Managing Leisure

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Managing Leisure

Byron Grainger-Jones

OXFORD AUCKLAND JOHANNESBURG MELBOURNE NEW DELHI

Butterworth-Heinemann
Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP
225 Wildwood Avenue, Woburn, MA 01801-2041
A division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd

A member of the Reed Elsevier plc group

First published 1999

© Byron Grainger-Jones 1999

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in

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to the publishers

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Grainger-Jones, Byron
Managing leisure
1. Leisure industry – Management
I. Title
338.4'791'068

ISBN 0 7506 3717 X

Composition by Scribe Design, Gillingham, Kent

Printed and bound in Great Britain
Contents

Preface ix
Acknowledgements xi
Abbreviations xiii

Introduction 1
Questions 1
Purpose of the text 1
Defining ‘leisure’ 4
Leisure supply 5
National bodies involved in United Kingdom leisure 14
Leisure demand 16
Conclusions 25
References and recommended reading 26

1 The social context 27

Questions 27
Introduction 27
Choice and the leisure customer 28
The implications of demographic change 29
Changes to the nature of work 33
Home-based versus social leisure 35
Sport as entertainment 37
A theme park in every town? 38
Conclusions 40
References and recommended reading 40

2 The regulatory context 42

Questions 42
vi Contents

Introduction 42
Relevance of the regulatory environment 43
Application of the regulatory environment 46
European Community law 47
United Kingdom law 48
Occupiers’ liability: The ‘common duty of care’ 49
Health and safety 52
Contracts 55
Employment 58
Equal opportunities 61
Consumer protection 64
Product liability 65
Copyright 66
Licensing 68
Food hygiene legislation 70
Conclusions 70
References and recommended reading 71

3 Managing physical resources 73

Questions 73
Introduction 73
Land 74
Water 84
Buildings 87
Plant and systems 95
Equipment 97
Conclusions 98
References and recommended reading 98

4 Managing people 100

Questions 100
Introduction 100
Managing leisure staff 100
Managing leisure customers 116
Managing contractors 128
Conclusions 131
References and recommended reading 131
 Contents vii

5 Managing money 133

Questions 133
Introduction 133
Financial objectives, planning and management 134
Financial procedures and processes 138
Financial concepts 148
Assessing financial performance 151
Conclusions 153
References and recommended reading 153

6 Managing programmes and events 154

Questions 154
Introduction 154
Venues 155
Managerial aspects of programming 156
Assessing demand 157
The process of programme and event management 158
Legislative framework 171
Conclusions 174
References and recommended reading 174

7 Managing risk 175

Questions 175
Introduction 175
Mortality statistics 176
Accident statistics 177
Consequences of accidents 182
Models of risk 188
Risk assessment 193
Particular areas of risk 198
The tragedy of Lyme Bay 202
The tragedy at Craven Arms 205
Licensing of outdoor activity centres in the United Kingdom 206
Conclusions 208
References and recommended reading 209

8 The leisure manager’s role 211

Questions 211
viii Contents

Introduction 211
Managing fitness centres 213
Managing watersports 215
Managing spectator venues 217
Managing children’s activities 219
Managing leisure land 222
Jobs within the leisure industry 223
Conclusions 225
References and recommended reading 225

Index 227
Preface

Although this book was conceived while I worked at Guildford, and researched
while I worked at Southampton, it was written entirely outside the United
Kingdom, partly in France but mostly in Spain.
My unexpectedly peripatetic lifestyle made the exercise somewhat fraught but
gave me a feeling that I should try to avoid the parochialism which is common in
other leisure management texts and which implies that the United Kingdom repre-
sents the extent of the known universe.
But I also saw that some topic areas were inescapably unique to the UK, for
example the subsidy system, the regulatory environment and the National Lottery.
Similarly the descriptive component which comprises the bulk of the first chapter
is unavoidably UK oriented. Nevertheless, much of the book is concerned with the
practice of leisure management and not with the theory – though theory is
mentioned where necessary. The chapter headings, too, suggest that the emphasis
is on the active verb ‘managing’ and not on the abstract noun ‘management’.
The book’s primary readership is anticipated to be undergraduate and HND
students undertaking leisure courses at institutions of higher education. Probably
the majority will be based in the UK, but unlike their predecessors, will contem-
plate working in countries other than their own.
The secondary readership – second in terms of number but certainly not in
terms of importance – is the leisure management profession itself. In my experi-
ence, very few managers have the time, or perhaps inclination, to read whole
books on the discipline, but keep themselves up to date through conferences, brief-
ings, newsletters and so forth. In order that they may be tempted by the ‘practi-
cal’ emphasis of this book, I have endeavoured to keep each chapter as
self-contained as possible.
Those studying allied vocational subjects at degree or HND level, such as
tourism, arts administration or hotel management, may also find parts of the book
relevant to their own studies, and may thus constitute the third readership.
Tourism in particular is such an enormous industry – probably the largest in the
x Preface

world – that its connections with the leisure industry (which is massive too)
deserve greater recognition.
The fourth category of readers may be members of the public who have their
own reasons for learning something of the leisure industry – perhaps they
contemplate taking up a new activity, or establishing a commercial ‘leisure
venture’, or making a career move from their current job to one within the indus-
try.
Above all, I trust that my own enthusiasm for a ‘positive approach’ – to life
generally and to leisure specifically – is manifest from the text. That I have been
fortunate in my management experience, in my academic work and in my leisure
activity is not the only explanation, for I have tried always to ‘make things happen’
– and that is essentially what this book is recommending.

Byron Grainger-Jones
Universidad de Alicante
Campus de San Vicente
Alicante, Spain
Acknowledgements

My thanks are due to many people, friends and former colleagues mostly, but the
following deserve especial mention:

Dr David Ball, Director, RAMA

Francine Beaudoin, Rouen, France
Colin Billyard, freelance musician, formerly Team Co-ordinator, Guildford
College of Further and Higher Education
Christine Brockman, Head of Creative Studies, Guildford College of Further and
Higher Education
Anthony Clift, consultant, formerly Borough Engineer and Surveyor, Elmbridge
Borough Council, Esher, Surrey
Laurence Embury, Director of Housing, Northampton Borough Council
Edward Grayson QC (author, Sport and the Law)
Ian Hamilton, Director, Hamilton Patrick Associates, Thetford
Ian Henry, University of Loughborough
Guy Holmes, Senior Lecturer, Southampton Institute of Higher Education
Institute of Leisure and Amenity Management (ILAM)
Bob Laventure, Field Liaison Manager, Physical Activity Project, Health
Education Authority, London
Adrian Lee, Head of Studies, IMIAS, University of Alicante
Jose Mateo Martinez, Director, IMIAS, University of Alicante
Migdalia Mouzo, University of Alicante
Rob Phillips, Training Officer, Thorpe Park, Surrey
Douglas Stewart, formerly Director of Leisure Services, London Borough of
Hackney
Peter Trigg, Wirral Metropolitan College
Jeff Warburn, Client Officer, Guildford Borough Council
Keith Webster, Safety and Security Manager, RFU, Twickenham
Professor Tim Wheeler, formerly Southampton Institute of Higher Education
xii Acknowledgements

David Williams, Training and Safety Manager, Thorpe Park, Surrey

Betty Young, formerly Head of Press, Financial Services Authority
Paul H. Young, formerly External Finance Manager, Independent Television
Commission
Abbreviations

ACAS Advisory Conciliation and Arbitration Service

AONB Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty
BCU British Canoe Union
BTCV British Trust for Conservation Volunteers
CAP Common Agricultural Policy (of European Union)
CCPR Central Council of Physical Recreation
CCT Compulsory competitive tendering
CCTV Closed-circuit television
CIPFA Chartered Institute of Public Finance and Accountancy
COSHH Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (Regulations)
CPS Crown Prosecution Service
DSO Direct service organization
DTI Department of Trade and Industry
EHLASS European home and leisure accident surveillance system
EOC Equal Opportunities Commission
HASS Home accident surveillance system
HEA Health Education Authority
HSE Health and Safety Executive
ILAM Institute of Leisure and Amenity Management
LASS Leisure accident surveillance system
NESA National Entertainment Safety Association
NFU National Farmers Union
NPFA National Playing Fields Association
OPCS Office of Population Censuses and Surveys
PEL Public entertainment licence
PPL Phonographic Performance Ltd
PRS Performing Right Society
PSBR Public sector borrowing requirement
QUANGO Quasi-autonomous non-governmental organization
xiv Abbreviations

RIDDOR Reporting of Injuries Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences

Regulations
RFU Rugby Football Union
RoSPA Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents
RSPB Royal Society for the Protection of Birds
SSSI Site of Special Scientific Interest
VDU Visual display unit
VPL Video Performance Ltd
VR Virtual reality
Introduction

Questions

At the end of this Introduction you should be able to undertake the following:

1 Identify the main differences between the three sectors of ‘leisure supply’,
in terms of their social and financial objectives.
2 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of expecting the private sector to
supply all leisure facilities and programmes.
3 Consider how can the demand for leisure be assessed, and what may be the
problems attached to each method.

Purpose of the text

The leisure industry has grown to be so substantial and diverse that training is
taken as axiomatic. As recently as 30 years ago, however, there were no ‘leisure
management’ higher education courses in the United Kingdom but only courses
in physical education. At the time of writing, there are approximately 65 institu-
tions offering degrees and Higher National Diplomas in leisure management. This
is in itself a remarkable testimony to a discipline which, like tourism management,
has developed rapidly in the post-war period.
Similarly, degree courses in leisure management are widely available at Ameri-
can Universities, as are opportunities for research in the discipline.
There will inevitably be those who adopt a purist approach, arguing that such
courses are ‘vocational’ and not ‘academic’.
On this basis, leisure management would not be perceived as a ‘discipline’. The
general acceptance of vocational subjects as being worthy of university attention
has changed this way of thinking, except perhaps at the more elitist institutions.
2 Managing Leisure

The real world presses on notwithstanding: the reality is that people need to be
trained for a growing labour market, and universities themselves need money to
sustain their own existence.
That said, vocational degrees do present problems, in that the division between
theory and practice is not hard and fast. There is of course a ‘heritage’ to this
subject, in the form of social history – and there are increasingly laid down modes
of operation, in the form of rules and regulations. There is also a massive indus-
try (on the ‘supply’ side of the equation) and a huge number of customers (on the
‘demand’ side).
Inevitably, therefore, degree/HND courses in leisure management will look to
a labour market which has specific characteristics and needs. Whatever the univer-
sities think, the industry expects the holders of such qualifications to be potential
managers and not just academic theorists. If skill is taken to be the application of
knowledge, then management is a synthesis of both, i.e. knowing when and how
to make decisions.
This book is aimed at those students who have decided to embark upon such
a course. It is not meant to be encyclopaedic, nor prescriptive, but merely to
indicate some general principles as the basis for understanding the subject as a
whole and for making management decisions in the future.
Chapter 1 examines the ‘social context’ within which the discipline must
operate. An industry which is both demand- and supply-led must inevitably be
sensitive to the vagaries of each phenomenon.
Changes to the nature of the family and to the nature of work have had a
substantial effect upon the demand for leisure. Likewise, the acceptance of
‘consumer choice’ as a general principle has meant that greater diversification is
anticipated. As a corollary, demographic change (in western Europe at least) means
that an increasingly elderly society has more ‘disposable time’, and possibly more
‘disposable income’ to commit to leisure.
Technology, in the meantime, continues to move at an astonishing pace. The
opportunities for ‘home-based’ leisure are growing exponentially, into realms
previously undreamt of – truly into dreams themselves, with the advent of virtual
reality. For many people, television (even in the days before colour) has already
become a form of reality that dominates their leisure time. Who is to say what the
future will hold? We need at least some framework to put the technology into a
social context, whilst recognizing (in the Marxist sense) that society always lags
behind the technology.
Chapter 2 examines the whole area of ‘constraint’. As the leisure industry has
grown so large and diverse, there has been a need for control (over safety) and
 Introduction 3

regulation (over standards). Simultaneously, there has been a growth in leisure-

related accidents leading to litigation, and some of these accidents have
involved large numbers of people. The chapter goes on to describe some funda-
mental legal principles which relate to leisure management in the United
Kingdom, whilst recognizing that the actual laws may not be the same in other
countries.
Chapters 3, 4 and 5 consider aspects of management which are actually quite
distinct, but are often confused since one manager will frequently be responsible
for all of them. The management of physical resources (land, water, buildings,
plant and equipment) is itself a very substantial job, as any estate manager will
confirm. Add to that the management of people (staff, customers, contractors), and
one sees a very complex set of responsibilities. And then there is money – yet
another area where knowledge is often presupposed, rather than properly
explained. Present-day managers are expected to be familiar with the basic prin-
ciples of accounting, with business plans and with the methodology of budgetary
monitoring. Some, indeed, will be expected to prepare not only budgets but also
trading and profit and loss accounts.
Chapter 6 establishes some principles and guidelines for the management of
programmes or events, a distinct area from previous chapters, although previously
considered aspects do come into the frame.
Chapter 7 is about the management of risk. A great deal of leisure management
is concerned with risk, in one way or another, and therefore the subject is
addressed in some detail. To an extent, this chapter can be taken together with
Chapter 2, except that the regulatory context is embedded in the legal and moral
frameworks of western European and North American societies, whereas ‘risk
management’, at different levels, is common throughout the world.
Chapter 8 presents an analysis of the leisure manager’s role in the light of
preceding chapters and also provides some guidance on securing a job within the
industry.
Finally, students are expected to make use of the reading list which is provided
at the end of each chapter. They may also wish to follow up some of the refer-
ences which are mentioned. In the author’s experience, ‘reading for pleasure’ is
not something which students readily appreciate, largely because textbooks are
often dull and in any case such reading is perceived as being ‘forced upon’ the
reader, and not willingly chosen. My hope is that the first reservation may be
disproved, and that thereby the second will be overlooked.
Before we take a look at the leisure industry in some detail, something should
be said about the definition of ‘leisure’ itself.
4 Managing Leisure

Defining ‘leisure’
Defining ‘leisure’ is surprisingly difficult – it is one of those words which is used
often, like ‘society’ or ‘community’, but has no precise meaning. Often, indeed, it
is defined by its context in a book, paragraph or sentence, and underlain by
assumptions about value.
Take one simple example: we have ‘tourists’, defined for the most part as
‘people who partake of leisure away from home’; but we do not talk of ‘leisure-
ists’. Connotations attached to the word ‘leisure’ have also changed over time.
Leisure is sometimes described in one of four modes:
1 Leisure as time. There is a danger of saying that ‘leisure is whatever occupies my
leisure time’, which being a tautology leads nowhere. None the less, it is poss-
ible to identify ‘disposable time’, just as one may identify ‘disposable income’.
But is disposable time the same as leisure time? Surely some further attribute is
required to make leisure time something distinct from disposable time?
2 Leisure as expenditure. The statement that ‘leisure is whatever absorbs my
leisure spend’ is also tautological, but makes it clear that choice or ‘disposable’
monies are involved. Food must be bought, as must clothing, warmth, shelter.
The finance that is left over from these necessities can be spent as one wishes,
and is thus regarded as ‘disposable’. One problem here is defining exactly
what constitutes a necessity as opposed to a luxury. Telephones, vacuum clean-
ers, fridges, microwaves, cookers, televisions – all were considered luxuries
when they were first introduced onto the market, but are now essential com-
ponents of modern life. Expenditure on labour-saving devices (sometimes
called ‘white goods’) may not constitute a leisure spend per se, though the
devices do create the possibility of additional leisure time.
3 Leisure as a state of being. If leisure is a condition, or state of being, then it is
equally fuzzy as a concept. Such a description – or definition – would suggest
that leisure is whatever one considers to be leisure, acknowledged perhaps in
retrospect.
Individuals perceive things differently at various moments, according to their
moods – and states of enjoyment vary from person to person. One person may
receive as much pleasure from watching a soap opera on television as another
would derive from watching a live performance of King Lear, for example.
The saying that ‘Leisure equals pleasure’ also comes to mind – except that
something can be ‘pleasurable’ but never ‘leisure-able’.
4 Leisure as antithesis. Leisure is often thought of as something-which-is-not-
work, or as something-which-is-not-enforced. Defining or describing some-
 Introduction 5

thing by ‘what it is not’ is rather unsatisfactory, since it would take a sizeable

exercise in elimination to determine what it actually is.
However, in general terms, people do tend to think of leisure as the antithe-
sis of work and of all those other chores, like shopping, cooking, etc., which
are inescapable. Leisure thus becomes an ‘end’, and work through its earning
potential, a ‘means’ towards that end.
Other words are either added to leisure automatically, e.g. ‘leisure pursuits’, or are
substituted for the word ‘leisure’ itself. We have ‘sports’, ‘games’, ‘play’,
‘pastimes’, ‘hobbies’ and of course ‘recreation’. For some of these, physical activ-
ity is a prerequisite (for sports, perhaps), whereas for others, it is the rules that
matter (for games, for example).
Ultimately, it may be that no simple definition of leisure is adequate by itself,
since the concept presupposes others. Notwithstanding, there is something to be
said for ‘objective measurement’, and therefore a time-based definition is more
acceptable than others. By this means, leisure may be defined as ‘the application
of disposable time to an activity which is perceived by the individual as either
beneficial or enjoyable’.
The distinction between what is beneficial and what is enjoyable might appear
arbitrary but is not so. Not all enjoyable activities are beneficial, nor all beneficial
activities enjoyable. The word ‘application’ might also be misunderstood: it is not
intended to be moralistic in the sense of ‘dedication’, but rather in the non-judge-
mental sense of ‘time-allocation’.
Even here a problem arises. Who is to say what is beneficial and what is not? And
can the participant in a pursuit really judge whether or not that pursuit is beneficial,
even where it is, as far as they are concerned, relatively enjoyable? Once the defini-
tion is extended, it becomes necessary to impose more and more value judgements.
Before examining some aspects of management, we must say something about
the nature of leisure supply and leisure demand, in order that the two chapters
on ‘context’ make sense.

Leisure supply

The suppliers of leisure services are generally described as falling into three
categories:
• public sector
6 Managing Leisure

• private sector
• voluntary sector.

The public sector

The public sector exists where central and/or local government directly provides,
or otherwise facilitates, leisure services. The words ‘otherwise facilitates’ are not
meant to be obscure – they would encompass, for example, situations where a
local authority pays a private sector operator to provide a particular leisure
service. The point is that monies to run the service are derived from the public, in
the form of taxation. In this sense, they are monies which are extracted, and not
given willingly. And decisions about ‘what money is spent on’ are made by some
form of collective, either democratically elected, as with a local authority, or other-
wise selected, as with a sports council, countryside commission or arts council.
Like the private sector, the public sector is constrained by finance, i.e. by the
income which it receives. Unlike the private sector, however, the public sector has
no ‘equity-holders’ or shareholders, nor can it use its fixed assets (land and build-
ings mostly) as collateral for borrowing. Its decisions – especially regarding ‘discre-
tionary services’ such as leisure – can always be challenged.
In contrast, the private sector has objectives which are far easier to understand.
These are ultimately profit driven, but may additionally be related to securing a
particular percentage share of a particular market. Losses may even be acceptable
if in the longer term these are transformed into profits through the acquisition of
a monopoly or near-monopoly.
The private sector has long been involved in the leisure industry, and indeed
some parts of that industry have always been commercially oriented, such as
cinemas, bingo halls, pubs, restaurants and theme parks.
The voluntary sector exists through the (largely unpaid) efforts of people within
the community who wish to see a service provided either exclusively for their
members or for the benefit of the community as a whole. The voluntary aspect of
their operation is reflected in their legal status: they are normally Registered Chari-
ties, and receive some benefits where taxation is concerned as well as Discretionary
Rate Relief granted by local authorities.

Origins
Public sector provision in the United Kingdom goes back to the nineteenth century,
for the most part, when an enlightened liberal middle class became concerned at
 Introduction 7

the social effects of an over-rapid urbanization, and set out to achieve the follow-
ing:
• Improvements to administrative structures, e.g. by establishing the basic
format of local government, on lines similar to the Poor Law Reform model,
with policy made at the centre but implemented locally.
• Improvements to conditions of sanitation and hygiene, to offset the worst
characteristics of over-populated urban areas, e.g. through various Public
Health Acts, giving local authorities the power to provide public baths and
suchlike if they so wished.
• Improved opportunities for access to learning and culture, e.g. through the
provision of art galleries and museums, plus support for orchestras, such as
the Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra.
Of course, less enlightened influences were also at work, for example:
• Concerns over public order meant the suppression of popular forms of recre-
ation (boxing competitions, animal baiting, dog-fighting).
• Religious influences (which included the Society for the Suppression of Vice,
revived in 1802, and the Temperance Society) played their part in attempts to
protect the Sabbath, restrict gambling, and reduce the opportunities for people
to drink alcohol. Similar causes gave rise to prohibition in the United States,
much later.
• Concern over public order and social control: anxiety was expressed by the author-
ities about the potential for riots at large gatherings, whether they were political
or merely recreational. The suppression of Blood Sports Act 1833 effectively
banned the more working class pursuits such as dog-fighting, and shooting. Other
sports were ‘controlled’ rather than abolished, e.g. football and boxing.
By the mid-nineteenth century, the state’s role changed from one of suppressing
popular recreation to one of promoting ‘recreational forms’. Thus, Working Mens’
Clubs, Mechanics Institutes and Literary Societies were meant to channel energies
away from music halls and brothels, into more intellectual realms.

Public provision in the twentieth century

The background to local authority provision, and state involvement with sports
and culture, perhaps explains how public sector involvement became so substan-
tial in the United Kingdom. Concern over the ‘fitness of the population’ in the
1930s, for example, culminated in the Physical Recreation and Training Act 1937.
8 Managing Leisure

The same circumstances did not arise elsewhere – no other country experienced
the same massive upheaval, population growth and social fragmentation brought
about by the Industrial Revolution, as did the United Kingdom.
State-sponsored organizations – or QUANGOS as we now call them – became
features of a post-war society which tried to improve social conditions. State inter-
vention, by a new post-war Labour administration, in the arts, sports and country-
side, meant that legislation was required which would eventually lead to the
creation of new organizations. The Arts Council (1946), soon replaced the Council
for Entertainment, Music and the Arts. A later Labour administration, which came
to power under Harold Wilson in 1964, was to continue the process, by establish-
ing first the Sports Council, and later the Countryside Commission, which
replaced the National Parks Commission in 1968.
State intervention in cultural affairs had, in fact, seen an earlier precedent, with
the establishment of the British Broadcasting Corporation (the BBC) in 1927.
At a local level, public bodies proliferated – and they in turn continued in the
liberal-enlightened tradition of providing services considered to be of benefit to
the community. There were, however, to be few private benefactors but only
ratepayers and tax payers.

The return of market forces: 1979

The year 1979 saw the victory of a radical Conservative government, with
Margaret Thatcher at its helm. Dedicated to ‘rolling back the power of the state’,
Mrs Thatcher’s government began to scrutinize many of the more ‘socialist’ initia-
tives which previous Labour administrations had instigated. There was to be a
curb upon the Public Sector Borrowing Requirement (PSBR) – and since monies
paid to local authorities, via the Rate Support Grant, constituted part of the PSBR,
what could be more natural than a squeeze upon local government?
A rate-capping mechanism was introduced, and its effect upon public sector leisure
provision was considerable. Some Conservative-led authorities saw privatization as
a way out of their dilemma. After all, it was not mandatory to manage leisure facil-
ities, nor even provide most of them in the first place. Through what is termed
‘enabling legislation’, local authorities are able to provide leisure centres, parks,
swimming pools, entertainment venues, etc., if they wish – but they do not have to.
The Local Government Act 1988 became the instrument which was to change
the relationship between public sector provision and private sector management,
by forcing local authorities to seek competitive tenders for the management of
their facilities, including leisure facilities.
 Introduction 9

The aftermath
The adversarial approach adopted by Mrs Thatcher’s government towards local
government made the relationship difficult, especially between a staunchly Conser-
vative administration and some Labour-led local authorities. As it turned out,
compulsory competitive tendering (CCT) affected sports provision more than it did
provision for the arts. Libraries were unaffected by CCT, though rumours constantly
swept the Library Association. Many entertainment venues, fearing the worst, used
the mechanism of the Charitable Trust to avoid CCT. The Countryside Commission
remained intact; the Sports Council was split and the Arts Council of Great Britain
was to be replaced by four Arts Councils. Regional Arts Associations, as a result of
the Wilding Report, became Regional Arts Boards. ‘Fragment and Rule’ seemed to
be the order of the day. Whether some of the wounds will be healed by a Labour
administration which came to power in 1997 remains to be seen.
What is left for local government to do? Surprisingly, and in spite of CCT, a
great deal. Local authorities still spend a large sum of money on museums and
galleries (approximately £150 million in 1997), for example, and an even greater
sum on the maintenance of parks and open spaces (approximately £1 billion).

Leisure functions of local authorities

Local authorities remain major players in the leisure business, in the following
ways:
• Ownership of land used for leisure purposes, e.g. recreation grounds, parks,
play areas, where these are dedicated as public open space.
• Ownership of some land used as commons and village greens.
Subject to CCT outcomes, either ‘client’ role in relation to leisure land, or ‘client’
role plus ‘maintenance’ role.
• Ownership of leisure buildings, e.g. swimming pools, libraries, leisure centres,
public halls, youth clubs, museums, art galleries, entertainment venues, plus
some regional film theatres.
• Management of some of the above, subject to CCT outcomes, or fulfilment of
‘client’ role.
• Direct promotion of events (e.g. town shows), entertainment programmes (e.g.
arts festivals), and sports programmes (e.g. summer holiday schemes).
• Direct provision of facilities, through capital expenditure – subject to govern-
ment borrowing approval.
10 Managing Leisure

• Employment of managerial, administrative and clerical staff, plus specialist

‘animateurs’ (e.g. sports/arts development officers) as a means to undertake
the functions described above.
In addition, local authorities have two other roles which affect leisure provision,
namely:
• Licensing and inspection, e.g. granting of Public Entertainment Licences,
inspection with regard to Food Hygiene regulations (see Chapter 2).
• Planning function, e.g. granting of outline or detailed planning consent to
leisure projects, whether sought by the public, private or voluntary sector.
It should be noted that unitary authorities and county councils carry out functions
related to the network of public footpaths (total of 1676 miles) and to the regis-
tration of common land.

The private sector

The cinema industry is, in many ways a microcosm of the private sector as a
whole. With the exception of lottery monies granted towards film production in
the United Kingdom, the cinema business has a long record of ‘living off its wits’:
it has experienced boom times and bad times; more recently, it has diversified into
completely new areas.
Cinema effectively took the place of the music hall, as a form of mass entertain-
ment – but its impact was to be far greater. What began as a ‘fairground novelty’
in France, America and the United Kingdom soon grew into the most popular form
of entertainment in the world, until television came along in the 1950s.
The growth of the industry was remarkable, particularly during the inter-war
period (between 1918 and 1939). Liverpool contained 32 cinemas in 1913, for
example, but 96 in 1939; Birmingham’s cinemas increased from 57 to 110 in the
same period.
By 1939, when the cinema industry was at its strongest, there were an estimated
23 million attendances each week. The fall in attendances that was to follow has
seemingly been halted by the development of ‘multiplexes’ (and soon
‘megaplexes’ perhaps) often built in out-of-town sites. Greater efforts at niche
marketing plus major ‘blockbuster releases’ have also bolstered the industry.
This brief vignette shows how one private sector industry has survived for
virtually a whole century, despite the introduction of a form of entertainment
which many said would ‘signify the end’ for the silver screen.
 Introduction 11

Due to the influence of Hollywood, we also see greater diversification by film

production companies who market products associated with their films, and also
the opening up of the larger film sets to become theme parks. The film Titanic
(1998 release), for example, re-awakened interest in proposals to raise the original
ship, and even the replica built for the film may well be purchased as a theme
park attraction (at American Adventure World, Derbyshire) in its own right.

Private sector companies: The major operators

Private sector involvement with leisure is obviously much wider than cinema
alone. The development of pubs, restaurants, wine-bars and so on has for example
meant that large brewing companies have diversified from ‘product manufacture
and delivery’, to ‘service delivery’ in the many thousands of eating places and bars
to be found in the United Kingdom.
Diversification niche marketing and company takeovers are all very much
features of the private sector leisure business. Newer players in the game are
realizing that the ‘secondary income’, from product sales can be as significant as
income derived from the main activity itself. Thus, one sees Aston Villa football
club, Manchester United, Newcastle United and Tottenham Hotspur selling shares,
alongside other major leisure companies such as EuroDisney, Ladbrokes, First
Leisure (see Figure 0.1), Granada and the Rank Organization.

First leisure plc 1/2 Year £

• Stock market value £522 million Sales £88.8m

• Share price 318p Pre-tax profit £17.2m
• Work force 5270 Earnings/share 7.24p
Dividend/share 2.64p

Business (by turnover)

Resorts
15% Nightclubs
Bingo
15% and bars
Sports 41%
29%

Figure 0.1 A profile of First Leisure, 1997. Source: The Guardian, 25 June 1997
12 Managing Leisure

Currently the groupings appear as follows:

• media/music/publishing
• night-clubs/resorts/bingo
• hotels/catering/entertainment
• television/film/communications
• breweries/pubs/wine-bars.

Smaller operators
At the interface with the public sector, companies have evolved which obtain
much of their work from local authorities. For many years, there have been horti-
cultural and arboricultural (i.e. tree specialist) firms which operated in this way.
As a result of CCT, introduced in 1988, leisure management companies sprang up
with very little pedigree, and fewer assets. Being asset-poor, their collateral was
to be the ‘total of contracts held’, and not tangible assets such as land or build-
ings. Some struggled to compete within the strange new environment, and one
company went bankrupt.
In the meantime, fitness centres grew more popular – whereas bingo became
less so – and larger operators (such as First Leisure) began to take an interest in
acquiring the former.
Smaller private sector companies may therefore be categorized as follows:
• specialist sports provision by key individuals, often former internationals, e.g.
some indoor tennis centres in the United Kingdom, and some fitness centres
• small-scale operations to provide night-clubs, bars, cafés, restaurants
• small-scale operations to provide ‘games’ (not necessarily gambling) venues,
e.g. laser game centres
• horticultural/arboricultural maintenance-based companies
• leisure management companies, operating centres owned by local authorities
• private sector museums and art galleries
• sports promotions companies (to organize events or to ‘sell’ the presence of
famous sports personalities)
• promoters/artists’ agents, e.g. Psycho Management
• various private sector companies who derive much of their income from the
demand for leisure, e.g. coach companies, travel operators, video hire shops,
television rental firms, sportswear shops, etc.
The private sector is probably stronger than ever, through careful selection of activ-
ity areas, and by the judicious accumulation of physical assets (land, buildings,
 Introduction 13

equipment). Since unwise entry into an untried market can lead to financial ruin,
the private sector tends to ‘play safe’ by waiting to see how things go (with leisure
management firms, perhaps?) before committing itself. Involvement with more
populist forms of activity – cinemas, ten-pin bowls, bars, fast-food, casinos – is
seen as the hallmark of the private sector.

The voluntary sector

The voluntary sector is often under-estimated in its scale and significance. Unlike
the public sector, it tends to provide facilities and services for its own devotees
and unlike much of the private sector has no shares to sell, though it is itself a
large purchaser of goods and services.
Examples of groups within the voluntary sector are as follows:
• amateur dramatic societies
• photographic clubs
• art societies
• choral societies
• hockey clubs
• cricket clubs
• tennis clubs
• civic societies
• conservation groups
• local history societies.
Many clubs and societies have a long history, and are proud of their record. Sports
clubs have a distinct advantage in this respect, since they can point to shields,
medallions and trophies all won by past members or by their teams. Non-sports
clubs and societies tend to live more ‘in the present and the future’, looking
forward to the next production or the next project.
The voluntary sector has had to struggle in order to survive. Investment in land
and/or buildings is sometimes supplemented by grant aid (from local authorities
or from sports/arts bodies) but frequently requires a financial commitment from
members themselves.
Some clubs, especially for cricket, tennis and rugby, have had the good fortune
to be blessed with members who have professional expertise in the property sector,
and have thus been able to secure their freeholds; others, being less fortunate in
that respect, end up leasing their facilities (often from a local authority) or merely
14 Managing Leisure

renting rooms in a church hall or community centre in order to hold their

meetings.
That said, some sports clubs have been granted leases which are as good as
freeholds: one hockey club occupying a large site near Kingston-upon-Thames has
a 999-year lease granted by its local authority.
Depending very much on the goodwill of its members, and the generosity of
local government, the voluntary sector adds a great deal to community life in
the United Kingdom, and not only at ‘local level’. Many national organizations,
such as the National Playing Fields Association, the British Trust for Conserva-
tion Volunteers, and various National Federations (e.g. of music societies) add
their weight to protest at any moves by central government (e.g. in taxation
matters) which might affect their constituent groups and individual partici-
pants.

National bodies involved in United Kingdom leisure

National bodies involved in the different forms of leisure in the United Kingdom
are identified below. They are QUANGOs for the most part, deriving all or most
of their funds from central government.

Arts/museums
• Arts Councils for England, Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland
• Foundation for Sport and the Arts
• Association for Business Sponsorship of the Arts
• National Federation of Music Societies
• Museum and Galleries Commission
• The Museums Association

Film
• British Film Institute
• Scottish Film Council
• British Film Commission
• Children’s Film and Television Foundation
• British Screen Finance (a private sector company)
 Introduction 15

Crafts/design
• The Crafts Council
• The Design Council
• Contemporary Applied Arts
• Craftworks (an independent development agency for Northern Ireland)

Sport
• Sports Councils (United Kingdom Sports Council and English Sports Council
– replaced the once-unified Sports Council in 1996)
• Foundation for Sport and the Arts
• National Coaching Foundation
• Central Council of Physical Recreation
• Women’s Sports Foundation
• British Olympic Association
• British Sports Association for the Disabled
• United Kingdom Sports Association for People with Learning Disability
• British Paralympic Association
• Riding for the Disabled Association
• National Playing Fields Association
• various governing bodies of sport, too numerous to mention individually

Libraries and publishing

• The Library Association
• The Publishers Association
• The Welsh Book Council
• The Book Trust

Exporting and importing ‘culture’

• The British Council

Organizations involved with ‘rural leisure and countryside issues’ are listed in
Chapter 3.
16 Managing Leisure

Leisure demand

The demand for leisure goods and services does indeed have certain characteris-
tics, as follows:

• Leisure demand does not necessarily ‘transfer’ to other goods or services of

similar cost, if the initial demand is unmet. If I cannot go for a swim, because
the local pool is closed for repairs, I either have to travel a distance to find
another pool, or I take some other form of exercise or I stay at home.
• Leisure demand is often seasonal, as at outdoor sports venues, but also at
theatres and concert halls. Most leisure operations exhibit some seasonality,
and this must be anticipated, along with the cash-flow problems it causes.
• Some forms of leisure demand are also cyclical: ten-pin bowling, for example,
made its commercial appearance when many cinemas closed in the 1960s.
After a decade or so, the demand reduced somewhat, only to return in a
slightly different form (greater family-orientation) in the 1980s.
• External events can have a significant influence on leisure demand, e.g. during
the Wimbledon fortnight sales of tennis racquets and membership applications
to Tennis Clubs increase; during the Olympic Games, athletics experiences a
similar surge in popularity, as does the game of football during the World Cup.
• Leisure demand has become increasingly articulated or expressed, along with
a greater fragmentation into specialist activities visible through the enormous
number of leisure/sport magazines which are available in the late 1990s, but
were not so in the 1970s.
• Leisure demand can also be fickle, and a scare over public safety or public
health can instantly reduce the number of customers to a venue. On the
positive side, some leisure activities become popular very rapidly, usually as
a result of television exposure, e.g. darts and snooker in the 1980s.
• Leisure demand relates to customers who are extremely diverse, unlike most
retail outlets which can have clear expectations about their customers. The
very unpredictability of leisure customers also causes problems: they do not
have to come in the first place; if they do come, they may spend nothing except
for the admission charge; if they are dissatisfied, they may say nothing, but
they may not return (see Chapter 4 for more on managing customers).

All in all, leisure customers are as varied in their needs as the industry which
makes available the supply of goods and services. Whether these resources are
supply- or demand-led also varies. The concept of latent demand is sometimes
 Introduction 17

used to describe a ‘potential’ which lies dormant until activated by the provision
of a particular supply.

The influence of price

The proposition that demand can be secured or increased by keeping prices low
has had a marked effect upon leisure provision in the United Kingdom, and the
existence of a public sector (using taxpayers’ monies) made such a policy possible
in the past. The introduction of market forces into the scenario, during the 1980s,
made such subsidies less acceptable since many were ‘implicit’ (i.e. buried within
the local authority’s accounts) or simply nonsensical. Subsidy still exists, of course,
and is a subject worthy of a brief explanation.

Subsidy and leisure

One of the most baffling aspects of leisure provision in the United Kingdom is the
application of subsidy. To see why subsidy (e.g. for swimming pools) came into
being, one has to look at the social history of the nineteenth century. Precisely how
the mechanism operates is another matter, since the bodies which operate within
the machinery are often non-elected. Extensive use is made of quangos, operating
on the ‘arms length’ principle that government makes available the money, but
leaves the specialist decision making to disinterested experts.
If subsidy represents the money spent by the collective – either the taxpayers in
general or Council Tax payers in particular – upon individuals or groups, then
someone somewhere has to make that decision, to determine the level of subsidy
(100 per cent down to 1 per cent), and on occasions to explain the rationale behind
the subsidy to those who pay the taxes.
In the labyrinthine realms of local government so many subsidies are tucked
away and difficult to assess. Undoubtedly CCT has made subsidy for outdoor
sport – which involves substantial expenditure on grounds maintenance – far more
explicit, whereas previously the figures were buried within ‘revenue estimates,
grounds maintenance’ accounts, howsoever titled.
Subsidies towards the arts have usually been more transparent: sometimes they
are in the form of grant aid (to local orchestras, say) and sometimes as revenue
support towards whole facilities, such as entertainment venues. Many local
authorities contribute to their respective Regional Arts Boards, and some to district
arts associations that operate within their boundaries.
18 Managing Leisure

The subsidy machine

A diagram of the ‘subsidy mechanism’ is probably easier to understand than a
verbal description, and Figure 0.2 represents a simplistic model which shows how
money firstly moves upwards, like warm air, and then reaches the cold hands of

HM Exchequer

Lottery tax,VAT

Ministries National Lottery

Lottery grants

Quangos

Projects, venues

Rate support Local authority grants

grant to projects, venues

Corporation tax, Local authorities

VAT, capital gains, etc.

Companies Uniform business rate

Council tax

Direct and Individuals

indirect taxation
Lottery winners

Purchase of Lottery tickets

Monies paid (non-voluntarily) by individuals and companies to central and local government
Monies passed ‘downwards’ from the Exchequer
Grants made by Quangos and local authorities to projects, venues and voluntary bodies,
and by National Lottery
Monies paid (voluntarily) by individuals to National Lottery
Monies paid by National Lottery to winners

Figure 0.2 The mechanism for ‘leisure subsidy’ in the UK

 Introduction 19

the Exchequer – at which point it ‘condenses’ and cascades down. Most of the
money returns to the ground, like rain, but some simply evaporates within the
confines of the mechanism. (In reality it is absorbed by the running costs associ-
ated with constituent parts of the machine.)
Money is extracted from individuals and organizations in the form of taxation,
both direct and indirect; it is then gathered into the Exchequer, which, after Parlia-
mentary debate on government expenditure plans and ‘the budget’, allocates
money to different Ministries or Departments of State.
From there, money is passed to various national quangos and ultimately to the
‘final recipients’.
The National Lottery is included in the diagram not only to show a complete
picture but because the money derived from the lottery has become a significant
form of grant aid in the United Kingdom, especially to the voluntary sector.
Government itself also receives money from the lottery, via a levy (12 per cent) on
each ticket sold.

Local authorities and subsidies for sport

The Audit Commission, in advance of the introduction of CCT, carried out an
interesting study, which showed amongst other things that the beneficiaries of
many sports subsidies – relating mostly to leisure centres – were in fact middle
class and middle income. In other words, ‘social targeting’ – if this was the
purpose of the subsidy – appeared not to be working.
The report, entitled ‘Sport for Whom? Clarifying the Local Authority Role in Sport
and Recreation’, made a series of recommendations, one of which was that the
authorities should consider ‘the extent to which support for different activities or
types of facility contributes to social objectives and whether the private sector can
be depended on to offer them at a price which most people can afford’ (Para. 62).
A strategy review was also recommended by the report, with local authorities
making conscious decisions about policy. On the matter of subsidy, the report said
that ‘many facilities will continue to need subsidy. This does not absolve author-
ities from setting financial objectives for their services ... [they] need to be sure
that any subsidies are achieving their intended objective. Authorities are quite
entitled to include frequent users from among the better off among [sic] those they
subsidise ... the Commission believes, however, that if done, this should be a
conscious decision’ (Para. 65).
Figure 0.2 also shows that central government assists local authorities, through
the Rate Support Grant, and this in turn makes up a sizeable proportion of their
20 Managing Leisure

income. Local authorities also derive income from other sources, such as the
Council Tax, fees and charges, rental income, etc. If it so wishes, a percentage of
the total income can be spent on leisure services, but since virtually all these
services are ‘discretionary’ and not ‘mandatory’, the decision rests with the respec-
tive authority. Unlike other European countries such as France and Spain, very
little real autonomy is granted to local authorities in the United Kingdom.
However, once a limited measure of self-government is introduced via a Scottish
Parliament and Welsh Assembly, the situation will change, and a realignment of
the subsidy machine will become necessary.

Subsidy and the private sector

One common misconception about subsidy needs to be cleared up. Many people
believe that once a facility is handed over to the private sector, then public subsidy
is no longer required.
Through the application first of CCT and then Best Value, operational deficits
were supposed to be reduced, with a fixed-price contract put in place of an open-
ended arrangement. But the subsidy may still be paid over where an operating
deficit remains, this time to a private sector company (and its shareholders) rather
than to a public authority. Whilst this may appear a perverse, undemocratic and
complex system there is an argument that the private sector operates to a higher
degree of efficiency, i.e. using its capital to good effect, and that therefore subsidies
will become less significant as time goes by (that too was the argument for rail priva-
tization in the United Kingdom but hardly anyone believed it then or subsequently).
Of course, the private sector benefits from the public sector in other (more legit-
imate) ways. Local authorities are major clients for many private contractors,
ranging from grounds maintenance companies to marketing and publicity firms.
Leisure facilities, as we shall see in Chapter 2 with regard to contracts, have
recourse to a massive array of contracted services.
Having said all of this, it remains the case that the very idea of subsidy still
rankles in some parts of the private sector, which feels that the public sector can
‘undercut’ them by virtue of the subsidy. That, after all, is one effect of subsidy,
i.e. the reduction of admission charges, possibly to zero.

Advantages and disadvantages of subsidy

Lest it be thought that subsidy is fundamentally evil as some would have us
accept, a more balanced view needs to be considered before we leave the subject.
 Introduction 21

• Social arguments for subsidy:

1 Lower prices may help to attract poorer sections of the community, thus
promoting greater equality.
2 The community benefits by being provided with a greater range of leisure
facilities than might otherwise be available.
3 Services which are free-at-the-point-of-delivery also help to create a
civilized, healthy, cultured and knowledgeable society, through schools,
museums, art galleries, libraries, etc.
4 Capital investment in deprived areas would generally not be contemplated
by the private sector, unless some degree of subsidy was forthcoming.
• Economic arguments for subsidy:
1 Price reduction should in theory increase demand, and therefore encour-
age greater throughput. Net income may even increase, due to the increase
in throughput and a rise in secondary income (sales, of food, drinks, etc.).
2 At a macro-economic level, subsidy may help to stimulate demand gener-
ally (for leisure goods and products), thereby benefiting all three sectors
(public, private, voluntary).
• Social arguments against subsidy:
1 Subsidy tends to gravitate towards services used by the better-off, thereby
making poor people even worse off through having to pay increased taxes
(see previous reference to Audit Commission Report).
2 By subsiding ‘high culture’, such bodies as arts councils and regional arts
boards are perpetuating class divisions based on culture – whereas they
should be supporting a more democratic view of culture, i.e. ‘cultural
democracy’ rather than the ‘democratization of culture’.
3 People do not ascribe ‘value’ to something which is cheap/free, but only
goods or services for which they pay the ‘full price’.
• Economic arguments against subsidy:
1 The involvement of a third party, between supply and demand, reduces
the efficiency of the first and the effectiveness of the second.
2 Subsidy creates unfair competition in the market place, e.g. regional film
theatres under-pricing commercial cinemas.
3 At the micro-economic level, subsidy distorts demand through creating
lower prices than the market could otherwise bear, thus making it difficult
to assess ‘true demand’.
4 At a macro-economic level, the state has to extract taxation on a large scale,
to pay for all the subsidies: better perhaps to charge ‘true prices’ (i.e. the
market cost), levy less in personal taxation and let people make the choice?
22 Managing Leisure

The arguments for and against subsidy are expressed in a naive way, and are not
intended to sway the reader in either direction. Indeed, there are those who say
that the real compromise is to adopt a ‘longer’ standpoint, arguing that public
subsidy creates a demand (and meets it by supply) to a critical point where it is
large enough to justify the involvement of the private sector.

Assessing demand

The demand for leisure is more difficult to assess than its supply and there are
innumerable price as well as non-price factors which will change the demand,
either increasing or diminishing it. Sometimes, economists use the idea of ‘latent
demand’ to describe a potential that is eventually translated into hard cash
(purchases) once a supply has appeared.
We have already mentioned that in leisure – unlike tourism – prices have been
influenced by the application of subsidy, to sustain pricing policies that ignored
true ‘market costs’, simply because any deficits were met by the collective taxpayer
or ratepayer. Be that as it may, the availability of disposable income is clearly a
major determinant of demand – but other influences can also be significant, namely:
• age
• gender/sexual orientation
• education
• family life cycle
• household size
• peer group pressure
• personality type
• culture/religion
• geographical/social location
• availability of leisure time
• socio-economic position
• physiological condition
• skill and ability
• mobility, and proximity (to facilities)
• leisure perceptions (i.e. ideas about what leisure represents)
• media influences, heroes and heroines.
Each of the foregoing has its significance, according to the context in which an
individual finds himself or herself. Some are described as ‘constraints’ by certain
 Introduction 23

theorists, though what may be a constraint at one moment of life (gender for
example) may be the opposite at another.
Thus the factors are neutral in themselves, and have a positive or negative effect
according to the participant’s own assessment. An observer of leisure participa-
tion will also have a view on the relative significance of the various factors and
will inevitably impose value judgements on the interviewee’s responses, however
carefully any qualitative research is carried out.
For example, a teenager will be more influenced by peer group pressure and
media stereotyping than will an older person. Whether these influences are to be
categorized ‘good’ or ‘bad’ depends on the output: if health education
programmes make people aware of the need for more exercise, then the output
will be seen as positive; if media personalities are seen to be indolent and unfit,
then the consequences will turn out to be negative.
Measuring the relative significance between one factor and another is not easy,
simply because the ‘push–pull’ consequences vary over a person’s life. To assess
the various influences one would need to carry out qualitative surveys over an
extended period of time. Alternatively, use may be made of psycho-graphic data
which classifies people into specific ‘lifestyles’. The cluster of ‘purchasing charac-
teristics’, work habits, newspaper reading, holiday-taking and so forth is designed
to identify key correlations – which may then be exploited through what is
sometimes termed ‘niche marketing’.

Methods of demand assessment

Various methods are used for assessing demand, depending upon the quality and
quantity of what is proposed. Where a clear correlation exists between a particu-
lar leisure activity and the above-mentioned determinants, research can proceed
to see in what measure they are present. This type of approach would be used
prior to the construction of an indoor tennis centre by a private entrepreneur for
example, since age, socio-economic status and time availability are all extremely
important factors which determine whether or not the centre will be successful.

The top-down approach

One way to assess demand in a particular locality – or in the larger context for
that matter – is to use the ‘national standards’ approach, which being based on
national surveys is very much ‘top-down’. This methodology argues that if, say,
24 Managing Leisure

there is a national standard of X swimming pools per Y thousand population, then

all one has to do is divide a town’s population by Y to determine how many
swimming pools are needed.
National standards were used extensively by planners in the past, e.g. in the
United Kingdom’s first and second generation New Towns (Telford, Milton
Keynes, Bracknell, Warrington, etc.). Politicians were also known to use them to
argue the case for rectifying a perceived deficiency, whether for public open space,
swimming pools, golf courses, public libraries or squash courts.
The standard for squash illustrates one problem with national standards, which
is that many have now become dated. As the demand for squash has dropped
since its boom of the 1970s, so the standard needs to be modified if it is to be
credible.
Veal (1994) identifies other problems in relation to national standards, but there
is no doubt that many were useful in their time, notably where sceptical local
authorities were being persuaded to provide substantial sums of money for leisure
centres and swimming pools.
Other top-down methods to assess demand are described by Veal as:
• The grid approach – where one grid contains a basic level of provision (a small
play area say) and a quantum of grids generates the case for larger local facil-
ities and eventually for a town centre (very much the rationale for Milton
Keynes New Town)
• The hierarchical approach – where a ‘hierarchy of resources’ is established, per
population catchment, largely in relation to sporting and entertainment needs
but also in terms of community centres.

The bottom-up approach

Because the top-down approach has been somewhat discredited, an alternative has
been to use research skills (sample surveys mostly) in the community itself, to
ascertain what people actually wish to see by way of leisure facilities. The
approach can be summarized as:
• The organic approach – waiting to see what evolves, who takes initiatives and
so on
• The community development approach – where animateurs (for sports and/
or arts) work within a particular community, and by so doing generate
demand. (This was the approach used in several New Towns such as Telford
and Corby.)
 Introduction 25

Other methods of demand assessment

The demand for leisure goods may be assessed by quite different means: any
product which appears in the market place will either secure a niche or not,
depending upon price and non-price factors referred to earlier.
Leisure spending in the United Kingdom is generally estimated to be between
£110 billion (ILAM, 1995) and £141 billion (Leisure Consultants, 1996). Indeed the
latter company suggests that leisure spending as a percentage of all consumer
spending has risen steadily from some 25.5 per cent in 1990 to 27.2 per cent in
1996. Amazing as it seems, almost as much is now spent by the average United
Kingdom citizen on leisure as on housing and accommodation!

Conclusions

The leisure industry is one of the largest in the United Kingdom. It is also a major
employer, with some three and a half million employees (ILAM, 1995). All house-
hold surveys show that the leisure spend is highly significant, even for poorer
families (paradoxically, the spending on the National Lottery as a percentage of
disposable income appears to be greater for poorer households – see Figure 0.3).
The supply side of the equation is more diverse than ever, and new opportuni-
ties for a novel experience appear all the while: a theme park is proposed; the
mine shuts and becomes a museum; more sports coverage appears on more TV
sports channels; a new night-club opens; the local pub now includes a restaurant
... and so on.

Percentage 40

30

20

10

0
Lowest 10% Highest 10%
Income decile

Figure 0.3 Lottery expenditure as percentage of all leisure spending, by income group,
1995. Source: National Lottery Yearbook (1977)
26 Managing Leisure

Meanwhile, back at home, the children are playing computer games, speaking
to their friends, sometimes by video phone and sometimes through avatars
(computer-generated models). Occasionally they watch ‘real live’ soccer or a
Formula One race. But most of the time they prefer interactive television or VR,
where they can affect the outcome.
At work, of course, things are very different – but only in a sense. Those who
have a job are working more hours then ever before, due to fax machines, comput-
ers, pagers and mobile phones. Whereas several pundits argued in the 1970s that
the ‘leisure revolution’ would bring more leisure time for everyone, in fact it
appears that technology has enslaved more and more in its web, or more correctly
web site.
This book tries not to adopt a sociological or even moral stance, though the
author does believe that leisure time is too precious to waste on the pursuit of
trivia. Instead it concentrates on the management process itself, in the belief that
the leisure manager will have his or her own value judgements as to whether what
is being managed is beneficial to society or not.

References and recommended reading

Barbour, S. (ed). (1997). British Performing Arts Yearbook. Rhinegold Publishing Ltd.
Central Office of Information. (1997). Britain 1997: An official handbook. The
Stationery Office.
Central Statistical Office. (1994). Social Trends. (See chapters on Leisure and on House-
holds and Families.)
Coalter, F. (1989). Analysing Leisure Policy. In I.P. Henry, Management and Planning
in the Leisure Industries. Macmillan.
Fitzherbert, L. and Rhoades, L. (ed). (1997). The National Lottery Yearbook and Grant-
seekers’ Guide. Directory of Social Change.
General Household Survey. (1993). Office of Population Censuses and Surveys,
Social Survey Division.
Gratton, C. and Taylor, P. (1991). Government and the Economics of Sport. Longman.
ILAM. (1995). A Guide to the Leisure Industry – Some key facts. Report No. 8. ILAM
Information Centre.
Leisure Consultants. (1996). Leisure Forecasts 1997–2001. Leisure Consultants in
association with Leisure Industries Research Centre.
Veal, A.J. (1994). Leisure Policy and Planning. Longman/ILAM Management Series.
1 The social context

Questions

At the end of this chapter you should be able to undertake the following:
1 Indicate the implications to society of an exponential growth in the technol-
ogy associated with home entertainment.
2 Consider how the ‘demographic shift’ may affect the leisure industry of the
future.
3 Discuss how changes to the nature of work may have affected attitudes to
leisure.

Introduction

Like all other industries, the leisure industry is constantly adapting, sometimes in
relation to internal changes but more often in relation to shifts in the external
environment.
Arguably, the existence of subsidy has dampened somewhat the response rate
of public sector leisure services, despite the introduction of CCT thrusting them
firmly into a more competitive market place.
The commercial sector has changed both quantitatively and qualitatively
(whereas the public sector still does roughly the same things that it did previously)
though identifying niche markets and through exploiting links between different
leisure demands.
The voluntary sector – always less vocal and less visible – continues to play an
important role, often with social as well as arts/sports significance. The introduc-
tion of the National Lottery has also been of considerable benefit to many volun-
tary groups and organizations.
28 Managing Leisure

The purpose of this chapter is to identify some aspects of social change and to
consider how the supply-side may respond. As we have said previously, the idea
of latent demand is a useful concept, especially where home-based leisure goods
are concerned – indeed, subject to price acceptability, the latent demand for such
items appears to be limitless.
We examine six topics, as follows:
• choice and the leisure consumer
• the implications of demographic change
• changes to the nature of work
• home-based versus social leisure
• sport as entertainment
• theme parks.
This part of the text is not intended to act as a sociological reader, but rather to
provide some thoughts by way of context. And as the social setting changes, so
the regulations grow more onerous, as we shall see in the next chapter. Taken
together, these two ‘contextual chapters’ may be considered as two sides of the
same coin, the one expansive and the other restrictive ...

Choice and the leisure customer

The growth of consumer choice appears to have a certain inevitability about it, and
has its origins in the transition from a feudal to what might be termed a bourgeois
society. The relationship between individuals and the state has developed from
foundations laid in the seventeenth century – but then the evident success of an
early capitalist liberalism meant a denial of individualism to the majority, whose
resources were simply insufficient to purchase land in order to acquire wealth.
The dominant characteristic of a Western society is sometimes referred to as
‘possessive individualism’, for example by Macpherson (1962), and whereas
practices such as usury (charging interest on capital) are now commonplace, they
were not always so – nor is usury acceptable to countries with ‘command
economies’ or with traditional Islamic values.
Consumer choice in the West is now espoused as a ‘right’, not a ‘privilege’. And
as Western society has grown richer, so more individuals have the financial
resources to pay more and more for their leisure.
The very individualism which has grown up with the market is also made poss-
ible through relatively low-cost technology, and thus the growth in resources for
 The social context 29

home-based entertainment has outstripped all others.

A choice between home-based and social leisure is not always available, but a
thirst for the former has meant remarkable penetrations for home computers,
mobile phones, computer games and the like. Doubtless, the choice will be further
enhanced – if that is the correct word – by the advent of voice-activated comput-
ers, video-phones and VR systems.
So what has happened to the market as a whole? We can summarize the changes
as follows:
• Greater availability of a diversified ‘leisure supply’, in all the sectors (public,
private and voluntary) during the post-war period.
• Technological innovation which grows more ‘interactive’. People may soon
buy many of their goods without leaving home. Interacting with a screen will,
ironically, mean less interaction with other human beings.
• Niche marketing that makes use of sophisticated concepts (consumer profiles)
and computer technology. Those who sell goods or services recognize how
much more effective is ‘targeted marketing’ as opposed to a random exercise.
• Product communications have also developed, in that consumers know more
about what is available. One has only to look at the specialist magazines now
sold to football fans, swimmers, marathon runners, collectors of antiques,
computer buffs, opera lovers and so on, to realize how much information is
to hand, almost to the point of ‘information overload’.
• ‘Consumer contracts’ or ‘customer charters’ have also become more common,
defining standards of service which the consumer may expect to receive. The
consumer is given to understand that this is a ‘right’, and may well sue if the
service is below par.
• Media diversity must also have an effect, if only through the impact of yet
more advertising. The ‘received orthodoxy’ of early television in the United
Kingdom, when millions switched on to see the Cup Final, has been replaced
by a variety of channels wherein one can watch any number of individual
sports. The ‘shared national experience’ is diminished thereby – but ‘possess-
ive individualism’ once again is elevated.

The implications of demographic change

The true significance of an ageing society (see Figure 1.1) has yet to dawn upon
the leisure industry, most of which is still geared to meet the demands of young
30 Managing Leisure

Age

Under 16

16–39

40–64

65–79
1961
80 and over 1991

0 10 20 30 40
Millions

Figure 1.1 Age structure of the UK population, 1961 and 1991. Source: OPCS (1994)

people. By contrast, the tourist industry has realized the potential niche market
which exists, and is exploiting that opportunity by way of special holidays,
reduced-price long winter breaks, cruises and leisure-related breaks, e.g. for golf
enthusiasts. One company, Saga, provides travel/holiday services specifically for
the over-50s.
Governments have certainly begun to realize the implications of the
demographic shift. The International Monetary Fund, too, reported in its biannual
World Economic Outlook (April 1996) that as a result of the shift, many industrial
countries will face an unsustainable bill for their pensioners.
Calling for ‘generational accounting’, by which today’s fiscal policies are shown
to affect future generations even if they do not affect current budgets, IMF econo-
mists argued that any modest reductions in youth population over the next 20
years would have but a small budgeting effect upon the costs associated with an
ageing population.
Official United Kingdom government projections, made by OPCS, suggest that
the number of pensioners will soar by 50 per cent in the first 30 years of the next
century. By 2030, there is anticipated to be almost 80 dependants for every 100
people of working age, compared to only 63 dependants in 1991. Those aged over
75 – who require the greatest health/social services care – are expected to repre-
sent some 6 million in number by that date, compared to 3.6 million in 1991. (See
Figure 1.2.)
 The social context 31

*Working Figure 1.2 Projected working

35
population population and dependants (millions) in
the UK. Source: OPCS Information
Branch (1997)
30

25

•Dependants
20

15
1991 1996 2001 20112016 2021 2026 2037

* Population 16–64 (men)/59 (women)

• Children 0–15 plus men 65+, women 60+

OPCS attributes a temporary increase in the number of working people to a

tendency for those aged 45 or over to work for longer, whereas the number of
adults below the age of 30 is expected to fall from 10.8 million to only 8.9 million
(Guardian, 3 March 1993).
Apocalyptic visions of the future are not always correct, however. If one looks
at the USA, which is experiencing the same phenomenon (albeit to a lesser degree),
one sees so-called ‘grey power’ being put to good use in the labour market
(Independent, 9 July 1997).
We might also remind ourselves that in the USA some states are actually build-
ing ‘geriatric jails’. It appears that while in 1980 there were just 9500 prisoners over
the age of 55, now there are 30 000, and the figure is expected to double within 30
years (The Sunday Times, 13 July 1997).

Ageing and physical activity

Various researchers, such as Paffenbarger and Lee (1996) have pointed out that
today’s interest in sport tends to be ‘vicarious’ and not ‘participatory’: as a society,
32 Managing Leisure

we seem more prepared to adulate the elite athletes who ‘perform’ for us, than to
listen to the needs of our own bodies.
The above-mentioned researchers see a decline in ‘vigorous occupations’ as
being largely to blame for a less physically active society. In addition, they see the
following as contributory factors:

• mechanization
• automation
• swift communications
• rapid transport systems
• computer usage
• television viewing.

They concluded that although most of their surveys showed a public awareness
that physical activity increased health and longevity, none the less actual partici-
pation rates did not reflect such awareness, with approximately 60 per cent of
Americans taking little or no regular exercise.
The situation in the United Kingdom is virtually the same. In 1997, the Health
Education Authority (HEA) organized a conference with the title ‘Active for Later
Life’, in collaboration with University Department of Geriatric Medicine, Royal
Free Hospital Medical School (London) and the British Geriatrics Society Special
Interest Group on Health Promotion and Preventive Care. Its various reports
(available from the HEA) make fascinating reading. The fact that some 30 differ-
ent organizations, from countries of Europe to the USA, all participated in the
conference gives some indication of widespread interest in the topic, though press
coverage was not as great as it should have been.
In addition to the information from Paffenbarger and Lee’s study, delegates
considered the results of a study commissioned by the HEA and undertaken by
Social and Community Planning Research in October 1996.
The resulting study (Finch, 1997), made 10 recommendations, as follows:

• Media images, showing only young people as fit and healthy, need to be more
balanced.
• Perception of what constitutes a healthy lifestyle needs to be widened, e.g. by
promoting unregimented and moderate activities such as dancing and
walking.
• More information should be provided on ‘safe levels of exercise’.
• The case for a healthy lifestyle should by promoted, e.g. by the media and by
employers, as retirement nears.
 The social context 33

• Activity for older males in particular needs to be promoted. (A Mintel report

published in 1996 found that regular exercise was regarded as important by
only 4 in 10 men, as opposed to 1 in 3 women.)
• More emphasis is needed on the non-health benefits of regular exercise, e.g.
opportunities to socialize.
• Avoidance of an ‘authoritarian stance’, e.g. many older people shun recreation
classes for fear of over-regimentation.
• More information should be delivered by the medical profession, e.g. about
opportunities for fitness testing, personalized fitness programmes, exercise
classes, etc.
• Facilities need to be more suitable for the older age group, both in terms of
design and ‘social mix’ – a personalized approach by management is also seen
as very important by this age group.
• People should start exercising when they are young, thus promoting the idea,
at the earliest age, that physical activity is beneficial.
(A separate report by Young et al. 1997 on a similar topic was based on the Allied
Dunbar National Fitness Survey, analysing data from that survey and a survey
carried out by the HEA itself.)
As yet no new leisure pursuit, or sport, appears to have resulted directly from
the demographic shift, which is perhaps rather strange. It may be that existing
(non-contact) sports such as cricket, bowls, archery, etc. will be played until a later
point in life, and that the demand for leisure activities which are less physically
demanding, such as visiting museums, art galleries and historic houses, will
continue to increase as the population ages.

Changes to the nature of work

If leisure is perceived as the antithesis of work or indeed work as a mechanism

(means) for the achievement of leisure (ends) then it must adapt to changes in the
external workplace.
Either way, that adaptation will be substantial, just as changes to patterns of
work have been substantial.
Those who take a longer view are apt to argue that changes to the workplace
are not as massive as might be supposed: the uncertainty faced by many workers
is temporary, and is common to all workers during transitional periods, e.g. at the
onset of the Industrial Revolution.
34 Managing Leisure

Handy (1984) mentions this idea in passing, i.e. that there have been precedents,
and that the ‘self-correcting cycle of adjustment’ is seductive as a hypothesis – but
not necessarily correct. He argues that even in the 1980s the prospects for work
were changing rapidly, so that the following characteristics were becoming
evident:
• A society with full employment was becoming one of part employment.
• Both ‘labour’ and ‘manual’ skills were being replaced by ‘knowledge skills’.
• Traditional manufacturing industry was in decline, while service industries
increased in importance.
• ‘Hierarchies’ and ‘bureaucracies’ were being replaced by looser agglomera-
tions, represented as ‘networks’ and ‘partnerships’.
• Rarely would a person have an ‘employer for life’ but rather a series of jobs
or even careers.
• Increased importance attached to the ‘third-age’ of life, post-employment and
post-family.
• Challenging of gender stereotypes, with changes to roles in the home and in
the workplace.
• Work locations themselves shifting (often southwards), according to labour
costs and relative exchange rates.
Many of Handy’s observations have subsequently turned out to be correct. The
articulation of the angst attached to such changes has however become more vocif-
erous, particularly amongst the middle- and upper-income earners (white collars)
whereas job insecurity had previously been the lot of the ‘blue collars’.
The introduction of new technology and specifically IT has been blamed for
much of this white collar insecurity. The idea that technology is capable of creat-
ing more jobs than it destroys is not one which necessarily reassures a person
whose job is under threat, at the moment. An interesting article in The Economist
(February 1995) poured scorn on those who predicted the ‘end of work’, suggest-
ing instead that in the long run there will indeed be more jobs as a result of new
technology – but that the long run can take a long time!
The effects of unemployment upon lifestyles have been well documented, but
its impact upon leisure perhaps less so, with the exception of studies by Glyptis
(1989).
How might the leisure industry respond to such changes? As an employer itself,
there must have been some effect upon wages and salaries, notably in parts of the
public sector and as a direct result of CCT. On the other hand, there appears to
have been a steady increase in the number of leisure jobs available in the United
 The social context 35

Kingdom, although many are badly paid. The fact that non-home based leisure is
so labour intensive means that workers will always be required.
As a provider of services, the industry may consider the following:
• provision of more opportunities for ‘belonging’ (to a club or organization)
through the use of databases and membership schemes
• application of more ‘targeted’ pricing policies, e.g. for parties of retired people,
special interest groups
• operation of services on something other than a 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. basis – Thorpe
Park has announced that it was to become the first of the United Kingdom’s
theme parks to open 24 hours a day (Leisureweek, April, 1995)
• removal of stereotypical constraints which remain upon certain sporting activ-
ities, e.g. mixed-gender football, hockey, cricket
• encouraging people to have a ‘sport-for-life’, or alternatively a series of sport-
ing/activity pursuits, to provide continuity and personal stability (as well as
much-needed exercise).
From what has been said on the subject of ‘change’ the reader may assume that
leisure will assume a heightened significance. If one’s leisure pursuits are freely
chosen and freely available for most of one’s life, then these become a ‘refuge’ or
‘sanctuary’, whilst everything else (work, relationships, the physical environment)
changes at a bewildering pace.
It may also be argued that as work diminishes in availability (for some) and in
its social content (for others, using computers to work from home), then leisure
activities may represent rare opportunities for informal social interaction – perhaps
indeed the only opportunities.

Home-based versus social leisure

The remarkable availability of equipment for home-based leisure is testimony to

the notion of latent demand, and the United Kingdom more than many other
European countries appears to adopt the various entertainment systems with an
alarming rapidity. The market penetration of items such as CD players, video
recorders, camcorders, computer systems has been such that very few homes
indeed are totally bereft of any of the gadgetry.
Some of the systems now available have already been mentioned in the intro-
duction, and therefore it is the implications that concern us here, and not the
36 Managing Leisure

technology. Whereas it was once argued – by Marxist historians – that society

could only respond slowly (and often badly) to changes in the nature of industry,
it may now be said that society has not yet come to terms with the implications
of home-based leisure systems themselves. Quite simply, it will soon be possible
to use these systems to become completely isolated from the world and even to
create a VR world of one’s own.
An alternative is embodied in an even more alarming scenario, when television
or film companies combine or cooperate with theme parks, thereby extending the
non-reality even further. The ‘theme park approach’ to history is depressing
enough, but what about when life itself is viewed as a theme park?
Assuming that leisure management is about social (and not home-based) leisure,
is it possible, or appropriate, to contest the field, or should computers and VR be
left to claim the ground? Can indeed the technology of home-based leisure be used
to encourage social leisure, or are these completely different entities? Will the
market-penetrating potential of gadgetry be such that the people end up as ‘cyber-
potatoes’? The Observer (13 July 1997) raised a question: ‘will National Grid produce
a generation of cyber-potatoes?’, referring to the millennium project to wire up all
schools and libraries in the United Kingdom to the Internet, thus connecting them
to the ‘information super-highway’. The Observer piece also made reference to
another article, in Atlantic Monthly, on the subject of computers and schools. It
appears that the article sent shockwaves through the USA’s education system, where
schools have been flooded with computers. The author, Todd Oppenheimer, called
for a reversal of policy, in order to release the money devoted to computer hardware
so that it could be spent on ‘the impoverished fundamentals’, i.e. the teaching of
reading and numeracy, as well as on ‘real experiences’ to be derived from field trips.
That schools, colleges, universities and private homes are being persuaded to
install so many computers is hardly surprising, but rather depressing. The
computer, after all, is a remarkable tool when one has the skills and knowledge
to use it properly.
And the marketing is fearsome, just as the size of the computer business is
awesome. Worth $630 billion (£390 billion) in 1996, the IT industry is arguably
replacing cars and housing as the driving force of the global economy. Further-
more, the International Data Corporation suggested in 1997 that company spend-
ing on Net products and services will total $92 billion by the year 2000, displacing
the personal computer as the engine of IT market growth. They may of course be
wrong – but who is to say what nano-technology will bring along?
But trivia can be quite seductive. After all, it requires very little effort to be
‘hooked’. Two examples serve to make the case: the first was that of ‘television fish’
 The social context 37

– which led eventually to ‘cyber-fish’. In 1993, a new television channel in South

Carolina left a camera trained on a fish tank for 14 hours a day. When the fish were
eventually replaced by programmes, howls of protest arose from disgruntled viewers.
Berkeley Systems of California was to benefit from such an idea, and established
its Apple Macintosh screen-saver, After Dark, which allows the operator to select
from a range of fish, with the option of having sand, shells, plants and bubbles
along with the simulated creatures. The registered version has more than 60 types
of fish, and a built-in ‘fish editor’ for creating new species!
The second example of an obsession with trivia relates to the use of the Inter-
net. In 1997, a young American woman, Jennifer Rigley, installed a small video
camera in her flat, connected to a computer. The camera relays continuous images
into her Internet web site, where a reported 100 million visitors from around the
world look in every week (Independent, 26 September 1997).
The distinction between reality and fantasy thus becomes blurred – the soap
opera becomes real. Indeed, who is to say what is ‘real’ anyway?

Sport as entertainment

Sport is not only big business, but big entertainment, to an extent that whole televi-
sion channels are devoted to this single activity. The images of sport are beamed
into millions of homes, and wish-fulfilment is used by sportswear manufacturers
to complete the deal: wear this track suit/these running shoes/this baseball cap –
and you’ll be one of the stars!
There can be no doubt that media technology has totally transformed sport,
turning minority sports (darts, snooker, bowls) into popular forms of entertain-
ment, from the 1980s onwards. Sports magazines now proliferate: whereas there
was one magazine for yachting enthusiasts 20 years ago, there are now 5. Every
newspaper has extensive coverage of sport, and sports personalities are sought by
sponsors and advertisers alike. In the meantime, football clubs go ‘public’, sell
their ‘strips’ in sportswear shops, and their shares on the Stock Exchange ...
Theoretically, the greater coverage of sport should lead to more active lifestyles,
if psychologists are right about role models. A temporary manipulation to buy the
sportswear is, though, not sufficient. The Wall Street Analyst is quoted in The
Observer (13 July 1997) as saying ‘Eisenhower used to warn us of the military-
industrial complex, but now we have a media-athletic-shoe-company-complex’.
The reader can easily guess at the shoe company implicated in this scenario.
38 Managing Leisure

It seems likely that sport-as-entertainment will grow, rather than decline, if only
for the fact that more television channels will be looking for some ‘product’ – and,
relatively speaking, sport is a cheap alternative. Where the sport itself becomes
greedy for media fees, then perhaps common sense might prevail and the media
companies will refuse to pay up.
Some sports undoubtedly benefit from the media money, whereas others do not.
Whether the money ‘cascades down’ to the young amateur players – the sports-
men and sportswomen of the future – also remains to be seen. The involvement
of the Murdoch empire with the sport of Rugby Union will perhaps be a guide to
what is in store ...

A theme park in every town?

The rush to develop more and more theme parks as yet sees no respite. At the
time this chapter was written, for example, two such parks were announced: one
at Benidorm on the Costa Blanca, and another close to Rome. In both cases, the
‘theme’ appears to be heritage-based. The former (Terra Mitica) promises to repre-
sent cultures from different parts of the Mediterranean littoral, and the latter the
grandeur of ancient Rome. Though private backers are always sought, state or
provincial governments are often expected to contribute, particularly in the devel-
opment of the related infrastructure (roads, rail links, etc.).
Sometimes, the ‘theme’ is incidental; sometimes, indeed, there is no real theme
at all, but merely a hotchpotch of rides, side shows, bars, cafes, and the rest –
rather like parts of a fun-fair.
Disneyland Paris is more subtle, since the park exploits its visual connection
with many Disney Corporation films. Similarly, it sells products which reinforce
the connection. Eventually, as has now happened, the ‘product marketing’ opera-
tion becomes detached from the theme park, and operates as a free-standing retail
entity in various town-centre locations.
Then again, Merrin (1998) takes her cue from the criticisms of the Disney Empire
made by American writer Carl Hiassen. She concludes that the Disney version of
reality as promulgated through various mechanisms – Walt Disney Pictures,
Touchstone, Caravan, Miramar and Hollywood Pictures, ESPN, the Disney
Channel, Arts and Entertainment, the History Channel and Lifetime, nine televi-
sion stations, twenty-one radio stations, seven daily newspapers, computer
 The social context 39

software, sports franchises, and so forth – serves to diminish the human imagi-
nation by a process of ‘colonization’ and ‘sanitization’.
Meanwhile, within the United Kingdom, established theme parks have had their
measure of success, and new ones are being proposed. A scheme to build a £250
million sports and leisure park in Lancashire was announced in August 1997, by
Moorfields Estates. Xanadu, as it is to be named, will include an 80 000 square feet
hotel and retail complex on a 72-acre site between Liverpool and Manchester. The
leisure elements are to include an ‘alpine village’, with ski runs and snowboard-
ing, an aquatic centre, including a 50-metre Olympic standard pool, a leisure pool,
and a ‘megaplex cinema’. Those fortunate enough to live in the vicinity of Xanadu
are promised a screen-based ‘virtual reality experience’, whatever that may be.
One also reads (Leisureweek, May 1998) that the European Regional Development
Fund has already awarded the scheme £4.5 million.
Perhaps the best theme parks actually have a theme which is more substantial.
Recent history and technology are both ideal candidates, as are famous films. Film
sets themselves may, in the future, be designated as sites which can be opened to
the public. Space technology continues to fascinate: the Kennedy Space Centre in
Florida, with its Apollo/Saturn V displays, is quite remarkable. Its centrepiece is
a hangar containing one of the superstars of the space race – a gigantic 363-foot
tall Saturn V rocket. Science parks, such as Futuroscope at Poitiers, are also likely
to proliferate, and may perhaps turn out to be more enduring than other theme
parks.
In a report published in March 1998, Mintel concluded that small family-run
theme parks face an uncertain future, because of much greater competition and
the need to make substantial capital investment in white-knuckle rides. The report
also commented that theme park revenue in the United Kingdom had soared by
76 per cent between 1993 and 1997 to £231 million. Catering revenue doubled from
£40 million to £80 million during the same period, with the average spend per
head each year reaching just over £17.
The competition is indeed fierce, however, and the British Tourist Authority
announced in May 1998 that Madame Tussaud’s had regained the top position as
the most popular tourist attraction, replacing Alton Towers (Leisureweek, May
1998).
Whether the ‘dash for theme parks’ will diminish only time will tell. If one
views them as glorified fun-fairs then there is every reason to suggest that growth
will continue; if one views them as means to communicate ‘heritage’ then there is
every reason to hope that no more will appear. (Mercifully, the plans for a ‘Merrie
England’ theme park at Corby did not materialize.)
40 Managing Leisure

Conclusions

Changes to the social context – to work, the family and to attitudes towards life
itself – have all affected the leisure industry in one way or another. The appear-
ance of a consumer-oriented society and a culture of possessive individualism
have together created an expectation that leisure is a ‘right’ and not a ‘privilege’.
Curiously, however, the frenetic search for fun that one might expect of a secular
society – being concerned with the here-and-now rather than the afterlife – sits
alongside a Protestant ethic which is embodied in Western capitalism’s espousal
of ‘hard work’.
Other world religions, notably Islam, have a different view of leisure, especially
with regard to sports participation by females. Buddhist societies would be
expected to adopt a less exploitative approach to leisure than societies which have
adopted the type of Western capitalism referred to earlier.
But in a Western society, the demand for more leisure, for novelty, for instant
gratification, for fitness-without-effort, could become a monster which grows ever
greedier, and the prospects for celebrating the Millennium are evidence enough of
what is to come.
However apocalyptic the vision, the leisure manager cannot change society. We
have suggested instead that he or she can help to make it more tolerable, by being
responsive. Being responsive on its own is not enough, of course, since the leisure
manager must also be seen to be responsible, as the next chapter will explain.

References and recommended reading

The Economist (1995). Technology and unemployment: A world without jobs? February.
Finch, H. (1997). Physical Activity ‘At Our Age’: Qualitative research among people over
50. Social and Community Planning Research. (Also available from HEA.)
Glyptis, S.A. (1989). Leisure and Unemployment. Open University Press, Milton
Keynes.
The Guardian (1993). Not so young as we were. 3 March.
Handy, C. (1984). The Future of Work. Basil Blackwell.
The Independent (1994). Across the Atlantic: Grey power is the US secret weapon, 9 July.
The Independent (1997). The site that is bringing home entertainment to millions. 26
September.
 The social context 41

International Monetary Fund. (1996). World Economic Outlook. April.

Macpherson, C.B. (1962). The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism. Oxford
University Press.
Merrin, M. (1998). The Mickey Mouse outfit that makes a meal of our childhood. Daily
Telegraph, 4 June.
Mintel. (1998). UK Theme Parks.
The Observer (1997). IT revolution in the classroom – but will ‘National Grid’ produce a
generation of young cyber-potatoes? 13 July.
Paffenbarger, R.S. and Lee, I.-M. (1996). Physical Activity and Fitness for Health and
Longevity. The American Alliance for Health Physical Education Recreation and
Dance, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, Vol. 67.
The Sunday Times (1997). U.S. builds jails for geriatrics to cope with surge in ageing
lifers, 13 July.
Young, A.Y., Skelton, D., Walker, A. and Hoinville, L. (1997). Physical Activity in
Later Life. HEA.
2 The regulatory context

Questions

At the end of this chapter you should be able to undertake the following:
1 Indicate reasons why a leisure manager would need to have a reasonable
knowledge of the regulatory context – and consider what ‘reasonable’ may
mean in this instance.
2 Consider how sport in the United Kingdom and elsewhere is affected by the
law.
3 Identify the Acts of Parliament, rules, gudelines, regulations, etc. which
might apply to:
(a) a large football stadium
(b) a concert hall
(c) a theme park
(d) an outdoor activity centre offering programmes to under-18s.

Introduction

Finding an appropriate title for this chapter was not easy. There are a few excel-
lent books on legal aspects of leisure management, written by qualified lawyers
or solicitors, and of course they contain the word ‘law’ in their titles.
The approach of this chapter is both wider and narrower – ‘wider’ in the sense
that it includes more than common law, case law and statute law; ‘narrower’ in
the sense that, being one small chapter as opposed to a whole book, it cannot
provide the degree of detail to be found in the aforementioned legal texts, some
of which are included in the Recommended Reading list at the end of this chapter.
In any case, the depth of knowledge required of the student and practitioner
will be different. Most managers in the past simply learned ‘on the job’. They were
 The regulatory context 43

promoted upwards because they were good at what they did. Suddenly, on being
appointed as managers, they acquired legal duties and responsibilities for which
they were often ill-prepared. Some discovered the full extent of their legal liabil-
ity only when confronted with litigation in the civil (or even criminal) courts.
Nowadays, the situation is rather different, and indeed the courts expect
managers to be aware of all the relevant legislation, particularly where health and
safety issues are concerned.
Not only that, but courts will frequently make reference to ‘standards which the
reasonable person might reasonably expect to find’, and thus there must be more
to the job than merely knowing the acts, regulations and so forth.
Those who already manage leisure facilities are faced with slightly different
problems from students of leisure management. Both parties must understand the
general principles embodied in relevant pieces of legislation, and both should have
a broad appreciation of the regulatory framework that is described in this chapter.
Managers then need to know the precise rules and regulations which apply to
their specific establishment. The manager of a theme park or fairground, for
example will be expected to know ‘inside out’, and to apply rigorously, the Code
of Safe Practice issued by the Health and Safety Executive with respect to
‘fairgrounds and amusement parks’. He or she should even know when the
document is being revised.
The manager of certain outdoor activity programmes will likewise be expected
to ensure that operational standards are in conformity with the relevant regula-
tions (Adventure Activities Licensing Regulations 1996), as specified in the respec-
tive licence.
In both cases, the legislation is quite unequivocal, though the legal basis for each
is slightly different. Technically, the code of practice does not of itself have the
force of law, but any departure from recommendations contained therein can be
taken into account if a case arrives at the civil or criminal courts. The licensing of
outdoor activity centres is now mandatory, where they provide activities and
programmes for under-18s, and failure to obtain a licence in such circumstances
is itself a criminal offence, as defined by the Outdoor Activities (Young Persons’
Safety) Act 1995.

Relevance of the regulatory environment

At this juncture, it is worth considering why some knowledge of the regulatory

environment is so important.
44 Managing Leisure

We can identify seven reasons, as follows:

• an increased awareness of rules, regulations and potential for litigation, on the
part of the general public
• an increased tendency to ‘blame’ (something, someone), which leads to legal
action being taken against the ‘deepest pocket’ – normally the employer rather
than the employee
• specialist legal advice being available to those injured in a ‘leisure environ-
ment’
• sizeable awards for damages, made by the courts in certain celebrated cases
• the ‘professionalization’ of sport, which leads to higher salaries, and conse-
quently greater claims for ‘loss of earnings’ in the event of an accident
• the growth in the regulatory environment itself, leading to the creation of
standards which may be used to assess negligence in particular cases
• an extended application of the ‘duty of care’ notion, to include not only physi-
cal injury but psychological and financial harm.
Before looking at the regulatory environment in more detail, it might be instruc-
tive to look briefly at the seven phenomena listed above.

1 Increase in public awareness

Members of the public are generally more aware of the fact that there are rules
and regulations which circumscribe the services which they use. Quite correctly,
they expect to find a safe environment, where the risks are restricted to those
which are anticipated.

2 A culture of blame
The notion that accidents occur as ‘acts of God’, or the gods, is no longer accept-
able, where it can be argued that some person or organization was a major cause.
If that person or organization is insured, so much the better, since damages – paid
by the insurance company but ultimately by all who pay premiums – may well
be substantial.

3 The availability of specialist advice

Advice may be obtained from legal firms which offer a service in ‘accident claims’,
and indeed several specialize in sports-related litigation. Access to ‘no-win no-fee’
 The regulatory context 45

arrangements, as in the United States, is also likely to increase the number and
size of claims.

4 Sizeable awards for damages

Damages awarded by the courts, consequent to a successful action, can be very
substantial. Those awarded in the United States have set the trend (for the United
Kingdom especially) by extending the idea of ‘pain and suffering’ to the psycho-
logical realm, and not just the corporal. Compensation payments for lost earnings,
when added to those for psychological injury, can become vast.
Claims for post-accident compensation on this scale are sustained by the
existence of insurance policies which cover employees from claims based on direct
or vicarious liability. (The concept of ‘vicarious liability’ will be explained later.)

5 Professionalization of sport
Certain sports have always been predominantly professional, such as rugby
league, whereas others have been predominantly amateur, such as hockey. Where
professionalization is common, the ‘loss of income’ which affects the injured player
is likely to be considerable.
The situation with regard to ‘amateur participation’ is somewhat different,
though certain cases would seem to suggest that consequent loss of earnings (from
normal employment) are also leading to very substantial damages. Similarly, the
appearance of ‘stars’ in sport, created largely by television, has led to incomes
which would have been quite unthinkable in the 1940s and 1950s.
To an extent, the same applies to the world of the arts and entertainment but
there the careers tend to be longer, and the risks of physical injury fewer in
number.

6 The growth of the regulatory environment

As rules, regulations, acts, guidelines, codes of practice, etc. come along, so there
are ‘yardsticks’ which either a knowledgeable customer or opportunistic lawyer
may use in the event of the service falling below that which was anticipated (or
contracted for) or below that which is an ‘acceptable standard at comparable estab-
lishments’. Such yardsticks can be used against defendants in cases where injury
due to their alleged negligence is central to the action.
46 Managing Leisure

7 An extended application of the ‘common duty of care’

At one time, the question ‘Have I a duty of care to X?’ was less problematical in
relation to the leisure industry than it was in the workplace, since the latter
involved a formal contractual relationship between employer and employee, and
therefore the employer had an obvious duty of care.
With the growth of ‘consumer protection’ and the idea of ‘product liability’ –
both to be examined later – came a fundamental shift in emphasis, which meant
that an employer–employee contract was not the only such relationship which
created a significant legal liability. Customers, participants, volunteers now all
have rights which are defined by law, rights which are being vigorously pursued
after an accident occurs. Sometimes, indeed, it seems as if injured people see their
solicitors before they see a doctor!
The ‘duty of care’ principle now extends to realms previously undreamt of, e.g.
to rugby referees and to personal trainers. Not surprisingly, sports organizations
and governing bodies have expressed alarm at this development.

Application of the regulatory environment

The various acts of parliament, regulations, guidelines and codes which make up
the regulatory environment for the purposes of this book are inevitably unique to
the United Kingdom. European Union regulations are also mentioned where they
are relevant to the argument, but not otherwise.
Not all countries have the same legal codes or underlying moral principles. The
very notion of a ‘common duty of care’, for example, would become less meaning-
ful as one moved further south within Europe. For the government to have a duty
of care, there must obviously be a coherent nation state and a body of law which
protects and compensates the individuals within that state. For individuals to be
responsible for each other, situations need to be defined, laws enacted and
remedies made available through the courts.
Health and safety legislation, as well as consumer safety legislation, stems from
the ‘duty of care’ principle. The three ‘regulatory acts’ of parliament which apply
specifically to the leisure industry in the United Kingdom – two relating to
stadium management and one to outdoor activity centres – also embody the same
principle.
Where the legal code is very different, for whatever reason, then this chapter
becomes less pertinent. That said, if one looks at those inherent moral principles
 The regulatory context 47

– of which the regulatory environment is a tangible expression – then the mater-

ial might still have a certain validity. ‘Taking care of the customer’ is a simple
enough idea in itself, and must be acceptable whatever the legal context.
Whether the leisure environment has actually become safer in countries with
such elaborated regulatory environments as the United Kingdom is open to
debate, and one would need to examine accident statistics, levels of provision and
frequency of use, in many countries of the world before reaching such a conclu-
sion. My own view, on the basis of experience, is that there is indeed such a corre-
lation.
Leisure environments in tourist-based economies (Cyprus, Greek islands, parts
of Spain) or areas where tourism is extremely important to the local economy
(parts of South Africa and India) exhibit particular difficulties, since those leisure
facilities that do exist are not generally replicated for local people, and therefore
have fewer regulations to control them.
If this chapter helps to remind managers of some underlying moral principles,
as well as practical manifestations, then it will be useful in the type of tourist-
based context referred to above. Neither neo-colonialism nor triumphalism is
intended by recommending those principles which are evident within the legal
code of the United Kingdom: they are for the most part easy to understand, even
if their application may seem very complicated!

European Community law

EU legislation is gradually having a marked effect upon law in the United

Kingdom, e.g. in the construction of domestic legislation, and in the granting of
rights to its citizens (and other European citizens) which may thereafter be
pursued within the United Kingdom’s courts. On occasion, recourse is also made
to EU law in cases where domestic legislation is ambiguous or unclear. EU law
has applied to the United Kingdom since its accession to the Community on 1
January 1973 – European Communities Act 1972, and European Communities
(Amendment) Act 1986.
Legislation made by the EU generally takes one of two forms:
• Regulations – which are ‘directly applicable’ throughout the Community
• Directives – which are, in effect, instructions to member states to devise acts
or regulations in conformity with the Community’s wishes.
48 Managing Leisure

United Kingdom law

Criminal law

The different courts for criminal and civil law within the United Kingdom are
shown in Figure 2.1. Except for the Magistrates Courts, which also handle various
non-criminal matters such as liquor licensing, and the Queen’s Bench Division of
the High Court, the two aspects of jurisdiction are quite distinct.

Courts exercising civil jurisdiction Courts exercising criminal jurisdiction

HOUSE OF LORDS

COURT OF APPEAL
Civil Criminal
division division

HIGH COURT OF JUSTICE CROWN COURT

Chancery Family Queen’s
division division bench
division

COUNTY COURT

MAGISTRATES
COURT

Figure 2.1 The courts of the United Kingdom

 The regulatory context 49

Criminal law is applicable where the state has previously determined that
certain actions, or classes of action, are illegal. A ‘crime’ is therefore taken to be a
‘wrong done against the state’, punishable by a range of measures made available
to the courts by parliament. The majority of cases are dealt with directly by the
Magistrates Courts, with more serious cases referred to the Crown Courts.
Appeals against a sentence imposed by the Magistrates Courts are also heard
in the Crown Court. Appeals against a sentence imposed by the Crown Court are
for the most part heard in the Court of Appeal (Criminal Division).
Litigation within the criminal jurisdiction involves an individual or organiza-
tion being prosecuted by the state, although in the United Kingdom there remains
the archaic notion that the monarch actually ‘is’ the state, with no ‘citizens’ but
only ‘subjects’. Thus, the body that decides if a case can be sustained, and which
actually takes the initiative, is called the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS).

Civil law
Civil law is applicable where one person or organization decides to take legal
action against another person or organization. Commonly, such action is for the
recovery of debt or for breaches of contract. County courts fulfil an important
function in this respect, and may consider claims up to the value of £50 000. Where
the value of the claim is £50 000 or more, the action is tried at the High Court. The
county court’s jurisdiction also applies to certain cases of bankruptcy and insol-
vency, consumer credit disputes, small claims, probate (where an estate is valued
at £30 000 or less) and matrimonial proceedings.
From ‘legal structures’, we turn to look at some specific areas where the law has
had such a profound influence.

Occupiers’ liability: The ‘common duty of care’

Definition

Legislation on occupiers’ liability is designed to protect the public from harm, by

creating a statutory legal duty from one previously embodied within case law and
common law.
The concept was initially defined by the Occupiers’ Liability Act 1957 (2 [2]) as
follows:
50 Managing Leisure

The common duty of care is a duty to take such care as in all the
circumstances of the care is reasonable, to see that the visitor will be
reasonably safe in using premises for the purposes for which he is invited
or permitted by the occupier to be there.
Relevant circumstances include ‘the degree of care’, or ‘want of care’ which would
ordinarily be looked for by such a visitor, so that for example (2 [3]):
(a) ‘an occupier must be prepared for children to be less careful than adults
(b) an occupier may expect that a person, in the exercise of his calling, ‘will appre-
ciate and guard against any special risks ordinarily incident to it, so far as the
occupier leaves him free to do so’.
The duty was extended somewhat by the Occupiers’ Liability Act 1984, to include
trespassers – but only in certain circumstances, as follows (1 [3]):
An occupier of premises owes a duty to another (not being his visitor) in
respect of any such risk ... if
(a) he is aware of the danger or has reasonable grounds to believe that it
exists
(b) he knows or has reasonable grounds to believe that the other is in the
vicinity of the danger concerned or that he may come into the vicinity
of the danger (in either case, whether the other has lawful authority
for being in that vicinity or not) and
(c) the risk is one against which, in all the circumstances of the case, he
may reasonably be expected to offer the other some protection.
The 1984 Act, significantly, stated as one of its aims; ‘to amend the Unfair Contract
Terms Act 1977, as it applies to England and Wales, in relation to persons obtain-
ing access to premises for recreational or educational purposes’.

Relevance

All leisure managers need to be aware of this fundamental concept, i.e. the
common duty of care, since claims for negligence are based on the proposition that
the duty has been ‘breached’ by the manager, or by the manager’s employer, or
both.
The first question to ask is ‘Have I, the manager, a duty of care?’ In most cases,
the answer is obviously ‘yes’, since a customer who enters a leisure complex may
 The regulatory context 51

reasonably expect that complex to be safe. In other cases, the answer is not so
obvious. Does the manager of an outdoor swimming pool have a duty of care to
children who break into the pool compound on a hot summer’s evening when the
facility is closed? What if one of the youngsters is drowned? The position here is
that a manager does theoretically have a duty of care, in the sense that he or she
should have taken reasonable precautions to stop people (especially children) from
entering into such potentially dangerous premises. Where the manager knew – or
should have known (in the court’s opinion) – that the fencing around the
compound was badly damaged, then the court may decide that the manager was
indeed ‘negligent’. The 1957 Act does, after all, lay particular emphasis on the need
for an occupier to be prepared for children to be ‘less careful than adults’.
The second question is ‘Has the duty of care been breached?’ If an act or regula-
tion has been ignored by management, then a criminal offence may have been
committed. Notwithstanding, civil action may be pursued by the injured party, if
it can be shown that the duty of care was not up to a standard which might reason-
ably have been expected.
The third question is ‘Was the accident foreseeable?’ Courts have a habit of using
the ‘reasonable’ test in such questions. Would it be reasonable to assume that the
manager of a theme park could have foreseen that an adult eating an ice-cream
cone would choke on swallowing the complete object during the course of a ‘white-
knuckle’ ride? The courts would probably decide that the manager could not have
foreseen such an occurrence – but had the injured party been a young child, then
the decision might have been a different one. ‘Warning signs’ (e.g. not to eat ice-
cream during rides) are not wholly sufficient where children are involved.
The distinction is important, in that the law expects people over 18 to be largely
responsible for their own actions, once the nature and extent of a particular risk
has been explained to them. If an adult in such a circumstance does something
stupid, then he or she may be said to have ‘contributed’ towards the accident,
hence the concept of ‘contributory negligence’.
The fourth question is ‘Was the accident the primary cause of the injuries
claimed by the injured party?’ Judgements on this matter obviously require
medical guidance, and by the time that the courts are addressing the question, it
is out of the hands of the unfortunate leisure manager who is by now in the
position of a defendant.
The final question is the one which ultimately determines the scale of the
damages, and may be put thus ‘what monetary value may be placed on the pain
and suffering, as well as lost income, which arose directly from the accident?’
Again, this question is one where medical and accountancy criteria apply.
52 Managing Leisure

At this point it is worth mentioning that the common duty of care does not
impose upon an occupier any obligation to a visitor ‘in respect of risks willingly
accepted as his by the visitor’ (1957 Act, 2 [5]). The question of whether or not
a risk is ‘willingly accepted’ hinges upon a number of factors, particularly the
age of the injured person. Generally speaking, under 18-year-olds cannot be said
to have ‘willingly accepted’ risks in the same way as adults could. Increasingly,
too there is an obligation for the manager to explain the risk in some detail,
whatever the age of the customer (see also Chapter 7 concerning risks to
customers).
The management defence arising from the idea of willingly accepted risk,
referred to as volenti non fit injuria, is also mentioned in Chapter 7.

Disclaimers

As far as ‘disclaimer notices’ are concerned, the Unfair Contracts Terms Act 1977
makes it illegal to include special terms in contracts or in warning notices which
have the effect of limiting liability for fatal or other accidents caused by negligence.
No matter what the sign says, the manager and/or owner of the premises is
indeed liable, if an accident results from a breach of the duty of care and is
regarded by the courts as ‘negligent’.

• Relevant legislation

Occupiers’ Liability Act 1957

Occupiers’ Liability Act 1984
Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977

Health and safety

Health and safety legislation is really an extension of the ‘duty of care’ principle
into the realm of the workplace. By so doing, it extends and specifies the respon-
sibilities of employers towards employees, employees towards their colleagues,
and of employees’ own responsibilities for their actions or omissions.
 The regulatory context 53

Definition

The main piece of legislation is the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974, which
incorporated previous pieces of legislation, and which also gave the government
a power to make ‘regulations by order’, as and when this became necessary. The
power to make subsequent regulations has acquired greater significance since
1974, particularly where health and safety issues and food hygiene are concerned,
simply because new technologies and work practices could not have been foreseen
when the original piece of legislation was devised.
The purpose of the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 is described as
follows:
An act to make further provision for securing health, safety and welfare of
persons at work, for protecting others against risks to health and safety in
connection with the activities of persons at work, for controlling the keeping
and use and preventing the unlawful acquisition and use of dangerous
substances and for controlling certain emissions into the atmosphere.

Duties of employers

Under the act, a general duty is laid upon employers to ‘ensure the health, safety
and welfare of all employees, so far as is reasonably practicable’ (5.2 [1]). The
employers’ responsibilities include ‘safety in relation to plant and system of work,
the use and storage of substances, health education and training, safe working
conditions and facilities for welfare at work for the employees’ (5.2 [2]).
Under section 2.3 of the Act, employers must prepare and bring to the notice of
employees a written statement of their general policy in relation to health and
safety at work. Furthermore, employers must consult safety representatives of the
employees and set up a safety committee, if requested to do so (5.2 [3]).

Duties of employees

Employees are expected to take reasonable care for the health and safety of
themselves and others affected by their acts or omissions at work. They are also
expected to cooperate with the employer, in connection with duties set out under
the Act.
54 Managing Leisure

Regulations

Regulations made under the aegis of the 1974 Act are extremely important, and
like the Act itself, have the force of law. Breaching either act or regulation may
therefore be regarded as a criminal offence in certain circumstances (note the
‘Lyme Bay judgement’ referred to in Chapter 7).

Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations

1985 (RIDDOR)
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 1988 (COSHH)
Electricity at Work Regulations 1989
Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992
Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations 1992
Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations 1992
Manual Handling Operations Regulations 1992
Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations 1992
Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992

Other relevant Acts

Offices, Shops and Railway Premises Act 1963

Fire Precautions Act 1971
Fire Safety and Safety at Places of Sport Act 1987
Food Safety Act 1990 (see later section)

Relevance

Health and safety legislation – including acts, regulations, guidelines, codes of

practice – has become increasingly important over the last few years. The need to
‘protect the customer from physical harm’ was always a concern on the part of
management, but in addition there are now precise rules as to what ‘standards’
the customer might reasonably expect to find.
Standards recommended by national professional bodies, such as the Institute
of Leisure and Amenity Management, or the Institute of Sport and Recreation
Management, have also played their part. Ignoring their recommendations is not
of itself a criminal offence, but may be used in court to show that negligence had
 The regulatory context 55

occurred through the manager adopting a ‘lesser standard’ than might normally
have been acceptable.
Similarly, although codes of practice may not have the force of law, either the
‘defence’ or ‘prosecution’ may use them in court where necessary. For example,
alleged breaches of the ‘Guide to Safety at Sports Grounds’ issued by the Home
Office, assisted the plaintiffs in their successful claim for negligence brought
against Bradford City Football Club (Fletcher and Britton v. Bradford City Football
Club [1987]).

The manager’s role

Managers of leisure facilities are expected to make themselves familiar with the
main terms of the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974, with those of the other
relevant acts mentioned above, and with those regulations which apply to their
particular operation. They should also ensure that staff are fully briefed as to their
health and safety responsibilities. Carefully constructed job descriptions are most
important as a means to communicate the nature and extent of such responsibili-
ties, and transfer some liability from the manager to the respective member of staff,
according to what is ‘reasonable’, e.g. in the manager’s absence. In other words,
health and safety responsibilities should be made ‘explicit’, within a job descrip-
tion, and should not remain ‘implicit’ within a job itself.

Contracts

Contract law establishes and maintains a framework whereby agreements between

parties or organizations may have legal force, and whereby breaches of such agree-
ments may be remedied through the courts.

Definition

Contracts are now so common that they are almost taken for granted, e.g. contracts
for a telephone, for a credit card, for hire purchase, for repairs to the car. Within
this section, we shall be referring to contracts for goods and services, and not
contracts of service, which fall under the ambit of employment law.
56 Managing Leisure

Examples of contracts

The leisure industry is involved in an enormous number of contracts, between

clients (usually managers or their representatives) and contractors (firms which
provide the goods or services).
At a cinema, for example, there may be:
• advertising agreement with a local newspaper
• printing of leaflets
• provision of water, gas, electricity
• hiring of films
• repair of plant and equipment
• occasional works, e.g. redecoration
• provision of telephone
• agreements with credit cards companies
• cleaning contracts (as distinct from the employment of cleaning
staff)
• food/drink concession.
Swimming pools and water parks might have:
• printing and stationery
• food/drink concession
• foods/drinks vending (leasing) agreement, including maintenance
• provision of chemicals
• maintenance of specialist instrumentation or equipment, e.g. heat
pumps
• hire of space, to local clubs and societies
• boiler inspection and certification
• cleaning contracts
• grounds maintenance
• purchase of fixtures and fittings, as necessary
• contracts (with members of the public) for swimming tuition
• contracts for sponsorship
• contracts for special events such as galas or birthday parties.
The lists are not meant to be exhaustive, but demonstrate the quantity and quality
of the many contracts which might be found within a leisure venue. The more
substantial and ‘multi-functional’ the establishment, the more numerous and
complicated the contracts are likely to be.
 The regulatory context 57

What constitutes a contract?

All contracts are agreements of one sort or another, but not all agreements are
contracts. So wherein lies the difference? For the most part, the law requires a valid
contract to contain three vital ingredients, namely:
1 an ‘offer’
2 an ‘acceptance’
3 some ‘consideration’.
In addition, the task must be ‘lawful’ (I cannot sue someone who fails to carry out
an assassination for me) and there must be an ‘intention’, as well as ‘capacity’, to
create a legal relationship.
The person who makes the offer (called the offeror) should understand what
precisely is being offered, and be confident that he or she is capable of delivering
the goods or services.
The person accepting the offer (the offeree) should understand the nature of the
offer before accepting it. As the offer should be explicit (ideally but not necessar-
ily in writing), so should the acceptance. An attempt by the offeree to negotiate
different terms is technically a counter-offer, which means that the offeror can
withdraw the original offer if he or she wishes.
‘Consideration’ refers to some form of ‘benefit’, usually financial, which passes
between offeror and offeree. Money is not the only form of ‘consideration’. For
example, a sponsorship deal may involve goods being provided by a commercial
company as prizes for a sporting competition.
Whatever the nature of the ‘consideration’, it must be ‘tangible’ in the sense that
it has a value which is recognizable by the courts.

Breaches of contract
The leisure manager may end up at either side of a legal action for breach of
contract, for whatever reason. Clearly, it is wise to avoid being placed in this
position, if at all possible, given the time and costs which are associated with
defending or pursuing such an action.
If action is unavoidable, the remedies may be summarized as follows:
• Refusal of further performance – where the ‘injured party’ assumes that a
contract is either ended or rescinded by the other party to the contract, and
therefore refuses to complete his/her part.
58 Managing Leisure

• Action for damages – where legal action is pursued by the ‘injured party’ on
the basis of the ‘consideration’ had the contract been fulfilled.
• ‘Quantum meruit’ – literally, ‘as much as has been earned’, whereby the
injured party pursues a claim (other than for damages) in respect of that which
has already been performed, before the contract was breached.
• Specific performance – where a court order requires both parties to carry out
their obligations.
• Injunction – where the courts agree to the injured party issuing an injunction
requiring a part of the contract to be done, in instances where damages would
not be appropriate.
• Recision – where the contract is cancelled or annulled, and where both parties
to the contract may quickly be returned to their respective positions. Any
misrepresentation – if such was a primary cause of the default – must have
been unknown to the injured party at the time the contract was entered into.

Relevance
1 Contracts must be handled carefully, whether the leisure manager is the
‘offeror’ or ‘offeree’.
2 Contracts should ideally be explicit (in writing) and not merely verbal, except
perhaps in minor matters or for time/administrative reasons, e.g. for
emergency repairs or telephone orders to a brewery.
3 Contracts should be based on the supposition that the client knows what is
needed and is able to provide an adequate specification, that the contractor is
competent, and that he or she is able to meet the client’s requirements accord-
ing to the specification.

Employment

Employment law provides a framework which defines the relationship between

employers and employees.

Definition
It is important to understand the distinction between a ‘contract of service’ and a
‘contract for services’. The former constitutes a contract of employment whereas the
 The regulatory context 59

latter constitutes the use of contractors or third parties to fulfil a particular service.
Thus the former is regulated by employment law, and the latter by contract law.
The distinction is significant for two reasons:
1 Legislation. Acts of Parliament, e.g. in relation to health and safety, or insur-
ance cover, normally make the distinction between employees and the self-
employed, where appropriate. For example, the argument of ‘unfair dismissal’
applies only to employees and not to self-employed individuals.
2 ‘Implied terms’. In contracts of service, there are duties and obligations laid
on both employers and employees which are implicit, and which might not be
explicit, for example, in a contract or job description. A contractual relation-
ship between client and contractor whether for goods or services, is much less
constrained, being largely (but not entirely) dependent on the nature of the
contract between them.

‘Vicarious liability’
Just as the distinction between the two types of contract is important, so the notion
of ‘vicarious liability’ needs to be understood, especially in the context of leisure
management.
Cases brought as a result of an accident may hinge on the notion that generally
speaking, a person is considered to be acting in the course of his or her employ-
ment if the action giving rise to the claim was explicitly or implicitly authorized
by the employer. An employee may still be regarded by the court as acting within
the course of employment where he or she acts negligently, provided that the act,
had it been done correctly, had been authorized by the employer. Only where there
has been a clear and explicit prohibition on the employee doing something which
is ultimately claimed to be the cause of the accident will the employer be free from
a claim of ‘vicarious liability’ – in which case the liability falls upon the employee
only. In practice, of course, most actions are pursued against employers, since it
is they who, through their insurance company, have the ‘deepest pocket’.

Relevance
Taken together with legislation on equal opportunities (see later section), employ-
ment legislation constitutes a substantial ‘body of knowledge’ which managers
need to be aware of, in order not to transgress any particular term or condition.
60 Managing Leisure

Furthermore, employers who decide to take formal disciplinary action against an

employee are strongly advised to follow guidelines issued by the Arbitration
Conciliation and Advisory Service (ACAS), if only to avoid the aggrieved
employee appealing against the outcome, or procedure, to an industrial tribunal.

Industrial tribunals
Industrial tribunals are one of several tribunals created by the Council on
Tribunals, a body established by the Tribunals and Inquiries Act 1958. The tribunal
consists of three members, namely a legally qualified chairperson and two ‘lay’
members. The latter are appointed after consultations with employees and
employers organizations, though they do not actually represent those organiza-
tions and are not taken to be legal experts.
Industrial tribunals are intended to be relatively inexpensive, informal and
speedy in their application of employment law, on issues such as redundancy and
unfair dismissal. Appeals against a decision of an industrial tribunal may be made
to the Employment Appeal Tribunal, from thence to the Court of Appeal and
finally to the House of Lords.
It is worth mentioning here that industrial tribunals may deal with the follow-
ing health and safety matters:
• appeals against Prohibition and Improvement notices issued by a local authority.
• dismissal (actual and ‘constructive’) following a breach of health and safety
law, regulation, or clause of contract.
• actions where an employer has refused to grant time off for health and safety
training.

Relevant legislation
Legislation in this field is very extensive, but the following acts are
important:
Contracts of Employment Act 1964
Industrial Training Act 1964
Redundancy Payments Act 1965
European Communities Act 1972
Employment of Children Act 1973
Social Security Act 1975
 The regulatory context 61

Employment Protection (Consolidation) Act 1978

Employment Acts (various: 1980, 1982, 1988, 1990)
Trade Union Act 1984
Wages Act 1986
Single European Act 1986
Trade Union and Labour Relations (consolidation) Act 1992
plus acts referred to in the next section on equal opportunities, where they
contain clauses in relation to employment.

Equal opportunities

Legislation in the area of equal opportunities provides a framework to define and

protect the rights of individuals who might otherwise be discriminated against
either at work or elsewhere. Increasingly, the legislation is used in other (non-
work) contexts, such as leisure.

Definition
The amount of legislation now labelled as ‘equal opportunities’ has increased
greatly since 1970, and thus may be examined separately from employment legis-
lation, although much of it is still predominantly employment related.
Early legislation related primarily to discrimination on grounds of sex, i.e. the
Equal Pay Act 1970 and the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 (amended 1986). Legis-
lation to outlaw discrimination on grounds of race or creed followed, with the
Race Relations Act 1976.
Discrimination against the disabled became the ‘third component’ of equal
opportunities legislation, at the implementation of the Disability Discrimination
Act 1995. For each one, the definition of what constitutes ‘discrimination’ is
included within the respective act.

Relevance
Sex discrimination
The Equal Pay Act 1970 was designed to ensure that a man and a woman
employed by the same organization should receive the same pay and be subject
to the same contractual terms, provided that:
62 Managing Leisure

1 their work is the same or very similar

2 their work is of equal (monetary) value and
3 in the event of a job evaluation scheme having been completed, their work
was regarded as equivalent.
Other provisions within the Act effectively outlaw sex discrimination in collective
agreements, trade union rights, employers’ organizations and professional bodies.
The Sex Discrimination Act 1975 (amended 1986) prohibited ‘direct’ and
‘indirect’ discrimination on grounds of sex. Covering discrimination in employ-
ment, education, provision of services, facilities and goods, the Act defines the
circumstances in which such discrimination is unlawful.
As private sports clubs are exempt from the Act (sections 29 and 34), it still
remains open for such clubs to be of ‘single sex status’ or to allocate a lower
membership status to either sex. This latter type of discrimination is the more
effective (or pernicious, depending on your standpoint) when the lower member-
ship status is associated with the absence of voting rights – resulting in the perpet-
uation of the ‘status quo’ indefinitely. Some private golf clubs have been known
to use this ploy.
Cases involving single-sex sports clubs, changing facilities for female football
referees, and discrimination in other sporting spheres have hit the headlines in the
past, and will no doubt continue to do so unless the law is changed.
The Equal Opportunities Commission (EOC) monitors cases brought under both
Acts (1970 and 1975). Naturally, the majority relate to discrimination in employ-
ment, rather than leisure, but managers should seek advice from the EOC if they
are in any doubt as to the legality of any particular programme or form of provi-
sion.

Racial discrimination
The Race Relations Act 1976 made racial discrimination unlawful in the realms of
employment, education, housing and in the provision of goods and services.
While the Act has a noble intent, problems have arisen as to precisely what
constitutes a ‘racial group’. The House of Lords decided that such a group may
have at least one of the following:
1 a common religion
2 a common language
3 a common literature
4 a common geographical origin
 The regulatory context 63

5 descent from a limited number of common ancestors

6 a specific and distinct cultural tradition
7 a specific and distinct history.
The Act once again identifies ‘direct’ and ‘indirect’ discrimination. Direct discrim-
ination may occur where one person or group is treated less favourably, on reasons
of race, e.g. where an Asian football team is refused a pitch, although the pitch is
available for hire. Indirect discrimination may occur when a rule or criterion has
a disproportionate effect upon one particular racial group – thus if a clause in the
‘condition of hire’ for the pitch forbids players to wear a turban, then its effect will
be the same, if the majority of the players are Sikhs.
Managers should note that racial discrimination in employment may not be
unlawful in certain cases, e.g. where being a member of a particular racial group
is a necessary corollary of the job itself. Thus for example, it might be acceptable
to advertise for an ‘Afro-Caribbean Sports Development Officer’, if the job entails
working mostly with Afro-Caribbean youngsters.
Any exemption from the Act must be obtained from the Commission for Racial
Equality (CRE) before such posts are advertised, and the exemption itself should
be referred to within the advertisement.

Disability discrimination
The Disability Discrimination Act 1995 completes the equal opportunities
spectrum of legislation in the United Kingdom for the time being – though as a
demographic shift occurs so discrimination on grounds of ‘ageism’ may eventu-
ally reach the statute books.
The 1995 Act was fairly contentious in its making, with some disability groups
claiming that it did not go far enough, and others – mostly owners of public build-
ings – claiming that costs resulting from the legislation would be prohibitive.
Discrimination on grounds of disability in relation to education, transport,
housing, employment and the provision of goods and services is no longer accept-
able, since the Act makes it unlawful to treat a disabled person less favourably
than an able-bodied person. That said, the Act does recognize that discrimination
on grounds of disability may be acceptable where it is both reasonable and justi-
fiable, e.g. a wheelchair-bound person endeavouring to qualify as a jockey, or a
blind person applying for the job of a lifeguard.
No specific Commission for Disability Discrimination has been established at
the time of writing, though the government has signified its intention to create
such a body.
64 Managing Leisure

Finally, it should be noted that a part of the Act which relates to rights of access
to goods and services does not apply to private clubs, though it does apply to all
other forms of leisure provision.
Inevitably, this particular Act will create tensions between what is ‘practicable’
from a safety viewpoint, and what is ‘reasonable’ from the viewpoint of the
disabled person. One has only to think of emergency evacuation from a night-club
or stadium to see how difficult a balancing act (or Act) this might be.

Legislation
Equal Pay Act 1970
Sex Discrimination Act 1975 (amended 1986)
Race Relations Act 1976
Disability Discrimination Act 1995

Consumer protection

Legislation to protect consumers or customers from misrepresentation, dangerous

substandard services and dangerous substances provides a framework which
defines the rights of ‘purchasers’ in relation to those of ‘suppliers’.

Definitions
An understanding of contract law (see earlier section) is relevant to this particu-
lar segment of legislation. As we saw, a contract normally has three elements,
namely offer, acceptance and consideration. Legislation has tended to regulate the
form and terms of particular contracts, so that as far as possible no party will have
undue advantage over the other.
Mostly, breaches of the legislation are matters addressed by the civil courts,
when disputes arise between the two parties to a contract. There are, however,
criminal offences attached to the transgression of specific acts. Thus, for example,
the Trades Descriptions Act 1968, makes it an offence to apply ‘a false trade
description to any goods’ (1[1]). The Consumer Protection Act 1987, along with
the General Product Safety Regulations 1994, defines what the customer might
reasonably expect by way of a ‘safe product’.
 The regulatory context 65

With regard to the provision of goods and services, the distinction between
goods and services is still an important one. A section in the Sale of Goods Act
1979 provides, by means of contrast, the definition of a sale as follows:

A contract to supply services, which may or may not include the supply of
goods and materials, is therefore beyond the scope of the Act, since it
implies that ‘transferability’ of ownership (title) is possible.

The Supply of Goods and Services Act 1982 extended some of the principles
embodied in the 1979 Act, and also strengthened the hand of the consumer by
placing obligations on those who provide services. For example, the Act provided
that ‘where the supplier is acting in the course of a business, there is an implied
term that the supplier will carry out the service with reasonable care and skill’
(13). Section 14 of the Act also provided that, except where a specific time limit
has been written into the contract, there is ‘an implied term that the supplier will
carry out the service within a reasonable time’ (14[sbp1]).
As in all such cases, what is actually ‘reasonable’ depends on the view of the
court. It should also be noted that an EU Regulation, governing unfair terms and
consumer contracts, came into force in July 1995.

Product liability

Liability for defective products has also been extended and codified in recent
years. The Consumer Protection Act 1987 established the idea of ‘strict liability’,
which means that the manufacturer of the defective product is directly liable
unless he or she can show such a defence as is defined by the Act. The injured
party therefore does not have to establish negligence.

Relevance

In general, leisure managers need to be aware that legislation exists in this import-
ant area, and must ensure that any goods which are sold to the public are not only
‘fit for the purpose intended’ as required by the Sale of Goods Act 1979 but are
safe to use, in accordance with the provisions of the Consumer Protection Act 1987.
66 Managing Leisure

Legislation

Trade Descriptions Act 1968

Fair Trading Act 1973
Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974
Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977
Consumer Safety Act 1978
Sale of Goods Act 1979
Supply of Goods and Services Act 1982
Weights and Measures Act 1985
Consumer Protection Act 1987
Property Misrepresentations Act 1991
Sale of Goods (Amendment) Act 1994
Sale of Goods (Amendment) Act 1995
Sale and Supply of Goods Act 1994

In addition, there are approximately 35 relevant Statutory Instruments or Regula-

tions, as well as a number of EU Directives.

Copyright

Copyright law exists to protect the originators of original works from unauthor-
ized plagiarism or reproduction.
Leisure managers and students will be aware that copyright laws exist, though
only the former will have had the salutary experience of being visited by a repre-
sentative of the Performing Right Society (PRS).
Licences are in effect ‘permissions’ granted by the originator or by persons or
organizations acting on their behalf, for the reproduction of an original work, e.g.
a piece of music, a work of art, or a play. In some cases, the originator retains the
rights to him- or herself; in others, that right has either been sold to a third party,
or has been granted (under the terms of a contract) to an agency, such as the PRS
which grants permissions and collects fees or dues, passing these in turn to the
original originator or his or her estate.
The law of copyright is mostly contained in statute law, and in particular the
Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988, plus supplementary legislation.
 The regulatory context 67

More recently, the Council of Europe has initiated a scheme to harmonize legis-
lation in this important area, particularly on the matter of computer programs, as
part of the ‘single market’ operation. Outside Europe, the situation is more
complex, and any transfer of ownership has to conform to the legal framework of
the countries concerned. Where no legal constraints exist, then ‘pirating’ is almost
inevitable, and has indeed become big business.

Copyright agencies

The various agencies which grant permissions, and collect fees, on behalf of the
originators, include the following:
• Performing Right Society (PRS) – acts on behalf of composers and music
publishers, in relation to public performance of their work.
• Phonographic Performance Ltd (PPL) – acts on behalf of the recording compa-
nies, who themselves recompense the artists with whom they have contracts.
• Video Performance Ltd (VPL) – licenses the public performance and broad-
casting of ‘music videos’.
• Copyright Licensing Agency – licenses the reproduction of specified visual
material.
• Samuel French Ltd – licenses the performance of certain plays.

Relevance

Copyright law may be invoked where serious transgressions or ‘pirating’ of origi-

nal works is involved. More likely, leisure managers will have contact with one or
more of the above-mentioned agencies, depending upon the precise nature of their
venue. In my experience, it is wise to seek advice at an early stage, rather than
later, so as to avoid retrospective (and cumulative) payments.

Advice

The whole area of copyright law is extremely complex, but guidance may be
obtained from the following:
• The Library Association
68 Managing Leisure

• The Association of Information Management

• The British Copyright Council
• The Educational Copyright Users’ Forum
• The Music Publishers’ Association
• The Intellectual Property and Copyright Department of HM Patents Office.

Licensing

While copyrights are special forms of licences, other licences are extremely import-
ant to the leisure industry. Those who grant licences, in these instances, are not
individuals, but public bodies whose authority is derived from central government.

Public entertainment licences

Public Entertainment Licences (PELS) are granted by local authorities (District

Councils where two-tier authorities remain, or ‘unitary’ authorities where not),
under the terms of the Local Government (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1982.
Such licences are required for music, singing or dancing, where the event is ‘open
to the public’. Licences are also needed for some private functions. Whether or not
the premises hold a liquor licence is irrelevant, since a PEL is granted in a completely
different way. However, a PEL is not required at licensed premises which make
entertainment available through TV or radio, or by not more than two live artists.

Liquor licences

Unlike PELs, liquor licences are regarded as matters of public order, and are there-
fore granted by licensing justices, not by local authorities. In effect, such justices
are magistrates who are experienced in dealing with the various applications
which are regularly received.
Many leisure managers are coincidentally ‘licensees’, though this additional
responsibility is by no means automatic. The licensing committee often interrogates
new applicants, and receives advice from the police as to the suitability of the candi-
date and of the premises in question. Local residents, if fearful of noise and late-
night disturbances, may also object to a licence being granted – or renewed.
 The regulatory context 69

The type of licences which the justices may grant are:

• off-licence
• on-licence (public house)
• restaurant licence
• residential licence (e.g. for a private guest house)
• restaurant and residential licence (e.g. for a large hotel)
• club licence (for proprietary club, not a registered or ‘members’ club).
Justices may also grant Occasional Licences, to holders of on-licences who wish to
sell liquor at a venue other than their own and Occasional Permissions, where
charitable organizations may sell liquor at certain functions, up to four times a
year.
Finally, with regard to this important topic, it should be noted that managers
who are licensees carry a degree of responsibility which is ‘personal to them’ and
not merely ‘corporate’; their duties cannot therefore be transferred to another
person, except with the consent of the justices.

Gaming licences

Gaming licences are granted by local authorities, for the most part under the terms
of the Lotteries and Amusements Act 1976.
Smaller lotteries may be exempt from the procedure if, for example, they make
up a part of what is termed ‘exempt entertainment’. Private lotteries may also be
exempt, provided that specific conditions are met by the organizers.
Where tickets are sold to the general public, the conditions are also very exact-
ing, and the lottery must not be run for private gain.
Bingo is licensed separately, by the Gaming Act 1968.

Cinema licences

The control of ‘film exhibitions’ is a matter for local authorities, under the terms
of the Cinemas Act 1985, which consolidated earlier pieces of legislation, dating
back to the Cinematographic Act 1909. Some exceptions are possible, where
‘occasional and exceptional’ film shows are promoted no more than six times in a
year, but the conditions of the licensing authority must still be met, especially with
regard to fire precautions and public safety.
70 Managing Leisure

Any more frequent film displays will require a standard licence, but commer-
cial cinemas in the vicinity may well object to one being granted.

Theatre licences

Theatre licences are a little more complicated, since unlike a film there are
sometimes arguments about what exactly constitutes a ‘play’. As with cinema
licences however, a theatre licence is granted by the respective local authority
within whose boundary the venue is located.
The Theatres Act 1968 defines a play as ‘any dramatic event, whether impro-
vised or not, given wholly or in part by live performers and where all or most of
the performance involves playing a role’. For the purposes of the Act, a ‘play’
includes performances of modern dance and ballet.

Food hygiene legislation

Since virtually all leisure establishments sell food, either ‘directly’ by means of
their own staff, or by means of ‘catering concessions’, something needs to be said
about legislation which relates to food hygiene.
Public confidence in the food industry as a whole was considerably shaken by
the BSE crisis of 1996/7, but a lesser known fact is that cases of food poisoning have
risen dramatically in recent years, the majority related to Salmonella poisoning.
As a response to such an increase, and to scares over the safety of eggs and soft
cheese, the government introduced the Food Safety Act 1990. The Act incorporates
enabling powers, which allows any separate provision to be brought into line with
EU Legislation. The Act also removed the notion that, in order for there to be an
offence, there should be an ‘intention’ (to sell contaminated food), and makes it
an offence to sell food which does not comply with safety requirements.

Conclusions

This chapter is probably rather daunting, more so for students – who feel they
have to know everything – than to leisure managers, who realize that some rules
are more important than others.
 The regulatory context 71

The way in which rules and regulations are increasingly influencing our lives
makes a fascinating study. Initially, all of these were created in what was purely
a United Kingdom context, but one now sees the increasing significance of EU
legislation upon the leisure industry, as on all other industries.
Take one small example: in 1996, the European Court of Justice was advised that
several regulations affecting the employment of football players in the United
Kingdom were contrary to the laws of the European Union. Under a ruling, a
player would be free to move to another club when his contract expires, without
the new club having to pay a transfer fee. Such fees would still exist, but would
only apply when the player moved while under contract. There could also be no
limit to the number of non-United Kingdom players within a club, which again
represented a change to the status quo.
It was argued by some football organizations that the ruling would completely
destroy the country’s transfer system, worth an estimated £80 million, and there-
fore seriously affect the smaller clubs, which rely on the transfer fees to raise
money for improvements to their grounds.
Sport in particular is being influenced by legislation, it seems, not only from the
EU but also from within the United Kingdom. Many stadia and outdoor activity
centres, for example, now require a specific licence before they can operate at all.
The idea of liability is constantly being extended, so that even referees and coaches
need to protect themselves from litigation. (The former refers to the case of Ben
Smoldon, who in 1995 successfully sued the referee for ‘lack of duty of care’ in
allowing a high number of ‘collapsed scrums’ during a rugby match – one of
which crippled Mr. Smoldon.)
Some leisure managers may well feel that this process has gone too far, that
there are too many rules and regulations. At a time of ‘information overload’, they
may consider that ignorance is a better alternative. The maxim (‘where ignorance
is bliss, it is folly to be wise’) does not however recommend ignorance as such,
but only implies that there may be circumstances where the condition is accept-
able. Better far to have regard to the other maxim, that ‘ignorance of the law is no
excuse’ ...

References and recommended reading

Collins, V. (1993). Recreation and the Law. E. & F.N. Spon.

Cotterell, L.E. (1993). Performance: The business and law of entertainment. Sweet and
72 Managing Leisure

Maxwell. (A text especially relevant to those specializing in the arts. See excel-
lent chapter on Copyright, pp. 441–543, and on Licensing, pp. 579–625.)
Croner Publications. (1992). A Practical Approach to the Administration of Leisure and
Recreation Services. (An invaluable source of information for leisure managers,
though students would find it too detailed on certain aspects such as security.)
Grayson, E. (1996). Sport and the Law. Butterworth-Heinemann.
Scott, M. (1993). Law and Leisure Services Management. Longman.
Stranks, J. (1994). Health and Safety Law. Pitman Publishing.
3 Managing physical
resources

Questions

At the end of this chapter you should be able to undertake the following:
1 Examine two leisure buildings which have the same or similar functions,
but different designs and construction; thereafter consider how both design
and construction affect maintenance.
2 Describe under what circumstances it would be necessary for a leisure
manager to seek advice about the condition of his or her building and any
systems therein, indicating from whom such advice may be available.
3 Indicate the range of knowledge and skills which a manager of public open
space may be expected to possess.

Introduction

Leisure managers frequently have diverse responsibilities which include the

management of physical resources. Such resources can be summarized as:
• land
• water
• buildings
• plant and systems
• equipment.
For the most part, leisure managers rise ‘through the ranks’ to gain their positions,
and by so doing learn the hard way. Students, unlike practitioners, have the
advantage that they may learn some basic principles of resource management well
in advance, and may thereby avoid a few of the pitfalls.
74 Managing Leisure

Each of the five resources mentioned above has certain characteristics. The first
two, land and water, may be described as ‘natural’ but much of the land used for
leisure purposes has seen the influence of human beings, whether or not leisure
is the sole or even dominant use.
Maritime leisure is a topic in its own right, as is recreation (or amenity) land
management. In a text such as this, therefore, only the most straightforward
aspects can be considered.
Buildings, plant, and equipment are all taken to be artefacts of human construction.
The word ‘plant’ in this context refers to the mechanical, electrical and other systems
which operate within the fabric of the building. ‘Equipment’ here refers to items which
may be either ‘fittings’ or ‘fixtures’, depending on their usage and design.
It will no doubt be noted that ‘air’ is not included within the list, though it is
a resource used frequently for leisure activities (gliding, parachuting, ballooning,
bungee-jumping, etc.). Yet air is not ‘managed’ in the same sense, since it is not
contained (as is a river or lake) nor is it generally accessible to the novice. In the
United Kingdom, air usage is subject to safety regulations, to air traffic control and
in some areas to military control.

Land

Land-based leisure activities include the following:

• rock climbing
• road running
• hill walking
• rambling
• abseiling
• orienteering
• pony-trekking
• mountain biking
• fell running
• snow-boarding
• skiing
• cycling (on road/track rather than mountain biking)
• car rallying
• caving and pot-holing
• sand-yachting
 Managing physical resources 75

• gardens and allotments

• hunting, shooting and fishing (game or target).

Managing leisure land

Land may be made available for leisure purposes in the following ways:
• Access agreements onto private land, negotiated between private owners and
a public body
• land purchased by specific bodies dedicated to improve public access, e.g.
National Trust
• land purchased by specific bodies dedicated to nature (or species) conserva-
tion, e.g. Woodland Trust, Conservation Trusts, RSPB
• land given specific protection by means of legislation, e.g. Sites of Special
Scientific Interest (SSSIs), and Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONBs)
• land set aside by private owners, as a result of government or EU policy, e.g.
agricultural set-aside
• land gifted by private individuals to local authorities or charitable bodies, e.g.
some playing fields
• land purchased by commercial organizations for leisure purposes, e.g. theme
parks, holiday parks (once called ‘holiday camps’), safari parks
• land owned by local authorities and designated as ‘public open space’ (subject
to by-laws)
• Royal Parks (subject to some limitations)
• common land
• highways and other rights of way.

Land use
Green (1981) puts forward the idea that land use can be divided into three
categories, namely the exploitative, recreational and protective. Each has its own
objectives and characteristics. Even within a particular category, however, the
potential for conflict quickly becomes apparent (see Figure 3.1).

Exploitative use
Exploitative use of the countryside takes place for either commercial reasons (cash
crops or animal rearing) or as part of a subsistence lifestyle, as in smallholdings
76 Managing Leisure

arable cultivation
I ley grazing Key
X X unenclosed grazing
exploitative

I I X softwood forestry • Compatible or rarely competing

I I I I hardwood forestry I Incompatible but conflict rare or restricted
X X • X I coppice production X Conflicting
X X I • • • mineral extraction
X X • • • • I water supply
• • • • • • X X drainage & canalization
I I • • • • • • • MOD training
• • • • • • • • • I sailing
• • • • • • • • • • X water-skiing
recreational

X X • • • • • • X • X X fishing
X I • • • • • • X • I X • shooting
X I • • • • • • • I • • • • riding
X I • • • • • • X I X X • X • bird-watching
X I • • • • • • • X • • • • • • rambling
X I • • • • • • • X • • • • • • • picnicking
X I • • • • • • X • X X I I I I I I wildlife protection
X X • X I • X I X • I I • • I • I I • maintenance ecological sites
X I • X X • X I • • • • • • • • I • • • maintenance archaeological sites
protective

• • • • • • X • X • • • • • • • • • • • • maintenance geological and physical features

X I • I • • I I X • • • • • I • I • • • • • landscape protection
X I • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • air quality
X I • • • • I • I • I I • • • • • • • • • • • • water quality
X I • • • • • X I I • X • • • • X I • • • • I • • rural life

Figure 3.1 Multi-purpose land use in the countryside: a compatibility matrix of

competing activities. Source: Green (1981)

or crofts. Included within this category would be commercial forestry, quarrying,

mineral and coal extraction (open-cast), water extraction and storage. Military
training would also be considered as exploitative, in this sense, although some
areas are arguably given ‘protection’ – from farming and public pressure – by their
military status.

Recreational use
Recreational use of the countryside could take place on either a commercial, public
or voluntary basis. Commercial facilities might include fish-farms, shooting syndi-
cates, and equestrian centres in addition to the more populist facilities such as
caravan sites and holiday parks. Public facilities would include common land
(where owned by local authorities), public open space, and other types of recre-
ational land owned by public bodies, e.g. by County, District and Parish councils.
Other facilities could be owned by voluntary bodies or trusts, e.g. the Woodland
Trust.
 Managing physical resources 77

Regrettably, the dogma of privatization, so rampant in the United Kingdom

during the 1980s, led to Water Authorities – who own substantial amounts of land
– becoming private sector companies. Their obligation is as much (if not more) to
their shareholders as to the remainder of the population. Moves to take the
Forestry Commission into the private sector were also a matter of some concern,
particularly to the Ramblers Association. As it happens, the process (which began
by stealth anyway) was not pursued to its ultimate end.

Protective use
Protective use of the countryside relates to objectives which are non-anthropocen-
tric. After all, exploitative and the recreational usage can be seen together in the
same light, since both take advantage of the land in some way, and both may have
a disastrous effect upon the habitat itself. Areas maintained as reserves for specific
plant or animal species would fall into the protective category, as would areas of
particular biodiversity such as certain maritime locations, in the United Kingdom
and elsewhere.
Areas requiring special protection will obviously increase as urbanization
spreads yet further, and if damaging farming practices (e.g. use of fertilizers, deep
ploughing, hedgerow removal) are allowed to continue.
A salutary example is the flower-rich hay meadow, now so rare in the United
Kingdom but still to be seen in many parts of France. A newspaper article on an
excellent National Lottery initiative to preserve 11 ancient fields at Oaksey,
Wiltshire (The Independent on Sunday, 6 July 1997) pointed out that notwithstand-
ing, the United Kingdom has lost 97 per cent of such meadows since 1945, and
that they continue to diminish so rapidly that the remaining balance will be halved
in 20 years time! The article quoted the director of the Wildlife Trust as saying
that, by contrast, a new field was ‘about as rich in wildlife as a car park’.

Conflicts of usage

Conflicts between the three types of usage are inevitable, due to the finite resource
available. Conflicts, based on differences of opinion – and therefore of objectives
– may also arise within any of the three categories. For example, recreational use
of water will cause problems if one attempts to accommodate both fishing and
water-skiing on the same stretch. Nor is a habitat ‘diversity’ as simple an objec-
tive as it seems, since associated maintenance inevitably costs money, and since
78 Managing Leisure

some habitats (e.g. heather cover) result directly as a result of human intervention
(heather cover is often helped by fires taking away the young trees which would
otherwise shade out the plants). Even here, the ‘desired landscape’ is a matter of
opinion, since there is virtually nothing left that is natural (i.e. unaffected by
human animals) in the United Kingdom.
Countries such as France, Germany and to an extent Spain, are also realizing
the significance of landscape degradation. Regional parks (Brittany), conservation
areas (parts of the Rhine Valley), natural parks (Spain) are all features of countries
where the Industrial Revolution perhaps had a lesser effect. That said, the United
Kingdom still has a lot to learn: the extension of the M3 at Twyford Down, near
Winchester, did irreparable damage not only to the chalk landscape, but to a
government which had occasionally tried to look ‘green’.

Tenure and access

Managing leisure land often involves the need to resolve issues relating to tenure
and access, both of which are related.
Land tenure for our purposes can be seen as falling within the usual
private/public/voluntary domains.
Ownership of land is not always easy to ascertain, though access to the Land
Registry is now possible through legislation which makes the Registry’s informa-
tion more accessible.
The crucial distinction lies between land which is registered land and land
which is unregistered, since under the terms of the legislation, there are signifi-
cant differences between the two. Land owned by public bodies is somewhat easier
to identify.
County Councils can own land, as can District/Borough Councils and Parish
Councils. Equally, Councils can lease land to third parties, for certain purposes.
Some local authorities own land leased to farmers, for example, and all have
leasing agreements in respect of land used by local sports clubs. Since authorities
are not free to simply ‘give’ the land away, they may grant leases of varying
duration.
Voluntary bodies can also own land, provided that their ‘charitable status’, where
appropriate, allows them to do so. With such ownership will come obligations vis-
à-vis the membership of the voluntary body, and possibly to the general public.
As has been noted, all owners of land are expected to pay due regard to public
safety, even where the visitors onto that land may be ‘unlawful’ and where rights
 Managing physical resources 79

of way cross the land, to ensure compliance with the relevant legislation (Rights
of Way Act 1990).

Common land

It is estimated that there are one and a half million acres of common land in
England and Wales. Ownership of common land varies: contrary to the popular
belief, all commons are owned by someone. The National Trust, for example, owns
more than 200 commons.
Commons represent an extremely important land resource, and are to be found
virtually in every county: large areas of the Lake District are commons, as are the
more ‘controlled’ commons to be found in Kent, Sussex, Surrey and Hampshire.
Ownership of commons by local authorities is extensive in these southern
counties. Surrey has a larger proportion of common land in public ownership than
any other county, and the variety of topography provides a welcome relief from
the motorways and major roads which criss-cross the county.
All land is held subject to the law, and rights in relation to common land are
especially complicated. Technically, the owner holds the land subject to certain
Acts of Parliament and to the rights of any commoners which might exist. Thus
the owner has main rights to minerals, tree planting and removal, sporting rights,
grazing (where applicable), granting of easements (specific rights of access granted
to third parties such as electricity boards) and initiating action for trespass.
Commoners hold rights which are occasionally applied – defined by Halsbury
(Law of England) as ‘a right which one or more persons may have, to take or use
some portion of that which another man’s soil naturally produces’.
The status of a site considered to be common land may be verified by reference
to the respective County Council (in shire areas), to Metropolitan Borough
Councils, and to other unitary authorities, since it is they who by virtue of the
Commons Registration Act 1965 are responsible for keeping the necessary records.

Rights of way

It should be noted that ‘rights of way’ do not of themselves create a freedom to

roam at will or use the land in other ways: they represent instead a ‘right of
passage’ from one point to another across the land.
Public rights of way are thus forms of ‘highways’, described by the Country-
side Commission (1994) as follows:
80 Managing Leisure

• Highways which are footpaths may be used only for walking.

• Highways which are bridleways may be used for horse-riding (or leading),
walking or cycling.
• By-ways open to all traffic are highways used mainly for recreation purposes
but there is also a right to use ‘wheeled vehicles’.

Rights of ways are normally held on ‘definitive maps’, and maintained by local
authorities, in much the same way as for registered commons. Rights of Way
Officers are employed to ensure that landowners keep to the rules embodied in
the legislation.
’Permissive footpaths’ are routes which walkers may use, with the permission
of the owner. Since the path is ‘non-statutory’ (i.e. has no legal status) that permis-
sion may be withdrawn or modified. So as to protect the interest of the owner,
there may be a notice advising users that he or she does not intend that the path
should become dedicated as a right of way.
’Horserides’ fall into the same category, i.e. they exist with the permission of the
landowner, and have no statutory protection – unlike bridleways, which are statu-
tory rights of way.

Access to open country

The National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 made reference to
rights of access within ‘open country’, defined by the Act as ‘predominantly
mountain, moor, heath, down, cliff or foreshore’ across which access agreements
exist. Local authorities were obliged to prepare ‘access maps’ which amongst other
things identified areas which could be considered ‘open country’ within their
boundaries. The Act also enabled local authorities to compensate landowners
where additional expense had been incurred to ensure access, and to use proce-
dures for compulsory purchase where landowners were reluctant to sell.
Some open country is subject to a legal right of public access through local Acts
of Parliament, whilst other parts, such as the Peak District, have secured such
rights by means of specific access agreements.
At the time of writing, there remains the contentious issue of access, embod-
ied by the slogan ‘the right to roam’, and it remains to be seen whether the
government will be able to devise legislation which is broadly acceptable. On
current form, and given the resistance of a powerful ‘land lobby’, it seems most
unlikely.
 Managing physical resources 81

Management by objectives

Strange as it may seem, all of our land is managed in one way or another, albeit
with different objectives in mind. Farming is one such management regime – in
reality a series of regimes, depending on the crops grown or animals reared –
where the primary objective is financial survival, but where a secondary objective
may be habitat maintenance.
Conservation objectives also demand that the land be managed, but of course
the primary goal would be something other than finance. All SSSIs, for example,
are required to have a management plan, with ‘potentially damaging operations’
restricted.
Recreational usage can require substantial degrees of management, according to
the quality of the environment and the quantity of demand. Wear and tear caused
by walkers creates considerable maintenance work in parts of the Lake District
and Snowdonia, for example.
In order to manage the land, objectives need to be articulated, and planning under-
taken. The quality of soil of an arable farm needs to be maintained, if the operation
is to remain viable; the conservation area likewise requires a management plan, if its
particular characteristics are to be preserved; the recreation ground must be managed
and its turf carefully nurtured, if it is to remain a ‘quality resource’ for sport.

The influence of farming

The significance of farming to the outdoor leisure environment is evident enough:

farmers maintain the landscape to a much greater degree than any local author-
ity, national park, or government agency. Through their efforts, they have created
much that we see today in western Europe, and take for granted. Upland farming
in particular has kept the hill pastures and the moorlands in the United Kingdom
from reverting to woodland – though in the more inhospitable uplands, such as
the far north of Scotland, tree growth is restrained by wind, air temperatures and
a reduced growing season.
Lowland farming tends to be a business which is seen as the culprit for the
gradual degradation of the rural environment, aided and abetted by the EU’s
Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) which is regarded by many conservation
bodies as both wasteful and ill-targeted.
In 1997, the European Commission announced plans to reform the CAP – which
absorbs almost half of the EU budget, by channelling money to farmers directly,
82 Managing Leisure

rather than supporting artificially high prices for their products. The Commission
also expressed its intention to promote more ‘ecologically friendly’ methods of
farming, and to provide ‘structural funds’ for hard-pressed rural communities –
in some cases by encouraging alternative sources of employment.
The National Farmers Union (NFU) argued that such a move would cost United
Kingdom cereal farmers £330 million in lost subsidies, beef producers £90 million,
and dairy farmers £20 million, though these losses might to some extent be offset
by the freedom to sell their products on a more open market.

Countryside degradation

In the meantime, and even as the farmers adapt to a redirection of subsidies, the
countryside changes. The Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, using satellite scanning
(‘remote sensing’) and selective ground surveys, reported in 1993 on the scale of
the ecological destruction which had occurred in the United Kingdom between
1979 and 1990. They reported (Guardian, 20 November 1993) as follows:
• 109 000 miles of hedgerows lost
• 10 per cent of boundary walls destroyed
• 30 per cent decline in plant species on arable land
• 14 per cent decline in plant species on meadows and grassland.
Such losses cannot continue indefinitely, before the countryside does indeed
resemble a vast car park, outside a restaurant at the end of the universe ...

Peace and tranquillity?

Consistent with the car park scenario is the discovery that another component of
the rural myth is also unjustified, namely that of ‘peace and tranquillity’.
The Council for the Protection of Rural England commissioned a study into
precisely this aspect, with tranquil areas defined as ‘places were sufficiently far
from the visceral or noise intrusion of development or traffic as to be considered
unspoilt by urban influences’. Thus, for example, a tranquil area would need to
be more than 4 km from a large power station, over 3 km from the busiest roads,
large towns and major industries, and more than 1 km from a main-line railway.
The results of the exercise were worrying, but received little publicity at the
time. They showed that the South East and North East of England are those with
 Managing physical resources 83

‘least tranquillity’, and that the South West is rapidly losing its tranquil character.
East Anglia, once a relatively peaceful region, was also losing its tranquillity. The
North West appeared as England’s most tranquil region, and the least changed
since the 1960s. Away from there, only North Devon, parts of Herefordshire and
Shropshire, and the North Pennines represent significant tranquil areas where one
may escape urban noise and intrusion (Estates Gazette, January 1996).
Blaming the farmers would be easy – but largely incorrect. Piecemeal and accel-
erating urbanization has caused the problem, more than any change to agricul-
tural practice. Traffic noise, brought about by a questionable road-building policy,
is not of the farmers’ making, after all, nor was it they who severed so much of
the United Kingdom’s railway system during the 1950s and 1960s. A spectacular
growth in air traffic since 1970 has brought about more noise, more pollution, and
increased traffic congestion around major airports.
More cynical readers will recognize that ‘peace and tranquillity’ could result
from a completely sterile countryside, in which an indiscriminate use of pesticides
and herbicides has effectively banished many plants and animals from the scene.
Such a prospect was eloquently described by Carson (1962) in her book Silent
Spring. A similarly pessimistic view on countryside degradation in the United
Kingdom was put forward by Shoard (1980).

Organizations
United Kingdom organizations concerned with land issues are as follows:
• The Countryside Commission
• The Forestry Commission
• English Nature (plus equivalents for Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland)
• English Heritage (plus equivalents for Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland)
• Rural Development Agencies
• The National Trust
• Council for the Protection of Rural England.
Also involved from time to time are the following:
• Association of County Councils
• Association of District Councils
• Association of National Parks
• British Canoe Union
• British Deer Society
84 Managing Leisure

• British Field Sport Society

• British Mountaineering Council
• British Trust for Conservation Volunteers
• British Trust for Ornithology
• Council for British Archaeology
• Council for National Parks
• Cyclists Touring Club
• English Tourist Board
• Environment Training Organization
• Farmers’ Union of Wales
• Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group
• Game Conservancy Trust
• Greenpeace
• Inland Waterways Association
• Ministry of Defence
• Moorland Association
• National Farmers’ Union
• National Federation of Ramblers
• Open Spaces Society
• Ordnance Survey
• Outward Bound Trust

Water

Watersports have a relatively chequered history but if one includes the sport of
swimming in this category, then of course the management of swimming pools
becomes a legitimate area of study.
The risks attached to the use of water whether the environment is natural or
artificial, are obvious enough, but United Kingdom statistics show how relatively
safe are swimming pools compared to the sea, lakes and rivers. Chapter 7
examines the relevant information in some detail, while Chapter 8 indicates some
of the management responsibilities attached to the leisure-use of water.

Naturally occurring water

Maritime leisure contains a number of separate activities, notably:

 Managing physical resources 85

• yachting
• dinghy-sailing
• wind-surfing
• water-skiing
• rafting
• canoeing
• fishing
• jet-skiing
• rowing
• power-boating
• plus the underwater activities of snorkelling and scuba-diving.
The United Kingdom network of canals is also used almost entirely for leisure
purposes, i.e. for narrow boats. In this context, the role of the manager is complex:
commercially, safety depends on matching a potentially dangerous and unpre-
dictable environment to the competence of the customers. The water-resource itself
is not managed in the conventional sense, because there is no ‘containment’ for
which a manager is responsible, except in some instances for the condition of river
banks and towpaths (see Chapter 8 on this subject).
In brief, the manager of a water-sports programme is expected to undertake the
following roles (recognizing all the while that omissions in procedure or deficien-
cies in equipment may have fatal consequences, as with the tragedy of Lyme Bay
described in Chapter 7):
• establishing normal and emergency procedures
• ensuring that staff are fully trained and have relevant (as well as up-to-date)
qualifications in relation to their actual deployment
• ensuring that equipment is in correct working order
• ensuring that customers under 18 are given special protection from harm, and
that over-18s are fully briefed as to the nature of the risk.

Artificial water environment

The management of swimming pools, diving pools, and other aquatic environ-
ments to which the public have a general or limited access has always been a
matter of some concern, though as we have noted it is the ‘natural’ water environ-
ments which present the greatest risk.
86 Managing Leisure

Currently in the United Kingdom, all public swimming pools are required to
have a measure of supervision, at a standard established jointly between the Sports
Council and the Health and Safety Executive. The training of lifeguards is
constantly under review by these organizations, and by the Royal Life Saving
Society which administers most of the training.
Standards of pool supervision in other parts of Europe vary a great deal, but if
there is an opportunity for review, managers might well look at what constitutes
‘best practice’ in the United Kingdom.
That said, neither in the United Kingdom nor the rest of Europe do ‘non-public
pools’ seem to worry unduly about safety, and there have for example been some
major accidents at hotel pools in Greece. Once again, the exposure to risk is very
substantial, with a dangerous environment placed in proximity to relatively
vulnerable people, mostly children.
And then there is fishing, one of the most popular leisure activities in the United
Kingdom. Anglers use a variety of water resources, from reservoirs to rivers, and
the activity has a competitive as well as ‘individualistic’ component. Angling clubs
often negotiate fishing rights with private or public landowners, paying relatively
modest sums for such rights but carrying out some management or supervisory
roles in lieu of higher rent. Rarely is safety a major issue for this sport, except in
instances where the risk is enhanced by the presence of particular factors, such as
over-head power cables above river banks.

Organizations

United Kingdom organizations concerned with water management are as

follows:

• British Waterways
• National Rivers Authority
• Water Authorities.

The main governing bodies of sport are:

• The Amateur Swimming Association

• The Royal Yachting Association
• The British Canoe Union
• The Anglers Association.
 Managing physical resources 87

Buildings

Buildings are taken to be permanent or temporary structures created by human

beings for a variety of purposes, whether domestic, public, industrial or recre-
ational.
Buildings used primarily for arts, culture and entertainment include the follow-
ing:
• theatres
• cinemas (single screen/multiplex)
• concert halls
• exhibition centres
• museums
• art galleries
• art centres
• civic halls (usually multi-functional)
• bingo halls
• dance halls
• night-clubs
• open air amphitheatres
• temporary structures (domes/shells/tents)
• film studios
• opera houses
• dance studios
• TV studios (audience present during recordings).
Buildings used primarily for sports (spectating and participation) include the
following:
• ice rinks
• swimming pools (indoor/outdoor)
• water parks
• stadia (multi-function/single purpose)
• arenas
• ski slopes/ski centres
• tenpin bowling centres
• fitness centres/gymnasia
• squash racquet clubs
• boxing clubs
88 Managing Leisure

• leisure centres
• billiards/snooker halls
• synthetic pitches
• indoor tennis centres
• golf driving ranges/golf courses
• dog racing tracks
• racecourses
• indoor/outdoor athletics tracks
• go-kart tracks.
Buildings used for tourism-related purposes include the following:
• circuses
• fairgrounds
• theme parks
• zoos
• safari parks
• holiday parks/villages
• historic houses
• historic gardens
• aquaria
• amusement arcades
• laser centres
• marinas
• piers
• science parks.
Buildings where the leisure function is secondary to the main function include the
following:
• school/college/university arts auditoria, sports facilities and galleries
• youth centres
• town halls
• church halls
• community centres
• public houses
• hotels.

The list is not meant to be exhaustive, but it does show how wide is the range of
‘built physical resources’ that one associates with the leisure industry. Except for
 Managing physical resources 89

facilities listed under the fourth category, where the leisure function is secondary,
all of the buildings share the ‘functional characteristic’ that they are used for
leisure purposes, and not for production, say, or education. The design and ‘opera-
tional’ differences between them, however, may be enormous.

A strategic approach to property management

Conventional property management has tended to regard ‘built assets’ as a cost
burden, carrying an increasing maintenance liability as the property ages. Local
authorities, in particular, viewed their properties in this way, since they had no
‘asset value’ against which borrowing could be made, nor could they be disposed
of (except in special circumstances) on the open market. Such values do not appear
in local authority financial reports – unlike company reports, where balance sheets
show them as fixed assets (see Chapter 5).
Objectives for property management are important, whether the property itself
is owned by the commercial, public or voluntary sectors. Clearly, any such object-
ives must conform to the strategy of the organization which manages or owns the
property. Objectives can include the following:
• to provide a physical resource which is visually interesting, for public usage
and enjoyment
• to provide a physical resource which meets current demands, and which can
be adapted to meet future demands
• to provide a physical resource which maximizes the income potential of the
organization whilst keeping the expenditure to a minimum
• to provide a physical environment which itself increases in value and thereby
enhances the asset portfolio of the organization.
A clear strategy should be based upon identified objectives, and must ensure that
the organization holds the optimum level of property in relation to its primary
function, with neither under-utilization nor surplus in evidence.

Property appraisal
Managers are expected to know the quantitative and qualitative aspects of the
physical environment for which they are responsible. They should for example,
have access to drawings of the buildings, inventories of fittings and equipment,
plus operational manuals which relate to specific items of plant or machinery.
90 Managing Leisure

A property appraisal should be thought of as a formal process, and may in a

sense help to demonstrate the ‘common duty of care’ which the manager owes to
the customer. Where the building is old, or of an eccentric design, or where faults
are suspected, then the expert opinion of a surveyor, architect, structural engineer
or drainage engineer is required.
Even relatively new buildings may be prone to problems. Many leisure buildings
(particularly leisure centres) built in the 1960s and 1970s, incorporated clear-span
flat roofs. They were simple enough to construct, and conformed to the factory-like
demands of the time, where the facility was a ‘product’ to be produced ‘off the shelf’.
Sadly, many of these buildings experienced early problems with water penetra-
tion, caused not by lack of maintenance but by poor design, defective materials or
bad workmanship. The author once witnessed a national-class indoor bowls
competition given added interest by buckets placed strategically on the rinks to
catch rainwater leaking through the bowls hall roof!

Design-and-build

Some leisure buildings were also the result of a ‘design-and-build’ deal, whereby
the client (usually a local authority) handed over the whole process of preparing
a detailed specification, and supervising the construction, to a ‘development
company’. While this option seemed cheap at the time in terms of capital cost, the
revenue implications only became evident much later, as more and more problems
emerged. Because many of the original companies had by then disappeared or
gone bankrupt, no claim against them was possible.

Functional suitability

The actual ‘suitability’ of the property is quite distinct from its physical condition.
For example, a former stately home may be well maintained and therefore in excel-
lent physical shape. When used as a museum, however, its layout may cause
problems (of security, of visitor circulation), as may the loading capacity of its floor
joists. These may seem minor matters, when considered against the appearance of
the facade, but the architecture does little for the customer who follows a heavy
wardrobe through the floor!
Functional suitability for sport is easier to assess, in one sense, due to the precise
specifications made available by respective national governing bodies. Thus the
 Managing physical resources 91

Lawn Tennis Association (LTA) will specify court sizes, lighting (for indoor courts),
run-on distances and so forth. Where a specification of this nature exists, the task
is merely to compare the building’s spaces with what is specified. For competitive
sport, there is no compromise: the pool is either 25 metres (no more, no less) or it
is not suitable for swimming competitions (an Olympic pool is 50 metres).
The suitability of buildings for arts purposes is not so easy to consider, since
much depends on ‘ambience’. None the less, there are functional space require-
ments, lighting needs, acoustic aspects and visibility which can be established
within a specification. When the building already exists, however, mistakes are
difficult to rectify. Any post-occupancy evaluation should incorporate the views of
staff who have to operate the buildings, as well as customer opinions. The stage
crew will often have a much better understanding of how their theatre operates,
for example, than will the original design architect.
Trying to accommodate all artistic activities or all sporting activities within a
simple complex is of course impossible. Where such attempts have been made, the
result is usually a building which is perfect for nothing and most unsatisfactory
for everything else.
Functional suitability therefore requires an assessment based on:
1 the relative importance of the activity being considered (i.e. ‘ranking’)
2 the specific requirements of those activities
3 the requirements of the licensing authorities as to building regulation, fire
regulations, etc.
4 the structural integrity of the building, in relation to the purpose intended (in
the case of a conversion).

Utilisation of space
The commercial sector is fully aware of the need to maximize the use of space,
since by doing so it maximizes its return on capital, keeping its revenue expendi-
ture ‘per-employee’ or ‘per customer’ to a minimum.
In reality, a 100 per cent occupancy is unachievable, and would in any case be
most unpleasant. The levels of usage will be determined as much by health and
safety requirements as by the intrinsic qualities of the particular leisure activity. In
addition, space will be needed for circulation, storage, plant and equipment.
One common way of assessing space utilization is to use a financial yardstick.
On this basis, the income-per-square metre will be a reflection of utilization, and
this method is consistent with a cost-centre approach. A multi-purpose leisure
92 Managing Leisure

facility would use precisely this method to assess the relative contribution of its
component parts.

Compliance with legislation

Buildings must comply with the relevant aspects of legislation, as applicable

generally or as devised specifically. In Chapter 2, we described some of the legis-
lation which now applies within the United Kingdom, and which leisure managers
in particular need to understand, given the unique nature of their job.
The following aspects need to be considered:
• compliance with service licences (liquor, gaming, music, singing, dancing)
• compliance with special venue licences (stadia, outdoor activity centres)
• compliance with insurance requirements
• compliance with internally established procedures (e.g. for emergency evacu-
ation)
• conformity with identified ‘best practice’
• conformity with regulations (e.g. Electricity at Work, COSHH, RIDDOR, food
hygiene, fire regulations, etc.)
• conformity with established standards (e.g. British Standards) and current
Building Regulations.
All of the above can be considered in relation to the ‘fitness’ of the building. Does
it therefore conform to the various requirements? Are any modifications needed
to ensure current compliance? And would any alterations require specific
approvals?

Improvement to building technology

Some significant improvements have taken place within the last half century.
These may be summarized as follows.
1 Systems within buildings:
• energy-efficient boilers
• combined heat-and-power plants
• improved ventilation and air-conditioning systems
• development of heat pumps/heat exchangers
 Managing physical resources 93

• computer-controlled instrumentation
• solar heating systems
• improved security/surveillance systems.
2 Materials and building technologies:
• development of improved polymers including PVC
• introduction of lightweight block work
• new materials for insulation (sound/warmth)
• ‘system-built’ component parts
• greater variety of specialist flooring surfaces
• roof-suspension systems (e.g. for stadia canopies) using bridge-building
techniques.
3 Systems for safety:
• improved smoke/fire detection/alarm systems
• crowd scanning through CCTV cameras and monitor screens
• mobile radios and telephones for internal communication.
4 Technologies for entertainment within buildings:
• voice-activated computers
• computer-generated imagery for film-making
• computer-generated ‘virtual reality’ systems
• digital television and radio
• inter-active television
• satellite and cable television
• improved sound systems (e.g. Dolby)
• laser technology
• holograms
• compact discs.
5 Technologies for ‘change-round’ in auditorium form:
• hydraulic systems for staging/orchestra pits/seating
• retractable seating
• opening roof canopies (as at Sky Dome, Toronto).

From looking at aspects of design, we turn to the ‘building fabric’. This section is
largely descriptive but should help the student to understand more about ‘build-
ing management’. Its three topic areas are as follows:

1 structure
2 materials
3 systems.
94 Managing Leisure

Structures

The most common structural forms are:

• Solid structure with walls constructed of brickwork or concrete, where struc-
tural stability is provided by the vertical form, including the transmission of
roof weight downwards via load-bearing walls.
• Framed structure, with inter-connected framework of members, usually steel
or concrete providing structural stability; an external envelope is provided
either by cladding or non-structural brickwork.
• Surface structure, where strength is derived from a material which is shaped
to obtain strength or stretched over supporting members.
• Air structure, where structural stability is provided by pressure differentials
provided inside and outside the form.
In the first two instances there will be two parts to the building, namely the
substructure and superstructure. The former is the structure below ground, up to
and including the floor slab and damp-proof course. The function of the substruc-
ture is to carry the weight from the building above, transferring the weight to the
load-bearing ground below.
The superstructure is all of the structure above, both externally and internally.
Its function is to provide a suitable environment by way of enclosing and dividing
space, whilst at the same time transferring weight safely onto the substructure.
The majority of sports buildings fall into the second category, i.e. their construc-
tion is that of framed structures with spaces provided by steel girders and exter-
nal protection provided by cladding of one sort or another. Where brickwork is
used externally, it may be either part-structural or decorative.
Some theatres built during the same period have adopted the same method of
construction, whereas earlier arts buildings (and virtually all London theatres,
for example) were constructed in solid form, as were swimming pools built in
Victorian times. Museums and arts centres have sometimes utilized ‘solid’ build-
ings which were originally designed for other purposes, e.g. at South Hill Park,
Bracknell, and Abington Park, Northampton.
New designs can also be problematical: managers of stadia or arenas are faced
with buildings of an altogether larger size, often with design features (e.g.
cantilevered elevations and hollow-section beams) which may be difficult to
inspect.
Should managers be confronted with unexpected problems relating to the struc-
ture of their buildings, they are expected to seek professional advice. If the build-
 Managing physical resources 95

ing is local authority owned, that advice is easily obtainable from within the
organization; in the voluntary and private sectors, advice may be sought from an
outside architect, building surveyor or structural engineer, on a fee-paying basis.

Materials

Besides knowing something of the structure for which they are responsible,
managers should know about the building’s component parts. These can be simply
divided into metals and non-metals as follows:
• Metals: aluminium, cast iron, wrought iron, steel, copper, lead, zinc and alloys.
• Non-metals: ceramics (bricks, tiles), concrete, blockwork materials, timber,
asbestos, polymers and plastics, bituminous materials, mineral fibre materials,
plaster and plasterboard, fabrics, paint and preservatives, stone, vermiculite,
cork.

Plant and systems

Plant represents the physical machinery (electrical and/or mechanical) which

exists within a building, whereas systems refer to the ‘distributed services’ which
follow. Any division between the two is fairly arbitrary, however, and thus they
are here considered together. In total, they are for:
• drainage (foul/storm)
• water supply
• water filtration (at swimming pools and water parks)
• electricity supply (power points/lighting)
• emergency lighting
• heating (direct and indirect)
• ventilation (sometimes combined with heating plant)
• air conditioning
• heat extraction/re-circulation (‘heat pumps’)
• fire control systems
• smoke detection and alarms
• intruder alarms
• telephone/fax systems
96 Managing Leisure

• computer systems
• integrated systems.
Clearly, all of these systems are to be maintained in good order, if the building is
to remain safe and secure. Where necessary, specialist contractors may be needed
to confirm that the systems are, in fact, fully operational.

Maintaining leisure buildings

Leisure buildings are indeed extremely varied, as can be seen from the list
provided earlier. And as leisure managers simply inherit their roles as ‘building
managers’, implicit in the same role is that of ‘maintenance expert’. We noted that
both areas of expertise are merely assumed: they are almost always seen as
secondary to the task of ‘people management’, whereas in reality the two areas of
‘building responsibility’ (building management and building maintenance) are
extremely important.
Changes to standards in matters such as building regulations, fire prevention
and glazing mean that certain forms of maintenance are concerned with something
other than ‘replacing like with like’.
The wear and tear experienced by leisure buildings may also be such that
programmed maintenance is more expensive than for other buildings, having to
be undertaken within specific closure periods.

Influence of design
Eccentric modern designs have played their part in creating problems within
leisure buildings. Thus there are leisure centres where windows are too inaccess-
ible to be cleaned or repaired, even though the glazing looks impressive within
the architectural form. One sees – or rather does not see – voids between floors in
swimming pools, wherein pipe work is totally entombed between concrete slabs.
One sees post-war arts buildings, such as the Royal National Theatre in London,
where the technology of poured concrete has created buildings which are virtu-
ally impossible to modify without vast expenditure on laser-cutting devices. The
list is endless ...
Eccentricity of design also has an impact when a building constructed for one
purpose is eventually used for another, especially where the former purpose was
‘domestic’, and the latter ‘public’. Churches converted to theatres or arts centres,
 Managing physical resources 97

historic houses converted to museums, factories or warehouses converted to

arts/exhibition venues – all show certain problems in respect of their maintenance,
in that the standards of materials, of engineering, and construction will have been
appropriate for the original function, but might not be adequate for the current one.

Legal considerations

Legal liabilities attached to operational management demand a very rigorous

approach to the maintenance of leisure buildings. The need for vigilance applies
equally to purpose-built facilities as to conversions, and requires that managers
periodically check to ensure compliance with specified standards.
Building regulations consent, for example, is pertinent where alterations are
being contemplated or extensions proposed. Improved standards of materials for
fire resistance, of systems for fire detection, of emergency exits and so forth all
need to be considered. Emergency lighting systems may need to be upgraded to
meet present-day requirements, as may the glazing used in different parts of the
complex. Again, materials once considered as suitable for building purposes, such
as certain types of cement and concrete, and almost all types of asbestos, can no
longer be considered as acceptable.
The concept of a ‘common duty of care’ (see previous chapter) makes it
absolutely imperative that managers maintain their buildings properly, in confor-
mity with ‘best possible practice’ and with those standards and regulations which
have been established by law, or by relevant authoritative bodies.

Equipment

For the most part, the word ‘equipment’ is used for items which are provided for
or by the customer, in order to undertake a particular leisure activity. Equipment
can range, therefore, from a dinghy to a trampoline, from a saddle to a football,
from a climbing-frame to a jet ski.
As explained in Chapter 2, a fundamental obligation is laid upon management
to provide an environment which is safe. Defective equipment will inevitably
prevent a risk over and above that which was anticipated by the customer. This
is especially true of equipment associated with watersports, horse riding,
trampolining and air-sports, where any defect may have catastrophic results.
98 Managing Leisure

The fundamental rules regarding equipment provided for leisure customers are
as follows:
• only ‘standardized’ equipment should be purchased
• no modifications to standard equipment should be contemplated, except with
the express (i.e. written) consent of the manufacturer
• only reputable manufacturers should be used
• whenever possible, managers are expected to ascertain (through the govern-
ing body of the sport, where applicable) whether a specific standard exists, e.g.
for landing mats in the case of martial arts
• checks should be made to ascertain whether there is a British Standard or
European Standard which is applicable, e.g. in the case of children’s play
equipment
• regular maintenance of equipment should be carried out in accordance with
the manufacturers’ instructions
• independent checks may also be appropriate in some instances, where risk is
considered to be substantial.

Conclusions

Students need to be aware that resource management is an onerous task in itself,

and one which is constantly under-estimated by people who work on a nine-to-
five basis. Even some users forget that most leisure facilities are open to the public
on seven days per week, for more than 12 hours per day. The resource-manage-
ment should never be taken for granted, however, for reasons which should be
evident in what has been said.
There is indeed a body of knowledge which the on-site manager is expected to
know, and this is all too often learned once the person has been appointed and
not before. In this respect at least, students have the distinct advantage of knowing
what to expect when the time comes.

References and recommended reading

Brereton, C. (1991). The Repair of Historic Buildings: Advice on principles and methods.
English Heritage.
 Managing physical resources 99

Bromley, P. (1990). Countryside Management. E. & F.N. Spon. (See Chapter 3, legal
framework.)
Carson, R. (1962). Silent Spring. London: Hamilton.
Cobham Research Consultants. (1992). Countryside Sports: Their economic and conser-
vation significance.
Countryside Commission. (1994). Managing Public Access: A guide for farmers and
landowners.
Curwell, S.R. and March, C.G. (1986). Hazardous Building Materials: A guide to the
selection of alternatives. E. & F.N. Spon.
Glyptis, S. (1991). Countryside Recreation. Longman/ILAM.
Goodhead, T. and Johnson, D. (1996). Coastal Recreation Management. Chapman &
Hall.
Green, B. (1981). Countryside Conservation. George Allen & Unwin.
The Guardian (1993). Death by stealth in the shires. 20 November.
Hall, F. (1995). Essential Building Services and Equipment. B.H. Newnes.
Harlow, P. (1984). Managing Building Maintenance. Institute of Building.
HM Government. (1995). Rural England: A nation committed to a living countryside.
MAFF/Welsh Office/Department of the Environment.
Institute of Leisure and Amenity Management. (1996). Health and Safety Guide for
Leisure Activities. Pitman Publishing in association with ILAM.
Richardson, B.A. (1991). Defects and Deterioration in Buildings. E. & F.N. Spon.
Shoard, M. (1980). The Theft of the Countryside. London: Temple Smith.
Sinnott, R. (1985). Safety and Security in Building Design. Collins.
Spedding, A. (1994). Chartered Institute of Building: Handbook of facilities management.
Longman.
Stollard, P. and Abrahams, J. (1995). Fire from First Principles: A design guide to fire
safety. E. & F.N. Spon.
4 Managing people

Questions

At the end of this chapter you should be able to undertake the following:
1 Consider when it would be important for a leisure manager to make a
distinction between a member of staff’s competence and his or her motiva-
tion, suggesting how either may be enhanced.
2 Indicate the main differences in the knowledge and skills required of a
leisure manager, in the managing of staff, customers and contractors.
3 Indicate how conflict in the workplace may be utilized – or alternatively
resolved – by the manager.

Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to examine the management function, from both a
theoretical and practical standpoint. We begin by looking at the management of
staff, before moving to consider ‘customer care’ and finally at some aspects of
contract management.

Managing leisure staff

Characteristics

Leisure staff have extremely varied backgrounds, and this variety – for groups at
least – can be both a strength and a potential weakness.
 Managing people 101

Individuals working in arts administration tend to arrive at their jobs with

arts degrees or HNDs. Those working in sports management tend to have
qualifications in precisely that field, and many will have prowess in particular
sports. Those working in recreational land management normally have a train-
ing in horticulture, but some have qualifications in woodland management or
ecology.
Museum staff, as well as library staff, have their own specialist qualifications,
gained at post-degree level. Commercial leisure organizations, such as cinemas,
ten-pin bowling centres, night-clubs and theme parks attract staff from a variety
of backgrounds, to the extent that it is virtually impossible to generalize about this
particular sector, except to say that graduate/HND opportunities have been
increasing in recent years.
In some cases, those with the same or similar backgrounds ‘cluster’ together, for
example, in the world of museums and libraries. In other cases, such as theme parks
and holiday villages, staff with completely different backgrounds will find themselves
thrown together as part of the same management team. As one would expect, there
are advantages and drawbacks to working in either of the two environments.
We begin by looking briefly at the nature of individuals, their own ‘cognitive
reality’, their behaviour, motivation, competence, and also at appropriate manage-
ment techniques. Before moving on to examine the ‘job itself’, we look briefly at
the nature of group behaviour.

The individual

Individuals within the workplace represent human assets which if treated properly
remain as assets but which, if treated badly, soon become liabilities.
Their personalities are made up of physical, mental, moral and social charac-
teristics. Combined with their other characteristics, ideas, opinions, beliefs,
attitudes and suchlike, they are sufficiently distinctive and enduring as to ‘identify’
the individual in question.
Two approaches are used to study personality: the idiographic and the
nomothetic. The first assumes that an individual personality in its entity is what
counts and is worthy of study. This methodology was adopted by Allport (1965),
amongst others. The second, the nomothetic approach, looks at one or more
aspects of personality, such as aggression, and endeavours to find both ‘causes’
for the behaviour as well as correlations with life experiences.
102 Managing Leisure

Managers must indeed have an understanding of how people ‘function’, how

they behave and perhaps how they feel (about their comrades/the job/the
boss/the organization). After all, behaviour patterns established in childhood –
whether or not one accepts Freudian theory – are often seen in the workplace.
Individuals who demonstrate aggression or extreme cynicism towards the
‘system’, when in fact they can change the system, may be exhibiting signs of
‘projection’: their actual feelings may relate to a much deeper unhappiness.
Similarly, some individuals when confronted with an important task will concen-
trate on trivial routine matters rather than ‘getting on with the job’ – or they may
simply ‘go to pieces’ – a technique which may have worked when used by a child,
but seen as ‘regression’ in later life.

Cognitive reality

Fascinating research has been carried out into ‘self-perception’ and the ‘mental
constructs’ which people create. In part, the impetus for such research came from
Gestalt psychology, which recognizes that the human mind seems to establish
patterns, to perceive order within chaos, and perhaps by so doing creates a more
reassuring universe. In seeking to understand the behaviour pattern of a member
of staff, a manager must endeavour to ‘get inside’ the mind of that person, if the
situation is so serious as to be ‘job-threatening’ for either party. Another person’s
perception or ‘cognitive perspective’ can be completely different from what the
manager expects. A member of staff can feel undervalued and under threat, for
example, and may exhibit signs of distress of one sort or another (e.g. absenteeism,
heavy drinking, extreme cynicism). What matters in such instances is the ‘reality’
as perceived by that member of staff even where, in fact, it does not correspond
to the reality of a situation.

‘Internals’ and ‘externals’

Another useful idea in this respect comes from an early behaviourist, J.B. Rotter
(1954), who surmised that all individuals fall somewhere along a continuum
between ‘internal’ and ‘external’. Internals, he argued, feel that they are ‘in
control’, since they have ‘internalized’ their known world, and they can change
things if they so wish. Externals feel that the world is beyond their control, that
their thoughts and actions are of little or no significance.
 Managing people 103

Motivation
Motivation is often described as if it were a single entity, or a ‘unified state’,
whereas in reality different people may have different motives for acting in what
appears as a similar manner. If motives are ‘inner states’ that help to create behav-
iour, then they are often difficult to ascertain whereas behaviour may be observed.
Martens (1987) put forward the ‘double component’ idea, that motivation requires
both intensity and direction. Direction is represented by the choice of goal that
will be aimed for and intensity the effort which is put into achieving that goal.
Motivation, for our purposes is perhaps easier to consider if taken in its visible
manifestation, as an ‘enthusiasm’ (for the job) which is measurable through work
performance, through responses (to new ideas or new responsibilities) and
through body language.
Any psychological consideration of motivation requires a much closer look at
internal drives, self-image (or the preservation thereof), goals and needs. Often
unconsciously, we do assess motivational levels at work by the way that people
(managers and staff) appear, behave, think and talk. We also tend to assume that
a very enthusiastic manager or worker is competent at the job.
What actually motivates or ‘drives’ that person may to an extent be deduced
from behaviour. Some people just ‘like to please’ (their bosses in this case),
whereas others may be driven by a personal need to create a state of perfection
which simply pleases them. The behaviour in either case may be welcomed or not,
and it may be either appropriate or inappropriate to the work context. Being
driven by the motive of ‘wishing to please the boss’ for example, may alienate the
staff member from colleagues; being a perfectionist may alienate everyone if the
behaviour is ‘compulsive’ (i.e. neurotic) rather than appropriate.

Competence
If motivation is assessed through a variety of criteria, competence represents an
ability to get the job done. The word is used a great deal nowadays, either to
describe an overall character (‘he or she is a very competent receptionist’) or to
describe specific attributes (‘he or she possesses a series of competences’).
On either basis, competence is more fundamental than is motivation, in the
sense that competence is a necessary component of the individual’s behaviour at
work, whereas motivation may vary day-to-day, or week to week, or whatever.
Motivating a staff member will almost certainly be easier, and quicker, than creat-
ing competence where none existed previously.
104 Managing Leisure

Competence
High

Type 1: Type 3:
HM/HC LM/HC

Motivation Motivation
High Low

Type 2: Type 4:
HM/LC LM/LC

Competence
Low

Figure 4.1 The interaction between motivation and competence

The relationship between motivation and competence

If we look at the relationship between motivation and competence, we may
conclude that people will fall into one of four categories as follows:
1. High Motivation/High Competence (H/H)
2. High Motivation/Low Competence (H/L)
3. Low Motivation/High Competence (L/H)
4. Low Motivation/Low Competence (L/L)
The same grouping can be expressed in diagrammatic form, as in Figure 4.1
The distinction between motivation and competence is very important since
certain management techniques or styles may be appropriate for one staff member
but disastrous for another.

Management techniques
Experience suggests that the most difficult person to manage is not type 4 in Figure
4.1, as one might expect, but type 2. A type 4 individual may improve a little in
competence if remotivated, but a type 2 individual will often be unaware of any
shortcomings and cannot appreciate why any retraining might be necessary. Their
very enthusiasm may also make them likeable, and therefore difficult to discipline.
Generally speaking, the management techniques appropriate to each of the four
‘states’ referred to above, are as follows:
 Managing people 105

1 H/H – The manager can afford to allow such individuals to get on with the
job – the management approach may then be largely passive.
2 H/L. Because the individual is low in competence, the manager needs to
ensure that key performance objectives are met – the correct approach is thus
to be collaborative.
3 L/H. Motivation problems being easier to rectify than competence deficien-
cies, managers can remotivate staff by adopting a role which is supportive.
4 L/L. Where both motivation and competence are low, the manager would be
foolish to adopt anything resembling a passive approach – indeed, the correct
approach is to be directive.
The four management techniques identified above are useful, in that they remind
one that there is no ‘single correct style’, but rather management techniques (or
styles) which are appropriate for certain circumstances and/or for certain
members of staff. Clearly, some circumstances demand a more directive approach,
whatever the nature of the staff, e.g. on health and safety issues, emergency proce-
dures and accident prevention, where the task is to impart the relevant informa-
tion, rather than to discuss it, although some discussion as to implementation may
be necessary.

The group

Most human beings work in groups, even if the precise form of contact differs.
Individuals working at home may still, through E-mail, fax and telephone, engage
in a variety of discourses.
The leisure industry is fairly labour intensive, and involves an enormous range
of ‘competences’ or skills. Working in groups or teams is therefore the norm rather
than the exception, and for the most part these groups involve physical proxim-
ity rather than telecommunications (‘telos’ being Greek for ‘from afar’).
Groups can be ad hoc – existing for a specific purpose, then disbanding – or
permanent, formal or informal, primary or secondary. A primary group would be
small in scale, with direct contact and close relationships between members; a
secondary group would be more impersonal, with individuals perhaps represent-
ing the views of their base organization rather than their own.
Again, some ad hoc groups can be created to oppose a particular trend or action
(countervailing groups) whereas other ad hoc groups may be established to
consider options (the think tank), rather than a single solution.
106 Managing Leisure

Group characteristics

Groups have their own characteristics, of course, as do individuals. McKenna

(1994) identifies these as follows:
• norms
• cohesiveness
• communication and interaction
• structural factors
• group dynamics.
The pressure exerted by norms is seen as highly significant, and we know that
some members of a group will perform tasks – such as ‘hurting’ others – just
because the group expects them to. Where the group norms conform to socially
accepted norms, then this problem will not occur. Norms help to identify key
values of the group, its functions, its traditions and expectations. Conformity to a
norm can however cause difficulties when, for example, the group is behaving in
a way which an individual dislikes, or when individuals pursue their own ends
at the expense of the group – or indeed when the group as a whole is marginal-
ized by the organization (the larger group).
Cohesiveness within the group might be more apparent than real. Many work
teams, for example, exist simply because they have ‘always existed’, and the group
meets because there is a ‘meeting-slot’. In such circumstances, the apparent
cohesion is an externally created phenomenon rather than an internally generated
characteristic.
McKenna recognizes seven determining factors which interact to create group
cohesion:
• similarity of attitudes and goals
• time spent together
• isolation
• threats
• size
• stringent entry requirements.
Cohesion should not be derived from purely external forces, but must represent
the need for individuals within the group to express their own attitudes – includ-
ing hostility perhaps – within a framework which still pursues the group’s object-
ives, but which accommodates some acceptable dissent. Where people storm out
of meetings, or sit glumly refusing to take any further part in discussions, then
 Managing people 107

the other group members will feel some unease, because the ‘acceptable norm’ will
have been breached.
’Spending time together’ will normally help to create cohesion, if other factors
come into play. Groups working under threat, perhaps of extinction, will also exhibit
cohesion until the threat is removed or the group is abolished by the organization.
Where groups are essentially multidisciplinary or heterogeneous in nature, as
in local authority leisure departments or theme parks for example, then cohesion
is difficult to create. In such circumstances, ‘management group’ meetings tend to
be fraught with problems of individual status – and any subgroup meeting may
degenerate into little more than a ‘therapy session’ unless action is taken.

Social control
By exerting power downwards, and by establishing norms, formal groups exercise
a degree of social control. However, the potential for control may create conditions
where authority is oppressive. Fascinating but controversial experiments carried
out by Milgram (1965) suggest that a sizeable number of individuals are willing
to inflict pain on others simply because someone in authority tells them to do so.
(In reality, the ‘recipients’ of the ‘pain’ were only pretending to be hurt by electric
shocks.) Within such group situations, a certain number of dissidents would be
required in order for the pain-inflicting role to be abandoned.
Under normal circumstances, groups soon develop a ‘pecking order’, in terms
of the amount of speech and influence allowed. When the hierarchy has been
established, meetings tend to become more predictable. Cooperation, rather than
competition, should ideally result, but it appears that where one person within the
group is to ‘take all’, then competition will remain dominant.

Conflict reduction
Groups also have a role to play in resolving conflict. Competition and conflict are
different, in that the former conforms to certain rules and procedures, whereas the
latter, being more ‘general’ in its nature, may eventually destroy the group.
Some conflict may be regarded as acceptable, if for example it engages two
individuals within the group who might otherwise cause more damage. Again,
some conflict is desirable, and seen as ‘functional’, whereas other forms of conflict
may be ‘dysfunctional’ and ultimately destructive. McKenna categorizes conflict
as: individual, group, institutionalized and emergent, with each having its own
characteristics, sources and means to resolution.
108 Managing Leisure

‘Managing conflict’ can therefore be seen as a distinct skill, and Thomas (1976)
indicated five ways to deal with the situation:
1 Competition – where the opponent is reduced in status or power.
2 Collaboration – where the opponent is ‘taken on one side’ and persuaded to
collaborate on a particular project.
3 Withdrawal – where either side avoids conflict by avoiding situations (e.g.
meetings) at which the conflict will be manifest.
4 Accommodation – where the manager ‘gives in’ to the other party, in order to
keep the peace.
5 Compromise – where both parties sense that some ‘give and take’ is required.

‘Group-think’
A notable characteristic of groups is the tendency for new ideas, valid criticisms
and alternative suggestions to be ‘smoothed out’ in order to retain the consensus.
This tendency is sometimes called ‘group-think’ and occurs in virtually all formal
meetings as well as conventions.
Group-think exerts pressure upon individuals to suspend their own critical
faculties so that group unanimity can be maintained. The leader’s views tend to
be less critical than might be expected, and the views of other participants are
unconsciously affected by what they feel the group will accept or reject.
That said, the influence of highly articulate or high-status individuals within the
group should not be discounted, and except where group survival is threatened,
that individual may be allowed to deviate, according to an ‘idiosyncrasy credit’.
Views of less articulate or lower-status individuals, by the same token, may often
be ignored by the group, even when their suggestions are perfectly reasonable.
Managers certainly need to be aware of the group-think tendency and take steps
to offset it, however tempting it might be to preserve the status quo at all times.
One way to change the ‘power relationship’ and to create feelings of ownership
is to rotate the ‘chairing function’, for example, and to allow the out-going chair-
person an opportunity to nominate the next one.

The organization
The organization in this context is taken to be the company, voluntary body or
local authority whose portfolio includes the leisure resources referred to earlier,
and whose management units are represented by formal groups.
 Managing people 109

Leisure organizations are primarily service based – they sell an ‘experience’. Any
‘products’ sold are often secondary in financial terms, but both services and
products may be of equal importance from the customer’s perspective.

Organizational hierarchies

Human organizations which have a formal purpose and a degree of stability

appear to create hierarchies at an early stage – one see this phenomenon, for
example, with the creation of voluntary bodies, where the first task is invariably
the selection of a steering committee.
Commercial (and military) organizations tend to create hierarchies so as to
emphasize a chain of command, and by a process of centralization ensure that the
organization is primarily task oriented. In the case of commercial companies, the
objective may be to create maximum dividends for shareholders in the short term,
or at least to secure a ‘market niche’ where this may become possible in the
medium term, as with satellite television companies.
Companies which are production based would have a different hierarchical
pattern from those which were service based. The latter would be expected to have
more flexible hierarchies, with the forces of authority (the upper parts of the
hierarchy) shifting from technical directors to accountants.
Pyramid-type hierarchies are useful for showing the ‘span of control’ which
exists within the organization. The span describes the number of people directly
reporting to the manager or supervisor. No ideal span of control exists, since the
optimum size depends on a number of factors. For reasons of economy, as much
as for psychological reasons, hierarchies have often become ‘flattened’ with fewer
layers, so that the span of control is wider.

Organizational culture

The culture of an organization also tends to depend on whether it lies in the public,
private or voluntary sectors, since the location crucially determines the organiza-
tion’s financial objectives.
Most organizations now have explicit objectives, set out in the form of their
Mission Statement. Others have objectives which may be implicit or unstated, for
whatever reason. Commercial organizations would be expected to display their
explicit objectives in the body of their Annual Report to shareholders; public
bodies might show something similar in their own Annual Reports to council tax
110 Managing Leisure

payers; voluntary bodies might set out their objectives at an Annual General
Meeting and in any promotional material.
While objectives, whether explicit or implicit, are to be taken as ‘ends’, the
‘means’ to achieve those ends are also very much part of the culture. Organiza-
tional cultures are fascinating, since the perception of the same organization, by
individuals at different positions within the hierarchy, may be completely differ-
ent. A manager may feel that the culture is open, democratic and fair to all,
whereas an employee may perceive it as oppressive, undemocratic and unfair.
Formal messages which ‘cascade down’ the hierarchy are important, since they
convey explicit information (e.g. on performance targets) which staff need to know.
However the organization is also judged by staff according to the way it behaves,
and not simply by what it says.
Organizational culture must be evident from a consistent behaviour pattern
which is seen by all staff, and not just by the managers. A culture which is respon-
sive, where messages travel upwards (to the top of the pyramid) as well as
downwards, and where staff feel appreciated, is one which is most likely to
achieve the best results, provided that other factors are in existence, in relation to
organizational objectives.

Organizational objectives
Organizational objectives are vital if managers and staff are to work towards the
same ends. Not only that, but objectives must be:
• clear and unambiguous
• reasonable and viable
• measurable by means of ‘performance indicators’.
Commercial leisure organizations have an easier time with the third characteris-
tic, since profit margins and dividends are a matter of fact, not of opinion.
However, if one says – as many public venues did until the advent of CCT – that
the centre (museum, art gallery, library or leisure centre) wishes to ‘provide the
best possible services for as many of the inhabitants of Utopia as possible’, then
how is one to assess whether or not the operation is actually a success? And what
if each inhabitant of Utopia simply calls in to the centre for a minute or two each
week – can this represent the greatest happiness for the greatest number?
Of course, objectives must be clear, attainable and measurable, otherwise they
are not really worth having. Performance indicators must themselves be meaning-
ful and relevant to the service which is being provided.
 Managing people 111

The job

It may seem strange that this section should follow that which has been said about
individuals, groups and organizations, but in reality the job-held-by-the-individ-
ual is the nexus of all three sets of circumstances. Whether one is a manager, assist-
ant manager, front-of-house manager, receptionist, publicity assistant or whatever,
it is the job that matters to the individual, and the job that yields either rewards
or disappointments.
Jobs in the leisure industry are extremely diverse, probably more than in any
other industry. Given such a degree of diversity, what can therefore be said about
‘the job’ which is meaningful?
The following aspects need to be considered:

• job design
• job rotation, enlargement and enrichment
• job descriptions
• selection procedures
• performance appraisal
• rewards
• sanctions.

Job design

The job should be designed by people who know in some detail what is required
by way of knowledge and skill. This may seem obvious, but all too often one sees
confusion, simply because those who supposedly supervise the job simply do not
appreciate its complexities.
The following questions should be put, in order that this job design is appro-
priate:

• Where does the job ‘fit’ within an organizational hierarchy?

• What are the unique characteristics of the job?
• What are the common characteristics of the job?
• Precisely what responsibilities are entailed by the job – for physical resources,
people, money or information?

It may also be asked whether the whole job be done by someone else or if some
of the functions could be ‘hived off’ to other staff?
112 Managing Leisure

Job rotation, enlargement and enrichment

Consistent with the notion of a ‘standardized component part’ is the idea that ‘job
content’ – much diminished by the production line system – can be maintained
through ‘job rotation’.
Curiously enough, job rotation is quite common in certain sections of the leisure
industry, and has a long pedigree in more populist enterprises such as fairs and
circuses, where each individual undertakes a variety of tasks.
A second approach, that of job enlargement, is sometimes used for the same
purpose, i.e. to create interest and maintain motivation. Job enlargement simply
means that the work is ‘horizontally expanded’, to encompass work previously
done by one’s colleagues (alternatively viewed as ‘they become unemployed/you
work harder’).
The third approach, sometimes called ‘job enrichment’, involves a ‘vertical
expansion’ of the job, in the sense that an individual worker gains more author-
ity, and therefore control, over inputs and outputs, so that the job is enriched
through accountability and feedback, both creating a sense of achievement. (alter-
natively viewed as ‘your boss becomes unemployed/you work harder’).

Job descriptions
There are two conflicting views on job descriptions, one arguing that they should
be rather vague, incorporating such phrases as ‘and any other duties as may be
required’, so that (the argument goes) flexibility is created. The opposite stand-
point is that job descriptions should be as detailed as possible, with every contin-
gency covered by an exact phraseology.
The best solution is a compromise: adopt the second approach in respect of
important obligations – the first approach, which is less prescriptive, can then be
used for duties which, though important, carry less legal liability. This is especially
true in today’s litigious society, where leisure-related accidents are followed by
substantial claims, as often as not.
Those who draft the job description, and make appointments based upon it,
should always bear in mind that the document could become ‘legal material’
should an accident occur which results in litigation. Where negligence on the part
of an employer or employee (or both) is alleged, the written responsibilities of a
post, as set out in a job description, can become extremely important, notably to
the plaintiff’s counsel in a civil case or to the Crown Prosecution Service in a crimi-
nal case.
 Managing people 113

Selection procedures
Selection procedures should be conducted carefully and objectively. Those who
make the choice should remember that they are also making an ‘expenditure-
decision’ which may be as great as £100 000 plus, if the person appointed is paid
£25 000 per annum and remains in post for four years before moving on. Before
spending a capital sum of £100 000, one would expect to be confident that one has
looked at all the options, and has drawn up an adequate specification.
While most employers still rely on the interview as a means of assessment,
several larger companies and many local authorities now derive additional infor-
mation from some form of testing. The tests, it is argued, give a more ‘rounded
picture’ of a candidate, and provide what may be a more ‘objective’ summary than
a ‘subjective’ assessment such as an interview. What can actually be tested? There
are differing opinions on the value and validity of some tests, but in general it
appears possible to examine the following:
• intelligence – using Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Tests
• verbal ability – through simple presentations or more complex
reasoning/evaluation tests
• numerical ability – through arithmetical or logical-reasoning tests
• spatial ability – through visual-logical tests
• mechanical ability – through a constructional exercise
• manual dexterity – through hand/eye coordination tests.
Psychometric testing is sometimes utilized to assess ‘personality traits’, and some
claim to indicate the likely ‘management behaviours’ which the candidate will
adopt in certain circumstances (e.g. directive, supportive, collaborative, passive).
If the candidate is to be part of a larger team, then such conclusions as to the role
best played are obviously pertinent.
However, whilst it is difficult to fake intelligence or aptitude tests such as those
listed above, either consciously or unconsciously, there is evidence to suggest that
candidates undergoing psychometric tests are sometimes able to detect ‘slants’ in
what the tester feels are neutral questions – and by their responses present
themselves as more dynamic and purposeful than they really are.

Performance appraisal
Once a person is in situ, and the job has been done for a reasonable time, consid-
eration needs to be given to performance appraisal.
114 Managing Leisure

Performance appraisal may be carried out by either informal or formal

techniques. An informal system might be applied by a manager who at regular
intervals holds a one-to-one meeting with his or her most senior staff, to see how
they are ‘getting along’. The meeting would be unrecorded, and there would be
no direct connection with performance bonus or salary.
Informal appraisal procedures have the advantage of putting staff more at ease,
but disadvantages include the following:
• lack of consistency from one interview to the next
• lack of consistency from one interviewee to another
• no obvious connection with rewards or sanctions
• danger of subjective appraisal, e.g. assessment of someone the manager likes
may not give a true picture
• danger of the ‘halo’ effect.
This last effect is well known, and refers to the tendency of people (e.g. inter-
viewers) to adopt simplistic binary positions, deciding in this case that someone
(e.g. the candidate) is a ‘good’ person. Thus all the attributes of that individual
may be seen in the same light. This is more likely to occur when an interviewer
sees in the candidate a positive attribute or background similar to his or her own.
Similarly, but for different reasons, there may be a tendency associated with
interviews which has the same effect: some people are very articulate and simply
‘good at being interviewed’. This may convince the interviewer, albeit uncon-
sciously, that the candidate is good at everything else!

Rewards

Pay may be the main reward which is associated with a job, but it is not the only
one. In any case, there is some evidence that the motivational influence of reward,
at certain points in a person’s work history, may be exaggerated. A study carried
out by Kohn (1993), in relation to incentive plans, concluded that financial rewards
may have only short-term effects upon work performance, and will not alter
fundamental attitudes towards the job and the employer. The problems associated
with performance-related pay, and the various options open to a company wishing
to introduce such a scheme, are well known. Experience has shown that no single
scheme is perfect, and that some may even have a demotivating effect upon staff
lower down the hierarchy.
Other financial rewards can be considered, as follows:
 Managing people 115

• Commission: usually a percentage of sales or net profit

• Piecework: payment according to a set rate/units produced/tasks completed
• Bonus: periodic payments based on overall company performance
• Profit share: payment according to a set percentage of the final profit
• Gain share: individual or group reward for cost-saving initiatives, e.g. from
company suggestion schemes
• Company shares: individuals at whatever level may be allocated company
shares as well as or instead of a profit share
• Share options: individuals (normally senior managers) are given an ‘option’ to
purchase shares at current rates, in the expectation that their performance may
bring about an increase to those share prices.
Non-financial rewards should also be considered. Some of these can represent
savings-in-expenditure, and might therefore be viewed as income. They might
include the following:
• free health checks
• free medical insurance
• free or subsidized membership of sports/leisure/health clubs
• subsidized canteens or luncheon vouchers
• company car schemes (loans or leased vehicles).

Sanctions
Human beings tend to react consistently to rewards, but the application of
sanctions is a different matter, since some may cause a response which is quite out
of scale with what is intended, and can go much ‘deeper’ than the manager who
applied the sanctions may realize.
Recourse to a formal disciplinary process should be seen as a last resort, or as
completely unavoidable, e.g. after a very serious breach of conduct. Managers are
not expected to embark upon a Disciplinary Hearing until and unless the neces-
sary conditions are met. Procedures followed should either conform to the organi-
zation’s own, where these exist, or should follow the excellent guidelines set out
by the Advisory Conciliation and Arbitration Service (ACAS).
Some managers use what are called ‘verbal warnings’, which may either be
recorded on the employee’s file or not, depending on normal protocol.
Alternative sanctions may be as follows:
• deferred increment (in the case of the public sector)
• loss of bonus and other financial ex-salary benefits
116 Managing Leisure

• reduced status to a lower post for a defined period

• deferment of promotion to a higher post.
Whatever sanctions are adopted by a manager, they should be applied fairly, in
accordance with accepted procedures, and with great care. Rewards, whether
financial or not, tend to work better than sanctions, where psychological ‘reinforce-
ment’ (of positive behaviour patterns) may be required.
When the ultimate penalty is dismissal, managers are expected to be aware of
the possibility that their judgement may be challenged at an Industrial Tribunal,
and the employee reinstated. More embarrassing still, if a Disciplinary Hearing is
used for an alleged criminal offence (theft, say), then the hearing’s ‘dismissal
judgement’ will look extremely foolish, to put it mildly, if the case comes to court
and the individual found ‘not guilty’. Civil action, by the employee, may well
result. The manager is also put in a very difficult position vis-à-vis the other staff
in the section or group.

Managing leisure customers

For the purposes of this particular section, it is worth mentioning very briefly what
the characteristics of leisure customers might be, as follows:
• mixed-ability groups
• mixed-age groups.
In addition, there will generally be:
• high expectations of enjoyment
• diminished risk perception.
For ‘open’ leisure venues, such as museums, theme parks, pubs, commons, and
historic houses, there is no way of predicting who might attend on any one partic-
ular day, and what their characteristics might be, by way of age, status and so
forth.
Venues which operate primarily on a ‘booking’ system, or those where member-
ship is a criteria for booking (or usage) can of course be more certain about the
type of people who are likely to attend – even if they cannot always be certain of
precise numbers, unless specific seats are sold in advance, as at a theatre, opera
house or at some sporting events.
 Managing people 117

Choice and the leisure customer

Quite apart from the characteristics referred to above, the leisure customer
arguably has more ‘choice’, in that he or she could, for example, choose not to go
to the theatre or cinema, since neither is an absolute necessity. There is, in any
case, a common acceptance of the notion that ‘choice’ is a right, and not a privi-
lege (see Chapter 1).
Equally, some ‘transferability’ is evident with leisure, and the substitution takes
on a different form, at a very different cost. If I am hungry, but poor, I may eat
toast rather than trout. Either way, I shall have to go shopping somewhere, unless
I am fortunate enough to own a trout farm or bakery – in which case I would
probably not be poor anyway. ‘Transferring out’ is not an option with food
shopping, as it is with leisure.
Leisure which requires effort and expenditure can quite easily be transmuted
into passive leisure at almost nil cost. I may want to go to a concert at a major
venue, for example, but if I cannot do so, then I may at least listen to the concert
on the radio, or in some instances, see/hear the concert on television, or later on
video. Leisure customers can often have recourse to the ‘passive alternative’ if
they so wish, and if their particular demands can be partially met by means of
radio, television, video, CDs, music cassettes, etc. Customers who desire exercise
are normally less fickle, in that they wish to swim, or play football, or take part
in an aerobics class or whatever. Rarely are these activities directly ‘transferable’,
except in situations where no specialist ‘supply’ exists to meet a ‘specific
demand’.

The leisure market

The reality is that a perfect market does not exist, for a variety of reasons:

• Some sellers may collaborate to reduce supply and thereby increase prices (for
CDs perhaps).
• Demand can fall for certain goods or services, without due warning.
• Demand will be affected by ‘seasonality’ for many leisure goods and services.
• Cycles of demand, over the longer term, appears to be fairly significant for
some leisure goods, e.g. skateboards.
• Supply may be limited by external factors, crucially by ‘what price people will
pay’, which is itself a function of ‘disposable income’.
118 Managing Leisure

A ‘subsidized market’
A subsidized market occurs when some external body, usually local or central
government, interposes itself between seller and buyer. The effect of such a move
is to reduce prices – which in theory increases demand – but by so doing the ‘inter-
posing body’ helps to secure the financial future of the supply.
The arguments for and against subsidy are examined more closely in the Intro-
duction, and the reader may find it useful to have another glimpse at Figure 0.2.
Subsidized markets do obviously assist customers in the short term, simply by
reducing prices, and some ‘complete subsidies’ (i.e. 100 per cent) are applied for
purely practical reasons. It makes no sense to pay someone a salary to take money
from members of the public who merely wish to take a walk in the park, for
example.
Some leisure customers therefore benefit from subsidies, whereas some do not.
A cinema ticket is not subsidized, except in the very few regional film theatres,
whereas a ticket to the opera is likely to be, either through subsidy to the venue
or to the opera company.
The voluntary leisure sector is a different matter, in that individuals do not make
a charge for services which would otherwise appear as expenditure items on the
annual accounts. Such generosity is not generally viewed as ‘subsidy’, although
like subsidy it has the effect of lowering prices to participants.

The customer as a financial resource

Income, for the most part, depends on a series of individuals deciding to parti-
cipate in a specific leisure pursuit or visit a specific leisure venue. Any number of
inhibitory factors may intervene to change their minds, such as:
• diminished disposable income, e.g. through unemployment
• the prospect of diminished disposable income, e.g. through job insecurity
• the availability of cheaper alternatives
• ‘transferability of choice’ to another ‘product’, e.g. from a leisure centre to a
fitness club
• inclement weather conditions
• diminished time availability, e.g. through pressure of work.
The point here is that a leisure facility’s income is an aggregate of many hundreds
or thousands of ‘individual commitments’, which might easily have been deflected
elsewhere.
 Managing people 119

And of course if no such commitments are made, then both primary and
secondary income are affected. In the public sector, subsidy may come into play,
in order to inject additional income into the equation, but the private sector cannot
rely on such generosity, having to consider short-term borrowing, perhaps renego-
tiating terms for existing loans, to ensure financial survival.
Whereas income is hypothetical until individuals pay their money, expenditure
is not so, since there will be contractual commitments which demand regular
expenditure payments, e.g. for staff wages/salaries, for electricity, water, insurance
and so on. As we shall see in Chapter 5, an organization’s cash flow is just as
important as its annual budget – possibly more so in the leisure business, where
borrowing can be very difficult and expensive, and where seasonality can be so
significant a factor.
Customer care is therefore of fundamental importance in the leisure industry,
since there are so many inhibiting factors to the ‘leisure spend’, and since in any
case that spend could quite easily be committed elsewhere.

Principles of customer care

The notion of customer care is not new, but the two words are nowadays used in
tandem to create a concept which is of crucial significance.
Central to the concept is the belief that the customer is paramount (‘the
customer is king’), and that the customer is to be treated as such by the seller of
goods or services. Of course, this concept is tempered by an appreciation that
customers do not always know what they want, or how to make choices between
A and B – but on the whole the concept is accepted in societies which have capital-
ist economies and a tradition of ‘possessive individualism’.

Aspects of customer care

Customers expect the following set of circumstances to be present during their visit:
• value for money, in terms of quantity and quality
• the experience as described
• protection from physical harm
• security of goods and belongings
• quality of ancillary services and goods
• positive signals.
120 Managing Leisure

Value for money

What constitutes value for money is only definable in terms of personal experi-
ence, and a difficulty is that preferences (‘demands’) in leisure are more divergent
than in many other industries. ‘Value’, in this context, is not absolute, but relates
to the benefits received, in proportion to the total of disposable income.
Secondary as well as primary spend is taken into account by visitors to facili-
ties such as water parks, theme parks and safari parks. ‘Good value for money’
may be a phrase which relates to ‘total expenditure’ (even if this is quite substan-
tial), as being preferable to the less predictable expenditure at ordinary fun-fairs
and zoos. Certainly, theme parks such as those referred to in Chapter 1 benefit
from the ‘all-inclusive’ principle, where rides and other adventures are paid for
within the admission charge.
’Value for money’ must, in the end, be a matter for customers to determine, and
it may be assumed that ‘repeat visits’ are one means by which that judgement can
be measured.

The experience as described

Customers expect to get what they pay for, and are annoyed when conditions are
otherwise than those anticipated. Where the experience is akin to a ‘product’, then
this is quite understandable. After all, if I buy a ticket to see Edward II and turn
up at the theatre, only to be told that it is Hobson’s Choice (in all senses), then I
should be less than satisfied.
If, however, I attend a circus, or visit a restaurant, or a theme park or a race-
meeting – what am I really to expect? Where I am merely an observer, and not a
participant, I can expect a reasonable standard of performance or presentation.
This must be as true for rock concerts as for rugby matches. After all, consumer
protection legislation and contract law protect me from buying something which
has been ‘misrepresented’.
Where I am a participant in the overall experience, or at least where my physi-
cal participation is an essential part of the experience, then the issue is more
complicated. My perceptions will be more a matter of subjective opinion, rather
than of objective fact. A white-knuckle ride may be perceived as extremely excit-
ing by one person, and rather tame by another.
From a legal standpoint, I expect to receive that which is advertised, on the basis
of which I have paid my entrance money and thereby entered into a contract with
the ‘provider’ (or seller) of the leisure experience.
 Managing people 121

Where risk is an intrinsic part of the deal, then I also expect to experience the
excitement of that risk – only that risk, and not the risk of ‘uncontrolled descents’
(caused by the parachute failing to open) or ‘mechanical failure’ (followed by an
awful drop). In other words, I have very specific expectations of what I have
purchased, even where they may be an element of risk.

Protection from physical harm

Consistent with the idea of ‘getting what you pay for’, or ‘the experience as
described’ is the notion that the risks – where these constitute part of the leisure
experience – should ideally be no less, and certainly no more, than those which
were anticipated by the customer.
This particular notion has always been an implicit part of ‘fairground experi-
ences’, of ‘roller coasters’, ‘twisters’ and now ‘white-knuckle rides’ of different
types. As we shall see, the human behaviour aspect, which itself may accentuate
risk, is in such circumstances increasingly restricted through physical means. Thus,
for example, passengers on high-speed rides are held in place by a restraining rigid
harness which prevents the body from significant movement.
Chapter 2 explains in some detail the legal concept known as the ‘common duty
of care’, and the section dealing with the concept might usefully be read in
conjunction with this section.
One defence against a charge of negligence is that the customer knew or ‘volun-
teered’ to take the risk, and is called upon in cases where adults are injured whilst
playing sport. The Latin tag volenti non fit injuria, has often been claimed in such
instances (the phrase means ‘volunteering does not make for injury’) but in recent
years the law has moved towards greater consumer protection, especially in the
United Kingdom.
To argue that someone ‘accepted the risk’ presupposes that they understand the
risk in some detail – which is why the ‘volenti’ defence is less effective in cases
where a person under 18 is injured in an accident, as a result of the management’s
negligence.
Warning notices have become more common, as have notices which endeavour
to restrict the scope of the management’s liability (see the reference, however, to
Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977, in Chapter 2). Undoubtedly, such notices help to
support the management defence that the customer was warned, but how far
should this process proceed? If the medical world is anything to go by, then
perhaps a ‘probability notice’ might be required, saying ‘You have 10 000 : 1 chance
of being seriously injured on this ride, and a 100 000 : 1 chance of being killed’.
122 Managing Leisure

The point is exaggerated, perhaps, but is not entirely spurious since the precise
wording of warning notices has grown more significant of late, constituting part
of some legal defences.

Security of goods and belongings

Customers expect that their goods and belongings will be protected, during the
time that they remain within the facility. Whilst the management may consider the
car parking area to be a lesser responsibility in this regard, customers none the
less anticipate that their vehicles will have some protection, and that the goods
within their vehicles will be there when they return.
Whilst ‘disclaimer’ signs for accidents caused through management negligence
are meaningless, in legal terms, signs that advise customers not to leave valuables
in their vehicles, or in lockers, do have their purpose, and the management is
thereby in a stronger position should the vehicle, or locker, be broken into and
something valuable taken.

Quality of ancillary services and goods

As all managers should be aware, it is the ‘customer perception’ which counts,
and not the ‘objective reality’. That being so, the totality of the leisure experience
is important, and not just one part. Often, indeed, it is the ancillary facilities which
become more significant in situations where competition increases: thus, for
example, an airline company will provide in-flight hospitality which is better than
that of its rivals, in the knowledge that this ‘makes the difference’ to the customer.
Expectations, motivation, perceptions and assessment are all determinants of
customer behaviour, and cannot entirely be predicted. To make matters more
complicated, different customers will have different expectations, motivations,
perceptions and assessments from each other, as might even the same customer at
a different stage of his or her life.
‘Quality’ in respect of ancillary services and goods also encompasses value-for-
money, and those venues which offer on-site bars, cafés or restaurants should resist
the temptation to extract as much secondary income as possible. The customer
may well ‘pay up’ because the kids are hungry – but the family will never return.
Similarly, incidental goods sold at leisure venues should represent good value-for-
money, should be of ‘merchantable’ quality (Sale of Goods Act 1979) or of a quality
which might reasonably be expected (Sale and Supply of Goods Act 1994) and should
be chosen carefully by the management so that their quality is consistent. The
 Managing people 123

National Trust, for example, exercises a degree of quality control which ensures such
consistency – though its retail outlets all look much the same, as a result.
Services on-site must also be well organized, with personnel trained in relevant
aspects of customer care. Equally, such training cannot be effective unless the staff
themselves feel ‘cared for’ by management.

Positive signals
Positive signals refer to those characteristics which make the experience ‘worth-
while’, and which encourage the customer to make a repeat visit.
Accepting that customers may have different perceptions, and therefore assess-
ment, of the same facility, there are nonetheless positive stimuli which together
influence the final outcome. Supermarkets are well aware of the need to create a
‘positive signal’ at the outset of the shopping experience – which is why fruit and
vegetables are placed near the store entrance, where customers may handle (to an
extent) and choose products.
Rice (1993) refers to market research which shows that ‘sensory thresholds’ are
very important in such instances. These can be categorized as follows:
1 An absolute threshold – the minimum level at which the sensation is experi-
enced.
2 A differential threshold – the point at which the gap between stimuli is suffi-
ciently great for disparity to be noticeable.
3 Dual thresholds – where some senses seem to have quite different thresholds.
Positive signals from an experience must, of course, outweigh negative ones, if the
customer is to make a return visit.

Handling customer complaints

Customer complaint procedures, and the very act of obtaining customer opinions,
also help to send out positive signals. Where complaints are properly received,
and correctly dealt with – and possibly some recompense made for a bad experi-
ence – then evidence suggests that the customer will return.
It is generally accepted by the tourism industry that the following responses
occur:
• 90 per cent of dissatisfied customers never complain – but they tell nine other
people how poor the service was.
124 Managing Leisure

• 13 per cent of those will tell at least 20 others.

• 90 per cent of the originally dissatisfied customers will never return.
The message, therefore, is obvious enough: managers should not only ensure that
customers are satisfied, but also, if they do complain, deal with those complaints
properly. A procedure for handling complaints may be summarized as follows:
• Allow the customer to have his or her say.
• Demonstrate that the complaint is taken seriously, where appropriate, e.g. by
body language, attentiveness, discussing the matter at some length.
• Investigate the complaint – if the complaint is against a member of staff,
managers are not to assume that the customer’s word alone represents suffi-
cient grounds for disciplinary action (see previous reference to disciplinary
procedures).
• Advise the customer of the conclusion, and any corrective action which has
been taken. If the complaint involves physical harm of some sort, care should
be taken not to admit liability, even if the manager privately believes that the
organization was largely to blame.
• Compensate the customer, wherever possible, e.g. free tickets to the next show,
free swimming for one week, or whatever. The compensation should be
commensurate with the complaint, for if misjudged will make matters worse.
Complaints against members of staff are especially difficult to handle: if the
manager sides entirely with the customer (‘I never trusted X anyway’) then this
will complicate matters if it turns out that the customer is, in fact, at fault. Equally,
criticising one’s own staff for lack of competence creates a very poor impression
of the way the organization is managed.
Serious complaints, of theft or assault, will necessitate police involvement, but
here again the managers are expected to ascertain the facts and not jump to conclu-
sions. Customers need to be advised that independent witnesses would almost
certainly be needed, should the case come to court. Managers also need to bear in
mind that once called in to investigate a case, the police cannot be ‘disengaged’
by the management.

Customer preconceptions

Preconceived ideas will be derived from external and/or internal factors.

External factors:
• Word-of-mouth: recommendations from friends and colleagues
 Managing people 125

• Media advertising: publicity material specifically designed to attract customers

• Previous visits to similar venues
• General impressions (derived often from television) about a range of facilities.
Internal factors:
• Gender: some activities are heavily influenced by gender, for whatever reason,
e.g. aerobics and yoga tend to be female dominated, whereas boxing and wind-
surfing tend to be male dominated
• Age: some activities are very age-specific, e.g. skate-boarding at one end of the
scale, and bowls at the other
• Education: some activities are stimulated by educational experiences and the
desire to learn more, e.g. visits to art galleries and museums
• Culture: some activities are heavily influenced by ‘collective culture’ or ‘sub-
culture’, often irrespective of education background, e.g. tennis clubs tend to
have a rather middle/upper-class intake, whereas fishing clubs tend to attract
a different sector of the population
• Life cycle: many activities are undertaken when one is part of a family, e.g.
visits to the circus, trips to a theme park or fun-fair, but would not be under-
taken alone, perhaps in later life. (In such cases, age may not be the only deter-
minant therefore.)

Customer perceptions

Perception is not as simple a concept as it might seem, for several reasons:

1 Customers may assign a higher importance to certain parts of the experience
(e.g. the ancillary facilities) than does the management.
2 Different customers may perceive the same experience quite differently from
each other.
3 The same customer may view an experience differently from one visit to
another, depending on his or her mood.
4 People often ‘see what they want to see’ – they may be determined to have a
good time whatever the quality of the food, or may be determined to be miser-
able however great the show.
Generally speaking, the selectivity of the senses operate at both a conscious and
unconscious level. At the conscious level, a person may concentrate on specific
aspects of a site, at the relative exclusion of other features. At an unconscious level,
126 Managing Leisure

the person will receive a ‘general impression’ which might represent the totality
of the experience – or maybe one instance of poor treatment – either of which is
sufficient to mould the final outcome.
External factors influencing perception will include the following:

• Movement – the human eye is attracted to moving images perhaps by instinct

– thus it is difficult to ignore a ‘live’ television however hard one tries
• Repetition – thresholds of sensory perception are strongly influenced by repeti-
tion, and a stimulus which is often repeated, e.g. a television advert, is easier
to recall than a single exposure
• Pattern – Gestalt psychology confirms that people tend to see patterns and
connections as a means to aid recall, and that humans even create patterns –
perhaps as a mechanism to understand their environment – even where it is
obvious that none exists, e.g. signs of the zodiac
• Colour – people react to colour in ways which are often ‘culturally deter-
mined’, which is why, for example, adults associate the colour red with ‘danger
signs’, whereas a child will be attracted to a piece of play equipment (or
machinery!) which is bright red
• Contrast – sometimes the stimuli may be so conflicting as to reduce aware-
ness, in which case it may be contrast (dark/light or noise/silence) which
attracts the attention
• Novelty – a service or feature which is unique to one particular venue is easier
to publicize and market than one which is common to all such venues
• Consistency – equally, a service needs to be consistent if it is to be provided
at all – nothing is more annoying than vending machines which refuse to vend
after taking the money!
• Association – those who visit specific leisure facilities often do so because these
are ‘associated’ with something else, e.g. visiting a fitness centre, in the appro-
priate garb, may be associated with ‘being fit’ in itself.

Customer assessment

How do the customers remember their experience, and would the memory be
sufficiently positive to encourage their repeat visit?
Whilst motivation, preconception and perception are all rather difficult to elicit
and measure, it is much easier to establish how customers assess their experience,
either:
 Managing people 127

• during and at the end of the visit, or

• at some predetermined time after the visit.
Customer appraisal carried out during the visit or at the visit-end can be done
face to face, through a market interview process, or by questionnaire-type
response, completed by the customer and left in a particular location. Face-to-face
interviews are generally more successful in terms of their response rate, but there
is a danger that the customer will give answers that the interviewer looks for, due
to the nature of the questioning or the interviewer’s body language.
Customer appraisals carried out after the visit have certain advantages, since
the respondent may be less harassed and more able to take a more balanced view
of what pleased and did not please during the visit. Questionnaires sent out, say,
a week afterwards may be quite useful – provided that they are returned. Various
incentives are used to encourage a ‘return’. An alternative method is to use a
telephone survey, which has the advantage of a greater response rate.

Encouraging repeat business

A person who is already present at a leisure venue is much easier to reach and to
influence than someone who is ‘out there’. Marketing is very expensive, after all,
and it is sometimes said that persuading an existing customer to return is five
times cheaper than finding a new one.
The following means to encourage repeat business can be considered:
• good ‘first impressions’, value for money, etc. from the initial visit
• membership schemes, e.g. offering priority bookings and/or social events or
newsletters
• reduced charges for a ‘series-booking’ where applicable (often used for
concerts)
• vouchers for a reduced ‘second visit’ admission charge
• vouchers for reduced charges at ancillary facilities, e.g. restaurant/crèche
• ‘loyalty cards’ – used extensively by supermarkets but could be used by larger
commercial leisure companies
• bring-a-friend schemes – where both parties benefit through reduced prices
• publicity initiatives – sending out information, details of special offers etc. using
a mailing list (postcodes also tell a great deal about customer catchment areas)
• special offers, e.g. discounted admissions charges during off-peak periods, to
target groups.
128 Managing Leisure

If the policy is successful, and a high percentage level of repeat business estab-
lished, then the manager can at least relax a little – knowing that the ‘income base’
is not quite so volatile as it might otherwise have been – and that expenditure on
publicity is so much lower.

Managing contractors
In Chapter 2 we explained that all contracts are agreements, but not all agreements
are contracts. Contracts are therefore particular types of agreement, their special
nature underpinned by civil law.
The principles of contract management are as follows:
• Roles (client/contractor and contractor/subcontractor) must be understood
and adhered to strictly.
• Any party to a contract must know what a contract represents, what is to be
performed, and what the consequences of a ‘breach’ might be.
• Contracts between contractors and subcontractors are quite distinct from
contracts between clients and contractors. It follows that clients should not
give instructions to a subcontractor directly but only through the contractor,
and only then with the latter’s agreement.
• Great care must be exercised by managers who allow contractors into their
buildings, e.g. for cleaning purposes or for maintenance. They should recognize
that the public may not distinguish between such contractors and the venue’s
own staff. Whilst contractors are expected to use their professional knowledge
in maintaining public safety, managers are none the less advised to ensure that
due safeguards – physical barriers, warning signs etc. – are duly in place.
• Contractors, for their parts, need to understand the characteristics of the
‘leisure environment’, especially where the venue is still open to the public
whilst work is in progress.
Generally speaking, the relationships between client and contractor will proceed
smoothly provided that both parties understand the quality and quantity of their
obligations.
Figure 4.2 illustrates ‘who does what’ within the client/contractor relationship,
whilst Figure 4.3 sets out the various parts of a ‘minor works’ contract, in the form
of a sequence-duration diagram (precisely as with those used for event-planning:
see Chapter 6). The latter approach is vital if, for example, the manager wants to
keep a part of the complex open to the public, whilst work is in progress. He or
she would need to know which areas were being disrupted, and for how long.
 Managing people 129

Client role Contractor role

Client prepares specification

Client advertises for

'expressions of interest'
Contractors submit
'expressions of interest'

Client takes up references

and draws up a select list

Client sends out formal

documentation to select list,
inviting tenders

Contractors submit
formal tenders
Client receives tenders and
checks against specification

Client awards contract and

enters into agreement
with contractor
Contractor begins
work

Contractor completes work

and 'hands over' to client
Client makes final payment

Figure 4.2 The tendering process for a medium/large contract

Similarly, where one job cannot begin until another ends, such a diagram can be
used for planning purposes by the contractor, thereby ensuring that tasks are
completed in the correct sequence, e.g. plastering before painting or decorating.

Client role
The client is expected to know what is required, and to have the money to pay
the contractor – either upon completion of the contract or at intervals during the
contract period (‘stage payments’).
A client is also expected to recognize the possibility of ‘unforeseen problems’ which
the contractor may discover, and to approve any variation orders (i.e. variation to the
original contract) where necessary.
130 Managing Leisure

Works
Site inspection by
estimator
Prepare quotation

Submit quotation
to client
Order received
from client
Materials checked
in yard
Additional
materials ordered
Materials and
machinery to site
Work commences:
Scaffolding

Removal of existing
roof cover, slates etc
Repairs to timbers
and treatment
Insulation/felt/
battens
Roofing materials
replaced
Lead flashing
secured
Guttering
replaced/renewed
Scaffold removal

Site tidied and

made good
Final invoice to
client
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Weeks

Figure 4.3 Sequence-duration diagram for a minor building contract (re-roofing)

Problems occur when a client is unclear as to what he or she wants – or, worse
still, when a client has a change of mind (whether adding to contractor’s work or
reducing it) during the course of the contract. If a proper specification is prepared
by the client – or someone acting on behalf of the client – then such problems will
not occur.

Contractor role
A contractor is expected to perform the tasks which are set out in the contract itself
plus relevant documents (e.g. specifications, tenders, bills of quantity, etc.).
Unless the client is advised to the contrary, the contractor will complete the
‘work as described’ (in the documentation) for the sum of money agreed.
 Managing people 131

Sometimes clients withhold a small percentage of the payment, in case faults

subsequently arise, i.e. a ‘retention sum’.
If the contractor is competent, well organized, and knows what the client
expects, then all should go well. When a contractor is carrying out work while the
public are within the vicinity, operational difficulties will almost certainly occur,
e.g. vandalism, theft of equipment and tools. In general, problems are most acute
when a contractor is building something such as a sports pavilion, on public open
space, simply because the site is accessible at all times.
All in all, a good working relationship between client and contractor is essen-
tial, perhaps more so in the ‘operational’ world of leisure, where small or medium-
scale companies have insufficient resources to carry out much work in-house.
Certain works will always have to be ‘contracted out’ (e.g. specialist plant repairs,
boiler inspection, electrical/gas installations, asbestos removal, etc.), whereas more
modest tasks, carrying less risk or liability, can be handled internally.

Conclusions

Managing people is not an easy business: people may damage things, may behave
unpredictably, and may even do things which endanger their own lives – or the
lives of others. Staff too can be unpredictable, often basing their responses (to
management initiatives, say) on their own cognitive reality. Managing staff then
becomes a delicate balance between ‘getting the job done’ and ‘keeping people
happy’. Ultimately it is the task itself which must be afforded the higher prior-
ity, whereas ensuring staff motivation is a means to that end and not an end in
itself.
Managing contractors is a very different matter because motivation is not at
issue. Instead, reliability and competence on the contractor’s part – plus a know-
ledge of what needs to be done, on the client’s part – are necessary if the relation-
ship is to be effective.
Having said all this, it is arguably the case that managing people can be a very
gratifying experience. For most leisure managers it represents the best part of the
job, even though the task can be frustrating.

References and recommended reading

Allport, G.W. (1965). Letters from Jenny. Harcourt Brace & World, New York.
132 Managing Leisure

Kohn, A. (1993). Why incentive plans cannot work. Harvard Business Review,
September/October.
Martens, R. (1987). Coaches Guide to Sports Psychology. Springer-Verlag Inc., New
York.
McKenna, E. (1994). Business Psychology and Organizational Behaviour. Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates Ltd., Hove, East Sussex.
Milgram, S. (1965). Some conditions of obedience and disobedience to authority. Human
Relations, 33, 369–382.
Rice, C. (1993). Consumer Behaviour: Behavioural aspects of marketing. Butterworth-
Heinemann.
Rotter, J.B. (1954). Social Learning and Clinical Psychology. Prentice Hall, New York.
Thomas, K.W. (1976). Conflict and conflict management. In M. Dunnette (Ed),
Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Rand McNally.
5 Managing money

Questions

At the end of this chapter you should be able to undertake the following:
1 Identify how financial information may be used to assess the performance
of a private sector company, a local authority leisure department and a local
voluntary organization.
2 Examine the Annual Report of a large commercial leisure company, and
indicate how the information contained in the report would be useful to (a)
shareholders, (b) employees and (c) suppliers of goods and services (to the
commercial company).
3 Discuss the reasons why a leisure manager needs to have an understanding
of financial terminology, and a working knowledge of financial procedures.

Introduction

Although it helps for them to be reasonably adept at maths, students of leisure

management need feel no anxiety at approaching this important topic. The key
skills are not mathematical as such – except for an ability to divide, multiply, add
and subtract – but rather:
• an understanding of financial concepts
• a familiarity with financial documentation
• an ability to think logically
• a capacity to scrutinize figures methodically
• an appreciation of double entry book-keeping, which requires only addition
and subtraction. A trial balance is prepared periodically as a simple though
not conclusive check on the completeness and accuracy of the entries.
134 Managing Leisure

Inevitably, the range of tasks that comes under the term ‘financial responsibility’
(on a Job Description for example) will be wide. Leisure managers may find that
they are almost personally responsible, to a board of Trustees say, for a fairly
modest budget. Alternatively, they may be part of a team with a collective respon-
sibility for a much larger budget.
For the same reason any student of leisure management will find a distinct
advantage in competing for jobs, if he or she possesses some financial knowledge
– even where the opportunities to apply the knowledge in the form of a skill have
been limited.
Simply to list the many texts on ‘finance’, and thereafter leave students to their
own devices is not an alternative, in my view. Since the subject is so large and the
material so voluminous, students are left floundering, with little guidance as to
what matters and what does not (it is possible to study for a certificate in finance
for the non-financial specialist).
This chapter will therefore try to indicate some basic principles of financial
management, whilst accepting that further ‘in-depth’ reading, by students, will
almost certainly be necessary.
The sequence of topics within the chapter is as follows:

1 Financial objectives, planning and management

2 Financial procedures and processes: budgets, cash flow, company accounts
3 Financial concepts: cost behaviour, break-even and depreciation
4 Assessing financial performance.

Financial objectives, planning and management

A private sector company will generally have clearer financial objectives than an
organization in the public sector, though the latter will have limited objectives
relating to specific operations. For example, a commercial company will seek to
create fixed assets, or enhance the value of existing assets (e.g. by obtaining
planning consent for a piece of land), neither of which concerns the public sector,
where ‘asset values’ do not come into their accounting procedures, i.e. they do not
produce balance sheets.
Voluntary bodies sometimes have clear objectives in relation to their future
plans, e.g. a local athletics club needs to assemble resources for a new pavilion,
the local amateur dramatic society for a new rehearsal/storage facility. Such bodies
would look to ‘money-making projects’, and to grant-aid, rather than borrowing
 Managing money 135

from the banks, with associated costs. Sports clubs tend to be quite single-minded
in this type of enterprise, and often receive more help from sports councils and
local authorities than do other groups.

Private-sector financial objectives

Something needs to be said about the objectives applied to private sector compa-
nies. They may be one of the following, or a combination of all three, i.e. differ-
ent objectives and time scales for different segments of the operation:
• immediate return investment (within two years)
• medium-term return investment (within six years)
• long-term return investment (within ten years).
The period of return-investment depends partly upon the capital outlay, which
itself depends upon the nature of the organization. A ‘laser game’ centre, for
example, may hold its premises on a short lease, may hire its staff on fixed-term
contracts but will have to pay for the laser equipment ‘up-front’. Thereafter, it will
run on minimum staffing levels, and while the activity remains popular, will
expect to recoup its capital expenditure (on equipment), and make some reason-
able profit, within the first two years. Provided its overheads (expenditure) are
kept under control, and the customers are prepared to come along and pay the
admission charge (income), then the business will flourish.
In addition, company financial objectives could be as follows:
• to ‘corner the market’, e.g. through retailing a novel service or product
• to ‘corner the market’ by squeezing out the opposition, e.g. through reducing
prices and absorbing a temporary loss
• to secure a long-term financial base, whilst accepting short/medium-term
losses (satellite television companies tend to work to this principle)
• to create a company which is ‘asset-rich’, even if annual profits (as shown by
the profit and loss account) are quite modest
• to create a company which, although not ‘asset-rich’, has value by virtue of its
total turnover (sales), or numbers of contracts won, etc. (leisure management
companies fall into this category).
Rarely do companies have short-term objectives only – excepting the type of
leisure management operation referred to earlier – but tend to have strategic
medium and long-term plans.
136 Managing Leisure

Theoretically, the company should have six steps in mind:

1 Identify objectives clearly
2 Identify means to measure those objectives (the means are sometimes called
‘performance indicators’, e.g. a profit margin of X per cent)
3 Consider and define ‘current position’, e.g. in relation to assets purchased,
liabilities entered into, profit thus far, etc.
4 Identify short/medium/long-term goals
5 Identify means to attain these goals
6 Review and evaluate, modifying objectives/performance indicators as neces-
sary (i.e. a ‘learning cycle’).

Business plans

Business plans are essential documents: they show where the organization stands,
financially speaking, and where it wishes to get to.
For the private sector, such plans help to convince potential lenders of capital
that their ‘investment’ is in safe hands, and will be repaid with ‘interest’; for the
public sector, they represent forward-planning documents, especially for the Direct
Service Organizations (DSOs) which sprang up as a result of CCT; for voluntary
bodies, they are useful guidelines to plot the way forward, and will be of vital
importance if any major capital schemes (e.g. a new pavilion or arts centre) are
envisaged for the future.

Contents of a business plan

Given that most business plans are designed to convince potential lenders, or
grant-givers, that the ‘requesting organization’ is a sound one, it seems reasonable
that large financial institutions should advise applicants on how to prepare their
documents. Similarly, advice is available from the National Lottery for potential
applicants for lottery monies.
Barclays Bank, for example, provides a Business Plan Form which, as it explains,
will help people to formulate their own business plans. The headings suggested
are as follows:
• Introduction
• Details of the business
• Personal details (of those submitting the proposal)
 Managing money 137

• Personnel (cost of employing others, over first two years)

• Product/Service (descriptions, contributions to turnover, selling prices, costs)
• The Market (description, location, scale, growth-rate, competitors’ prices,
strengths and weaknesses, advantages of proposer’s product or service over
competitors, sales forecasts, rational for estimates)
• Marketing (marketing undertaken by competitors, marketing proposals, costs,
source of estimates)
• Premises/Machinery/Vehicles (location, type and size of premises,
lease/licence/rental details, machinery required, costs associated with machin-
ery, lifespan of machinery)
• Record system (how records are to be prepared, and kept up to date)
• Objectives (personal short-term/medium-term, long-term objectives, how they
are to be achieved)
• Finance (orders received, value and life expectancy of current assets, ‘start-up’
items and costs for first year, how paid for, creditors, available credit from
suppliers, financial requirements, i.e. personal investment in the business,
other security)
• Other (accountant, solicitor, VAT registration, insurance arrangements).
The document is very searching in its questions, and the questionnaire format
makes completion easier. Any organization considering the preparation of a
business plan would be advised to approach their own bank to see if similar guide-
lines are available. The Sports Council also provides some Guidance Notes on the
production of business plans, but these are insufficient on their own.

Financial management

Money is a store of value, a measure of liability and a medium of exchange. But

money is also transient, and has no fixed abode: it can flow in as income or can
flow out as expenditure.
Money has to be managed, if it is to be used effectively to further the aims and
objectives of the organization. And at its most basic, money needs to be ‘brought
in’, if the organization is to be able to meet its bills.
Other reasons for financial management include the following:
• Private-sector companies are expected to make a profit (shareholders expect
fairly immediate returns, more so in the United Kingdom than in some other
economies), and financial management makes this possible.
138 Managing Leisure

• Public-sector organizations are expected to manage their budgets properly, to

reduce their deficits/increase their income, to break even or make a small profit.
• Voluntary-sector organizations have to be careful to ‘balance the books’ if they
are to ensure future survival.
• Money is a resource which can be transmuted into assets, e.g. by purchasing
land, excepting that the asset may turn into a ‘liability’ if, say, the land turns
out to be a former land-fill site.
• Money is a ‘performance indicator’ which has the advantage of being measur-
able and relevant.
• Organizations which handle money, i.e. all organizations, except for those dealing
in barter-type systems (LETS for example), have a responsibility to creditors and
to government, e.g. for VAT returns, corporation tax, reports to lenders, etc.
• When assets are converted back into money – a process sometimes described
as ‘going liquid’ – through disposal, then the money can be used for other
purposes, e.g. to pay debts (thus reducing liabilities) to buy raw materials, to
buy finished goods, to build new premises.
In all, financial management is of fundamental importance if the organization has
any expectation of success. Should company finances be mishandled, then
bankruptcy will leave behind a trail of debts to other unfortunate companies and
individuals.

Financial procedures and processes

Budgets

The idea behind the budgeting process is very simple – what makes it difficult are
the larger numbers and the accounting procedures (i.e. the detail).
The purpose of a budget is to predict the movement of the money-resource, both
inputs (income) and outputs (expenditure) over a given period, normally a ‘finan-
cial year’. This period can be a calendar year, or may coincide with a ‘tax year’,
or whatever dates are convenient to the organization.

Preparing a budget
Creating a realistic budget is as much an art as a science. The skill involves a
combination of zero-based budgeting (all prediction) and a scrutiny of past perfor-
 Managing money 139

mance, and of money-gone-by (‘actuals’), to predict what might, or should, happen

in the next accounting period.
Ideally, the person who is responsible for creating the budget should have access
to the ‘actuals’ for at least two, and preferably three, preceding financial years.
(Individuals, as well as companies, also consider their expenditure in relation to
their income, though they rarely do so over a whole year, except when it comes
to submitting a tax return.)

Exercise 5.1 Preparing a budget

Here is a simple exercise. Some headings are provided for you to put numbers
against – more can be added, if you wish, or simply use the ‘miscellaneous’
category. This shows how to calculate your actual income and expenditure, for the
year prior to reading this book. Where your weekly expenditure is stable e.g. £25
per week on travel, then simply multiply by 52; where expenditure is sporadic,
you will have to ‘estimate’ what you spent during the year, e.g. on holidays. Total
up your income, and your expenditure likewise. Where there is neither income
nor expenditure for a heading, write ‘nil’ (see table on next page).
Something is missing, perhaps?
You may see certain problems emerging: most people, when they do such an
exercise for the first time – and even after many attempts – discover that they end
up with what should be a surplus, i.e. they should have money in the bank, build-
ing society or pocket, at the end of the year. But for the vast majority of cases, that
surplus never appears.
Common problems with budgeting are as follows:
• People tend to under-estimate expenditure, forgetting the hundreds of smaller
items which add up to a great amount.
• People indulge in selective perception, e.g. those who smoke 20 cigarettes a
day will be reluctant to write the cost per day ⫻ 365, since the outcome will
be almost £1000, i.e. the cost of a good holiday each year!
• Many new businesses are prone to over-estimate income: in their enthusiasm
for the newly launched enterprise, they may forget the inhibiting factors which
can so easily affect attendances.
Incidentally, you will perhaps have noticed that something quite important has
been deliberately omitted from the expenditure column. Can you identify what it
is? Clue: expenditure on the missing item would vary between £20 and £30 per
week per person. (The answer of course is ‘food’.)
140 Managing Leisure

Actual Income & Expenditure, year to date

My Actual Income and Expenditure for the year ended (today)

Income £ Expenditure £
Wages or salary (net after tax) Accommodation Rent
Local authority grant Mortgage
Summer vacation job Property repairs
Christmas bonus Insurance
Other income (specify) Utilities Water
Gas
Electricity
Telephone
Transport (own) Car loan repayment
Car repairs fund
Road fund licence
Car insurance
Running costs (petrol/oil)
Public transport
Holidays Holiday cost
Travel insurance
Miscellaneous Purchase of clothes
Laundry costs
Purchase of books and
newspapers
Hospitality and
entertainment
Total income Total expenditure

Difference between Actual Income and Actual Expenditure

(brackets denote a deficit)
 Managing money 141

Budgetary estimates
Preparing a budget for the year-following is much easier, because there is
something to ‘go on’, namely actual expenditure for the previous year. Try setting
out your own budget, using the same format, for the next year. Try also to be more
realistic: the chances are that your previous ‘profit’ – which was an illusion
anyway – has now vanished, perhaps to be replaced by a small predicted loss.
The budget for the next year is calculated as follows:
• Assumptions are made about income, based on what is anticipated for the year.
• Calculations for expenditure headings can be made in line with inflation, for
some items (e.g. food, utilities, petrol), may be left unchanged, or may even
reduce (e.g. through obtaining a better deal on house-contents or car insur-
ance). At one time, when inflation was running at 30 per cent per annum,
accountants commonly used different ‘indexes’ (for wages, utilities, materials
and such-like), but this method is less called for when inflation is very low.
• For large organizations, there may be ‘segmented’ budgets, e.g. one for the
marketing department, one for production, one for buildings and estates, etc.
Each departmental head, or ‘budget-holder’, will then be responsible for
ensuring that no over-spend occurs, and also for reporting any significant
reductions in anticipated income.
Where all the segmented budgets are drawn together, for the organization as a
whole, this becomes what is sometimes called the ‘master budget’.

Budgetary monitoring
Once the budget has received formal approval, there needs to be a mechanism put
in place to monitor income and expenditure. In particular, attention needs to be
paid to significant deviations that become apparent as the year progresses – delay-
ing any scrutiny until the end of the financial year is of course too late. Most large
organizations in any case prepare an ‘anticipated out-turn’ either half way or two-
thirds of the way into their financial year.
Usually, under-expenditure is not a cause for concern, unless it represents
‘delayed expenditure’ (e.g. on maintenance) which might have more serious finan-
cial repercussions in the longer term. Under-expenditure may alternatively repre-
sent ‘lost opportunity’. Over-expenditure is what normally worries the
budget-holder, for unless that is a clear explanation for the excess or ‘variance’,
and unless monies can be diverted from elsewhere within the approved budget (a
process termed ‘virement’) then the matter is serious.
142 Managing Leisure

Budgetary monitoring is made easier through the use of spreadsheets, where

the computer prints out financial data in column form, usually month by month.
One column would normally show ‘expenditure-to-date’; another ‘commitments’
(e.g. orders made by an organization to a supplier of goods or services); another
the total of both. A fourth column may show what should have been spent thus
far, according to whether the expenditure is regular or cyclical, and a fifth column
the difference between the ‘theoretical expenditure’ and the ‘actual-plus-commit-
ments’ expenditure. This last column indicates effectively, how the budget is
faring, and should give the degree of ‘variance’. Variance represents the difference
between what was predicted in the budget, and what is actually happening,
expressed as either a percentage or figure.
What steps can be taken if the spreadsheet indicates an overspend? The options
open to the budget holder are as follows:
• Put an immediate block on any further expenditure from this budget heading
or expenditure code, until the matter has been investigated.
• Arrange for a ‘virement’ or transfer to be made from one expenditure code to
another, subject to any financial regulations which may apply.
• Consider whether any additional income might be forthcoming – this would not
excuse over-expenditure, but might make the ‘reporting session’ less painful.
For those who find it difficult to spot significant variances through horizontal
scanning of the figures in their respective columns, an option is to translate the
data into purely visual form using bar charts or line graphs.

Cash flow
Control of cash flow – monies coming in and out – is extremely important for
several reasons. Many firms ‘go under’ even when their budgets appear reason-
able, simply because they do not receive sufficient payment (from large purchasers
of their goods, for example) and therefore cannot pay their staff or meet other
crucial items of expenditure, e.g. loan repayments. If all else fails, the ‘creditors’,
from whom they borrowed money, may call in the Official Receiver, and the
company must cease trading. ‘Trading while knowingly insolvent’ is an offence in
the United Kingdom.
Cash-flow management is vital for the following reasons:
• Many items of expenditure must be paid almost immediately when demanded,
e.g. salaries, and cannot be delayed until ‘more income arrives’.
 Managing money 143

• Cash-flow monitoring allows for the scrutineer to detect small trend-changes

over shorter periods, which if left uncorrected would cause major distortions
to the final out-turn.
Cash-flow monitoring is normally conducted on a month-by-month schedule,
though large companies might use the week-by-week approach.
Where the operation of an organization has a seasonal pattern to its income, i.e.
most leisure facilities, then cash-flow monitoring becomes yet more important.
Operations which are primarily ‘outdoor’ in the United Kingdom (fun-fairs, zoos,
theme parks, outdoor pools) experience substantial reductions in their income during
the winter months – but they still carry various fixed costs, and have staff to employ,
grounds to maintain, buildings to repair, utility bills to pay, if they are to continue in
existence until the next season. Sadly, an ‘expenditure-free period’ is not possible,
though an ‘income-less’ one is. The same is true for individuals, of course ...
As with budgets, so with cash flow: the best way to understand is not to read,
but to do. If it would help, therefore, try this exercise.

Exercise 5.2 Cash-flow forecasting

Month-before-last:
Consider your income and expenditure for the last two months, and complete
the right-hand column, headed Actual. Leave the Forecast column as it is, because
in this instance someone has done the forecast for you.
Try to calculate both income and expenditure as accurately as possible, when
completing the Actual column. Some of the expenditure figures can be calculated
by dividing the annual sums in Exercise 5.1 by 52. Then calculate your Closing
Bank Balance in the same way as has been done for the Forecast. Note that your
Closing Bank Balance for the month-before-last becomes your Opening Bank
Balance for the last month. The same principle applies throughout the process.
Now assess how different are your Actuals from what was forecast: the differ-
ence is called ‘variance’.
Last month:
Using the same format and basing your figures upon the last Actuals, calculate a
Forecast for what you should have spent and received last month. The chances are
that you will have guessed your income reasonably well, but have underestimated
your expenditure.
In theory, you could prepare such a cash-flow chart for a complete financial year
(i.e. 12 charts in all) and by this means ensure that you have sufficient monies to
pay your most pressing bills.
144 Managing Leisure

Cash-flow forecast

Month before last Last month

Forecast Actual Forecast Actual

Receipts £ £ £ £
Wages/Salary 150
Grant 250
Other receipts 135
Total receipts (A) 535

Payments
Transport 25
Food 75
Fees 100
Entertainment 50
Books & Newspapers 25
Rents/leases 200
Utilities 40
Other 65

Total payments (B) 580

Opening bank balance NIL (45)

Add total receipts (A) 535
Less total payments (B) 580
Closing bank balance (45)

*Figures in brackets denote a deficit

Cash-flow forecasting allows an organization to:

• make immediate changes to expenditure if income falls dramatically
• relate monies in/out to the annual budget (since the totals for predicted
income and predicted expenditure should be the same for cash-flow forecast
and budget after adjustment for creditors and pre-payment, e.g. telephone
rental)
 Managing money 145

• ensure that ‘lean-periods’ of reduced income are anticipated in such a way as

to allow for unavoidable expenditure, e.g. on salaries. This is particularly
important, given the ‘seasonality’ factor which affects both leisure and tourism.

Company accounts

Private sector companies normally produce their accounts according to guidelines

or rules established by the following means:
1 Acts of Parliament/State legislatures, e.g. The Companies Acts 1985.
2 Professional requirements/accounting standards laid down in the United
Kingdom by such bodies as the Institute of Chartered Accountants, the
Chartered Association of Certified Accountants or the Chartered Institute of
Public Finance and Accountancy.
3 Procedural rules drawn up by the ‘money markets’, e.g. listing rules of the
Stock Exchange.
Company accounts appear in three characteristic formats, namely:
• trading accounts
• profit and loss accounts
• balance sheets.
The first two are generally shown together in a simple document. The title ‘profit
and loss accounts’ is replaced by ‘income and expenditure statement’ for entities
that are not businesses.
All accounts are kept on ‘double entry’ principles which means that each ‘credit’
entry has an equal and opposite ‘debit’ entry and vice versa. Often the leisure
manager only makes single entries of cash and the double entry is made by
accounting staff.

Trading accounts
A trading account shows the basic relationship between what a company receives
in the form of ‘sales’ and what it spends when buying in the goods it sells (‘cost
of goods sold’). The trading account will show the ‘purchases’ during the year,
and will incorporate the expenditure made on the ‘opening stock’, since the
income from selling that stock is within the sales figure for the year. By contrast,
the ‘closing stock’ is excluded from the calculation, since even though the goods
146 Managing Leisure

may have been paid for, any income derived from selling that stock will not appear
until the next financial year. At the end of the trading account is a balance which
is known as the gross profit/loss.

Profit and loss accounts

Profit and loss accounts are more straightforward, in that they show the ‘expen-
diture’ picture more fully, by setting these against the gross profit referred to
earlier. The balance shown by the Profit and Loss Account, combined with a
trading account, is called the net profit/loss.
These accounts are prepared on the ‘accruals concept’ where for example the
amount customers have not yet paid for goods supplied is shown in the balance
sheet as a current asset and the amount owed to suppliers is shown in the balance
sheet as a current liability.

Example of a trading and profit and loss account

Most leisure venues incorporate bars within their confines. The drinks which are
sold at these bars represent the ‘sales’ (income) for the year. The ‘cost of goods
sold’ is the expenditure which the venue makes in paying the brewery for the
purchase of those drinks (‘wastage’, a problem in all bars, will be accounted for
when unsold items purchased do not appear in the closing stock). There will be
other expenses, of course, such as staff costs, cleaning and refurbishment. Depre-
ciation of furniture/fittings may also be included as an item of expenditure (this
concept will be explained later).

Thus a simple set of accounts for the year ended

£ £
Sales 170 000
Less: Cost of goods sold
Opening Stock 25 000
Purchases 90 000
115 000
Less: Closing Stock 20 000 95 000
Gross Profit 75 000
 Managing money 147

Expenses
Staff cost 23 000
Cleaning 6 000
Utilities 3 000
Depreciation 4 000
Maintenance 1 000
Total expenses 37 000
Net Profit for the period 38 000

No taxation is shown within these simplified accounts: in reality, these will be net
profit ‘before’ and ‘after’ taxation. Were this a separate company, the latter figure
would, in effect, be available for:
1 distribution to shareholders (in the form of dividends) or
2 putting into ‘reserves’ or
3 identified as ‘retained profit for the year’.
If the entity is registered for value added tax (VAT), no VAT is included in the
figures, but the current amounts must be accounted for to the United Kingdom
customs and excise authorities. If the entity is not registered for VAT, no VAT is
added to value but VAT paid out is included in expenditure.

Balance sheets
A balance sheet represents the snapshot of a company at a point of time, by
showing the assets (fixed and current) which it possesses, as against the liabilities
(long term/short term) which it carries.
A company may be ‘asset rich’ for example, but show a rather poor trading
picture in its trading and profit and loss accounts. Another company could show
a healthy net profit but have virtually no fixed assets such as factories or offices.
In showing the relationship between assets and liabilities, the balance sheet
demonstrates the ability of the company to pay its outstanding creditors, if the
need were to arise. The ‘proximity to cash’ (liquidity) is the crucial measure in this
instance.
Preparing a company’s balance sheets requires considerable expertise, and is an
unlikely task for the average leisure manager. None the less, the basic formula is
worth mentioning, since it explains why a balance sheet is laid out in a specific
way, and why, in fact, it is intended to ‘balance’. The most common formula is:
148 Managing Leisure

FA + (CA–CL) = C + LTL
an alternative being:
FA + CA = C + LTL + CL
where FA represents fixed assets, CA current assets, LTL long-term liabilities, CL
current liabilities and C capital. ‘Capital’ represents the interest of the owners and
constitutes the original introduction of funds by the owners and the performance
thereafter.
‘Capital’ as shown in a balance sheet must never be confused with what a
business may be purchased or sold for.

Financial concepts

Cost behaviour
Some costs are seen to rise (or fall) according to the level of customers or units of
production. In a leisure centre for example, the bill for repairs to lockers would
be substantial if usage escalated rapidly, whereas if no-one came the bill would be
significantly less. Such costs are called ‘variable costs’.
Other costs remain in place regardless of the number of customers or the units
of production, and thus these are termed ‘fixed costs’. Fixed costs are frequently
related to (permanent) staff, and to other aspects of administration which are
necessary whatever the output.
The third type of cost is called a ‘mixed cost’, and occurs when a particular item
of expenditure contains both of the characteristics referred to above, i.e. some
aspects are variable and others fixed. Such a cost occurs, for example, where a
manager is on a set salary per month (a fixed cost) but also has a monthly bonus
(a variable cost, according to output) – in which case the ‘salary cost as a whole’
is ‘mixed’ in behaviour. When mixed costs incorporate specific thresholds, the
resultant figures are referred to as ‘stepped costs’.

‘Break even’
The concept of ‘breaking-even’, used in everyday speech, requires proper defini-
tion. Understanding the concept fully does require an understanding of cost
behaviour, discussed earlier, plus some appreciation of the difference between
absorption and marginal costing.
 Managing money 149

£
Income/ 60,000 Sales
expenditure
55,000
50,000
45,000 Total costs
40,000
euros 35,000
30,000 Point of
break-even
25,000 Variable costs
20,000
15,000
10,000 Fixed costs
5,000

100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500

Customers

Figure 5.1 A break-even chart

The former refers to a system whereby costs are ‘absorbed’ by either the end
product or the cost centres which comprise the business. Marginal costing is used
when the fixed costs are allocated in total against the output, whereas the variable
costs can be set against specifically that output.
In simple terms, a break-even point is reached when sales income matches total
costs. Total costs are represented by fixed costs plus variable costs.
Figure 5.1 explains how useful a break-even chart might be, since it can:
• demonstrate the relationship between the company’s fixed and variable costs
• show the point of break-even, after which the company may be said to operate
at a profit (‘the margin of safety’)
• provide an indication of when, in terms of the X or Y axis parameters, the
break-even point should occur. In effect, either parameter can become a
‘target’.

Exercise 5.3
Using the chart provided, consider the following questions:
1 How much sales income can you expect from 1000 customers?
150 Managing Leisure

2 If you have a sales income of 50 000 euros how many customers does that repre-
sent?
3 What is the variable cost per customer?
4 If the variable cost per customer rises, what effect does this have upon the
fixed costs?
5 If the fixed costs rise, what effect does this have upon total costs?
(Answers: 1. approx. 36 000 euros; 2. approx. 1400 customers; 3. approx. 20 euros
per customer; 4. none; 5. they rise accordingly.)

Depreciation

Like so many financial notions, depreciation is quite simple: it refers to a process

by which an asset is used up by the business and/or declines in value, over a
period of time. We all recognize that certain assets go down in value, quite relent-
lessly, e.g. motor cars, whereas others tend to rise in value, e.g. houses. Under the
prudence concept (‘underestimate income and overestimate expenditure’), Trading
and Profit and Loss accounts must include this loss in value but not the increase
in value as this is not yet earned.
Ultimately, the value of a house or car will depend upon what someone is
prepared to pay for it, irrespective of what an expert valuer says that it is worth,
i.e. estate agent or garage.
Two methods of calculating depreciation are available:
1 Reducing-balance method – whereby the asset value is reduced by a fixed
percentage each year, thus suffering a greater decline when it is at its greatest
value (like a car) than in subsequent years.
2 Straight-line method. The straight-line approach is more ‘accountancy-led’,
because it evens out the depreciation across the whole life of the asset, showing
depreciation as an equal amount each year.
The main advantage of the second approach is its simplicity. Though it seems to
defy common sense – for we know that new things usually depreciate faster than
old ones – the technique works perfectly well if the asset is retained for the whole
of its life.
The method of calculating straight-line depreciation is:
C–S
N
 Managing money 151

where C represents the original cost of the asset, S its residual (‘book’) value, and
N the estimated life of the asset.
Wasting assets will need to be assessed at the end of every year – for example
to assess the amount of reserves left in a quarry or the useable space left in a land-
fill site.

Assessing financial performance

Because money is easily measurable, it is often used to assess the performance of

an organization or venue. This is not to say that money is the only criterion of
success, but that financial assessment is an important tool in any performance
appraisal.
All too often, managers use words like ‘profit’ or ‘break-even’ or ‘value for
money’ or ‘efficiency’ without knowing the true meaning. Where students use
these words, however, they should ensure correct usage, in relevant contexts.
As with companies generally, commercial leisure organizations may be assessed
by reference to their trading and profit and loss accounts, plus their balance sheets.
Local authorities may be assessed through their published accounts, where the
format is also standardized but is different from company accounts. Voluntary
bodies may be assessed through their Annual Accounts, normally presented and
ratified at their annual general meeting.

Financial ratios

Ratios, according to Dyson (1997), represent an attempt to relate one item to

another, with the relationship between the two expressed as a percentage. The
ratios which are commonly used fall into four broad headings, being for:
• profitability
• liquidity
• efficiency
• investment.
Ratio analysis is a useful tool for examining company accounts, but has less
relevance for examining the financial performance of public (or voluntary) sector
organizations.
152 Managing Leisure

Trend analysis
As its name suggests, trend analysis requires that specific items be scrutinized over
a period of time. If one has expenditure details for five financial years, for example,
it is possible to allocate a weighting of 100 to the first set of accounts and to express
subsequent figures as a proportion of that initial starting point.

Horizontal analysis
Horizontal analysis is similar to trend analysis, except that figures are taken year-
on-year, not reduced to a common base. The expenditure (or income) each year is
expressed as a percentage of the year which precedes it.

Vertical analysis
Vertical analysis requires that individual items of expenditure be expressed as a
percentage of the total expenditure of which they are a part. By this means, the
performance of the individual item, in relative terms, can be considered over
several financial years. Since it is the percentage which is relevant – and not the
figure – one can more easily assess ‘significance’.
Some organizations also make use of a performance audit, whereby their part
or the whole organization is studied by external consultants. Like a safety audit,
the performance audit can be a valuable means to spot problems and take remedial
measures.
Utility audits are also used, whereby gas, water, and electricity boards will
conduct surveys, for a modest cost, to check on the efficiency of particular instal-
lations. Similar surveys can be commissioned from specialist consultants.

Conclusions

Managing money is one of the most important skills in any management role.
Unlike ‘people skills’, financial skills are not a matter of intuition – though
intuition does play a part – but rather of understanding the various procedures,
definitions and protocols which are used by the accountancy profession.
A leisure manager who understands finance has an enormous advantage over
others, especially when it comes to defending the empire against the depredations
of other departments. Understanding cost accounting procedures also helps, since
 Managing money 153

the leisure manager may see how ‘central’ costs are ‘absorbed’ by departments
such as his or her own.
In such circumstances as this, budgetary cuts would otherwise fall to the service
(rather than the central) department, since the accounts may suggest that the latter
costs nothing at all! CIPFA has traditionally written local government accounts
using this particular form of subterfuge, i.e. making central services ‘invisible’,
thus protecting the position of its members.
Pricing policy can also be easier if the leisure manager has a ready grasp of the
figures. Because the options are so considerable and the decisions often influenced
by non-financial considerations, the topic of pricing has not been addressed by
this text. None the less it can be seen that from a policy standpoint, managers
should appreciate the full extent of their expenditure before trying to set charges
which, they hope, will be transmuted into income.
Whether the subject of finance has become clearer is for the reader to decide,
but if the reading list looks at all appealing, then something has been achieved.

References and recommended reading

Dyson, J.R. (1997). Accounting for Non-Accounting Students. (4th edn). Pitman.
Gautier, M. and Underdown, B. (1993). Accounting Theory and Practice. Pitman.
Pendlebury, M. & Groves, R. (1990). Company Accounts. Unwin & Hyman.
Pizzey, A. (1989). Accounting and Finance: A firm foundation. Holt Reinhart Winston.
Underdown, B. and Taylor, P.J. (1985). Accounting Theory and Policy Making.
Heinemann.
6 Managing programmes
and events

Questions

At the end of this chapter you should be able to undertake the following:
1 Using the ‘corporate model’, set out the stages which would be required to
promote a large firework display, within the confines of a public park,
indicating also the permissions, licences and insurances which should be
sought.
2 Suggest what might be the components of a successful event, and how these
might be evaluated against the objectives of that event.
3 Identify the main differences between promoting events held outdoors and
those held within enclosed venues.

Introduction

For our purposes, an event represents a ‘unique occasion’, which stands out from
the normal course of an organization’s work. A programme is more a series of
occurrences or opportunities which, taken together, represent a coherent whole.
The distinction is purely pragmatic, and in reality there are many organizations
which promote events on a regular basis across a specific period of time. Are these
‘on–off’ events, or is this a programme?
The principles of organization and marketing apply equally to both programmes
and events, except that the former rely on a consistency of provision, whereas the
latter may not.
Torkildsen (1983) initially saw the programme as the essence of recreation
services, being the result of a process designed to meet the different needs of the
 Managing programmes and events 155

community. He also argued that, while many organizations were involved in recre-
ation programming, e.g. education authorities, religious organizations, the actual
coordination should be carried out by local government. In this connection, he
affirmed, local authorities have three roles, namely:
1 provision of facilities
2 coordination of resources combined with an ‘enabling function’
3 management and leadership.
This approach, with its emphasis upon local authorities, has perhaps been
overtaken by national politics, the diminution in their ‘leisure role’ by compulsory
competitive tendering (CCT).
None the less, the idea of ‘programming by objectives’ remains as important
now as it was then. Before the introduction of CCT, there was far less talk of
‘objectives’, ‘performance indicators’ and even of ‘policies’ than there was in the
1990s – at least within the realms of local government.
Again, a programme, as Torkildsen points out, may need to be seen as
‘balanced’, serving various user groups at a leisure centre, for example, whereas
single events will have a different rationale. Indeed, programmes often reflect
these different pressures to the point where they lose any individuality whatever,
and become ‘just another programme’ at the local venue.
Before looking at the planning and managerial process, we need to say
something about the relationship between venues, and programming.

Venues

Indoor venues

The following aspects must be considered:

• Physical suitability of the venue, in terms of its dimensions and layout.
• Financial suitability, in terms of its audience capacity, and hiring cost.
• Operational suitability, in terms of its resources, security and managerial
expertise.
• Environmental suitability, in terms of any noise or nuisance which might
otherwise be caused to the locality.
• Legal suitability, in terms of any permissions or licences which may be
required.
156 Managing Leisure

Outdoor venues

Outdoor venues can be assessed in the same way as above, but in addition the
following must be considered:
• Availability of an alternative indoor venue, should it become necessary, and
subject to scale.
• Provision of resources which need to be hired well in advance, e.g. toilets,
marquees, catering facilities.
• Liaison with statutory authorities in respect of traffic flows, on-street parking,
emergency access onto the site (for ambulances, fire vehicles), site security and
public safety.
• Greater emphasis on security of goods, money, and equipment, plus need for
contingency planning and constant liaison between responsible bodies.
• Case for resources which are not required for indoor venues, e.g. first-aid
marquee, ‘lost children’s collection point’, mobile refreshments, wet weather
cover of participants, where appropriate, if not for audience.
• Policy on cancellation due to weather needs to be clearly formulated and made
explicit, so as to avoid any subsequent misunderstanding or bad feelings.

Managerial aspects of programming

Generally speaking, the management of a venue or facility will be responsible for

the devising and marketing of a programme. Managers will know their physical
and staff resources in detail, and will appreciate what the venue can best handle.
Likewise, they will know its limitations.
Their task is to match their programme to the needs of the catchment which they
serve, whether this is defined geographically or socially. Political pressures within a
local authority will often lead to problems of ‘balance’, as has already been intimated,
and subtle pressures will come from established clubs and societies which see
themselves as having priority over newly created associations. Under circumstances
of this nature, initiating a new organization, and finding space, can be very difficult.
Membership schemes also cause problems where programming is concerned,
because members may have been promised times and dates for elements of a
programme. The contractual relationship between ‘member’ and ‘venue’ may
reduce the management’s freedom to change the balance of a programme, should
overall demand levels make this necessary or new groups require accommodation.
 Managing programmes and events 157

If events are seen as ‘happening outside the normal run of things’, then the
advantage of managerial familiarity with the venue may not be present in all
instances, for example when an outside promoter hires a venue for a rock concert.
In-house promotions, by the venue management itself, are therefore more straight-
forward than are ‘external promotions’ by a third party, handled either on the basis
of ‘straight hire’ (i.e. for an agreed fee) or ‘percentage split of box office (e.g. 50
per cent to venue and 50 per cent to promoter).
At some venues, the distinction between ‘in-house’ and ‘external’ promoters
may become muddled, where for instance one particular promoter has used the
venue for many years. If things go wrong, however, the matter can become compli-
cated, and recourse to the terms of a contract unavoidable. Assuming that there is
indeed a contract, it may be either of the following:
• the contract between promoter and artists/artists
• the contract between the promoter and the venue.
Where the promoter is external, both contracts will exist, whereas only the first
will apply where the promoter is the venue management itself (the subject of
contract law was examined briefly in Chapter 2).

Assessing demand

Assessing demand for programmes is often a very subtle matter, as managers will
be aware. Internal pressures, based on ‘pet ideas’ from senior management, may
play their part, as will external pressures from established groups which have used
the venue for a long time.
The ‘balancing act’ referred to earlier, implies that the manager has to appease
various interest groups, some internal but most external, e.g. between members
and non-members, between one sport and another, between collective activities
and more individualistic ones, and so forth. Where the organization’s primary
objective is to make a profit, this balancing act is inevitably tilted towards
maximizing both primary and secondary income.
Assessing demand for a specific programme, or for amendments to an existing
programme, can be achieved through the following means:
• Internal evaluation:
meeting with staff to seek ideas
meeting with representatives of existing users
158 Managing Leisure

questionnaires to all members, where a membership scheme operates

selective interviews of specific users
random interviews, e.g. at peak or off-peak times.
• External evaluation:
sample survey within locality, to ascertain needs of ‘non-users’
specific actions to assess demand through new programmes, i.e. by trial
and error
application of ‘demand assessment’ by matching national statistics (for
participation in leisure activities) to the demographic and social charac-
teristics of the locality (in this context, it is to be noted that the ‘National
Standard’ yardstick, for such facilities as swimming pools, and sports
centres is now rarely used as the sole methodology).
Assessing the demand for an event is much more a matter of ‘intuition plus experi-
ence’ on the part of the promoter, and unlike a programme, the financial out-turn
cannot be improved half way through!
Entertainment managers in particular will sense what succeeds and what does
not, as will commercial promoters who hire the venue for their event. A ‘mixed
programme’ in this particular context, will involve both:
• ‘direct promotions’, whereby a contract exists between management and
artiste, the former operating within an overall budgetary framework
• ‘third-party promotions’ by external promoters, operating within a contractual
framework referred to earlier.
In the latter instance, management needs to be entirely clear on the legal basis of their
‘hiring conditions’, and should periodically check these to ensure compliance with
current practices and regulations. Such conditions should naturally be explicit, in
written form, and should be signed/dated by the hirer before the booking of the venue
is confirmed. Similarly, any ‘percentage split’ of box office or any other income (e.g.
for refreshment sales) must be agreed in writing either as part of the hiring agreement
or as a separate contractual commitment. It is then a matter for the external promoter
to sign a contract with the artiste(s), as this is not within the venue manager’s remit.

The process of programme and event management

Accepting the previously mentioned differences between programmes and events,
it still remains a fact that the similarities of organization are greater than the differ-
ences – which is why, in this chapter, we shall be considering the two together.
 Managing programmes and events 159

The chronological sequence which comprises the process may be summarized

in various ways: for example, the Croner text (1992) refers to four stages, namely:
Phase 1. Initial idea and feasibility
Phase 2. Establishing organizational framework
Phase 3. Detailed planning
Phase 4. Post-event evaluation and procedures.
An alternative approach is also sequential but perhaps easier to remember, though
more detailed. Some events are promoted by individuals working virtually alone,
though most are run corporately – either by some form of ‘collective enterprise’
or by a ‘voluntary committee’.
That being so, the nature of the process can be set out as in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Stages in programme and event promotion

Stage Tasks

1 Conceptualization Idea formulated and tested against one’s own

experience or the experience of other people.
2 Objective-setting Objectives clearly established, and means to measure
success or otherwise (‘performance indicators’) also
formulated.
3 Resource-identifying Physical and human resources, needed to promote the
programme or event, clearly identified; preliminary
financial resources (i.e. draft budget) also established.
4 Planning Planning process begins, and permissions/licences
sought, once any liaison with statutory authorities or
landowners is completed.
5 Organization Details are discussed and concluded; resources are
hired where necessary and artistes contracted; venue is
confirmed.
6 Refining Adjustments may be needed to programme/event
marketing, in light of advance ticket sales; all contracts
finalized and arrangements checked.
7 Acquainting The ‘marketing push’ which acquaints potential
customers is most important at this stage, since a well-
organized programme or event which no one attends
cannot be considered a success.
8 ‘Turn out’ The event itself should appear professionally presented,
should constitute what was promised in the publicity,
should run to time, and should attract a maximum
audience.
9 Evaluation The programme or event should be evaluated against
its objectives, using the performance indicators, and
conclusions reached. These may form the ‘feedback
loop’ if a repeat exercise is being contemplated.
160 Managing Leisure

No special claim is made for this nine-stage approach, except that perhaps the
‘corporate acronym’ should assist recall. Looking at each of the stages individu-
ally may also make things clearer.

Stage 1: Conceptualization

Some person or group will express an idea that ‘such-and-such’ might be worth
trying. The concept will be refined, either informally after discussions with other
bodies, or formally through a feasibility study.
A large-scale programme or event will probably mean that such a study is
required, to convince those who control the purse-strings that an appropriate
budgetary allocation should be made available. Thus, the feasibility study would
incorporate some of the following:
• nature of the event
• aims and objectives
• human and equipment resources needed
• potential income
• potential expenditure
• potential problems to be overcome, e.g. permissions, licences, objections from
within and without the organization
• potential benefits
• time scale required for organization.

Stage 2: Objective-setting

Programmes and events may have a single purpose behind them, or may repre-
sent the culmination of a series of worthy aspirations. Either way, objectives
should be made explicit, and should not remain obscure or, worse still, conflict-
ing. For example, if my first objective is to ‘make an immediate profit’ this may
be at odds with my second objective which is to ‘encourage the use of a facility
by disadvantaged groups or individuals’, where the latter necessitates my intro-
ducing cut-price admission charges.
Objectives may include one or more of the following:
• to make an immediate profit/break even, on the basis that income exceeds or
matches expenditure
 Managing programmes and events 161

• to establish longer term profitability, by establishing and/or occupying a

particular ‘market niche’
• to eradicate the competition, e.g. by providing a better service for the same
price as the competition, or by temporarily reducing charges for admission or
participation (‘special offers’) so as to squeeze the opposition out of the picture
• to ‘satisfy the needs of the local community’. As has been commented
elsewhere, this type of objective was quite often seen within local authority-
run leisure facilities before the introduction of CCT. However laudable it may
seen, it is very difficult to measure such needs with any certainty, and impos-
sible to meet every expressed need by providing the necessary resources
• to satisfy the needs of a particular cohort. This objective can be used to under-
pin GP referral schemes, for example, where the cohort represents people in
poor health. An age-cohort could be ‘over 65s’, for instance, or ‘teenagers’ or
‘under-fives’
• to improve the condition of disadvantaged groups, as part of the process of
‘social amelioration’, in a rural but more often an urban context. (Many leisure
centres were constructed in inner-city areas of the United Kingdom during the
1970s and 1980s on the basis of this rationale.) Clearly, the list of those who
are disadvantaged can be devised in such a way that virtually no-one is
excluded – in which case there is no value in adopting such an objective in
the first place!
• to encourage participation in a particular activity, or group of activities, so as
to stimulate ‘demand’. This is not quite the same as ‘social amelioration’, since
it might represent a ‘means-to-an-end’ rather than an ‘end’ in itself. Thus, the
real objective may be ‘maximum take-up of space’, and the stated objective
becomes the means to that end.
However difficult it may seem, the organization promoting the programme or
event should separate ‘means’ from ‘ends’ so that the two do not become muddled
up. Obviously some objectives, such as ‘to eradicate the opposition and thereby
create a monopoly’, cannot be included in the organization’s ‘mission statement’,
but most objectives can be set down and performance duly assessed.

Measuring performance

At the same time as objectives are established, the means to measure success
should also be identified. If, for example, my objective is a ‘make profit of X per
cent of turnover’, then this is easily measured once final accounts are to hand. The
162 Managing Leisure

objective has either been met or it has not, and the ‘performance indicator’ is a
matter of objective fact and not subjective opinion.
In brief, performance criteria for programmes/events should be as follows:
1 Explicit and measurable
2 Succinct and easy to understand
3 Objective where appropriate (e.g. using numbers of people, or amounts of
money)
4 Subjective where appropriate (e.g. using customer opinion surveys as to the
benefit received from visiting the venue)
5 Relevant to the objectives.

Stage 3: Resource-identifying

Resources will include some of the following:

• Physical resources:
land, e.g. for event-staging, car parking, access
buildings, e.g. for main programme/event, plus ancillary facilities
equipment, e.g. for particular activities within the programme
seating, e.g. for spectator events
staging, e.g. for dramatic productions
security, e.g. fencing around site for certain outdoor shows
facilities as per the specification required to accommodate the programme
or event.
• Organizational resources:
individuals able to make the necessary time commitment
individuals with the appropriate expertise
support within the organization as a whole, e.g. where resources are
needed at short notice.
Legal resources:
permissions from landowners or highway authorities where appropriate
licences from magistrates court (liquor) or local authorities (PEL) or
copyright licences, as applicable
insurance company willing to provide ‘cover’.
• Financial resources:
budget for items of expenditure
authority and procedure for making payments to contractors/artistes
 Managing programmes and events 163

means to safeguard cash, where appropriate, e.g. for outdoor events

means to supervise income collection and arrange banking.
The complementary approach is that of the ‘checklist’, and indeed this is used in
the Croner text. A checklist is extremely useful as an aid to identify resources
which might otherwise be overlooked.
A distinct advantage can also be gained by combining the checklist with a
sequence-time diagram, except that the ‘alphabetical sequence’ should be replaced
by chronological sequence. Figure 6.1 demonstrates how very useful this exercise
can be, even for the organizing of a relatively small event.

Check venue

Initial discussions
with Police/Fire/Local
authority
Contact display
firms
Police/Fire/Local
authority liaison
Obtain quotes for
mobile toilets
Obtain quotes for
security fencing
Obtain quotes for
P.A. system
Confirm display
company

Publicity

Confirm fencing,
and toilets

Arrange insurance

Arrange refreshments
(local charity)
Arrange car parks
cover (local scouts) Event

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Figure 6.1 Sequence-duration diagram for a medium-scale event (town bonfire and
firework display)
164 Managing Leisure

Stage 4: Planning

The planning phase presupposes that the idea has been elaborated, objectives
agreed and resources identified, as well as costed. By this time, the organization
will know whether or not it has the desire and the capability to proceed. It will
also have agreed the mechanisms by which the project will be carried to fruition.

Individual and corporate mechanisms

Some events are promoted by individuals acting almost alone: they decide on the
‘act’, choose a venue, hire the venue, handle marketing and so forth. Such entre-
preneurs would eschew a committee to which they would have to report as being
a hindrance to decision making and a waste of time. Promoters who operate
separately or through their own small company are, quite literally, ‘free agents’
albeit that they have to operate within the confines of contract law, employment
law, and licensing law.
Other events are promoted ostensibly by an organization, whether public,
private or voluntary. The programme or event carries their name and possibly
those of any sponsors. In such circumstances, the organizers of the programme or
event are not ‘free individuals’ but employees of an organization, and as such they
must:
1 work within the organizational framework
2 follow procedures (e.g. financial regulations) which apply within the organi-
zation
3 use human and other resources which the organization decides to make avail-
able.
Where the ‘corporate exercise’ represents a scenario of this nature, the organizing
committee is normally an ad hoc group, composed almost entirely of professional
colleagues from within the organization.
A second ‘corporate model’ may be seen in contexts which are perhaps more
‘social’ or ‘political’ than purely commercial. For example, a local community
centre may wish to promote a ‘fun day’ for the locality. To do this, the person
responsible for running the centre (often an employee of a local authority) may
establish a steering group of interested persons, e.g. a local shopkeeper, an enthu-
siastic sportsperson, a local representative of the district arts association, a local
artist, and so on. The ‘steering committee’ becomes the ‘planning committee’ if
and when the project appears feasible.
 Managing programmes and events 165

A community-corporate model such as that described above is quite different

from the organizational-corporate model referred to earlier: its legal status is less
defined, its powers less circumscribed by internal rules, its resources limited to
what it can beg or borrow. Like the organizational model, however, this commit-
tee may be ad hoc, existing purely for the purpose of organizing the event, and
not otherwise.
Corporate models of both sorts tend to select individuals who have particular
expertise, and sometimes ambitions. Clearly, in the ‘organizational-corporate
model’, the committee structure will be influenced by work roles, whereas the
alternative model establishes its own roles and responsibilities, according to the
task in hand. Organizational-corporate committees will not require a ‘constitution’,
as such, and need have no distinction between ‘lay members’ (representing the
‘community’) and ‘paid members’ or ‘officers’.
Community-based programmes and events are often promoted through the
second type of corporate structure, but here again roles may vary according to the
respective ‘power base’, since some of the committee members will be represen-
tatives of local clubs and societies. Sometimes, the work is simply delegated to
individual committee members, but occasionally, as in the organization of many
large arts festivals, a paid employee is hired to undertake the bulk of the work,
reporting to the committee as and when necessary, once the committee has estab-
lished the policy and approved the budget.
Quite often, the body which forms the ‘standing’ or ‘ad hoc’ committee will be a
Registered Charity, in which case it must act in conformity with its charitable status.
Whatever mechanism is chosen to promote the programme or event, care must
be taken in respect of the following:
• Choosing the correct ‘vehicle’ – an over-large committee may well cause
problems.
• Identifying roles and responsibilities – this should be done on the basis of
expertise and experience.
• Establishing the duties and powers of any paid employees, e.g. through a job
description.
• Understanding the overall process – the need for forward planning, the
importance of the feasibility study process, whether conducted formally or not.
The ‘vehicle’ or mechanism having been established, the planning process can begin
in earnest. If a committee is used then its members will need to meet regularly, and
any agendas/minutes prepared carefully by the Hon. Secretary, or perhaps by the
Event Coordinator (howsoever titled) working through the Hon. Secretary.
166 Managing Leisure

Precise roles can be determined by the committee, with an agenda which

requires that ‘progress reports’ be submitted on specific aspects, or upon the
project as a whole.

Stage 5: Organization
The organization stage is most important, since all the commitments are made
during this time. If the event or programme is being handled by a committee, then
the members will need to meet on several occasions in order to reach agreement
on what is to be promoted, i.e. the content and the form.
Similarly, if the event or programme is being promoted by an individual, then
he or she must decide upon its precise nature. It is this stage which should see
the following:
1 Decisions as to what is being promoted (Is it likely to be popular? How much
will it cost?)
2 Decisions as to the appropriate venue (Is it available? Is it sufficiently large to
accommodate the event and yield the necessary return? Does it have all the
ancillary facilities?)
3 Decisions as to draft budget (Could the event/programme break even, or make
a profit? What happens if it makes a loss?)
4 Decisions as to resources required, in order that commitments may be made,
e.g. for hiring transport, goods, security, etc. (What is needed? When? How
much will it cost?)
5 Decisions as to sponsorship arrangements (Who seeks sponsorship? What is
on offer to the sponsors? Is ‘sole’ or ‘joint’ sponsorship being sought?)
As can be seen, this is the stage at which decisions are made in the light of a draft
budget which shows that the event or programme is financially viable.
Chapter 7 demonstrates how a budget is built up, and precisely the same prin-
ciples apply here. Care should be taken, however, to include all expenditure, and
to avoid over-optimism on the matter of the income.

Stage 6: ‘Refining’
The broad planning having been largely completed, the time has come to refine
everything and to check all the details so that the programme or event will run
smoothly. Contracts for hiring equipment, and any ‘concessions’ (also contracts,
 Managing programmes and events 167

but sometimes based on percentage of turnover rather than site hire fees) should
be double-checked by the Event Coordinator, making sure that the goods and the
people will indeed ‘turn up’ at the right place at the correct time.
Outdoor events such as Town Shows are especially complicated, and the ‘refin-
ing phase’ is one which is extremely time-consuming but very important. Given
the nature of such events, any item which has a bearing on safety and security –
ensuring police/ambulance/fire services presence, installation of ground-wide
Public Address System, erection of security fencing, delivery of short-wave radios
(for stewards) and so on – is vital if the public is to receive the service which it
can reasonably expect.
A highly systematic approach, and a clear sequence-duration planning model,
is recommended for large outdoor events, for the simple reason that many of the
particular items needed are not found ‘on-site’, as they would be with indoor
venues, and their hire requires plenty of notice. Specialist caterers require at least
a year’s notice for summer events, for example, because they will already have
regular commitments around the country. Similarly, marquees, spectator seating,
and mobile toilets should be booked well in advance, as must any major acts, such
as military bands. The ‘refining’ phase requires that all of the key written arrange-
ments (contracts, exchange of letters, booking forms) are personally verified, e.g.
by telephone or fax. Relying entirely on written communications conducted
perhaps a year earlier is simply too risky.

Stage 7: ‘Acquainting’
‘Acquainting’ means telling people about the programme or event, and represents
the liaison/advisory function (e.g. with statutory authorities) as well as the
marketing/publicity function. This phase will probably overlap with that which
precedes it, depending on the nature of the promotion and the time scale associ-
ated with it.
Space does not allow for a detailed discussion of the marketing role, and there
are in any case specialist texts on the subject. None the less, some points are worth
making so that the reader may have some general guidelines to follow:
1 Marketing should be regarded as a key discipline, and appropriate expertise
should be sought to handle the whole programme or event.
2 Marketing in general and publicity in particular should be planned carefully
in advance, allowing lead-in times for the design process, artwork preparation,
and printing where appropriate.
168 Managing Leisure

3 Publicity should make full use of the available United Kingdom spectrum as
follows:
public sector radio (e.g. BBC), national and/or local
commercial radio (national and/or local)
public sector television (national/regional)
commercial television (terrestrial/satellite)
national press
local press
local ‘free’ newspaper (paid for through advertising)
large posters on billboard sites (managed commercially)
specialist magazines, of which there are now many
posters at strategic sites, including shop windows and public notice-boards
leaflets, distributed at key locations, depending on nature of programme or event,
or delivered by local newsagents (at a small cost) at the same time as newspapers
programmes/brochures, also at key locations, such as shopping centres,
libraries, entertainment/sport venues
street banners, at high street locations (check with local authority on whether
planning consent is required)
display signs, usually at major ‘road-entry’ points into the town or city
computer-based data banks, providing ‘event diary’ information where these
are available to the public, e.g. at libraries and tourist information centres
other printed ‘listing’ services, e.g. events ‘diaries’ in publications such as
‘What’s On’ or ‘Time Out’ published by local authorities, plus lists of events
published by some national voluntary bodies
verbal announcements, made on appropriate occasions, e.g. announcing the
date of next year’s arts festival at the end of this year’s
electronic ‘public information’ panels, where available (found a great deal in
France, but less so in the United Kingdom)
special displays or preliminary ‘special events’, providing many ‘photo-oppor-
tunities’
word-of-mouth, where one potential customer tells another that the event is
to take place
Internet services, where available.
Clearly not all of the above-mentioned opportunities or services are available to
everyone, and a purely local promotion is unlikely to receive national publicity.
Often, indeed, such promotions save a great deal of time and money by making
use of the formal and informal ‘networks’ which already exist, e.g. by arranging
 Managing programmes and events 169

for schools to send leaflets to pupils’ parents, by circulating a notice to members

of clubs and societies with compatible interests, and so on.
Whatever the scale of the publicity exercise, an appropriate budget for expen-
diture must be included within the draft budget. Detailed costing may be then be
assembled, using quotations (from printers), newspaper ‘rate cards’ (showing cost-
per-centimetre-column), plus any other materials or services required, such as
designing a logo and preparing art work.

Stage 8: ‘Turn out’

Turn out has two meanings in this context, the one being the ‘final result’ of the
promotion, in terms of the numbers of people who do ‘turn out’ on the day or
evening, and the second delineating the manager’s responsibility for the promo-
tion’s overall appearance.
In either sense, the management has an important role, by ensuring that every-
thing runs according to plan or, if contingency action has to be implemented, e.g.
by substitutions, that customers still receive good value for money. Again, outdoor
events demonstrate how important is contingency planning, especially for
inclement weather conditions, but even the most straightforward show, whether
amateur or professional, may be affected by laryngitis striking the main protag-
onist just before ‘opening night’.
Promoters are expected to do the following:
• Make last-minute check of venue, particularly if hired from a third party, to
ensure dressing rooms/changing rooms/toilets/auditorium/ancillary facilities
are all clean and tidy.
• If venue is outdoor, check weather forecasts, and plan accordingly, e.g. car
parking within fields is acceptable if the ground is dry, but not if conditions
become very wet.
• Keep all copies of hiring documents, contracts with artistes, agreements with
‘concessionaires’ to hand, in case disputes arise without warning and need to
be resolved quickly.
• Ensure that all internal communication systems are in working order before
the event begins – this is particularly important with large outdoor events, at
rugby/football stadia and such like.
• Ensure that all staff are appropriately dressed (stewards must be instantly
recognizable, for example) and in their correct locations. Stewards must be
fully briefed as to emergency procedures well beforehand.
170 Managing Leisure

• Ensure that, where appropriate, emergency services have unhindered access

onto the site or within the complex, and that any relevant systems, such as
CCTV monitors, are in working order.
• Check that everything is in place immediately before the first customer arrives,
simply by walking around the site or venue, looking at the place as if this were
a first visit. Hospitality arrangements for VIPs and sponsors should also be
checked personally, as should artistes’ dressing rooms and changing areas.
• Immediately after the event, thanks should be communicated to:
(a) The customers/audience/spectators – personally or through P.A.
systems (a personal ‘thank you for coming’ as customers left the build-
ing used to be the hallmark of a good cinema manager, some years
ago)
(b) The staff of the venue – personally where possible
(c) The sponsors – personally on the day(s), and reiterate afterwards by
letter
(d) The emergency services (police, ambulance, fire) – personally if poss-
ible, but if not then by letter to respective head of operational unit.

Stage 9: Evaluation
This is the final phase of the cycle, and if the promotion is to be repeated, will
form the feedback which essentially guides the first three phases of that second
programme or event.
Evaluation takes place immediately after the promotion and, provided that they
have been correctly devised, will use the performance indicators referred to earlier.
A set of final accounts may also be prepared – and where appropriate agreed by
a committee – showing the ‘actual’ income and expenditure, and therefore net loss
or net profit, as against those which were projected or estimated.

Learning from the past

Where the promotion is to be repeated, the evaluation needs to be formalized and
recorded. The first committee meeting or individual consideration of the ‘repeat
cycle’ should therefore assess the feedback information at the outset of the next
staged exercise, and should decide upon the following:
• Was the promotion a success or not, having regard to its objectives, and to its
performance indicators?
 Managing programmes and events 171

• Was the venue itself adequate? Should it be used again or should an alterna-
tive (smaller or larger) one be sought?
• Did everything go smoothly, i.e. was the ‘form’ appropriate, and was the
‘content’ of the right quality?
• Were all the resources adequate for the purpose? Did they represent good
value for money?
• Did the planning/refining process operate correctly? Are more/less commit-
tee meetings needed, for example?
• Was the liaison function carried out properly, and were the emergency services
satisfied with the way that the event had been handled. In this respect, some
feedback from those services would also be useful.
Three points remain to be mentioned before we leave the subject of feedback:
1 Promoters need to ask themselves whether the promotion should be repeated
in the same form, even if the last one was so successful. Some variety (of
‘content’ certainly) is essential to maintain public interest, and a new com-
ponent (e.g. adding lasers to firework displays) helps to make the publicity
that much easier to achieve.
2 Promoters need to check if any new rules or regulations have appeared subse-
quent to the last promotion which might conceivably affect the next one. This
is particularly important with outdoor events and with catering services.
Advice can normally be obtained on this issue from the insurance company
which provided the necessary ‘cover’, and from the local authority.
3 Promoters should examine the actual process of organization, whichever method
was adopted, and decide if changes need to be made, e.g. earlier liaison with
licensing authorities, greater involvement with local clubs and societies, etc.

Legislative framework

Finally, attention must be paid to the legislative framework which surrounds and
relates to the promotion. Many aspects of this framework are described in Chapter
2 , but some specific points would be appropriate here.

Health and safety/duty of care

Both spectators and artistes/participants must be protected from harm, as far as
possible, in accordance with:
172 Managing Leisure

1 specific legislation e.g. Fire Safety and Safety in Places of Sport Act 1987
2 general legislation, e.g. Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974
3 general principles, as implicit in legal judgements regarding ‘duty of care’, or
explicit in legislation relating to occupiers’ liability.

Contracts
Programmes and events may involve one or more of the following:
1 Contracts with venues – for hire of venue, support staff, ancillary facilities
2 Contracts with ticket agencies – for sale of tickets at various points, a service
normally paid for on a percentage basis
3 Contracts with marketing agencies – for publicity-production and distribution
4 Contracts with artistes – arranged either directly or through an agent
5 Contracts with suppliers (purchase or hire) – for supply of goods, e.g. mobile
radios. P.A. systems, printed material, poster sites, etc.
6 Contracts with sponsors – often completed through an ‘exchange of letters’
7 Contracts with ‘concessionaires’ – where sites are hired out as ‘points of sale’,
either for a straight fee or a percentage.

Sale of goods
Any goods sold during the course of the promotion must conform to legislation
which relates to:
1 advertising
2 product liability
3 suitability for purposes intended.
These requirements are explained in Chapter 2.

Liability for belongings

If a participant is ‘invited’ to make use of changing facilities, and a locker supplied
within those changing rooms, then the participant may assume that any goods left
in the room, or more probably in the locker, are being looked after by the manage-
ment. Each venue may differ slightly in design and layout, but notices should be
 Managing programmes and events 173

checked as to their words regarding ‘liability’ – though the point has previously
been made that notices alone may not protect the management from a claim.
Similarly, a ‘lost property service’ must itself be secure, so that property is not
stolen whilst ‘under protection’, or falsely claimed.

Protection and control of spectators

The control of spectators is a corollary of safety aspects referred to above.
Obviously, the risks are greatest where the crowd is largest and where there is an
element of conflict, as at certain football matches. In this connection, the Safety of
Sports Grounds Act 1975 and the Fire Safety and Safety at Places of Sport Act 1987
may require that the stadium is licensed by the local authority, in conjunction with
other statutory bodies (e.g. Fire Service and Police) and in accordance with any
applicable codes or guidelines, such as the ‘Green Book’.

Sale of food and drink

Where food and drink are being sold by concessionaires, it is wise to insert a clause
within their respective contracts which obliges them to obtain the necessary
licences, and to liaise (in the case of unwrapped food sales) with the local author-
ity’s environmental health department. Liquor sales, at venues other than licensed
premises, are often handled by publicans, who hold an on-licence, or, in the case
of large outdoor events, by specialist companies.

Insurance
Advice should be obtained from either an Insurance Broker or from the company
which already provides insurance cover for the venue, where anything out of the
ordinary is proposed. Insurance can be arranged for the following:
1 Public liability, i.e. accidents to third parties
2 Accidents to staff
3 Accidents caused by one participant upon another (sometimes termed
‘member-to-member’ cover)
4 Theft of goods or equipment, e.g. items that are borrowed or hired
5 Loss of income caused by bad weather (sometimes termed ‘pluvial cover’).
174 Managing Leisure

Regard must be paid to the Employers’ Liability (Compulsory Insurance) Act 1969,
which requires that employers provide insurance cover for their employees,
against liability for ‘bodily harm, injury and disease’ sustained through the course
of their employment.

Conclusions

Managing events and programmes is an exhilarating experience, and can be

extremely fulfilling when a successful project is made available to an appreciative
audience. Outdoor events can also be very successful, if everything runs to plan:
the parachutes open, the lasers work properly, the band arrives and so on.
However, as existing managers will be aware, things can quickly go wrong: the
‘star’ may cancel, the weather prevents the parachuting, the lasers don’t work, and
the coach bringing the band breaks down ...
No book such as this can ever prevent such spanners from being thrown into
such works. All it can do is to make the planning process a little smoother, by
identifying where the spanners might come from.

References and recommended reading

A Practical Approach to the Administration of Leisure and Recreation Services. (1992).

Croner Publications Ltd. (See Chapter 7, ‘Organizing and Planning Events’,
which includes a useful checklist.)
Torkildsen, G. (1983). Leisure and Recreation Management. E. & F.N. Spon. (See also
subsequent editions.)
Watt, D. (1998). Event Management in Leisure and Tourism. Longman.
7 Managing risk

Questions

At the end of this chapter you should be able to undertake the following:
1 Consider the degree to which leisure customers have unique characteristics,
and the extent to which these characteristics accentuate the risks which they
face.
2 Examine one major ‘leisure accident’, such as Summerland, Bradford or
Hillsborough, and indicate the extent to which crowd psychology influenced
the outcome.
3 Indicate how leisure organizations may reduce the hazards which could
affect staff, customers and contractors within their domain.

Introduction

The particular characteristics of the ‘leisure experience’ are such that ‘risk manage-
ment’ is becoming a major concern. Put simply, the variability of some leisure
environments, when combined with the unpredictable behaviour of many
customers, can lead to disaster.
Secondly, it must be recognized that the actual range of customers – from trained
adults to vulnerable children – presents serious management problems, as does
the mixture of individuals and groups within the same leisure environment.
Thirdly, we see that the presence of large numbers of people, especially at sport-
ing events, creates a potential catastrophe, as at Bradford, Hillsborough, and
Guatemala City.
In no other sphere is risk management so essential but so problematical. In no
other sphere is legislation becoming so onerous, licensing so substantial, insurance
so important – and litigation so worrying.
176 Managing Leisure

This chapter endeavours to look at some of the issues involved, at some accident
statistics, and at the principles of risk assessment and risk management. It also
looks at accidents in specific parts of the leisure industry – where risk is arguably
greatest – in the hope that some tentative conclusions may be reached about future
developments.
Guidance as to ‘best practice’ is implicit within the text, and this may be of value
in countries which have different legal frameworks to the United Kingdom.
Before moving from the aspect of ‘special characteristics’ which opened the
chapter, some contrast with other industries might emphasize the point and
thereby the particular responsibilities of the leisure manager.
Consider, for example, the construction industry, where accidents are common.
Here we see a combination of the following: variable weather and ground condi-
tions/moving equipment/heavy machinery/vehicles/people working at heights.
All such conditions create a substantial risk. Accident rates for the building indus-
try have always been greater than for other industries, but imagine how much
higher they would be if parties of youngsters were brought to play on the sites,
or if retired folk could wander around the place unsupervised.
Then consider a theme park – with variable weather and ground conditions,
‘white-knuckle’ rides soaring to considerable heights, and other mechanical
features such as merry-go-rounds. Perhaps the point is clear: leisure environments
can be every bit as dangerous as other environments, and the risks are accentu-
ated by the behavioural characteristics of the human beings on the site.

Mortality statistics

Mortality statistics make the same stark point, and demonstrate that while the
leisure industry is about ‘fun’, it can also be deadly serious. Figure 7.1 shows
work-related mortality rates for the United Kingdom, from 1981 to 1994/95. Work-
related deaths include those which occur in various facilities, whether leisure-
based or not, but do not include deaths which occur in unmanaged environments,
such as mountaineering fatalities. Had the fatality occurred during the course of
an organized programme, however, it would be incorporated into the figures.
The graph shows two massive increases in mortality rates. The first increase
represents the Bradford fire disaster, when 56 people died as a result of a fire catch-
ing hold in one of the stands, the second increase represents Hillsborough, when
96 fans died as a result of the crush which followed a ‘crowd surge’ onto the site
just before the match was to begin.
 Managing risk 177

Number of 250
fatal injuries
(b)
200 206

(a)
150 159

139
121
113 113
100 105 105 107 104
92
83 85
71
50

0
1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 86/ 87/ 88/ 89/ 90/ 91/ 92/ 93/ 94/
87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95

Figure 7.1 Fatal injuries to members of the UK public, in an organizational/work

context, 1981–1994/5. Source: Health and Safety Executive. (Data includes (a) 56 fatalities
in the Bradford City Football Club disaster and (b) 96 fatalities in the Hillsborough
Stadium disaster)

These tragedies apart, the number and nature of accidents within the leisure
environment – whether or not the environment is ‘managed’ – are such that they
must be taken seriously. As fewer people work in heavy industries, the building
trade or farming, it may be that leisure-related accidents will become more signi-
ficant, comparatively speaking. Certainly the litigation which follows leisure-
related accidents is growing more substantial, and so is the anxiety of insurance
companies who keep a watchful eye on the number of cases and the scale of settle-
ments.

Accident statistics

The Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (RoSPA) carried out an inter-
esting exercise some years ago (1990) when it examined information gathered by
the Consumer Safety Unit of the Department of Trade and Industry.
The Unit collected its information from 11 casualty departments within major
hospitals across the United Kingdom, and gave some idea of the scale, cause and
consequence of sports-related accidents, from which some extrapolation might be
made.
178 Managing Leisure

Football 402.5
Rugby 90.9
Skating 41.8
Cricket 32.1
Netball 29.8
Riding 29.5
Swimming 26.1
Gymnastics 25.8
Skiing 25
Hockey 23.1
Martial arts 22.3
Basketball 20.1
Squash 14.4
Running 14.1
Motor sport 12.2
Badminton 12.1
Tennis 8.8
Gaelic sports 8.3
Baseball/Rounders 8.3
Golf 7.7
Water sports* 7.6
Athletics 7.2
Fishing 7
Volleyball 6.7
Boating 5.5
Climbing/Walking 4.3
Weights 4
Trampolining 3.8

*Excluding boats
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

Numbers in 000's

Figure 7.2 UK estimates of numbers injured playing sport, 1989. Source: LASS, DTI
(1995)

The General Household Survey of 1987 was also used to provide some infor-
mation on sports participation, although the questions in the survey and scale of
responses were not such that conclusive statements could be made about degrees
of risk attached to specific sports.
None the less, the information is fascinating. Figure 7.2 shows, for example, that
football is the ‘injury leader’, with an estimated 402 500 hospitalized cases,
followed by rugby with an estimated 90 900 hospitalized cases. Not surprisingly
perhaps, ice-skating injuries come next (41 800 cases), followed by cricket injuries
(32 100 cases).
The appearance of trampolining at the bottom of the list may also seem surpris-
ing, given the risks involved. However, information on accident numbers alone
 Managing risk 179

Back/spine
Trampolining 13.2
Riding 11.4
Athletics 6.3
Gymnastics 6.2
Swim/dive 5.5
Rugby 5.2
Head (excluding face)
Swim/dive 14.4
Riding 9
Rugby 6.9
Skating 6.4
Baseball/Rounders 6.1
Athletics 5.8
Eyes
Squash 7.7
Tennis 2.8
Swim/dive 2.2
Hockey 2.1
Badminton 1.9
Cricket 1.8

0 4 8 12 16
Percentage of total injuries in each sport

Figure 7.3 Sports leading to the most back, head and eye injuries. Source: LASS, DTI
(1995)

may not show a full picture, particularly in relation to activities like trampolining
and horse-riding, where serious injuries can occur. Trampolining leads the
back/spinal injury ‘league’ at 13.2 per cent, whereas riding appears prominently
in both back/spine and head injury tables. Figure 7.3 graphically provides the
relevant information.

Accident statistics – fatalities

Mercifully, except for deaths which relate to the above-mentioned stadia disasters,
the number of leisure-related fatalities is relatively modest. The Society of Public
Health (1990) examined data assembled for England and Wales by the Office of
Population Censuses and Surveys between 1982 and 1988. The study suggested
that excluding drownings, the greatest number of deaths was due to horse-riding,
followed by air-sports, motor sport, mountaineering and climbing. When the
figures were modified to take account of ‘exposure time’, the study concluded that
180 Managing Leisure

the mountaineering and motor sports were the most hazardous pursuits, followed
by horse-riding. By way of comparison, the study surmised that mountaineering
was at least 100 times and motor sports 50 times more hazardous than either ball
games or watersports.

Accident statistics – drownings

RoSPA reported that 1996 had seen the second lowest recorded total for acciden-
tal drownings in 14 years, with a total of 441. Of these, drownings in rivers and
streams made up 143, coastal drownings 122, drownings in lakes and reservoirs
69 and canal drownings 31. Drownings in swimming pools remained relatively
low, at 10, and were significantly lower than the number of drownings in ‘baths
at home’, at 38.
More will be said on the subject of drownings, later in the chapter.

DTI statistics
As has been mentioned earlier, the Department of Trade and Industry, through its
Consumer Safety Unit, collects data on accidents in the United Kingdom. Its
Annual Report for 1995 (the most recent available at the time of writing) points
out that some 14 million people are treated at Accident and Emergency Units each
year, and that 20 per cent of these are due to ‘home accidents’. The number of
‘home fatalities’ (4000) also demands that attention be paid to this aspect of risk.
To an extent, the DTI Report is concerned with ‘product liability’, since the
emphasis of its information is upon consumer products rather than on behaviour
patterns. The Home Accident Surveillance System (HASS) collects data from 18
major hospitals, as does the Leisure Accident Surveillance System (LASS).
The report goes on to mention that data from 11 of the hospitals has been passed
to the Commission of the European Community for inclusion in the European
Home and Leisure Accident Surveillance System (EHLASS).
Accident locations are also quite revealing and rather curious. For example, it
appears that four people aged over 75 were injured at public playgrounds. Other
statistics are easier to explain, perhaps, where leisure facilities are involved. Table
7.1 provides information extracted from DTI statistics on ‘location of accidents by
age’, by selecting those which might conceivably have a ‘leisure connection’.
The scale of the problem becomes more startling if one looks at the last column,
where, on the basis of extrapolation, the figures are projected to a national scale.
 Managing risk 181

Table 7.1 Location of accidents, by age

Location Age in years National

0–4 5–14 15–64 65–74 75+ Un- estimates
known (000s)

Hotel, B&B, YEA 8 15 117 12 10 0 6

Inside creche/nursery 163 15 7 0 0 0 7
School playground 264 2860 208 2 2 3 122
Education – indoor sport 11 1129 543 0 0 1 62
facility
Education – swimming 1 31 8 0 0 0 0 (i.e. less
pool than 1000)
Indoor sport facility 22 601 1590 10 3 5 82
Outdoor sport area 13 1004 5361 18 9 14 235
Swimming pool – indoor 35 201 128 8 3 2 14
Swimming pool – outdoor 3 16 25 2 0 0 2
Swimming pool – 18 118 96 3 0 1 9
unspecified
Stables 5 68 101 2 0 0 6
Golf course 0 11 80 6 4 0 4
Unspecified sport area 6 227 944 3 0 1 43

Fairground/circus/zoo 23 95 130 1 5 0 9
Dance hall/disco 4 22 216 1 1 1 9
Bar/pub/social club 60 87 572 26 24 4 28
Restaurant/café 36 17 67 9 12 1 5
Cinema/theatre 2 9 30 5 4 0 2
Public playground 188 622 98 2 3 1 33
Social centre 28 153 130 11 22 2 13
Other leisure facility 56 356 494 20 20 1 35
Camp/caravan site 12 55 61 9 2 0 5
Parkland/cemetery 202 929 767 37 29 3 72
Country/pasture/wood 45 575 890 68 21 0 58
Waterside beach 29 143 307 22 7 2 19
In water 5 121 316 11 4 1 17
On board a vessel 1 10 47 7 0 0 2
Other natural area 5 31 131 6 0 0 6

Source: LASS, DTI (1995).

Thus, for example, outdoor sports areas saw approximately 235 000 accidents,
school playgrounds 122 000, indoor sports facilities 82 000, parkland/cemeteries
72 000, education sector indoor sports facilities 62 000, and
country/pasture/woods 58 000.
182 Managing Leisure

Though the figures are remarkable, they cannot explain all of the idiosyncrasies.
Some of the categories of ‘location’ are slightly odd (e.g. parkland/cemeteries),
while the age-banding chosen in the third column (15–64) is really too wide.
It should be noted, incidentally, that the DTI tables exclude ‘accidents which
occur in the course of paid employment’, since such information is reported differ-
ently, and one hopes comprehensively, through procedures established through
RIDDOR.
Three other tables from the 1995 DTI report are also considered to be relevant.
Table 7.2 shows the activity of the patient at the time of the accident; Table 7.3
shows the sporting activity within which the accident occurred, by age and sex;
and Table 7.4 shows the type of injuries which relate to specific sporting activities.
Football injuries appear to predominate in ‘total percentage terms’, as has been
mentioned previously. In most of the sports listed, injuries sustained by males (of
whatever age) tend to exceed injuries suffered by females – which itself reflects
gender differences within sports participation. If we examine the 5–14 and 15–64
age groups, we see that the only exceptions to this are: gymnastics (both age
groups), animal sport (both age groups, and probably horse-riding), winter sport
(younger group only) and exercise/fitness (younger group only, probably gymnas-
tics). The same table shows how certain sports are associated with a large number
of accidents at certain ages e.g. football – and how few people receive sports injuries
once they are over 65. However, the statistics for males aged 15–64 in ‘stick/sport’
is a little odd, and may reflect a greater degree of male participation in hockey.

Consequences of accidents

Since this chapter is concerned with ‘accidents to human beings’, it follows that
accidents which are purely ‘environmental’, e.g. those caused by serious pollution,
are not examined, though of course the effect of such accidents upon flora and
fauna can be massive. ‘Accidents’, in our context, happen only to people
(customers, staff, contractors, subcontractors), since it is generally people who sue,
and not endangered species.

Civil action

Quite apart from the physical pain brought out by the accident, other conse-
quences must be considered. Subsequent physical pain and suffering is taken into
Table 7.2 Activity of patient at time of the accident.

Age in years National

Activity estimate
category 0–4 5–14 15–64 65–74 75+ Unknown Row totals % (000s)

Household activity 3 11 69 1 6 0 90 0.1 3

DIY/maintenance 0 19 379 9 3 0 410 0.5 15
Shopping 80 39 462 234 250 3 1068 1.3 39
Education/training 32 2991 1046 1 0 2 4072 5.1 149
Sport (excl. education) 73 5136 14679 57 21 41 20007 24.9 731
Play/hobby/leisure 1480 6962 2243 82 48 15 10830 13.5 396
Basic needs 464 1363 3069 450 597 22 5965 7.4 218
Travelling/touring 417 2463 4952 651 653 13 9149 11.4 334
Other/unspecified activity 1806 8968 15309 1257 1373 123 28836 35.9 1054
Column totals 4355 27952 42208 2742 2951 219 80427 100 2940
% 5.4 34.8 52.5 3.4 3.7 0.3 100 – –
National estimate (000s) 159 1022 1543 100 108 8 2940 – –

Source: LASS, DTI (1995).

Table 7.3 Sporting activity at time of accident by age and sex.

Sports category Age in years

0–4 5–14 15–64 65–74 75+ Unknown National
Sex Sex Sex Sex Sex Sex Row estimate
M F M F U M F U M F M F M F totals % (000s)

Athletics 0 0 26 18 0 144 45 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 236 1.2 9

Gymnastics 3 2 23 90 0 8 41 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 168 0.8 6
Stick/etc., sport 4 2 222 131 0 1382 453 1 18 9 5 1 1 1 2230 11.1 82
Ball sport – no stick 18 4 2916 382 1 9074 645 1 5 6 6 4 24 2 13088 65.4 478
Combat sport 0 1 114 35 0 442 94 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 688 3.4 25
Shooting 0 0 4 1 0 17 6 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 30 0.1 1
Wheel sport 2 2 161 136 0 374 67 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 744 3.7 27
Animal sport 1 2 15 120 0 51 241 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 432 2.2 16
Winter sport 2 3 154 161 0 287 252 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 861 4.3 31
Landscape sport 2 0 6 1 0 34 15 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 60 0.3 2
Water sport 16 8 180 114 0 318 123 0 7 2 2 0 1 0 771 3.9 28
Air sport 0 0 0 0 0 32 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 43 0.2 2
Exercise/fitness 1 0 10 19 0 119 95 0 1 3 0 0 1 0 249 1.2 9
Other/unspecified 0 0 61 35 0 255 50 2 1 0 0 0 3 0 407 2.0 15
sport
Totals 49 24 3892 1243 1 12537 2138 4 34 23 15 6 36 5 20007 100 731

Source: LASS, DTI (1995).

Table 7.4 Sporting activity by type of injury.

Injury category
Other
Super- soft Joint Chem- Sys- Non- No Un- National
Sport ficial Open Bruise/ Con- tissue Bone tendon ical temic injurous diagnosed Other specified Row estimate
category injury wound Burn contusion cussion injury injury injury injury injury FB injury injury injury totals % (000s)

Athletics 14 24 2 20 2 116 28 76 3 0 0 8 9 3 305 1.2 11

Gymnastics 1 2 0 26 0 102 27 39 0 0 0 5 6 2 210 0.8 8
Stick/etc. sport 50 352 1 433 38 1066 349 410 5 0 3 26 99 43 2875 11.5 105
Ball sport – 304 1151 0 2122 237 6314 2424 2555 14 0 10 246 377 266 16020 63.9 586
no stick
Combat sport 5 38 0 125 14 372 122 106 0 0 0 11 17 24 834 3.3 30
Shooting 4 16 0 5 0 7 3 2 0 0 0 0 3 0 40 0.2 1
Wheel sport 92 74 5 131 21 349 236 92 2 0 1 16 28 11 1058 4.2 39
Animal sport 41 26 0 111 33 284 95 65 0 0 1 12 17 13 698 2.8 26
Winter sport 23 73 3 172 7 427 228 134 0 0 0 7 31 14 1119 4.5 41
Landscape sport 7 10 0 10 0 27 13 12 0 0 3 0 2 1 85 0.3 3
Water sport 66 225 9 131 27 262 58 69 11 4 8 26 60 13 969 3.9 35
Air sport 3 5 0 2 1 20 17 3 0 0 0 1 1 3 56 0.2 2
Exercise/fitness 5 21 0 38 3 114 28 85 0 0 1 3 8 4 310 1.2 11
Other/unspecified 18 38 0 62 6 169 57 92 1 1 0 11 26 27 508 2.0 19
sport
Totals 633 2055 20 3388 389 9629 3685 3740 36 5 27 372 684 424 25087 100 917

Source: LASS, DTI (1995).

186 Managing Leisure

account by the courts, in calculating any damages which are ultimately awarded,
as well as ‘psychological suffering’ or stress brought about by the accident. ‘Loss
of earnings’, however, is frequently the largest figure of all. The solicitor acting on
behalf of the injured person will make use of medical evidence, in identifying
physical and psychological consequences of the accident. Assessors, who are well
versed in such matters, can calculate the financial costs. And so the claim escalates,
since it may comprise the following:
• calculations with regard to initial physical pain and suffering
• calculations as to future physical pain and suffering
• initial and subsequent psychological harm
• loss of earnings related to periods of treatment, and convalescence/recupera-
tion
• costs of solicitors plus assessors/medical evidence/counsel’s advice
• cost of medical treatment
• cost of special equipment/home care, etc. consequent upon the accident.
In such circumstances, it is hardly surprising that so many cases are settled ‘out
of court’, as defendants (i.e. those being sued in the civil action) realize the stakes
involved.

Criminal prosecution

Where an act or omission is regarded by the state as being of a ‘criminal nature’,

then it is pursued by the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) and not by an aggrieved
individual. It is of course open to individuals to take a ‘private action’ through
the civil courts quite separately.
Accidents which occur as a result of negligence may be so serious as to merit a
criminal prosecution, as with the Lyme Bay case, when the charge of criminal
negligence was effectively upheld as a consequence of serious breaches of the
Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974. In effect, the company involved made
English legal history by becoming the first company to be convicted of homicide;
its managing director, likewise, became the first director to receive an immediate
custodial sentence (three years, reduced on appeal to two) for a manslaughter
conviction arising from the operation of a business. His company was addition-
ally fined £60 000 (this case is examined later in the chapter).
The potential for criminal prosecution should never be under-estimated, partic-
ularly where, in the United Kingdom at least, so many wrongs or torts are now
 Managing risk 187

regarded as ‘criminal’, whereas previously they may have been seen as ‘civil
matters’ or merely ‘acts of fate’ (or God). Food hygiene is one example, where
more and more legislation has appeared, where licensing authorities have been
given greater powers, and where criminal prosecutions (as well as civil actions)
have been pursued after deaths caused by food contamination.

Other consequences of accidents

These may be described as relating to reputation, time and finance though all three
are connected, e.g. loss of reputation could have a serious financial impact.

Loss of reputation
Publicity will inevitably affect reputation, when initial coverage of a death, or
major injury is supplemented by coverage of the court case, in the press and poss-
ibly on television, where the matter is considered to be ‘criminal’. Generally speak-
ing, civil actions receive far less publicity, unless the final settlement establishes a
new precedent, or breaks the record for damages.
Reputations take many years to recover, since public confidence will be shaken by
the publicity. Some firms never recover from the media attention, and simply ‘go
under’. The opprobrium attached to them may become associated with the sector as
a whole, as it was for a while with outdoor activity centres after the Lyme Bay tragedy.

Loss of time
Considerable time has also to be expended to defend a case, whether it is being
pursued in the civil or criminal courts. Time means money in the sense that staff
who might otherwise have been deployed elsewhere (to run the business and
generate income) have to prepare statements, assemble evidence, spend time with
solicitors, and so on – quite apart from the time which may be taken up by formal
briefings, interviews with solicitors or barristers, and travel, court protocol and the
court case itself.

Financial cost
Financial expenditure – on ‘time taken up’, loss of revenue through effect upon
reputation, and on hiring expert legal (and perhaps medical) opinion – is likely to
188 Managing Leisure

be very substantial indeed. Loss of income, caused by a loss of custom, can lead
to bankruptcy.
It should be evident from what has been said that accidents are best avoided,
and that efforts made to do so are likely to be much more effective than efforts
made to contest a claim once it has been received. The legal principle which
enjoins managers to exercise the ‘common duty of care’ (see Chapter 2) should not
in any case replace the simple ethical idea of ‘doing unto others as you would
wish to be done by’.
Ethical codes, though, are implicit, and are not really adequate for today’s
purposes, where ‘criminalization’, ‘codification’ and a mass of legislation are
making so many imperatives explicit. Once made explicit, the words enter the
public domain, in the form of acts of parliament, regulations, codes of practice and
so forth. They cannot then be ignored, certainly not by managers who, the law
assumes, should know the words and their implications.
As rules have become more explicit, so other rules have been formulated to
ensure ‘procedures’ and not just ‘outcomes’. Risk assessment procedures are one
such example, where the procedure itself becomes a rule or legal necessity – at
which point risk assessment becomes a compulsory process and not just ‘best
practice’. As we shall see later, that is now the case. But before we do so, some
‘models of risk’ need to be examined.

Models of risk

In essence, the risk of accidents occurs when the behaviour of the customer meets
with the physical characteristics of the leisure environment, though there are
occasions when the behaviour of one ‘leisure customer’ jeopardizes the well-
being of another, e.g. in cases of competitive team sports, or at crowded leisure
venues.
The leisure manager can have no legal responsibility for the customer’s behav-
iour whilst that customer is off-site; likewise, excepting a legal duty to trespassers
and passers-by, the leisure manager need have no anxieties about accidents if there
are no customers, staff or contractors present within the facility or site.
A simple model such as Figure 7.4 shows what is meant: the left-hand circle
represents the physical characteristics of the leisure environment, and the right
circle the behavioural characteristics of the customer. The overlap represents the
theoretical area where accidents could occur.
 Managing risk 189

Physical Behavioural
characteristics characteristics
of the leisure of the leisure
environment customer

Figure 7.4 A theoretical model of risk where leisure environment interacts with leisure
customer

Predictable Predictable
leisure leisure
environment customers

Figure 7.5 A predictable environment combines with predictable customers (Model 1)

Unpredictable Predictable
leisure leisure
environment customers

Figure 7.6 An unpredictable environment combines with predictable customers

(Model 2)

Further elaboration explains more about the nature of the risk, by adding the
notions of ‘predictable’ and ‘unpredictable’. Thus we have four models, each of
which represents a range of leisure facilities or programmes.
These simple models (Figures 7.5, 7.6, 7.7 and 7.8) demonstrate the difference
between leisure managers and their counterparts in other industries. Retail
190 Managing Leisure

Predictable Unpredictable
leisure leisure
environment customers

Figure 7.7 A predictable environment combines with unpredictable customers

(Model 3)

Unpredictable Unpredictable
leisure leisure
environment customers

Figure 7.8 An unpredictable environment combines with unpredictable customers

(Model 4)

managers, for example, will be responsible for buildings which stay roughly the
same, (predictable environment) where products are quality controlled, where
lighting, temperature, and humidity are all predetermined. Supermarket
customers generally behave in a straightforward manner (predictable behaviour)
and do not seek out risks in order to make their visit more exciting. In such a
context, the physical environment is almost completely predictable, and the behav-
iour of customers likewise.
Even on building sites – where the highest number of accidents at work occur
– there may often be an unpredictable environment, but the behaviour of a trained
work force is relatively predictable.
That leads to a further assumption, which is that training reduces the likelihood
of random behaviour, and thereby increases predictability. Training does not, of
course, create ‘absolute predictability’, and indeed no human being can ever be
so. Naturally, there will be occasions when experienced hill-walkers fail to tell
friends about their route, when trained athletes push their bodies too far, when
 Managing risk 191

qualified balloonists misjudge a landing and so forth. The point is that training
creates a degree of predictability, because the rules are common. The trained
person is more likely to behave in a predictable way than someone who is
untrained simply through the process of ‘internalization’, whereby the same rules
are observed equally by everyone.
By matching the four models to different leisure facilities, we can perhaps see
where operational problems may occur and where risks may escalate beyond
control.
Model 1: Predictable environment/predictable customers, e.g. concert hall, art
gallery/museum visit, bowling green competition
Model 2: Unpredictable environment/predictable customers, e.g. yachting
competition, white-water canoeing event, professional mountaineer-
ing expedition, orienteering event
Model 3: Predictable environment/unpredictable customers, e.g. public
swimming pool, theme park, water park visits
Model 4: Unpredictable environment/unpredictable customers, e.g. outdoor
activity centre, jet-ski hire centre, hill walking or canoeing (by
untrained individuals), horse-riding, pony trekking (also by
untrained individuals).
The risks increase through models 1 to 4, and therefore the manager’s role is
slightly different for each one.
A ‘model 1 manager’ is fortunate in that the leisure environment is relatively
stable, and does not change from day to day, or from moment to moment. The
‘quality of experience’ can be assured, and perhaps innovation introduced in such
a way as to create a more varied environment – as at the various museums where
interactive displays fulfil precisely that role.
A ‘model 2 manager’ expects to have customers who are trained and experi-
enced, and predominantly adults. Care needs to be taken to ensure that the
customers are, indeed, qualified and/or experienced, and that they understand the
implication of an unpredictable environment. This is particularly true of maritime
activities, where sea and estuary conditions may change rapidly due to tidal
currents and wind speeds.
A ‘model 3 manager’ is probably the most common, and is often concerned with
problems caused by customer behaviour, whether that behaviour is unpredictable
by nature or downright malicious by intent. Frequently, the risks attached to the
use of the leisure environment are derived from customer behaviour, and not from
the qualities of the environment itself.
192 Managing Leisure

A ‘model 4 manager’ has the hardest task of all, in terms of risk assessment and risk
management, since both environment and customer are unpredictable. Risk assessment
becomes a crucial exercise, as do customer monitoring and customer control.

Crowd behaviour: A variation to the model

Some activities and facilities do not fit well into these structures, especially where
the ‘customers’ actually ‘become’ the environment in some measure. Major
tragedies can occur at stadia when the crowd itself begins to move, for whatever
cause. Often that initial cause has nothing to do with the physical condition of the
venue, but everything to do with the psychology of the crowd itself. Once the
crowd begins to move, however, the design of the venue has its effect.

Accidents at stadia
At the Hillsborough Stadium in Sheffield, 96 fans died on 15 April 1989, when the
ground became over-crowded, and the crowd pushed people downwards against
the fencing which at that time protected the pitch from ‘fan invasions’.
Guatemala City on 17 October 1996 was the scene of a similar tragedy, when 83
people died and 180 were injured prior to the kick-off at a World Cup match. The
stadium had seating for 45 000, but it later appeared that many more fans, some
bearing forged tickets, forced their way through the entrance gates. Football’s
international governing body, FIFA, concluded that the panic began when fans left
outside kicked down an entrance door in the south stand, pushing other specta-
tors downwards to the seats below.
These two disasters, Hillsborough and Guatemala City were similar, not only in
their magnitude but in their cause: the over-crowding before the match even began,
a crush in a particular zone, and fans trapped against the fencing around the pitch.
Indeed, the connection was noted in the Daily Telegraph of 18 October 1989, when
it quoted the words of the chairman of the Hillsborough Family Support Group,
who on hearing the Guatemala incident said that in a matter of five minutes, he
relived Hillsborough all over again. ‘It came flooding back, and I felt physically
sick’, he is reported to have said; ‘the lessons of Hillsborough haven’t been learned’.
In accidents such as this, the crowd or the ‘aggregated customers’, become a
very special kind of environment. It was therefore ‘people’ and not ‘structures’
who were initially the cause of the disaster of Hillsborough and at Guatemala.
Serious accidents have occurred at stadia elsewhere, notably Mexico City (1985),
Port-au-Prince, Haiti (1976), Buenos Aires (1968) and Lima (1964).
 Managing risk 193

Summerland
The situation at Summerland was slightly different, but once again demonstrates
how leisure can be a deadly serious business. In 1973, some 50 people died, and
a similar number were injured, when a relatively new leisure complex on the Isle
of Man caught fire.
The official enquiry (Summerland Fire Commission, 1974) into the tragedy makes
grim but fascinating reading, since in this particular instance the ‘crowd responses’
were less to blame for the deaths than were the deficiencies in the design and
management of the leisure complex. The tragedy shocked the United Kingdom, and
was one of the earliest ‘leisure accidents’ in the country for many years.
One particular passage (Conclusions, para. 241) is especially pertinent, sending
as it does a vital message to future generations of ‘leisure architects’ and leisure
managers:
Architects in designing buildings must not rely upon efficient management
to make the building efficient and safe in time of emergency or failure, but
neither must the occupiers accept the building as safe without knowing
something of its vulnerability of fabric and contents and without a
considerable study of the problems that arise due to the usage and
occupancy of the kind of clientele which they are encouraging.

The manager’s role

If we use the models as described earlier, with the caveat that some leisure experi-
ences do not fit into any of the models (e.g. a crowd becomes more significant
than the built environment), then we can say something about the manager’s role
in relation to ‘risk identification’. Thus managers should:
• understand the nature of the physical environment for which he or she is
responsible
• appreciate the risks which the physical environment may contain once the
customer’s behaviour enters into the frame.

Risk assessment

United Kingdom legislation

Risk assessment is itself a simple notion. Leisure managers in the past knew
intuitively what the risks were, and acted (again intuitively) to reduce these risks.
194 Managing Leisure

There was no formula for risk assessment nor any legal requirement to carry out
such a procedure.
Since the 1970s, the position in the United Kingdom has changed considerably.
Two Acts of Parliament have given rise to regulations which make risk assessment
compulsory. One of the Acts was designed primarily for the workplace but applies
equally to the leisure industry as elsewhere; the other arose directly from the
canoeing tragedy which occurred at Lyme Bay in March 1993. They are:
• The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974
• The Activity Centres (Young Persons’ Safety) Act 1995.
Each of the two Acts contains clauses which allow subsequent regulations to be
made ‘by order’ of the respective Minister. Such regulations are tacitly approved
by Parliament, having been ‘laid’ before that body for a standard period. Inciden-
tally, regulations made in this way are not to be confused with European Union
Regulations, which are made in a completely different manner. EU regulations
apply throughout the whole of the Union, whereas the regulations referred to
below are applicable purely to the United Kingdom.
Those regulations which require employers to carry out risk assessment proce-
dures are as follows.

Under the 1974 Act:

Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 1988 (COSHH)
Noise at Work Regulations 1989
Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992
Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations 1992
Manual Handling Operations Regulations 1992
Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations 1992

Under the 1995 Act:

The Adventure Activities Licensing Regulations 1996

Clearly, 1992 was a good year for the implementation of regulations, many of
which could not have been foreseen when the 1974 Act was devised – fewer
workers spent their time in front of VDU screens, for example, and therefore no
regulations were needed.
The Adventure Activities Licensing Regulations are a different matter altogether,
since both they and the 1995 Act from which they sprang are a direct result of a
 Managing risk 195

single accident. And since these regulations apply uniquely to one sector of the
leisure industry, it is fascinating to see what risk assessment procedures are set
out. The general information provided to applicants by the licensing body, the
Adventure Activities Licensing Authority, states that:

to obtain a licence you will be required to demonstrate to the licensing

authority that you follow good safety management practice. This will cover
the following aspects:

• assessment risk to participants

• measures identified as necessary to reduce risk; and
• arrangements to give continued effects to these measures.

The regulations themselves also make interesting reading since they are very
carefully worded, as will become evident later in the chapter.

Implications of risk assessment legislation

Before leaving the subject of legislation, we should note the use of the phrase
‘suitable and sufficient assessment’. The phrase is used in other regulations made
under the 1974 Act and arguably has profound legal implications. What precisely
is ‘suitable’ and how much is ‘sufficient’? Reference to ‘competent person’ (to
supervise customers, train staff, check equipment, carry out risk assessment proce-
dures, etc.) is also becoming more frequent. The implication here is obvious –
managers must ensure that they do the following:

• employ staff whose qualifications are valid in terms of the body/organization

which issues those qualifications (lifeguarding qualifications, for example,
have a finite duration)
• employ a sufficient number of competent staff to cover the activities being
organized or supervised
• where risk is greatest, engage expert individuals or organizations to advise on,
or carry out, risk assessment procedures.

The question arises ‘Is experience sufficient to prove competence?’. In a society

which is growing more litigious, there must be ‘someone to blame’ for any
196 Managing Leisure

accident. That ‘someone’ is often a corporate body. Wishing to avoid liability

wherever possible, managers look to institutions – such as national governing
bodies of sport – to validate competence, even where there may be in-house train-
ing programmes. As a result, ‘experience alone’ is regrettably becoming less and
less acceptable, in the leisure industry as elsewhere.

Risk assessment principles

Risk assessment can never be a precise science in the sense that accidents at a
precise time in a precise place can be predicted. None the less, accident records
do show a pattern which acts as a guide to the future.
For reasons explained above, managers would be well advised to seek external
expert assistance whenever possible. By so doing, the manager is exercising a
reasonable ‘duty of care’, and is also, in some cases, transferring some of the legal
liability away from his or her own organization to a third party. Provided that
third party is insured, it may become the ‘deepest pocket’ worth suing!
Having obtained an expert opinion, it would obviously be foolish to ignore that
opinion. Consequently, the second guiding principle must be to minimize the risks
identified – by adopting ‘good practice’ in all aspects of the operation.
Thirdly if some risks remain – which must be the case in ‘fun’ facilities such as
fun-fairs, water parks, theme parks, as well as in certain sports – then the manager
must ensure that the risk is limited to that which the customer may reasonably
anticipate.
The situation with regard to youngsters is especially onerous, in that under-18s
are regarded by the courts as being less able to identify – and therefore accept –
the risks associated with an activity.
The fourth principle has become most important in cases of medical litigation,
and is increasingly being quoted in the leisure sphere. To merely tell the customer
that ‘this activity is risky’, whether verbally or in writing, is no longer adequate.
Instead, management may have to explain the nature of the risk – possibly even
expressed in percentage terms – if the court is to be satisfied that the customer has
been properly advised.
Companies and groups specialising in ‘adrenaline sports’ like bungee-jumping,
wing-walking and sky-diving, find it very difficult to meet this criterion, of course.
Where the customer is under-18, ‘explaining the risk’, in whatever degree of
detail, is not acceptable. Rather, the youngster simply cannot be exposed to a risk
which is unreasonable.
 Managing risk 197

Calculating risk

On the assumption that the individual customer has had the risk explained or is
otherwise expected to be able to appreciate the nature of the risk, then the
manager’s role is limited to ‘containing’ the risks to those anticipated. Take away
all external risk, of course, and there’s no fun. A balance has therefore to be struck.
The risk itself may be seen as a function of three factors:

• probability (P)
• severity (S)
• frequency (F)

where each of the three has a scale 0 to 10, and by use of the formula P ⫻ S ⫻ F.
An alternative formula for risk rating is F ⫻ (S + MPL + P), where MPL repre-
sents ‘maximum possible loss’ on a scale 1 to 50.
Formulae to calculate the risk, using the above, cannot be completely accurate,
since they are so tentative. ‘Probability’ for example, has to be assumed on the
basis of ‘previous accidents’, or more precisely the ‘number of previous accidents
per participant over a period of time’. Where age-specific information is available
(as with football accidents referred to earlier) then probability is easier to calcu-
late, assuming one knows the age range of the customers.
‘Severity’, in relation to the minimum possible damage caused by a given
accident, is perhaps easier to calculate, from the greater severity (death) to the least
severe (no injury expected)
The third factor, ‘frequency’ is likewise capable of being measured, where parti-
cipation rates are to hand.

Risk control

Once the risk has been identified, it needs somehow to be ‘managed’, and a
comprehensive risk control strategy devised. Stranks (1994) considers risk control
as having four components, namely:

1 Risk avoidance – closing the feature, or replacing the material, or scrapping

the equipment
2 Risk retention – the risk is retained, in the knowledge that cost penalties are
outweighed by the benefit associated with the risk
198 Managing Leisure

3 Risk transfer – where the risk is transferred to an outside ‘expert person’ or

organization, e.g. through taking out insurance, or seeking an expert opinion
4 Risk reduction – where data is collected and a strategy adopted to reduce those
risks, either within specific sections or across the organization as a whole.

Particular areas of risk

Two areas of high risk are examined in this section, the first relating to unpre-
dictable customers, namely children, and the second to an unpredictably environ-
ment, namely water. With the Lyme Bay tragedy, both sets of circumstances
coincide, with dire consequences.

Accidents at playgrounds

Children can be injured at many locations other than playgrounds, as the afore-
mentioned statistics show. However, because playgrounds are provided and
managed by many leisure organizations – at hotels, theme parks, recreation
grounds, etc. – the legal aspects attached to the risk need to be addressed.
Research carried out in 1991/92 by the MORI organization and commissioned
by the Audit Commission showed ‘safety in playgrounds’ to be the most impor-
tant concern of people when considering all the different kinds of outdoor local
authority recreational services.
Probably the most comprehensive information is provided by the National
Playing Fields Association (NPFA) which can be read in conjunction with the DTI
figures. The NPFA points out however that it tends to be the more serious injuries
which are reported, with the vast number of minor accidents unrecorded, except
perhaps when they are dealt with by the casualty department of a major hospital.

Causes of accidents

The type and percentage of playground accidents reported to the NPFA for 1995
are as follows:

• falls – 69 per cent

• entrapment – 15 per cent
 Managing risk 199

• struck by item – 3 per cent

• other – 13 per cent.

The NPFA also confirmed that a significant number of the ‘other’ accidents were
the result of entrapments, usually beneath roundabouts.
As one might expect, a significant number of accidents are associated with a fall
onto a hard surface. The NPFA identified equipment which is commonly linked
with such accidents, as follows:

• slides – 36 per cent

• climbing frames – 24 per cent
• swings – 19 per cent
• overhead horizontal ladders – 4 per cent
• other – 17 per cent.

Some methodology relating to playground accidents was examined in a compre-

hensive study by King and Ball (1989). The study examined standards which apply
in certain other countries, such as Holland, Denmark, France, Italy, Australia, New
Zealand, Canada and the United States, and compared these to those which exist
in the United Kingdom. One of the study’s more surprising conclusions, for
example, was as follows:

The commonly held notion that head injuries constitute the majority of
serious playground injuries is found to be invalid. Long bone fractures are
far more prevalent, by factors of between twenty and one hundred.

The report went on to say:

Analysis of the international data on playground-related hospital attendances

and admissions reveals a marked degree of similarity among industrialized
countries. If one examines the types of playground equipment-related injuries
resulting in hospital attendance, it is found that approximately 1% are
attributable to skull fractures, and 7% concussion or intracranial injury. Long
bone fractures account for from 23% to 44% of those attendances.

Whilst many leisure managers may be tempted to believe that the installation of
impact-absorbing surfacing beneath play equipment will solve all the problems,
this appears to be over-optimistic. The study points out that this approach offers
only a partial solution, for the following reasons:
200 Managing Leisure

• the primary cause of most playground injuries, whether serious or trivial, is

not a fall from equipment with subsequent head impact with the ground.
• the current generation of ‘safety surfacing’ is designed to lessen the severity
of head injuries resulting from impact with the ground, and not the severity
of long bone injuries which are far more prevalent.
• even in the case of head-first falls onto resilient surfaces, there is still a finite
risk of head injury.
The study concluded that accidents at playgrounds in the UK commonly showed
the following:
• the majority of playground accidents involve falls on the same level e.g. colli-
sions, stumbling and tripping
• head injuries tend to be predominant among the youngest age group (0 to 4
years), probably because of their undeveloped motor skills and lack of aware-
ness
• the majority of head injuries consist of superficial wounds such as cuts and
bruises
• serious injuries which have been caused by falls from height generally involve
the upper limbs and not the head
• many of the serious head injuries can be attributed to causes such as being hit
by swing seats and collisions, and not just falls from height.
The position, therefore, is not as simple as it first appeared. Certainly, managers
of such facilities are expected to ensure that all equipment in situ conforms to
current standards, and likewise that any new installation is carried out in con-
formity with those separate standards which apply (British Standards exist for
each, and European Standards are under consideration). Nor should any equip-
ment be modified, by management, once it is installed.
Supervision also appears to be very important, and a lack of adult scrutiny –
by the parents or the management – could be a significant factor in accident rates.
Understandably enough, the very presence of ‘safety surfacing’ suggests to some
parents that the child simply cannot hurt itself in the playground, whatever misuse
occurs.

Accidents in water

Water represents a dangerous environment, by anyone’s standards. Leisure

managers who are responsible for indoor swimming pools, outdoor swimming
 Managing risk 201

143 (32.4%) Rivers, Streams, etc.

14 (3.2%) Docks, Harbours 31 (7.0%) Canals

5 (1.1%) Other

69 (15.6%) Lakes, Reservoirs

10 (2.3%) Swimming pools 122 (27.7%) Coastal

9 (2.0%) Garden ponds
38 (8.6%) Home baths

Figure 7.9 Drowning in the UK, 1996, by location. Total number of drownings 441.
Source: RoSPA

pools, boating lakes, water parks, river banks and even paddling pools must be
well aware of the risks which exist, particularly to children but also to adults.
Sometimes, it is not the water itself which brings about tragedy, but the equip-
ment associated with it. When a water slide collapsed at a theme park (Water-
world USA) near San Francisco in June 1997, one girl died and 30 were injured,
six critically. Apparently, the teenagers had tried to descend the slide in a ‘human
chain’. The glass-fibre half-pipe was simply unable to take the strain, and cracked
halfway between supports, throwing some of the youngsters to a drop of 75 feet
(The Times, 4 June 1997).
However, in order to put things into perspective, it is worth mentioning that
this type of tragedy is very rare, and it may be thought that the unpredictable
behaviour of the teenagers was a part-cause, though tolerance levels for the fibre-
glass pipe should have been calculated on the assumption that such a loading
might conceivably occur.
Drownings are the ultimate accidents that happen in water. As mentioned earlier
in the chapter, figures produced by RoSPA show that in 1996 drownings at
swimming pools represented a very small proportion (2 per cent or 10 people) of
the total. Of these 10 people, only one drowned at a public swimming pool,
whereas five drowned at a home pool, and four at a private pool. A much higher
number of drownings occurred in rivers and streams (32 per cent), coastal water
(28 per cent) and lakes and reservoirs (16 per cent). Figure 7.9 shows the complete
picture.
We can also see some correlation with age and with gender, where drownings are
concerned. Male drownings outnumbered female drownings by 4 : 1, with the age
202 Managing Leisure

45
Males
37 38 Females

32
30 29

23
21
18
17
15 15 15
15
11 11
8 9 8
7 7 6 6 6 7 6 7 6
5 4 45
3 3 3
2 2 2 1
0
0–
4 9 4 9
5– 0–1 5–1 –24 –29 0–3
4 9 44 49 54 59 64 69 74 79 84 lus
1 1 20 25 3 5 –3 0– 5– 50– 55– 60– 65– 70– 75– 80– 5 p
3 4 4 8
Age groups

Figure 7.10 Drowning in the UK, 1996, by age group and sex. Male: 348, female: 92,
gender unknown 1, ages unknown 42. Source: RoSPA

group most ‘at risk’ being 25–29 year olds, followed closely by 20–24 year olds, and
then 15–19 year olds. Figure 7.10 also shows a high incidence of drownings for 0–4
year olds. Oddly, female drownings outnumber male drownings in only two age
bands, namely 75–79, and 85+, and it would be interesting to know why this was
so (gender longevity perhaps?) and in what circumstances the drownings occurred.

The tragedy of Lyme Bay

The Managing Director of an outdoor activity company (Active Learning and

Leisure), Peter Kite, became the first company director to receive a prison sentence
(three years initially, later reduced on appeal to two) for manslaughter. His co-
defendant, Joseph Stoddart, who managed the Centre in Dorset at the time of the
tragedy, was acquitted, after the jury failed to reach a majority verdict.
The relatively small ‘span of control’ and hierarchy (see Chapter 4) made the
prosecution easier to sustain, since the accused could hardly claim they were
totally unaware of key weaknesses in the operation of the Centre.
Previous attempts to prosecute companies in the criminal courts had stalled
precisely on this issue, e.g. that brought against P&O Ferries in 1990 following the
 Managing risk 203

Zeebrugge disaster. In this latter case, the concept of the ‘company’s mind’
concerned the courts: the prosecution had to prove that events which brought
about the accident were effectively part of company policy, as approved by the
directors of that company. With Zeebrugge, the failures occurred at the lower end
of the ‘chain of command’ and given the substantial ‘span of control’ the directors
of P&O were absolved of blame.

Contributing factors

Let us briefly look at the failures and mistakes which culminated in the accident
which occurred on 22 March 1993:
• on the day in question, the Southampton Weather Centre was predicting gusts
of up to force five
• sea temperatures in late March are normally around 9°C (48°F)
• neither coastguard nor harbourmaster were advised that the expedition was
about to take place
• the eight sixth-form students had received only half a day’s instruction, at a
swimming pool, before their expedition the very next day
• each of the two instructors had been on a basic course for three days during
the previous week, and were inadequately qualified for sea canoeing
• no one carried distress flares
• the safety boat, which normally kept an eye on sea expeditions, was engaged
elsewhere
• lifejackets were worn, but were only partially inflated.
The conditions were so treacherous that disaster quickly struck. One of the
survivors, Emma Hartley (then 16) described what happened, in a statement read
to the court. She told how members of the group ran into difficulties soon after
leaving the beach at Lyme Regis at about 10 a.m. The youngsters were forced to
link their canoes together, whilst waiting for their teacher, who had capsized on
several occasions. Several of the youngsters’ canoes also capsized and some lost
their paddles. One by one, all the canoes filled with water, and the entire group
was left clinging to an upturned canoe by about 11.30 a.m.
At 3.05 p.m., when the party was three hours overdue, Mr Stoddart alerted the
coastguards, after spending some time driving along the shore to see if anything was
amiss. Yet more time elapsed, while a shore-based search took place by coastguard
officials. At 3.56 p.m. the first helicopter was called in, followed 30 minutes later by
204 Managing Leisure

the Lyme Regis lifeboat. At 5.00 p.m. two more helicopters scrambled. At this point,
only two people (one instructor and the teacher) were in their canoes, rafted together.
They were finally rescued at 5.30 p.m. By the time the others were rescued, they had
been in the water for almost three and a half hours, and by then four pupils, Simon
Dunne, Claire Langley, Rachael Walker and Dean Sayer, were virtually unconscious.
All four died. (Daily Telegraph and Guardian, November 1994).

The lessons of Lyme Bay

What lessons are to be learned from this terrible event? Clearly, it was the ‘aggre-
gation’ of otherwise small failures which led to the tragedy: had the weather been
better, the sea temperature warmer, the coastguard alerted sooner, etc. then the
four youngsters might not have died.
The Centre’s management had, after all, been warned – and herein lies a funda-
mental point. Anyone responsible for a leisure facility must exercise a duty of care
towards those who visit that facility. Once the manager is advised that a danger
exists – whether the warning comes from a member of the public or a member of
staff – it is vital that the danger be removed.
Amazingly, the Centre had done nothing after being alerted that safety standards
were inadequate. Two instructors, in letters of resignation sent in the June previ-
ous to the March accident, had said prophetically (Guardian, 13 May 1993):
We think you should have a very early look at your standards of safety or
else you could find yourself having to explain why someone’s son or
daughter will not be coming home ... there is most definitely not one
person here technically qualified to instruct ... we are walking a very fine
line between getting away with it and having a very serious accident.
In other words, the Centre had been advised that standards of safety were inade-
quate. Having done nothing to rectify these inadequacies, the management of the
Centre put itself in a totally vulnerable position, when faced with distraught parents,
traumatized survivors, and eventually proceedings at Winchester Crown Court.

The implications of Lyme Bay

Whilst at the time of the accident there was no formal licensing procedure, the
general principles of risk assessment, health and safety rules and duty of care
 Managing risk 205

placed legal responsibilities on the shoulders of the company and its Director.
All those who organize – or subcontract – leisure events must have regard to
this extreme case. The ‘what if?’ approach can receive no better testimony than
the Lyme Regis accident. What if this was your Centre? What if this was your
child?
The following points should be borne in mind:
1 The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 specifies that employers must
establish safe systems of work. The company had palpably failed to provide
safe systems to protect either their own staff or their young clients.
2 The ‘duty of care’ principle would imply that staff responsible for the young-
sters should be properly qualified for that task. Ironically, the British Canoe
Union (BCU) had been pressing the Government to make it compulsory for
activity centre instructors to hold full qualifications – whereas the two instruc-
tors at Lyme Regis held only one-star awards, the most basic type of BCU
certificate.
3 The fact that children were involved makes it even more important that due
attention be paid to their safety, in accordance with the terms of the Occupiers’
Liability Act 1957. It could not be argued, by way of defence, that the young-
sters ‘knew the risks and were therefore partly responsible for what
happened’.

The tragedy at Craven Arms

‘Failing to ensure safety under the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act’ was also
the charge levied at another adventure centre, this time at Craven Arms, Shrop-
shire, in 1993. An 11-year-old girl, Hayley Hadfield, died after an unqualified
instructor was allowed to take 30 children on what magistrates described as a
‘stupid’ short cut during a cross-country hike. The youngster suffered fatal head
injuries after falling down a steep slope and hitting a tree. No help was raised
until one hour after the accident, and emergency procedures were described as
‘lamentable’ (Daily Telegraph, 10 November 1993).
The firm in this case, Globerow Ltd, was fined £15 000 and ordered to pay costs.
Its Managing Director, Vaughan Philips, was also fined £15 000. In the light of what
happened in the Lyme Regis case, it may be considered surprising that more
serious charges were not similarly brought.
206 Managing Leisure

Licensing of outdoor activity centres in the United

Kingdom

Immediately after the Lyme Bay tragedy there were vociferous calls for manda-
tory licensing. Prior to the accident, a voluntary code was being drawn up by
various interested parties (represented by the British Activity Holiday Association)
and was published in 1994. A private Members’ Bill to make licensing statutory,
rather than voluntary, was initially promulgated by the Labour MP for Plymouth,
David Jamieson, from whose constituency the four teenagers came. The proposal
received cross-party support, as well as the backing of the Schools Minister, Eric
Forth. It was duly redrafted in the form of a government Bill, and thereafter
became an Act of Parliament.
In the meantime, and prior to establishing the licensing authority, the govern-
ment issued Circular Number 22/94 (‘Safety in Outdoor Activity Centres:
Guidance) in September 1994. Although superseded in part by subsequent regula-
tions, the circular is still invaluable to those who may be contemplating taking
youngsters to such a centre.

The Activity Centres (Young Persons’ Safety) Act 1995

The Act is introduced as follows:
An Act to make provision for the regulation of centres and providers of
facilities whose children and young persons under the age of 18 engage in
adventure activities, including provision for the imposition of requirements
relating to safety.
The Act effectively established the licensing regime (Para I [1]), and paved the way
for the regulations which were to follow in 1996 (Para 3 [1]). It also confirmed
what ‘fell outside’ the new rules, namely:
1 facilities which are provided exclusively for persons who have attained the age
of 18, or
2 facilities which do not consist of, or include some element of, instruction or
leadership’. (Para 1 [3.a.b])
Finally, the Act makes it an offence:
1 to do anything for which a licence is required under the regulations, otherwise
than in accordance with the licence, or
 Managing risk 207

2 for the purposes of obtaining a licence –

i to make a statement to the licensing authority (or someone acting on their
behalf) knowing it to be false in a manner particular, or
ii recklessly to make a statement to the licensing authority (or someone acting
on their behalf) which is false in a material particular.
Essentially, (i) above refers to a deliberate lie whereas (ii) refers to an action which
is tantamount to a lie, being a ‘reckless’ action in itself.

The Adventure Activities Licensing Regulations 1996

The Order establishing the regulations came into force in April 1996.
As has been mentioned in another context, these particular regulations mark
something of a departure: their stringency, and the degree of control to be
exercised by the licensing authority, makes the regulations tighter even than many
which relate to the workplace.
Risk assessment is an integral part of these regulations. And the ‘Interpretation’
section (5[I]) is so carefully constructed that one must give credit to such thorough-
ness. The wording is as follows:
The licensing authority may grant or refuse a licence, but without prejudice
to its discretion to refuse a licence on other grounds, the authority shall not
grant a licence unless ... it is satisfied that the applicant has –
i made a suitable and sufficient assessment of the risks to the safety of the
young persons and other persons who will be involved in the adventure
activities in respect of which the application is made or whose safety may
be affected thereby;
ii identified the measures he needs to take in consequence of that assessment
to ensure, so far as is reasonably acceptable, the safety of those persons ...
iii appointed competent persons to advise him on safety matters or has
competence in such matters himself.
The point worth noting is that related to the ‘Conditions’, which are quite specific,
as follows (Para 7 [I:b]):
the licence holder shall maintain suitable and sufficient arrangements –
i for the appointment of a sufficient number of competent and adequately
qualified instructors;
ii for the giving of safety information to instructors and participants;
208 Managing Leisure

iii for the provision of such equipment as is needed to ensure that the activi-
ties are carried out safely;
iv for the maintenance of that equipment in an efficient state and in good
repair;
v for the provision of first-aid, for the summoning of medical and rescue
services in the event of an emergency, and for otherwise dealing with an
emergency.

Conclusions

On all counts, one can sense the terrible echoes of the Lyme Bay accident in the
carefully crafted words of subsequent legislation.
Some three years after the Lyme Bay tragedy, and as a result of various accidents
in the Cairngorms, there was a call to regulate mountaineering, through compul-
sory insurance and minimum qualifications. A remarkable 460 per cent increase in
mountaineering accidents in 30 years was not the only explanation for the
problem, and the general secretary of the British Mountaineering Council pointed
out that there had been an increased participation of 494 per cent during the same
period.
The president of the international mountaineering organization was reported to
have said (Guardian, 2 December 1995).
One of the falsehoods is that if you obey the rules then you will be all
right. In many ways, having rules de-sensitises people to the risks. There
really are no hard and fast rules that can protect you. It’s all about taking
risks – if you remove the risk then there isn’t a sport.
This in many ways is the nub of the matter. If all risk is removed from leisure,
including sport, then what remains? My own view is that rules do not, in fact, ‘de-
sensitise people to the risks’ but on the contrary emphasize that risks are present.
The wider argument, about risk removal, is more complicated because what may
be acceptable in one era, or state, may not be acceptable in other. The very perva-
sive ‘culture of blame’ and the tendency of injured parties to take legal action, has
undoubtedly made the general public more aware of their rights, in relation to risk
exposure.
The leisure manager’s job has changed as a result of the same forces, and no
longer is it satisfactory to leave risk-assessment training out of the frame.
 Managing risk 209

One hopes that readers – whether future or current managers – will sense how
important a topic the author feels risk assessment to be. Risks in relation to leisure
vary in their quality and quantity, according to the activity and venue – but should
never be ignored.
The sombre lesson to be derived from accidents referred to within the text is
not increased or diminished by the scale of each one. Events at Craven Arms, Lyme
Bay, Isle of Man, Bradford and Hillsborough were terrible in that with the benefit
of hindsight none need have happened.
If this brief mention serves to prevent even one accident in the future, then it
can have no greater tribute.
Risk assessment is being demanded more and more often and not only at
outdoor activity centres. Theatres are also growing more concerned with risk
assessment and safety issues, with the National Entertainment Safety Association
(NESA) collaborating with Theatrical Technical Training Services to provide a
database of information about United Kingdom and EU health and safety
standards (The Stage, 12 June 1997).

References and recommended reading

Audit Commission. (1994). Leisure Services Playgrounds and Play Areas.

Bannister, J.E. and Bawcutt, I.A. (1981). Practical Risk Management. Witherby and
Co. (Chapter IV on the subject of risk control is especially relevant.)
Health and Safety Executive. (1989). Human Factors in Industrial Safety. HMSO,
London.
Health and Safety Executive. (1989). Quantified Risk Assessment: Its Impact &
Decision Making. HMSO, London.
Health and Safety Executive. (1991). Successful Health and Safety Management.
HMSO, London.
King, K. and Ball, D. (1989). A Holistic Approach to Accident and Injury Prevention in
Children’s Playgrounds. (Published originally by a division of Rendel Scientific
Services Ltd.) Copies obtainable from: D.J. Ball, 3 Anchor Quay, Norwich NR3
3PR, Tel/fax: 01603 665422, E-Mail: [email protected]
RoSPA (1995). Children’s Playgrounds in Small Communities. Sponsored by Wickstead
Leisure.
Society of Public Health. (1990). Do We Pay Too Much for Our Sport and Leisure Activ-
ities?
210 Managing Leisure

Sports Council/Health and Safety Commission. (1987). Safety in Swimming Pools.

Sports Council with Health and Safety Commission.
Stranks, J. (1994). Management Systems for Safety. Pitman Publishing.
Summerland Fire Commission. (1974). Report. Government Office, Isle of Man.
Which? (1994). Danger in the Playground. July.
8 The leisure manager’s role

Questions

At the end of this chapter you should be able to undertake the following:
1 Consider whether leisure managers should receive ‘once-only’ training, at
degree or HND level, or whether some other form of training would be
preferable.
2 Discuss the argument that a leisure manager should be trying to improve
the quality of life, and not merely meeting demand.
3 Indicate the documentation which a newly appointed leisure manager might
usefully peruse, in relation to the management of staff, of money and of
physical resources.

Introduction

The final chapter tries to peer forward, just a little, from what has gone before.
After all, those who purport to be qualified in leisure management will be
expected by potential employers to understand a good deal of the practice, as well
as all of the theory.
As we have seen, a great deal of the theory is common to other disciplines. For
example, a knowledge of finance is expected of virtually all managers nowadays,
and risk management is taken as a fine art in the air traffic business. Event
management is largely a matter of common sense, albeit assisted by some years
of experience. And then there is the law: very little is unique to the leisure indus-
try per se, only in the licensing of larger stadia and of certain outdoor activity
centres.
212 Managing Leisure

The reader may legitimately ask ‘So what’s the big deal? Why is there a need
to train people in leisure management? Can in fact leisure managers be trained,
given the diversity of venues, resources, programmes and events?’
The answers are perhaps implicit within the chapters of this book: in brief they
are as follows:
• Though much of the knowledge (within leisure management) is common to
other professions, the judgement as to ‘what applies’ and ‘how it applies’ is
often remarkably complex.
• The public actually does expect managers to be trained, whatever may
sometimes be claimed, though it may not necessarily distinguish between
training-through-study and training-through-experience.
• The legal, social and moral contexts are such that to have an untrained
manager would be asking for trouble. Since litigation now follows so swiftly
upon accident, a manager must create situations which are as safe as possible
or as ‘fully explained’ as possible.
• The sheer size of the industry and the expectations which it generates – with
the exception of home-based leisure – combine to create a new quantity (and
quality) of risk, not seen previously.
One hopes that these arguments will convince any reader who has remained
sceptical throughout the book. Any job, after all, looks far simpler to an outsider
than to the person who undertakes it. Should more justification be needed, the
sceptic may wish to read on; to those who wish to prepare for a leisure manage-
ment job, or even an interview, the elaboration which follows may be of assistance,
moving as it does firmly into the realm of ‘practice’.
The aspects chosen are also useful in that they illustrate some of the points made
in the text, which may here be summarized as follows:
• Conversance – the manager must be conversant with the physical resources
for which he or she is legally responsible.
• Inspiration – the manager must be able to inspire the staff, while bearing in
mind that organizational objectives must be fulfilled.
• Application – the manager must be able to convince others that he or she has
the necessary knowledge and enthusiasm to undertake the task in hand.
• Vigilance – the manager must ensure that he or she knows the rules and
regulations, all the while protecting the well-being of staff, customers and
contractors.
We go on to look at five distinct management roles, as follows:
 The leisure manager’s role 213

1 Managing fitness centres

2 Managing watersports
3 Managing spectator venues
4 Managing children’s activities
5 Managing leisure land.

Some other roles have been considered separately, e.g. the promotion of
programmes and events (Chapter 6) and the management of activity centres
(Chapter 7). A brief section on job prospects concludes the chapter.

Managing fitness centres

Fitness centres are really ‘Model 1’ facilities on our scale (see Chapter 7), with a
predictable environment (rooms, lighting, temperature controls, fixed equipment,
but perhaps some free weights), being used by trained customers. Often the
management task is to increase the diversity or challenge which is available to the
customer, by introducing new equipment or new regimes.
The growth in fitness centres to some extent reflects the demands of those who
are money-rich but time-poor, rather as squash clubs developed a certain cache
and clientele during the boom years of the 1970s and 1980s.
Fitness machinery itself is relatively straightforward, with different items avail-
able for upper body/lower body/cardio-vascular exercise. For the most part, a
manager’s role in such an environment is about sustaining interest, often through
social aspects attached to club membership and through the introduction of
personalized fitness programmes.
Customers have clear expectations of the experience they are likely to undergo
and there is very little environmental risk as such. Notwithstanding, there are
aspects of fitness centre management which are quite distinct, and they are
mentioned because they reinforce what has been said about the interface between
the environment and the customer.

Fitness equipment

• Fitness equipment should be selected carefully. A huge choice is available,

some more robust than others. The ‘multi-unit’ approach has generally been
214 Managing Leisure

replaced by individual units for upper and lower body, and for cardio-vascu-
lar exercise. Purchasers are advised to check around for quality and ‘value for
money’ (new equipment is very expensive, and depreciation substantial).
• Fitness equipment should also be purchased with parts-availability and
maintenance in mind: the more robust the machinery the less the wear-and-
tear. Manufacturers and/or suppliers guarantees should be sought.
• Fitness equipment should conform to an approved standard: since much of it
is manufactured in the United States (and sold under licence) the standards of
materials and construction are generally high.
• The equipment should be used in strict accordance with the manufacturers’
instructions. Modification, by the centre’s management, should never be
contemplated for reasons of product liability (see Chapter 2).

Customers
• Customers should be carefully screened – again for legal reasons – with as
much responsibility laid upon them for assessing their own fitness as possible.
Initial checks by the centre are recommended, however, e.g. for blood pressure
and heart-rate at exercise levels.
• Customers should therefore be recommended (in writing) to see their General
Practitioners if they have any doubts as to their physical condition or the
suitability of the exercise being contemplated.
• Induction sessions should be carried out, once the screening process is
complete. These should be designed to make the customer feel confident about
using each item of equipment, with any possible hazards pointed out.
• Customers using free weights in the same space as fixed fitness equipment
should receive specific instructions as to their use.
• Whilst the centre is in operation, visual scanning (possibly by CCTV) is essen-
tial in case of equipment misuse or emergency.
Provided that these simple precautions are followed, the fitness centre should
operate well, so long as it offers the right service for the right price.
One point remains however, and that relates to the initial screening process. This
is done in part by some basic tests but additionally some lifestyle questions may
be put in the form of a questionnaire. However tempting it might appear, the
presence of too many questions may place the interviewer, i.e. the fitness centre
manager, in an extremely invidious position. The author recalls one newly
appointed manager who devised a six-page questionnaire which asked very
 The leisure manager’s role 215

specific medical questions (her husband was a doctor) such as ‘have you ever been
diagnosed as having any respiratory problem?’ While her enthusiasm was
laudable, the questions – or rather the answers – raised a host of problems, notably
because the centre had to decide how then to act upon the knowledge provided
by the respondent.
Where it is reasonable not to know everything which can be known about a
customer’s medical condition – as was surely the case here – then better not to
ask in the first place. As ever, the manager must decide what is reasonable in the
circumstances, and given the liability attached to the activity would be wise to
seek advice from a trade association or lawyer before proceeding unilaterally.

Managing watersports

Water is a very special resource since its usage for leisure purposes can be so
wonderful yet so very problematical. Its inherent characteristics make watersports
especially risky, moreso where untrained individuals are tempted to ‘take to the
water’. Chapter 7 examined one particular tragedy, that of Lyme Bay, but in a sense
each lifeboat-rescue is a near-accident, rather like a near-miss in air traffic terms.
The resource itself is found in several forms:
• sea-water (tidal/non-tidal, seas, estuaries)
• fresh water (rivers, lakes, ponds, canals).
In both cases, there are management responsibilities attached to the points at
which the land meets the water. This may seem obvious enough, but coastal zone
management, riparian ownership and even towpath management present distinct
challenges, moreso where the site is public open space. Though the site is techni-
cally ‘land’, in the previous definition, none the less there are especial risks simply
because of its proximity to water. The same argument applies to the management
of open air swimming pools, of course.
Equally, the management of people-on-the-water is fraught with potential
problems because of the coincidence between an unpredictable environment (such
as the sea) and, all too often, an untrained (and therefore unpredictable) individual.
Sea currents and winds can quickly separate whole parties, and ‘creating a bolt-
hole’ if the weather turns nasty, as in the mountains, is not an option.
Managers who have some responsibility for the water/land mixture rather than
for watersports activities alone, are expected to give consideration to the following:
216 Managing Leisure

• Ownership – who owns the land immediately adjacent to the water, in the case
of rivers, ponds, lakes.
• Access – whether the public has any right of access onto that land, e.g. a public
footpath along a river bank.
• Usage – whether another organization has rights to enter into the area, in order
to use the water, e.g. fishing club, sub-aqua club, canoe club.
• Risks – whether there are any particular risks associated with the site, irrespec-
tive of whether or not public access is a legal right, e.g. a river bank which
has been undermined by strong currents.
Watersports management may coincidentally involve the above-mentioned issues,
but in addition carries the substantial responsibility for public safety. The follow-
ing guidance should therefore be considered:
• Legal compliance – ensuring strict compliance to the guidelines or rules issued
by respective governing bodies of sport (in the case of the United Kingdom)
or by any other competent authorities
• Equipment – providing equipment that is thoroughly checked, and of a speci-
fication appropriate to the circumstances of use
• Instructors – checking that instructors are fully qualified to undertake the roles
expected of them
• Checks – where sea/estuary usage is concerned, ensuring that checks are made
as to tides, weather forecasts and wind conditions
• Procedures – ensuring that emergency procedures are known to all personnel,
and that adherence is absolute
• Risk assessment – ensuring that risk assessment is carried out when required
by law (see Chapter 7 with regard to the aftermath of Lyme Bay).
Where buildings are involved, and particularly where residential accommodation
is made available, the following guidelines should also be observed:
• Standards – checking that fixtures, fittings, plant and equipment are provided
and maintained in accordance with approved standards, where applicable
• Licences – ensuring that all conditions attached to licences are adhered to, and
that any additional licences are sought when necessary (see Chapter 2)
• Fire regulations – ensuring that the building is used in accordance with fire regula-
tions, where applicable, and that nothing is done that might jeopardize either
emergency egress by the public or emergency access by fire or ambulance services
• Building regulations – where applicable, checking that any modifications being
considered are in accordance with the regulations
 The leisure manager’s role 217

• Planning consent – ensuring that the usage of the building is in accordance

with the planning consent and with any special conditions attached thereto
• Insurance – providing insurance cover, as appropriate to particular events, and
ensuring cover for ‘public liability’ and for staff
• Insurance – ensuring that nothing is done (or not done) that might jeopardize
the provision of insurance cover.
Chapter 7 describes in some detail the errors which though perhaps small in
themselves accumulated to create the terrible loss of life at Lyme Bay. This must
be an object lesson to those who offer watersports as part of any outdoor activity
programme, if such accidents are not to be repeated.
But what of adults? How is a watersports manager to react if an adult customer
claims to be experienced at wind-surfing or sea canoeing? Trickier still, what if the
adult brings his or her own equipment along?
As we have seen in Chapter 2 the principle is that adults must take some
responsibility for their own actions, and cannot always be protected from
themselves. However, in such circumstances and given the unpredictability of a
maritime environment, the watersports manager would be recommended to
observe the customer starting the activity in the first place, and to check the
customer’s equipment beforehand. Should doubts remain, the customer may be
asked to sign a document confirming that he or she was briefed on the risks as
well as on the deficiencies in his or her equipment but none the less wished to
proceed.

Managing spectator venues

Chapter 7 referred to a situation where the leisure environment is an aggregate of

customers. Under certain circumstances, such as the outbreak of fire or a fight, the
crowd may constitute a sizeable and unpredictable hazard. Crowd psychology
then develops its own momentum, almost irrespective of the original cause –
particularly when the cause itself (as at Bradford) is actually visible.
The responsibilities attached to the management of large entertainment and
sporting venues should never be underestimated therefore. Football stadia in
particular – and rugby stadia to a lesser extent – pose problems of crowd manage-
ment which are quite distinct, and quite unlike most other managerial roles. In
such circumstances, the following aspects are considered important:
218 Managing Leisure

• Structures – ensuring that the physical fabric of the stadium/theatre/concert

hall is in a sound structural condition
• Systems – ensuring that all sound, lighting, emergency lighting systems are in
working order
• Fire detection – ensuring that detection systems and appliances are working
properly, so that once a fire breaks out, alarms are activated as appropriate
• Fire fighting – ensuring that all component parts of the fire-fighting system
are in good order, namely:
hose reels: usually fixed along escape routes or close to fire exits
‘dry risers’: an empty pipe rising vertically inside a building, with an inlet
provided at ground level to allow the fire service to pump water into the riser
from the nearest hydrant
‘wet risers’: a permanent connection to a water supply capable of providing
the necessary pressure at the top outlet
sprinklers: pipes usually fixed at ceiling level throughout the protected area.
Sprinkler heads are connected to the pipes and, in the event of a fire, the heat
causes a flexible element in the nearest sprinkler head to shatter and allows
water to be discharged in the form of a spray.
• Training – ensuring that all internal staff (stewards, front of house, stage staff,
bar/catering staff, etc.) are fully trained in emergency procedures. (Deficien-
cies in evacuation procedures were noted as highly significant in the Summer-
land disaster, referred to in Chapter 7)
• Security – ensuring that external services (police, fire, ambulance) are fully
integrated into the operation as a whole, and are given the opportunity to
review procedures as well as monitor operations (Twickenham serves as a
good example of this process)
• Licensing – ensuring that all conditions attached to the licence are met in full
• Monitoring and control – ensuring that ‘pressure points’ outside or inside the
ground/venue do not build up to the point where they could conceivably have
a major effect (as at Hillsborough). CCTV is now used extensively to scan a
facility in its entirety.

Even with all these precautions and all these systems, the possibility of a serious
accident can never be ruled out. When upwards of 75 000 people attend a football
or rugby match there is always the risk of a minor incident becoming a major
disaster.
The management role in such an environment is dominated by considerations
of public safety, whether the venue is a stadium (largely uncovered) or an arena
 The leisure manager’s role 219

(covered). Controlling and monitoring large numbers of people requires systems

that are tried and tested – plus regular liaison with emergency services. The struc-
tures themselves, especially at older venues, should be checked regularly to ensure
that nothing is amiss. Roof canopies in particular need to be checked for the effects
of weathering.
Above all, there must be operating procedures (‘normal’ and ‘emergency’)
which are clearly defined, communicated to all personnel and practised on a
regular basis.
Any ‘conditions of hire’ must also be carefully worded, due to the quality and
quantity of the liability being transferred to the external hirer. One is often
surprised to see such documentation being used year after year – though the legal
environment has changed almost beyond recognition.
Any long-term lease, e.g. to a football club, must also be constructed in such a
way as to make clear the respective responsibilities of the lessor (the organization
granting the lease) and the lessee (the organization taking the lease). Again, the
former would be well advised to check that the documentation provides adequate
safeguards in the event of an accident.

Managing children’s activities

So many private sector, public authorities and local organizations provide activi-
ties for children that the topic justifies some attention in a text such as this. Often,
these activities are promulgated in the form of complete programmes (‘summer
holiday playschemes’ or ‘Easter camps’), but more rarely in the form of single-
activity workshops, e.g. for visual art or drama. Often sporting activity is predom-
inant, as with outdoor programmes presented in parks and open spaces.
An important distinction lies between residential and non-residential
programmes. One hopes that enough has been said in the text to indicate why this
distinction is so crucial, but for the avoidance of doubt some points are made here.
(It should also be borne in mind that outdoor activity centres fall into the former
ambit, and as such are close in character to the camp-based programmes offered
by other organizations.)
Residential programmes for children are especially popular in the United States,
the best-known company being Camp America. Whereas there is an accepted
tradition of ‘going off to camp’ in the United States, the situation in the United
Kingdom is rather different. Jackson (1997) suggests that, unlike their American
220 Managing Leisure

counterparts, British parents feel guilty about ‘sending their children away’ in the
first place! Be that as it may, the growth of companies such as PGL Holidays, Camp
Beaumont, and Superchoice indicates that the American tradition may become
popular elsewhere – provided of course that no disasters occur.
Having regard to what has been said about risk management in Chapter 7, what
can we say to advise the manager who is responsible for such programmes?
The topic as a whole can be considered in terms of the following:
• provision of physical facilities
• staff selection, training and development
• provision of equipment
• provision of support services (transport, etc.)
• provision of subcontracted services.
In addition, where residential accommodation is provided, there will be:
• provision of sleeping/social accommodation.
Clearly, there is a much greater responsibility falling upon management when the
youngster is present on site for 24 hours per day. In that instance the legal liabil-
ity of ensuring the child’s safety remains throughout the whole period. With non-
residential programmes, the liability exists from the point of hand-over, by the
parent, to the point of collection. (In one’s experience, difficulties are caused when
the child is allowed to leave a site unaccompanied, having been told by his or her
parents to ‘make your own way home’.)
In brief, one might usefully examine each of the foregoing.

Provision of physical facilities

Programme organizers should satisfy themselves, by a prior site inspection, that
the site is safe and secure (from intruders or unauthorized egress). Any danger-
ous item within the site may conceivably be seen as an ‘allurement’ by the courts,
should an accident occur, e.g. an open-air swimming pool within a school
compound. Buildings too must be secure, and any dangerous areas made physi-
cally inaccessible. Checks must be made to ensure that there is the physical means
to raise an alarm (i.e. by telephone or radio) should an accident occur.

Staff selection, training and development

Given the vulnerability of the customers, every precaution must be taken to protect
their physical and psychological well-being. Staff selection procedures should be
 The leisure manager’s role 221

discussed with the police (with regard to possible screening process) and ideally
with a legal expert, lest future problems arise. Any staff employed to undertake
sports coaching should have the appropriate qualifications, for which proof should
be provided. Staff training should be compulsory, and should include emergency
procedures as well as normal operating procedures. Staff deployment should be
consistent with their qualifications, notably where sporting activities are provided.

Provision of equipment
Equipment must be purchased well in advance of the programme’s commence-
ment, and should be checked as to its specification (in the case of sports equip-
ment). High-risk sports, such as trampolining, and gymnastics should not be
contemplated unless thorough checks have been made.

Provision of support services

Provision of support services, e.g. for food and transport, should also be checked
carefully. Coach operators must comply with certain rules, as must those who sell
unwrapped food. (In this last regard, advice should be sought as to precautions
in cooking outdoors, for instance.)

Provision of subcontracted services

The subcontracting of activities can be fraught with problems, even if at first sight
the principle appears simple enough.
Due to economies of scale, subcontracting may take place in such matters as
transport (see above), but also for high-risk and medium-risk activities, notably
horse-riding, quad-bike riding, mountain biking and canoeing.
Any subcontractor should be carefully vetted: some will need to be licensed (e.g.
horse-riding establishments), and all will need their own insurance for public
liability. Neither form of documentation should be assumed, but personally
checked and recorded.

Provision of sleeping/social accommodation

Two words should enter the mind of the reader, namely ‘safety’ and ‘control’ since
both are respectively entailed by the two types of accommodation being provided.
Risks attached to the provision of sleeping accommodation are particularly
222 Managing Leisure

onerous, and all systems (for smoke detection, alarms, emergency lighting) must
be thoroughly and regularly checked, as must all installations (fire doors, in situ
fire-fighting items). In addition, staff must be trained in emergency procedures,
and their training sessions duly recorded.

Provision of supervision and monitoring

To an extent, this is a ‘catch-all’ phrase, intended to represent what is generally
expected of someone who manages activities for children. There may for example
be minimum levels of supervision, as laid down in an Act of Parliament, or there
may be higher standards which the organization itself – or the chosen venue –
expects to see in operation.
On a general point, it may be assumed that managing activities for children is
itself ‘child’s play’. One hopes that the foregoing will convince the reader that this
is assuredly not the case ...

Managing leisure land

Like any other physical resource, land must be managed so as to retain its asset
value. Managing public open space is especially problematical, however, given the
conflicts of recreational usage (e.g. between different conservation groups) which
inevitably occur.
Managing privately owned land which is used primarily for leisure purposes is
altogether more straightforward a task, since access may be limited to organized
clubs and societies.
Whether the land is used as a golf course, football pitch, allotment, nature
reserve or whatever, the following aspects need to be addressed by any person
about to assume that responsibility.
• Land tenure – whether the site is freehold or leasehold
• Land extent – the precise boundary curtilage should be known, e.g. for the
reason of liability
• Land status – whether the land is public open space, common land, Crown
land, private land
• Land restrictions – whether there are any restrictions on the uses to which the
land may be put, e.g. planning restrictions, restrictive covenants, conservation
designations (such as SSSI)
 The leisure manager’s role 223

• Access – whether the public has a legal right of access onto the land, e.g. access
agreements, statutory footpaths, bridleways
• Access – whether any other organization or agency has any rights of access
over the land, e.g. easements to electricity companies to maintain overhead
cables
• Land quality – whether the land has a particular environmental quality
(protected or not) which creates its leisure interest, in which case a specific
management regime will be required, e.g. to maintain heather moorland or
wild flower meadows
• Land quality – whether below-ground conditions are such as to affect existing
usage or restrict future usage, e.g. former land-fill sites, where methane
emission may create immediate problems and also inhibit construction works
• Land location – whether any problems have occurred as a result of the site’s
location, e.g. from flooding or from air-borne pollution.
Clearly, while the above-mentioned aspects are relevant, they represent only the
initial steps in the land management process. As often as not, land used for leisure
purposes is, in the United Kingdom at least, designated public open space, and
therefore has a measure of protection. In essence, local authorities cannot dispose
of such assets, except under very special circumstances.
Managers of any land to which the public has open access (common, public
open space, village greens, play areas) should ensure their familiarity with the
legal states of their sites, and of any rules for governance (‘by-laws’) attached
thereto.
Managers of private land, to which the public has no automatic right of access,
should ensure that adequate contracts and checks are in place to protect public
safety and the quality of the land itself.
Both types of manager would be wise to acquaint themselves with the detail of
the legislation on occupiers’ liability (see Chapter 2), and possibly on rights of way
(if appropriate).

Jobs within the leisure industry

Preparing to work within such a diverse industry cannot be an easy matter,

however many leisure management courses are created. To make things worse,
courses are sometimes taught by individuals who have had no management
experience whatever, but only know the theory. Whether this book helps to redress
224 Managing Leisure

the balance is for the reader to decide, but in the meantime some suggestions are
offered to students who are about to embark on a course (notwithstanding the
criticism above) or upon the hunt for a real job.
• Check the job advert carefully: does it specify a qualification or minimum
years of experience? If so, are you likely to be interviewed, i.e. do you meet
the specification?
• Is your Curriculum Vitae (CV) suitable for this particular application? Does
the employer ask for a CV in any case?
• Having received the Job Details or Personal Specification (howsoever titled),
devise a CV or a covering letter which follows the same pattern, e.g. in refer-
ring to knowledge or skills.
• Play on your strengths, and identify knowledge and experience gained from
part-time/casual employment as well as from full-time work.
• Even where previous full-time jobs may not seem relevant, consider whether
in fact there is some connection that you could use, e.g. knowledge of build-
ing construction could be extremely useful in some leisure management roles,
as would retail or marketing experience in others.
• Consider what additional knowledge would give you an advantage: this is
especially true of health and safety legislation (and procedures), financial
principles and practices and legal aspects generally.
Before committing oneself to a course, one should be aware of the desired ‘end-
result’ in terms of job sought. For example, anyone wishing to concentrate on open
space management may be wiser to undertake a postgraduate course in the disci-
pline. Equally, anyone wishing to carry out open space maintenance would need
to have a qualification in horticulture and possibly in arboriculture.
Working in the arts is more dependent upon simple flair, fortune and particu-
lar skills, e.g. design, promotion, marketing, finance and so forth, than on any
single ‘vocational qualification’. However, museum work is quite distinct, since its
curators are drawn mostly from graduates in history or archaeology, just as art
gallery staff are generally graduates in the visual arts.
Sports management too has become an all-graduate/HND profession. In
addition, coaching qualifications are useful to obtain that ‘first job’, which is also
true of sports development work. A knowledge of the law, as it relates to leisure
services, has also become necessary.
Leisure management courses should certainly provide a useful stepping stone
– either to a further (more specialized) short course, or to a longer postgraduate
course, or to a temporary job or to a permanent job.
 The leisure manager’s role 225

Conclusions

The four watchwords referred to earlier – conversance, inspiration, application and

vigilance – should serve as guidelines for those about to enter this exciting indus-
try. Though ‘fun’ and ‘enjoyment’ are perhaps uppermost in the minds of
customers, managers should always bear in mind that leisure can be a ‘deadly
business’. Furthermore, potential managers need to recognize that major liabilities
will be attached to the post which they will eventually hold.
But there remain enormous opportunities for satisfaction, despite the slings and
arrows which will inevitably come the manager’s way. The ‘fingertips approach’
– knowing a little, assuming everything will work out – is no longer an adequate
option. Better to have a firm grasp on reality and to know what may go wrong.
Whether the leisure manager does indeed improve the ‘quality of life’ (of the
customers) depends on the values that are ascribed to the particular service.
Merely to occupy the time of youngsters, say, by managing an amusement arcade
can hardly be seen as socially beneficial, whereas the provision of a summer sports
programme can create a life-long pattern of activity.
Ultimately, managers have to justify the job to themselves, since not all leisure
management roles may have social objectives – some may even have anti-social
ones.
The author’s view is that leisure is like so many other assets – you get out of it
what you put into it. Implicit in this hypothesis is the notion that effort is required
to make the best of life. One hopes that this book will have helped to make the point.

References and recommended reading

Central Council of Physical Recreation. (1994). Governing Body Qualifications in

Outdoor Pursuits and Water Recreation.
Fitness for Industry. (1996). Career Opportunities.
Fyfe, L. (1994). Careers in Sport. Kogan Page.
Hobsons. (1994). Handbook of Tourism and Leisure.
Jackson, D. (1997). Quad biking was brill; abseiling was brill, The Independent, 7 June.
Sports Council. (1994). Training and Education Courses.
Torkildsen, G. (1995). Leisure and Recreation Management. E. & F.N. Spon.
Trotman. (1995). Careers in Sport. Trotman & Co. Ltd.
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
Index

Absorption costing, see Finance, cost surveys, 96

behaviour technology, 92, 93
Access: see also Property
agreements, 78–80 Bureaucracies, 34
rights of, 223 Business plans, 136, 137
Accidents: By-laws, see Public open space
consequences of, 182–8
drownings, 180 Cash flow, see Finance
in mountains, 208 CCTV (and monitoring), 170
at playgrounds, 198–200 Chartered Institute of Public Finance and
statistics, 177–82, see also Mortality Accountancy, role of, 153
statistics Children’s activities, 219–22
in water, 200–2 Cinemas, 10, 11
see also Outdoor activity centres Client role, 129, 130
Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Codes of Practice, 43
Service (ACAS), role of, 115 Commons, 77, 79
Ageing, effects of, 31–3 Company accounts, 145–8
Alton Towers, 39 Competence, 103, 104, see also Motivation
American Adventure World, 11 Compulsive behaviour, 103
Arts Council, 8 Compulsory competitive tendering (CCT),
Audit Commission, report of, 19, 21 8, 9
Conflict, see Groups
Balance sheets, see Company accounts Constructive dismissal, 60
Bradford fire tragedy, 55, 177 Consumers:
‘Break even budgets’, 148, 149 ‘contracts’, 29
Bridleways, see Public rights of way protection, 64, 65
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), 8 Contractors, management of, 128–31
British Standards, 98 Contracts:
British Trust for Conservation Volunteers, breaches of, 57, 58
14 concept, 55, 56
Buildings: constituent parts, 57
maintenance, 96 examples of, 56
plant and systems, 95, 96 see also Employment
structures and materials, 94, 95 Contributory negligence, 51
228 Index

Copyright, 66–8 Disney Corporation, 38, 39

Council for Music, Entertainment and the Double-entry (book-keeping), 133, 145
Arts, 8 Drownings, 201, 202
Council for the Protection of Rural ‘Duty of care’, 44, 46, 71,
England (report of), 82 see also Occupiers’ liability
Countryside:
access, 80 Employment:
commission, 8 definitions, 58, 59
degradation, 81 ‘implied terms’, 59
management, 81 legislation, 60, 61
organizations, 83, 84 relevance, 59, 60
Craven Arms tragedy, 205, 206 ‘Enabling legislation’, 8
Crown Courts, role of, 48, 49 Equal opportunities:
Crown Prosecution Service (CPS), 49, definitions, 61
112 legislation, 64
Cup Final, 29 relevance (of legislation), 61, 62
Customers: Equipment, maintenance of, 97, 98
assessment, 126, 127 European Court of Justice, 71
care of, 119–23 European Standards, 98
characteristics, 116, 117 European Union (EU):
complaints, 123–4 directives, 47
perceptions, 125, 126 regulations, 47, 194
preconceptions, 125, 126
repeat visits, 127 Farming, impact of, 81, 82, see also
Countryside
Damages, 45 Finance:
Demand: break-even budgets, 148, 149
assessment, 22–5 budgets, 138–42
cycles, 17 cost behaviour, 148
factors influencing, 16, 17 cash flow forecasting, 143–5
Demographic change: cash flow management, 142, 143
projections, 30 depreciation, 150–1
surveys, 32 objectives, 134–8
see also Ageing, effects of performance assessment, 151–2
Depreciation, see Finance see also Business plans
Design-and-build, 90 First Leisure plc, 11
Directives (of EU), see European Union Fitness centres, 213–15
Disciplinary procedures, 115, 116, 124 Fixed costs, see Finance, cost behaviour
Disclaimers, see Unfair Contract Terms Food hygiene, 70
Act Futuroscope, 39
Discrimination:
on grounds of disability, 63, 64 Gestalt (psychology), 102, 126
on grounds of race, 62, 63 Groups:
on grounds of sex, 61, 62 characteristics, 105, 106
 Index 229

and conflict, 107, 108 Leisure:

and control, 107 definitions, 4, 5
‘group-think’, 108 demand assessment, 22, 25
Guatemala City tragedy, 192 national expenditure, 25
national organizations, 14, 15
Health and Safety: price influence, 17
duties of employees, 53, 54 as sanctuary, 35
duties of employers, 53 Libraries (and CCT), 9
legislation, 54 Licences:
relevance (of legislation), 54, 55 cinemas, 69, 70
roles of ILAM and ISRM, 54 gaming, 69
Health and Safety Executive, 43 liquour, 68, 69
Hierarchies, see Organizations public entertainment, 68
Hillsborough tragedy, 177, 192 spectator venues, 218
Home based leisure, 35–7 theatres, 70
Horizontal analysis, see Finance, Local authorities:
performance assessment licensing functions, see Licences
planning functions, 10
‘Implied terms’, see Employment Local Government Act 1988, 8
Industrial Tribunals, 60, 116 Lyme Bay tragedy, 85, 202–4
Insurance: implications, 205–6, 216
and accidents, 196 lessons, 204
and ‘cover’, 173, 174 see also Outdoor activity centres
and damages, 45
Madame Tussauds, 39
Jobs: Magistrates Courts, 49
descriptions, 112 Marginal costing, see Finance, cost
design, 111 behaviour
enlargement, 112 Market forces, impact of, 8
enrichment, 112 Millennium (celebrations), 40
rewards, 114, 115 ‘Milgram experiments’, 107
rotation, 112 Mixed costs, see Finance, cost behaviour
sanctions, 115, 116 Mortality statistics, 176, 177
selection procedures, 113 Motivation, 103, see also Competence

Kennedy Space Centre, 39 National Entertainment Safety

Association, 209
Land: National Lottery, 19, 25, 27, 77, 136
conflicts of usage, 77, 78 National Parks Commission, 8
leisure usage, 75–7 National Playing Fields Association, 14,
tenure and access, 78, 79 198, 199
see also Commons Negligence, 51, 121, see also ‘Duty of care’
Lawn Tennis Association, 91 and Occupiers’ liability
230 Index

New Towns, 24 Public Health Acts, 7

Niche marketing 23, 29 Public open space, 223
Public rights of way, 10, 79, 80
Occupiers’ liability Public Sector Borrowing Requirement
concept of, 49, 50 (PSBR), 8
legislation, 52 Public sector provision:
relevance, 50–2 background, 6–9
Olympic Games, 16 role of local authorities 9, 10
Organizations:
culture, 109, 110 Quangos, origins of, 8
hierarchies, 109 ‘Quantum meruit’, see Contracts, breaches
objectives, 110
Outdoor activity centres: Racial discrimination, see Discrimination
legislation, 43, 206–8 Rate Support Grant, 8
see also Lyme Bay tragedy Ratios (financial), 151
Regional Arts Boards, 9, 17
Performance (appraisal), 113, 114 Regional Film Theatres, 9
Personality: Regression (as behaviour), 102
cognitive reality, 102 Regulations (of EU), see European Union
‘internals’ and ‘externals’, 102 Risk:
methodologies, 101, 102 calculations, 197
Physical Recreation and Training Act control, 197–8
1939, 7 implications, 195–6
Playground (accidents), see Accidents legislation, 193, 195
Possessive individualism, concept of, models, 188
28 principles, 196
Product liability, 65, 66 see also Spectator venues
Profit and loss accounts, see Company Royal Life Saving Society, 86
accounts Rugby Football Union, 38
Programming:
assessing demand for, 157, 158 Saga (holidays), 30
legislative framework, 171–4 Sale of Goods Act 1979, 65, 122
managerial aspects, 156 Seasonality, 16, 143, 145
process, 158, 171 Sex discrimination, see Discrimination
Property: Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs), 75
appraisal, 89, 90 Society for the Suppression of Vice, 7
design problems, 96, 97 Spectator venues, 217, 219
maintenance, 96 Sport:
standards, 92 as entertainment, 37
see also Buildings professionalization of, 45
Psychometric testing, see Jobs, selection Sports Council, 8, 86
procedures Spreadsheets, use of, see Finance
Public Entertainment Licences, see Subsidy:
Licences background, 17
 Index 231

and market effects, 20–2, 118 Variable costs, see Finance, cost behaviour
mechanism, 18 Variance, see Finance, budgets/cash flow
and sport, 19, 20 management
Summerland tragedy, 193 Venues:
Supply of Goods and Services Act, 1982, indoor, 155
65 outdoor, 156
Vertical analysis, see Finance performance
Taxation, 21 assessment
Technology, 26, 29, 36, see also Home Vicarious liability, 59
based leisure Virement, 141, 142
Television, 16 Virtual reality (VR), see Home based
Temperance Society, 7 leisure
Theatrical Technical Training Services, 209 ‘Volenti non fit injuria’, defence of, 52,
Theme parks: 121
components of, 38, 39 Voluntary sector, 13, 14
prospects, 39
Thorpe Park, 35 Watersports, management of, 215, 217
Trading accounts, see Company accounts Waterworld tragedy (San Francisco), see
Tranquility maps, 82, 83 Accidents, in water
Trend analysis, see Finance, performance Wilding report, 9
assessment Wimbledon, effect of, 16
Twyford Down, 78
Xanadu, proposals for, 39
Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977, 50, 52,
121 Zeebrugge tragedy, 203