this problem, we need_to create a centralized system, i.e. DBMS approach. DBMS: A database approach is)a well-organized collection of data that are related in a meaningful way which can be accessed by different users but stored only once in a system. The various operations performed by the DBMS system are: Insertion, deletion, selection, sorting etc.eye SUBJECT FILE Roll_no, ‘St_Name Course Phone_no, Address, Room, Sub,Name Marks etc. ee Users Users In the above figure, Cisag aie Roll_no, St_Name, Course Sub_Name Marks etc. Users In the above figure, duplication of data is reduced due to centralization of data. There are the following differences between DBMS and File systems: Basis “ei File System Approach Meaning DBMS is a collection of data. In DBMS, the user Tequired to write the procedures. The file system is a collection of data. In this system, the user has to write the procedures for managing the database. Sharing of data Due to the centralized approach, data sharing is easy. Data is distributed in many files, and it may be of different formats, so it isn't easy to sharedata. Data Abstraction DBMS gives an abstract view of data that hides the details. The file system provides the detail of the data representation and storage of dat Security and Prot DBMS provides a good protection mechanism. It isn't easy to protect a file unde the file system. Recovery Mechani DBMS provides a crash recovery mechanism, i.e., DBMS protects the user system failure. The file system doesn't have a crash mechanism, i.e., if the system crashes while entering data, then the content of the file will be lost. Manipulation DBMS contains a wide The file system can't efficientl Techniques camer ais. Pgtiete and retrieve the data. techniques to store and tetrieve the data. Concurrency DBMS takes care of In the File system, concurrent Problems Concurrent access of data}access has many problems some form of locking. redirecting the file while deleting some information or updating some information.Where to use Database approach used in| systems which interrelate files. File system approach used in large systems which interrelate many files. Cost ‘The database system is The file system approach is expensive to design. cheaper to design. DataRedundancy | Due to the centralization In this, the files and Inconsistency of the database, the application programs are problems of data created by different redundancy and programmers so that there inconsistency is controlled. | exists a lot of duplication of data which may lead to inconsistency. Structure The database structure is The file system approach has a complex to design. simple structure. Data In this system, Data In the File system approach, Independence Independence exists, and it lexis ts no/Data Independence: can be of two types. Logical Data Independence Physical Data Independence Integrity Integrity Constraints are Integrity Constraints are Constraints easy to apply. difficult to implement in file syData Models In the database approach, _| In the file system approach, 3 types of data models exist:| tere 18 no concept of data models exists. ce Hierarchal data models co Network data models Relational data models Flexibility Changes are often a The flexibility of the system is necessity to the content of | less as compared to the the data stored in any DBMS approach. system, and these changes are more easily with a database approach. Examples Oracle, SQL Server, Sybase | Cobol, C++ etc. DBMS Architecture c The DBMS design depends upon its architecture. The basic client/server architecture is used to deal with a large number of PCs, web servers, database servers and other components that are connected with networks. c The client/server architecture consists of many PCs and a workstation which are connected via the network. ce DBMS architecture depends upon how users are connected to the database to get their request done.Types of DBMS Architecture DBMS Architecture 2-tier Architecture Database architecture can be seen as a single tier or multi-tier. But logically, database architecture is of two types like: 2-tier architecture and 3-tier architecture. 1-Tier Architecture c In this architecture, the database is directly available to the user. It means the user can directly sit on the DBMS and uses it. Any changes done here will directly be done on the database itself. It doesn't provide a handy tool for end users. The 1|-Tier architecture is used for development of the local application, where programmers can directly communicate with the database for the quick response.2-Tier Architecture The 2-Tier architecture is same as basic client-server. In the two-tier architecture, applications on the client end can directly communicate with the database at the server side. For this interaction, API's like: ODBC, JDBC are used. The user interfaces and application programs are run on the client-side. The server side is responsible to provide the functionalities like: query processing and transaction management. To communicate with the DBMS, client-side application establishes a connection with the server side. Dette sate Fig: 2-tier Architecture 3-Tier Architecture The 3-Tier architecture contains another layer between the client and server. In this architecture, client can't directly communicate with the server. The application on the client-end interacts with an application server which further communicates with the database system. End user has no idea about the existence of the database beyond the application server. The database also has no idea about any other user beyond the application. The 3-Tier architecture is used in case of large web application.[= Aepleston Sue Appicaton Clone ten Three schema Architecture c The three schema architecture is also called ANSI/SPARC architecture or three-level architecture. c This framework is used to describe the structure of a specific database system. c The three schema architecture is also used to separate the user applications and physical database. c The three schema architecture contains three-levels. It breaks the database down into three different categories. The three-schema architecture is as follows: once Schema [Coney edIn the above diagram: ce Itshows the DBMS architecture. c Mapping is used to transform the request and response between various database levels of architecture. c Mapping is not good for small DBMS because it takes more time. ¢ In External / Conceptual mapping, it is necessary to transform the request from external level to conceptual schema. ce In Conceptual / Internal mapping, DBMS transform the request from the conceptual to internal level. Objectives of Three schema Architecture The main objective of three level architecture is to enable multiple users to access the same data with a personalized view while storing the underlying data only once. Thus it separates the user's view from the physical structure of the database. This separation is desirable for the following reasons: c Different users need different views of the same data. © The approach in which a particular user needs to see the data may change over time. The users of the database should not worry about the physical implementation and internal workings of the database such as data compression and encryption techniques, hashing, optimization of the internal structures etc. e All users should be able to access the same data according to their requirements. e DBA should be able to change the conceptual structure of the database without affecting the user's e Internal structure of the database should be unaffected by changes to physical aspects of the storage.1, Internal Level STORED_EMPLOYEE record length 60 + 4 decimal offset 0 unique + String length 15 offset 4 Internal view + 8,2 decimal offset 19 4 decimal offset 27 : string length 15 offset 31 co The internal level has an internal schema which describes the physical storage structure of the database. ce The internal schema is also known as a physical schema. c It uses the physical data model. It is used to define that how the data will be stored in a block. c The physical level is used to describe complex low-level data structures in detail. The internal level is generally is concerned with the following activities: co Storage space allocations. For Example: B-Trees, Hashing etc. co Access paths. For Example: Specification of primary and secondary keys, indexes, pointers and sequencing. Data compression and encryption techniques. co Optimization of internal structures. c Representation of stored fields.2. Conceptual Level EMPLOYEE : Integer(4) Key + String(i5) Global view : String (8) Integer(4) : String (15) e The conceptual schema describes the design of a database at the conceptual level. Conceptual level is also known as logical level. co The conceptual schema describes the structure of the whole database. co The conceptual level describes what data are to be stored in the database and also describes what relationship exists among those data. co In the conceptual level, internal details such as an implementation of the data structure are hidden. e Programmers and database administrators work at this level. External Level External View ve Empno | erame | Salny | _DeptNo c At the external level, a database contains several schemas that sometimes called as subschema. The subschema is used to describe the different view of the database. ¢ An external schema is also known as view schema. e Each view schema describes the database part that a particular user group is interested and hides the remaining database from that user group. e The view schema describes the end user interaction with database systems.Mapping between Views c The three levels of DBMS architecture don't exist independently of each other. There must be correspondence between the three levels i.e. how they actually correspond with each other. DBMS is responsible for correspondence between the three types of schema. This correspondence is called Mapping. c There are basically two types of mapping in the database architecture: ce Conceptual/ Internal Mapping c External / Conceptual Mapping c Conceptual/ Internal Mapping c The Conceptual/ Internal Mapping lies between the conceptual level and the internal level. Its role is to define the correspondence between the records and fields of the conceptual level and files and data structures of the internal level. ¢ External/ Conceptual Mapping © The external/Conceptual Mapping lies between the external level and the Conceptual level. Its role is to define the correspondence between a particular external and the conceptual view. Data Models Data Model is the modeling of the data description, data semantics, and consistency constraints of the data. It provides the conceptual tools for describing the design of a database at each level of data abstraction. Therefore, there are following four data models used for understanding the structure of the database:Data Models oo Peer} Coe) Pear eer) Cry Relationship Data Model 1) Relational Data Model: This type of model designs the data in the form of rows and columns within a table. Thus, a relational model uses tables for representing data and in-between relationships. Tables are also called relations. This model was initially described by Edgar F. Codd, in 1969. The relational data model is the widely used model which is primarily used by commercial data processing applications. 2) Entity-Relationship Data Model: An ER model is the logical representation of data as objects and relationships among them. These objects are known as entities, and relationship is an association among these entities. This model was designed by Peter Chen and published in 1976 papers. It was widely used in database designing. A set of attributes describe the entities. For example, student_name, student_id describes the 'student' entity. A set of the same type of entities is known as an ‘Entity set’, and the set of the same type of relationships is known as ‘relationship set’. 3) Object-based Data Model: An extension of the ER model with notions of functions, encapsulation, and object identity, as well. This model supports a rich type system that includes structured and collection types. Thus, in 1980s, various database systems following the object-oriented approach were developed. Here, the objects are nothing but the data carrying its properties. 4) Semistructured Data Model: This type of data model is different from the other three data models (explained above). The semistructured data model allows the data specifications at places where the individual data items of the same type may have different attributes sets. The Extensible Markup Language, also known as XML, is tially widely used for representing the semistructured data. Although XML wadesigned for including the markup information to the text document, it gains importance because of its application in the exchange of data. Data model Schema and Instance The data which is stored in the database at a particular moment of time is called an instance of the database. The overall design of a database is called schema. A database schema is the skeleton structure of the database. It represents the logical view of the entire database. A schema contains schema objects like table, foreign key, primary key, views, columns, data types, stored procedure, ete. A database schema can be represented’ by using the visual diagram. That diagram shows the database objects and relationship with each other. A database schema is designed by the database designers to help programmers whose software will interact with the database. The process of database creation is called data modeling. A schema diagram can display only some aspects of a schema like the name of record type, data type, and constraints. Other aspects can't be specified through the schema diagram. For example, the given figure neither show the data type of each data item nor the relationship among various files. In the database, actual data changes quite frequently. For example, in the given figure, the database changes whenever we add a new grade or add a student. The data at a particular moment of time is called the instance of the database.