CARDIFF UNIVERSITY

School of Physics and Astronomy

MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE
AND PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
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Contents

1 ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA AND TRIGNOMETRY 5

1.1 Logarithms and exponentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Compound formulae: sines, cosines and tangents . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Double-angle formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 "Tan of half-angle" formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Triangle sine and cosine formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7 Hyperbolic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.8 Stirling's approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 SERIES FORMULAE 7
2.1 Sums of progressions to n terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Binomial series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Taylor's Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4 Power series in algebra and trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3 DERIVATIVES AND INTEGRALS 9

3.1 Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2 Partial dierentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3 Indenite integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.4 Indenite integrals involving sines, cosines and exponentials . . . . . 10
3.5 Integration by parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.6 Denite integrals involving sines and cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.7 Denite integrals involving exponentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.8 Numerical integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.8.1 Trapezoidal rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.8.2 Simpson rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.9 Newton-Raphson Method for Finding the Root of an Equation . . . 12

4 COMPLEX NUMBERS 13
4.1 Denitions etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.2 De Moivre's theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
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4.3 Formulae involving eiθ etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

5 SPECIAL FUNCTIONS 14
5.1 Spherical harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.2 The gamma function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.3 Bessel functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

6 DETERMINANTS AND MATRICES 16

6.1 Denition of a determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6.2 Consistency of n simultaneous equations with n variables and no con-
stants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6.3 Solutions of n simultaneous equations with n variables and with con-
stants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6.4 Matrices: basic equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6.5 Rules of matrix algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6.6 Trace of a square matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6.7 Transpose of matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6.8 Inverse of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6.9 Special matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6.10 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a square matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.11 Similarity transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.12 Diagonalisation of a matrix A with dierent eigenvalues . . . . . . . . 19
6.13 Representation of a rotation by a matrix R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

7 VECTORS 20
7.1 Denition of the scalar (or dot) product of two vectors . . . . . . . . 20
7.2 Properties of the scalar product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
7.3 Denition of the vector (or cross) product of two vectors . . . . . . . 20
7.4 Properties of the vector product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
7.5 Scalar triple product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7.6 Vector triple product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7.7 The del operator ∇ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7.8 The gradient of a scalar function φ(x, y, z) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7.9 The divergence of a vector function F(x, y, z) = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k . . . 21
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7.10 The curl of a vector function F(x, y, z) = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k . . . . . . . 22

7.11 Compound operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
7.12 Operations on sums and products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
7.13 Gauss's (divergence) theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
7.14 Stokes's theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

8 CYLINDRICAL AND SPHERICAL POLAR COORDINATES 24

8.1 Cylindrical coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
8.2 Spherical polar coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
8.3 ∇2 in cylindrical polar coordinates (r, φ, z) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
8.4 ∇2 in spherical polar coordinates (r, θ, φ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
8.5 Line area and volume elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
8.5.1 Cylindrical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
8.5.2 Spherical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

9 FOURIER SERIES AND TRANSFORMS 26

9.1 Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
9.2 Fourier transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
9.3 Shift theorems in Fourier transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
9.4 Convolutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
9.5 Some common Fourier mates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
9.6 Diraction at a circular aperture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

10 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS 30
10.1 Denition and table of transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

11 PROBABILITY, STATISTICS AND DATA INTERPRETATION 31

11.1 Mean and variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
11.2 Binomial distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
11.3 Poisson distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
11.4 Normal (Gaussian) distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
11.5 Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
11.6 Data interpretation: least squares tting of a straight line . . . . . . . 33

12 SOME PHYSICS FORMULAE 34

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12.1 Newton's laws and conservation of energy and momentum . . . . . . 34

12.2 Rotational motion and angular momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
12.3 Gravitation and Planetary motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
12.4 Oscillations - Simple harmonic motion, Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
12.5 Thermodynamics, gases and uids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
12.6 Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
12.7 Electricity and Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
12.8 Maxwell's equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
12.9 Special Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
12.10 Photons, atoms and quantum mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
12.11 Nuclear Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

13 PHYSICAL CONSTANTS AND CONVERSIONS 39

13.1 Physical constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
13.2 Astronomical constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
13.3 Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
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1 ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA AND TRIGNOMETRY

1.1 Logarithms and exponentials

ˆ x
dt
ln x = loge x = , x > 0, e = 2.718281828 . . .
1 t
loga x = (logb x)(loga b)
1
loga b =
logb a
x
a = exp (x ln a)

1.2 Trigonometric functions

sec θ = 1/ cos θ cosec θ = 1/ sin θ cot θ = 1/ tan θ

sin(−θ) = − sin θ cos(−θ) = cos θ tan(−θ) = − tan θ
sin θ + cos θ = sec θ − tan θ = cosec θ − cot2 θ = 1
2 2 2 2 2

1.3 Compound formulae: sines, cosines and tangents

sin(A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B

cos(A ± B) = cos A cos B ∓ sin A sin B
tan A ± tan B
tan(A ± B) =
1 ∓ tan A tan B
2 sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A − B)
2 cos A cos B = cos(A + B) + cos(A − B)
2 sin A sin B = − cos(A + B) + cos(A − B) note minus sign of rst term
sin A + sin B = 2 sin 21 (A + B) cos 12 (A − B)
sin A − sin B = 2 cos 21 (A + B) sin 12 (A − B)
cos A + cos B = 2 cos 12 (A + B) cos 12 (A − B)
cos A − cos B = −2 sin 21 (A + B) sin 21 (A − B) (note minus signs)

1.4 Double-angle formulae

sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ

cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ = 2 cos2 θ − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 θ
sin2 θ = 12 (1 − cos 2θ)
cos2 θ = 12 (1 + cos 2θ)

1.5 "Tan of half-angle" formulae

If t = tan θ/2 , then
2t 1 − t2 2t
sin θ = cos θ = tan θ =
1 + t2 1 + t2 1 − t2
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1.6 Triangle sine and cosine formulae

If in a triangle A, B and C are the angles opposite sides of lengths a, b and c
respectively,

a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C

1.7 Hyperbolic functions

cosh θ = 12 (eθ + e−θ ) sinh θ = 21 (eθ − e−θ )

sinh θ eθ − e−θ
tanh θ = = θ
cosh θ e + e−θ
cosh θ 1 eθ + e−θ
coth θ = = = θ
sinh θ tanh θ e − e−θ
1 1
sech θ = cosech θ =
cosh θ sinh θ

cosh2 θ − sinh2 θ = 1
sech2 θ + tanh2 θ = 1
coth2 θ − cosech2 θ = 1

1.8 Stirling's approximation

ln (n!) ≈ n ln n − n for n  1
An even closer approximation is
ln n! ≈ n ln n − n + 12 ln (2π n)
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2 SERIES FORMULAE

2.1 Sums of progressions to n terms

(i) Arithmetic Progression (A.P.):
n−1
X
(a + md) = a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + ... + (a + (n − 1)d)
m=0
= (n/2) [2a + (n − 1)d] = (n/2)(rst term + last term)

(ii) Geometric Progression (G.P.):

n−1
X a(1 − rn ) a(rn − 1)
Sn = (arm ) = a + ar + ar2 + ....... + arn−1 = =
m=0
1−r r−1

For an innite number of terms, if |r| < 1

a
S∞ =
1−r

2.2 Binomial series

n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1) · · · (n − r + 1) r
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + .... + x + ...
2! r!
(Note that 0! = 1).
If n is a positive integer, the series terminates.
Otherwise, the series converges so long as |x| < 1.
 x n
(a + x)n = an 1 +
a

2.3 Taylor's Theorem

(i) Single Variable:

The value of a function f (x) given the value of the function and its relevant deriva-
tives at x = a, is
∞
X 1 (x − a)2 00 (x − a)3 000
f (x) = (x−a)n f (n) (a) = f (a)+(x−a)f 0 (a)+ f (a)+ f (a)+ · · ·
n=0
n! 2! 3!

If a = 0, this series expansion is often called a Maclaurin Series.

(ii) Two Variables:

1 ∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f
 
∂f ∂f 2 2
f (x, y) = f (x0 , y0 ) + ∆x + ∆y + ∆x + 2 ∆x∆y + 2 ∆y + · · ·
∂x ∂y 2! ∂x2 ∂x∂y ∂y
where ∆x = x − x0 , ∆y = y − y0
and all the derivatives are evaluated at (x0 , y0 ).
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2.4 Power series in algebra and trigonometry

x2 x3
ex = 1 + x + + + ···
2! 3!
x2 x3 x4
ln (1 + x) = x − + − + · · · for |x| < 1
2 3 4
x3 x5 x7
sin x = x − + − + ···
3! 5! 7!
x2 x4 x6
cos x = 1 − + − + ···
2! 4! 6!
x3 x5 x 7
sinh x = x + + + + ···
3! 5! 7!
x2 x4 x6
cosh x = 1 + + + + ···
2! 4! 6!
1
= 1 − x + x2 − x3 + · · · for |x| < 1.
1+x
1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · for |x| < 1.
1−x
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3 DERIVATIVES AND INTEGRALS

3.1 Derivatives

d d
tan x = sec2 x cot x = − cosec2 x
dx dx
d d
sec x = sec x tan x cosec x = − cosec x cot x
dx dx
Product rule :
Given f (x) = u(x)v(x) then
df dv du
=u + v
dx dx dx
Chain rule :
Given u(x) and f (u), then
df df du
=
dx du dx

3.2 Partial dierentiation

The total dierential df of a function f (x, y) is
∂f ∂f
df = dx + dy
∂x ∂y
The chain rule for partial dierentiation.
If f (x, y) and x and y are functions of another variable, so that x(u) and y(u), then
df ∂f dx ∂f dy
= +
du ∂x du ∂y du

3.3 Indenite integrals

The constant of integration is omitted. Where the logarithm of a quantity is given,
that quantity is taken as positive. a is a positive constant.
ˆ
dx x x
√ = sin−1 or − cos−1 (principal value)
a 2 − x 2 a a
ˆ
dx 1 x
2 2
= tan−1 (principal value)
a +x a a
ˆ (
dx 1
2a
ln a+x
a−x
= a1 tanh−1 xa (if |x| < a)
=
a2 − x 2 1
2a
ln x+a
x−a
= a1 coth−1 xa ( if |x| > a)
ˆ √
dx x
√ = sinh−1 or ln (x + a2 + x2 )
a2 + x 2 a
ˆ √
dx x
√ = cosh−1 or ln (x + x2 − a2 )
a
ˆ √x − a
2 2

1 √ 1 x
a2 − x2 dx = x a2 − x2 + a2 sin−1 (principal value)
2 2 a
ˆ √
1 √ 1 √
x2 ± a2 dx = x x2 ± a2 ± a2 ln (x + x2 ± a2 )
2 2
 10

3.4 Indenite integrals involving sines, cosines and exponentials

ˆ
tan x dx = − ln (cos x) = ln (sec x)
ˆ
cot xdx = ln (sin x)
ˆ x  
 π  1 1 + sin x
sec x dx = ln (sec x + tan x) = ln tan + = ln
2 4 2 1 − sin x
ˆ
1 − cos x
 
 x  1
cosec x dx = ln (cosec x − cot x) = ln tan = ln
2 2 1 + cos x
ˆ √
x x
sin−1 dx = x sin−1 + a2 − x2
a a
ˆ
x x √
cos−1 dx = x cos−1 − a2 − x2
a a
ˆ x
a
ax dx =
ln a
ˆ  n
x nxn−1 n(n − 1)xn−2
xn e−ax dx = −e −ax
+ + + ···
a a2 a3

n!x n!
+ n + n+1 (n a non-negative integer)
a a
ˆ
a sin bx − b cos bx
eax sin bx dx = eax
a2 + b 2
ˆ
a cos bx + b sin bx
eax cos bx dx = eax
a2 + b 2
ˆ
sin ax x cos ax
x sin ax dx = −
a2 a
ˆ
ln x dx = x ln x − x
ˆ ˆ
sinh x dx = cosh x cosh x dx = sinh x
ˆ
tanh x dx = ln(cosh x)

3.5 Integration by parts

If u and v are functions of x,
ˆ ˆ
dv du
u dx = uv − v dx
dx dx

3.6 Denite integrals involving sines and cosines

If m and n are positive integers
ˆ π ˆ π
π π
sin mx sin nx dx = δmn cos mx cos nx dx = δmn
0 2 0 2
 11

where (
1 if m = n
δmn =
0 if m =
6 n
is the Kronecker delta.

ˆ π/2
sin mx cos nx dx = 0
−π/2

3.7 Denite integrals involving exponentials

ˆ ∞ ˆ ∞
−αx 1 2
xe dx = 2 x2 e−αx dx = 3
0 α 0 α
ˆ ∞ r ˆ ∞ r
−αx2 1 π 2 π
e dx = e−αx dx =
2 α α
ˆ ∞
0
ˆ−∞∞
2 1 2
xe−αx dx = xe−αx dx = 0
0 2α
ˆ ∞ r −∞
ˆ ∞
1 π
r
2 −αx2 2 −αx2 1 π
xe dx = xe dx =
4 α3 2 α3
ˆ ∞
0
ˆ ∞
−∞
2 1
x3 e−αx dx = 2 2
x3 e−αx dx = 0
0 2α
ˆ ∞ r −∞
ˆ ∞
3 π
r
xe4 −αx2
dx = 4 −αx2 3 π
8 α5 xe dx =
ˆ y
0
√ −∞ 4 α5
π ˆ y
√
r
2
e−x dx = erf(y) 2 1 π
2 e−αx dx = erf( α y)
0
0 2 α

3.8 Numerical integration

The interval between a and b is divided into equal intervals h.

y has values y0 , y1 , y2 · · · yn .
 12

3.8.1 Trapezoidal rule

ˆb y
0 yn 
ydx = h + y1 + y2 + ... +
2 2
a

3.8.2 Simpson rule

If there is an odd number of y -values (an even number of intervals),

ˆb
h
ydx = {y0 + 4(y1 + y3 + ... + yn−1 ) + 2(y2 + y4 + ... + yn−2 ) + yn } .
3
a

3.9 Newton-Raphson Method for Finding the Root of an Equation

The root is found by successive approximations.
If the equation is f (x) = 0 and xj is the j th approximation of the root

f (xj−1 ) 0 df
xj = xj−1 − 0 where f =
f (xj−1 ) dx
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4 COMPLEX NUMBERS

4.1 Denitions etc.

z = x + iy = r(cos θ + i sin θ) = reiθ

Complex conjugate of z is z ∗ = x − iy = re−iθ
p √
Modulus or amplitude of z is |z| = x2 + y 2 = r = zz ∗
y
Argument of z is arg z = tan−1 = θ
x
z + z∗
Real part of z is Re(z) = x = r cos θ =
2
z − z∗
Imaginary part of z is Im(z) = y = r sin θ =
2i

4.2 De Moivre's theorem

(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos (nθ) + i sin (nθ)

4.3 Formulae involving eiθ etc.

e±iθ = cos θ ± i sin θ

1
cos θ = (eiθ + e−iθ )
2
1
sin θ = (eiθ − e−iθ )
2i
eiθ − e−iθ e2iθ − 1 1 − e−2iθ
i tan θ = iθ = =
e + e−iθ e2iθ + 1 1 + e−2iθ
 14

5 SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

5.1 Spherical harmonics

A general equation which gives the `right' phase factors (as used in quantum me-
chanics) is
1/2 l+m
(2l + 1) (l − m)!
 
m 1 imφ d
Yl = e (− sin θ)m (cos2 θ − 1)l
4π (l + m)! 2l l! d(cos θ)

which can also be expressed

1
Ylm (θ, φ) = Plm (cos θ) √ eimφ ,
2π
where Plm (cos θ) is a normalised associated Legendre polynomial.

1
r
Y00 =√ 5
Y20 = 2 cos2 θ − sin2 θ


4π 16π
r
3
r
Y10 = cos θ 15
4π Y2±1 =∓ cos θ sin θe±iφ
r 8π
3
r
Y1±1 = ∓ sin θe±iφ 15
8π Y2±2 =∓ sin2 θe±2iφ
32π

5.2 The gamma function

This is dened as
ˆ ∞
Γ(n) = tn−1 e−t dt
0
ˆ 1 n−1
1
= ln dt
0 t

where n > 0 (n can be an integer or a non-integer)

Γ(n + 1) = nΓ(n)

If n is an integer ≥ 0, Γ(n + 1) = n!

√
 
1
Γ = π
2
π
Γ(n)Γ(1 − n) = for n a non-integer
sin nπ
 15

5.3 Bessel functions

∞
X (−1)λ  x n+2λ
Jn (x) =
λ=0
Γ(λ + 1)Γ(λ + n + 1) 2

d  −n d
x Jn (x) = −x−n Jn+1 (x) {xn Jn (x)} = xn Jn−1 (x)

dx ˆ 2π dx ˆ z
1 1
J0 (x) = exp (ix cos φ) dφ zJ1 (z) = xJ0 (x)dx
2π 0 2π 0
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6 DETERMINANTS AND MATRICES

6.1 Denition of a determinant

 
 A11 A12 A13 ... A1n 
 
 A21 A22 A23 ... A2n 
 
|A| =  A31 A32 A33 ... A3n 
 ... ... ... ... ... 

 An1 An2 An3 ... Ann 
X X
= (−1)k+j Akj Mkj = (−1)k+i Aik Mik
j i

where Mij is the minor of Aij in A, the determinant of the (n − 1) × (n − 1) matrix

obtained by deleting the ith row and the j th column passing through Aij . The
number (−1)i+j Mij is called the cofactor of Aij . By repeating this process the
determinant of A can be found.

Properties of Determinants
ˆ |A| is unaltered if rows and columns are interchanged.
ˆ |A| is unaltered if any row (or constant any row) is added to or subtracted
from another row.
ˆ |A| is unaltered if any column (or constant any column) is added to or sub-
tracted from another column.
ˆ |A| = 0 if any row or column is zero.
ˆ |A| = 0 if the matrix has two identical rows or columns.
ˆ If all the elements of any two rows, or any two columns, are interchanged, |A|
changes sign.
ˆ If all the elements of any row or column are multiplied by a constant λ, |A| is
multiplied by λ.
ˆ |AB| = |A| |B| the determinant of the product is the product of the determi-
nants.
ˆ If a n × n matrix is nultiplied by a scalar a, then its determinant is increaseed
by factor an .

6.2 Consistency of n simultaneous equations with n variables and no

constants.
If the equations
A11 x1 + A12 x2 + A13 x3 + ...... + A1n xn = 0
A21 x1 + A22 x2 + A23 x3 + ...... + A2n xn = 0
···
An1 x1 + An2 x2 + An3 x3 + ...... + Ann xn = 0
 17

are consistent, then  


 A11 A12 A13 ... A1n 


 A21 A22 A23 ... A2n 


 A31 A32 A33 ... A3n =0


 ... ... ... ... ... 

 An1 An2 An3 ... Ann 

6.3 Solutions of n simultaneous equations with n variables and with

constants.
The equations

A11 x1 + A12 x2+ A13 x3 + ...... + A1n xn + C1 = 0

A21 x1 + A22 x2+ A23 x3 + ...... + A2n xn + C2 = 0
.......
An1 x1 + An2 x2+ An3 x3 + ...... + Ann xn + Cn = 0

have a solution
x1 −x2 (−1)n
 =  = ..... =  

 A12 A13 ... C1 

 A11 A13 ...
 C1 


 A11 A12 ... A1n 


 A22 A23 ... C2 
  A21 A23 ...
 C2 


 A21 A22 ... A2n 


 ... ... ..... 

 ... .... ...
 .... 


 ... ... ... ... 

 An2 An3 ... Cn   An1 An3 ... Cn   An1 An2 ... Ann 

6.4 Matrices: basic equations

Linear equations like:

y1 = A11 x1 + A12 x2+ A13 x3 + ...... + A1n xn

y2 = A21 x1 + A22 x2+ A23 x3 + ...... + A2n xn
.......
yn = An1 x1 + An2 x2+ An3 x3 + ...... + Ann xn

can be expressed in matrix form as:

 
  A11 A12 A13 ... A1n  
y1  A21 A22  x1
 y2   A23 ... A2n   x2 
 ...  =  A31 A32 A33 ... A3n
    
  ... 
 ... ... ... ... ... 
yn xn
An1 An2 An3 ... Ann

x and y are column vectors, A is a n by n matrix.

Usually the matrices to be considered are square.
 18

6.5 Rules of matrix algebra

Given matrices A and B ,
(A + B)ij = Aij + Bij
(λA)ij = λAij
X
(AB)ij = Ail Blj
l

You must remember that matrix algebra is not commutative in general; in other
words we generally have:
AB 6= BA.

6.6 Trace of a square matrix

X
Tr(A) = Aii
i

Tr(AB) = Tr(BA)

6.7 Transpose of matrix

The transpose of a matrix A is written as AT and is obtained by interchanging rows
and columns.
ATij = Aji
The complex conjugate transpose of a matrix A is denoted by A† .
It is also called the Hermitian conjugate.
A†ij = A∗ji

6.8 Inverse of a matrix

A−1 is the inverse of the matrix A if AA−1 = A−1 A = I where I is the unit matrix.
An explicit expression for A−1 is:

−1 (−1)j+i Mji
(A )ij =
|A|
where (−1)i+j Mij is called the cofactor of Aij .
(ABC..X)−1 = X −1 ...B −1 A−1

6.9 Special matrices

If a square matrix is equal to its transpose, ie, A = AT , it is said to be symmetric.
If A = −AT , it is anti-symmetric. Any real, square matrix can be written as the
sum of a symmetric and an anti-symmetric matrix.

An orthogonal matrix is one such that AT = A−1 , ie, its inverse is its transpose.
This implies that A is non-singular and as AT A = I , its determinant is ±1.
 19

A Hermitian matrix satises the relation A = A† . Any complex n by n matrix can

be written as a sum of a Hermitian and an anti-Hermitian matrix.

Unitary matrices have the special property that A† = A−1 . Finally, normal matrices
are ones that commute with their Hermitian conjugates.

6.10 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a square matrix

For a square n × n matrix A there are n eigenvalues λ with associated eigenvalues
x which satisfy:
Ax = λx
x is a vector, which when operated on by A is simply scaled. The eigenvalues are
determined by nding the non-trivial solutions of

|A − λI| = 0.

The left-hand side is a polynomial of order n, so this equation  the characteristic

equation  has n roots giving the n eigenvalues (which are not necessarily distinct).

6.11 Similarity transform

The operation on a matrix A to produce a matrix B = Q−1 AQ is called a similarity
transformation. Under a similarity transform,

TrB = TrA
|B| = |A|

6.12 Diagonalisation of a matrix A with dierent eigenvalues

If Q is a matrix whose columns are the eigenvectors of a matrix A, then Q−1 AQ is
diagonal and has elements which are the eigenvalues of A.

6.13 Representation of a rotation by a matrix R

A real orthogonal 3 × 3 matrix R with determinant = 1 represents a rotation in
3-dimensional space.

The angle of implied rotation θ is given by TrR = 1 + 2 cos θ.

The axis of implied rotation is a column vector u which is the solution of Ru = u.
 20

7 VECTORS

Throughout, i, j and k are unit vectors parallel to Ox, Oy and Oz respectively.

7.1 Denition of the scalar (or dot) product of two vectors

a · b = |a||b| cos θ (with 0 ≤ θ ≤ π) where θ is the angle between a and b.

7.2 Properties of the scalar product

i · i = j · j = k · k = 1.

i · j = i · k = j · k = 0.

If a · b = 0, and the moduli of a and b are non-zero, then a is perpendicular (or-

thogonal) to b.

If a = ax i + ay j + az k and b = bx i + by j + bz k,

a · b = ax b x + ay b y + az b z

a · a = |a|2 = a2x + a2y + a2z

a = (a · i)i + (a · j)j + (a · k)k

7.3 Denition of the vector (or cross) product of two vectors

a × b = |a||b| sin θn̂ (with 0 ≤ θ ≤ π ) where θ is the angle between a and b, and
where n̂ is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane of a and b and such that a, b
and n̂ form a right-handed system.

7.4 Properties of the vector product

i×i=j×j=k×k=0

i × j = k, j × k = i, k×i=j

a × b = −b × a

If a = ax i + ay j + az k and b = bx i + by j + bz k,
 
 i j k 
 
a × b =  ax ay az 
 bx by bz 
 21

a × b = |a||b| sin θ is the area of a parallelogram with sides a and b, having an

angle θ between the adjacent sides.

a × b = 0 and the moduli of a and b are both non-zero, then a and b are parallel
or anti-parallel.

7.5 Scalar triple product

[a b c] = a · (b × c) which also equals (a × b) · c.

[a b c] = [b c a] = [c a b] = − [a c b] = − [b a c] = − [c b a].

If a, b and c are coplanar, then [a b c] = 0.

The volume of a parallelopiped with edges a, b and c is [a b c].

7.6 Vector triple product

a × (b × c) = (a · c)b − (a · b)c

(Note that a × (b × c) 6= (a × b) × c, ie the vector product is not associative.)

7.7 The del operator ∇

∂ ∂ ∂
∇=i +j +k .
∂x ∂y ∂z

7.8 The gradient of a scalar function φ(x, y, z)

∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
grad φ = ∇φ = i +j +k .
∂x ∂y ∂z

∇φ gives the magnitude and direction of the maximum (spatial) rate of change of
φ.

7.9 The divergence of a vector function F(x, y, z) = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k

∂Fx ∂Fy ∂Fz

div F = ∇ · F = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂F ∂F ∂F
div F = i · +j· +k·
∂x ∂y ∂z
 22

7.10 The curl of a vector function F(x, y, z) = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k

     
∂Fz ∂Fy ∂Fx ∂Fz ∂Fy ∂Fx
curl F = ∇ × F = i − +j − +k − .
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y

 
 i j k 
∂F ∂F ∂F  ∂ ∂ ∂

curl F = i × +j× +k× =  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂x ∂y ∂z  Fx Fy Fz



7.11 Compound operations

∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
div grad φ = ∇ · (∇φ) = ∇2 φ = + + 2
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z
(∇2 is the Laplacian).

div curl F = ∇ · (∇ × F) = [∇ ∇ F] = 0.

curl grad φ = ∇ × (∇φ) = 0

curl curl F = ∇ × (∇ × F) = ∇(∇ · F) − ∇2 F = grad divF − ∇2 F

where
∂ 2F ∂ 2F ∂ 2F
∇2 F = + + 2
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z

These equations can `deduced' by regarding ∇ as a vector

7.12 Operations on sums and products

∇(φ + ψ) = ∇φ + ∇ψ

∇ · (a + b) = ∇ · a + ∇ · b

∇ × (a + b) = ∇ × a + ∇ × b

∇(φ ψ) = φ ∇ψ + ψ ∇φ

∇(a · b) = (b · ∇)a + (a · ∇)b + b × (∇ × a) + a × (∇ × b)

∇ · (φ a) = φ ∇ · a + (∇φ) a
 23

∇ · (a × b) = b · ∇ × a − a · ∇ × b

∇ × (φ a) = φ ∇ × a + (∇φ) × a

∇ × (a × b) = (b · ∇)a − (a · ∇)b + a (∇ · b) − b (∇ · a)

7.13 Gauss's (divergence) theorem

Let V be a region, completely bounded by a closed surface S with outward drawn
unit normal n. Then, for a well-behaved vector function F(x, y, z)

‹ ˚
F · dS = ∇ · F dV
S V
where dS = n̂dS and dS is an element of the surface.

7.14 Stokes's theorem

Let S be a surface with unit normal n, bounded by a closed curve C . Then, for a
"well-behaved" vector function F(x, y, z),

˛ ¨
F · dr = ∇ × F · dS
C S
where dr = i dx + j dy + k dz and dS = n̂dS .
 24

8 CYLINDRICAL AND SPHERICAL POLAR COORDI-

NATES

8.1 Cylindrical coordinates

x = r cos φ, y = r sin φ, z = z
where r ≥ 0, 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π, −∞ ≤ z ≤ ∞

The inverse relations are r =

p
(x2 + y 2 ), φ = tan−1 (y/x) , z=z

Note: The polar coordinates in two dimensions are the same as those for the cylin-
drical systems with z = 0.

8.2 Spherical polar coordinates

x = r sin θ cos φ, y = r sin θ sin φ, z = r cos θ.

where r ≥ 0, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π .

The inverse relations are r =

p
(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ), φ = tan−1 (y/x) , θ = cos−1 (z/r)

8.3 ∇2 in cylindrical polar coordinates (r, φ, z)

1 ∂ 2f ∂ 2f
 
2 1 ∂ ∂f
∇f= r + 2 2+ 2
r ∂r ∂r r ∂φ ∂z
 25

8.4 ∇2 in spherical polar coordinates (r, θ, φ)

∂ 2f
   
2 1 ∂ 2 ∂f 1 ∂ ∂f 1
∇f= 2 r + 2 sin θ +
r ∂r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r2 sin2 θ ∂φ2

8.5 Line area and volume elements

The line element ds = |dr| and volume element dV in cylindrical and spherical polar
coordinates are

8.5.1 Cylindrical

p
line element: ds = (dr)2 + r2 (dφ)2 + (dz)2
volume element: dV = r dr dφ dz

8.5.2 Spherical

q
line element: ds = (dr)2 + r2 (dθ)2 + r2 sin2 θ(dφ)2
volume element: dV = r2 sin θ dr dθ dφ
 26

9 FOURIER SERIES AND TRANSFORMS

A function f (t) which is periodic in t with period T satises f (t + T ) = f (t).

It can be expanded in an innite series of exponentials or of sines and cosines.

9.1 Fourier Series

(a) Complex expansion
∞
X
f (t) = Fn e−iωn t ,
n=−∞
2πn
where ωn = (n = 0, ±1, ±2.....∞)
ˆT
1
and Fn = eiωn t f (t) dt
T T

Here, the integral is taken over one complete period

(e.g. from 0 to T or from −T /2 to T /2).
Note the orthogonality relation
ˆ
1
e−iωn t eiωm t dt = δnm
T T
where δnm is the Kronecker delta.
(b) Real expansion
By separating the above result into real and imaginary parts, for real f (t),
∞
X
f (t) = a0 + an cos ωn t + bn sin ωn t
ˆ n=1
2
where an = f (t) cos ωn t dt
T T
ˆ
2
bn = f (t) sin ωn t dt
T T
ˆ
1
and a0 = f (t) dt
T T

9.2 Fourier transforms

By letting T → ∞ and replacing sums by integrals, one nds that (suitably re-
stricted) functions f (t) can be expressed as a `superposition' of exponential func-
tions.
ˆ ∞
1
f (t) = F (ω)e−iωt dω
2π −∞
ˆ ∞
where F (ω) = f (t)eiωt dt
−∞

The functions f (t) and F (ω) are `Fourier mates', and the results can be viewed as
a consequence of the fact that
ˆ ∞
0
e−iωt eiω t dt = 2πδ(ω − ω 0 )
−∞
 27

9.3 Shift theorems in Fourier transforms

(a) If f (t) is replaced by f (t − a) (ie. a translation in time by a),

F (ω) is replaced by F (ω)eiωa

0
(b) If f (t) is multiplied by eiω t

F (ω) is ‘translated0 into F (ω + ω 0 )

9.4 Convolutions
If f (t) and g(t) are two functions, their convolution (with respect to t) h(t), is
dened by
ˆ ∞
h(t) = f (t) ∗ g(t) = f (u)g(t − u)du
ˆ ∞
−∞

= f (t − u)g(u)du
−∞

The Fourier transform of h(t) is H(ω) = F (ω)G(ω), where F (ω) and G(ω) are the
Fourier transforms of f (t) and g(t).

Similarly, H(ω) = F (ω) ∗ G(ω) is the Fourier transform of h(t) = f (t)g(t)

9.5 Some common Fourier mates

ˆ ∞ ˆ ∞
1 −iωt
f (t) = F (ω)e dω F (ω) = f (t)eiωt dt
2π −∞ −∞

f (t) = e−iω0 t F (ω) = 2πδ(ω − ω0 )

π
f (t) = sin ω0 t F (ω) = [δ(ω + ω0 ) − δ(ω − ω0 )]
i
f (t) = cos ω0 t F (ω) = π [δ(ω + ω0 ) + δ(ω − ω0 )]
f (t) = δ(t − t0 ) F (ω) = eiωt0
 28

f(t) F (ω)
1/T 1

ω
−8π/T −4π/T 0 4π/T 8π/T
t
−T/2 T/2
1

= T (|t| < T /2) sin (ωT /2)
(a) f (t) (b) F (ω) = ωT /2
= 0 (|t| ≥ T /2)

Figure 9.1: The slit function

√ f(t) F (ω)
1/(τ 2π)
1

t ω
−2τ −τ 0 τ 2τ −2/τ −1/τ 0 1/τ2/τ
 2 
√1 exp − 2τt 2


(a) f (t) = 2πτ
(b) F (ω) = exp −ω 2 τ 2 /2

Figure 9.2: The Gaussian function

f(t) F (ω)
1/(2τ)
1

t ω
−2τ −τ 0 τ 2τ −2/τ −1/τ 0 1/τ 2/τ
 
(a) f (t) = 1
2τ exp − |t|
τ (b) F (ν) = 1/(1 + ω 2 τ 2 )

Figure 9.3: The exponential function

 29

9.6 Diraction at a circular aperture

The integral of e2πiSr cos φ over the area of a circle is
ˆ 2π ˆ a
aJ1 (2πSa)
e2πiSr cos φ rdrdφ =
φ=0 r=0 S

J1(x)/x
0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

x
-15 -10 -5 5 10 15

J1 (x)
= when |x| = 1.22π(= 3.3833), 2.233π(= 7.016), 3.238π(= 10.174), ...
x
= max. when |x| = 0, 2.679π(= 8.417), ...
= min. when |x| = 1.635π(= 5.136), 3.699π(= 11.620), ...
 30

10 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS

10.1 Denition and table of transforms

The Laplace transform F (s) of f (t) is dened by
ˆ ∞
F (s) = f (t)e−st dt
0

Function f (t) Laplace transform F (x)

c1 f1 (t) + c2 f2 (t) c1 F1 (s) + c2 F2 (s)
1 s
f (at) F
a a
eat f (t) F (s − a)

(t − a) t > a
f (t) = e−as F (s)
0 t<a
df (t)
sF (s) − f (0)
dt
2
d f (t) df
2
s2 F (s) − sf (0) − (0)
ˆ dt t
dt
F (s)
f (u)du
s
ˆ0 t
(t − u)n−1 F (s)
f (u)du
0 (n − 1)! sn
ˆ t
f (u)g(t − u)du F (s)G(s)
0
ds F
tn f (t) (n = 0, 1, 2, 3, etc) (−1)n n (s)
ˆ ∞ ds
t−1 f (t) F (u)du
s
1
1
s
1
t
s2
a
sin at
s2 + a2
s
cos at
s 2 + a2
a
sinh at
s − a2
2
s
cosh at
s − a2
2

δ(t) 1
δ(t − T ) e−sT
 31

11 PROBABILITY, STATISTICS AND DATA INTERPRE-

TATION

11.1 Mean and variance

(a) Discretely distributed random variables (variates)

For a variate x which can take on the N values, xi (i = 1, .... N ) with respective
probabilities fi ,
n
X
fi = 1
i=1
n
X
Mean of x is x = f i xi
i=1
n
X
Variance of x is σ = Var(x) = (x −
2
x)2 = x2 2
−x = fi x2i − x2
i=1

where σ is the standard deviation.

(b) Continuously distributed variates

For a continuously distributed variate x, with probability density function f (x),

normalised as
ˆ ∞
f (x)dx = 1
−∞
ˆ ∞
x= xf (x)dx
−∞
ˆ ∞ ˆ ∞
2
Var(x) = (x − x) f (x)dx = x2 f (x)dx − x2 = x2 − x2
−∞ −∞

(c) Scale factor and change of origin

If y = k(x − a), where k and a are constants, then

y = k(x − a) and
Var(y) = k 2 Var(x)

11.2 Binomial distribution

In n identical independent trials with probability, p, of success (and q = 1 − p of
failure) at each trial, the probability of exactly r successes is

n n!
Cr pr q n−r = pr q n−r
r!(n − r)!
 32

Mean number of successes, r = np.

Variance of number of successes Var(r) = npq.
 r  pq
Variance of proportion successes = Var = .
n n

11.3 Poisson distribution

For a non-negative integer variate x (ie. x = 0, 1, 2, ....r, ....)

Probability that x = r is
µr e−µ
Pr =
r!
where µ is a constant.

x=µ
Var(x) = µ
−(r − µ)2
 
1
If µ  1, Pr → √ exp
2πµ 2µ

11.4 Normal (Gaussian) distribution

If the continuous variate x is distributed normally with mean µ and standard devi-
ation σ , then its probability density function f (x) is given by

−(x − µ)2
 
1
f (x) = √ exp
σ 2π 2σ 2

The standard normal variate X = (x − µ)/σ has mean zero, variance unity and a
probability density function φ(X) given by

−X 2
 
1
φ(X) = √ exp
2π 2
ˆ u
Probability (−∞ ≤ X ≤ u) = φ(X)dX
−∞

ˆ u
2
Error function erf u = √ exp (−t2 )dt
π 0

In particular, erf (∞) = 1.

11.5 Statistics
Suppose n statistically independent measurements, x1 , x2 , x3 , ...., xi , .... xn are
made of a certain quantity which are `samplings' of a variate x with a variance σ 2 .
The sample variance is
n
1X
S2 = (xi − µ)2
n i=1
 33

(where µ is the mean of the xi ).

n−1
 
Mean of the sample variance S = σ2 2
n
S
The standard error of the mean s = √
n

11.6 Data interpretation: least squares tting of a straight line

The best straight line y = ax + b through n points (xi , yi ) (where i = 1, 2, ... n)
has for the best estimate of slope and intercept
P P P P 2P P P
n xy − x y x y − x xy
a= , b=
∆ ∆
X X 2
where ∆ = n x2 − x

The standard errors are

s P
nσ(y) n x2
S(a) = p , S(b) = σ(y)
(n − 2)∆ (n − 2)∆

X X 2 (n P xy − P x P y)2
where n σ (y) = n
2 2 2
y − y −
∆.
In all of the above,
X n
X
A= Ai
i=1
.
 34

12 SOME PHYSICS FORMULAE

12.1 Newton's laws and conservation of energy and momentum

The frictional force f = µFN where FN is the normal force.
The centripetal force is mv 2 /r = mω 2 r.
´
The work done by a force: F dx or force × dist for a constant force.
The mechanical energy = K + U is conserved.
Conservation of momentum: ( i mi vi )init = ( i mi vi )f inal .
P P

For rocket motion: vf − vi = vrel ln (mi /mf ).

12.2 Rotational motion and angular momentum

Angular speed ω = v/r.
The rotational inertia is I = mi ri2 .
P
For mass M rotating about an axis distance R away, I = M R2 .
Newton's second (angular) law is net torque, τnet = Iα and τ = r × F.
For a rolling ball, K = Krot + Ktrans = 0.5Iω 2 + 0.5mvcom
2
.
For a wheel (radius R) rolling smoothly: vcom = ωR.
Angular momentum L = mr × v.
Angular momentum L = Iω is conserved.

12.3 Gravitation and Planetary motion

Gravitational force: F = GmM r/r3
Gravitational law in dierential form: ∇ · g = −4πGρ
Gravitational potential energy is U = −GM m/r.
Escape speed : v = 2GM/R.
p

Kepler's second law: Ȧ = L/2M = constant.

Kepler's third law: T 2 = (4π 2 /GM )r3 .

12.4 Oscillations - Simple harmonic motion, Springs

Spring restoring force: F = −kx.
Displacement : x = xm cos (ωt + φ), where ω 2 = k/m.
Period T = 2π m/k = 2π/ω
p

Energy: K = mẋ2 /2, U = kx2 /2.

 35

12.5 Thermodynamics, gases and uids

Change in heat energy is ∆Q = mc∆T .
Heat of transformation ∆Q = Lm.
Ideal gas equation of state: pV = nRT .
1st law of thermodynamics : dEint = dQ − dW .
Also ∆Eint = ∆Eint,f − ∆Eint,i = Q − W .
For cyclical processes: ∆Eint = 0, Q = W .
´ ´
Work done: W = dW = pdV
For an isothermal process W = nRT ln Vf /Vi .

root mean square velocity is vrms = (3RT /M ) where M is the molecular mass.
p

Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
3/2
mv 2
 
m 2
f (v) = 4π v exp −(
2πkB T 2kB T

where v is the velocity and m the mass of the each particle.

Bernoulli's equation for the ow of an ideal uid
p 1 2
+ v + gz = constant
ρ 2

12.6 Waves
Wave equation
∂ 2y 1 ∂ 2y
= 2 2
∂x2 v ∂t
The speed of the wave v = f λ where λ is the wavelength and f is the frequency.
The angular frequency ω = 2πf .
Energy of one photon: E = hf = hc/λ
Photoelectric eect equation: eV0 = hf − φ.
φ is the workfunction of the surface and V0 is the applied voltage.
√
Speed of electromagnetic waves: c = 1/ 0 µ0
Index of refraction: n = c/v
Snell's law of refraction between media a and b: na sin θa = nb sin θb
Constructive interference: d sin θ = mλ
Destructive interference: d sin θ = (m + 1/2)λ
Transverse wave in a string of tension T and mass/length µ: v =
p
T /µ
Longitudinal wave in a uid of density ρ and bulk modulus B : v = B/ρ
p
 36

12.7 Electricity and Magnetism

Coulomb's Law
1 q 1 q2
F =
4π0 r2

Electric eld
1 q
E= r̂
4π0 r2

Potential dierence ˆ b
Va − Vb = E · dr
a

12.8 Maxwell's equations

Integral form Dierential form

‹ P
qi Q ρ
Gauss' law for electricity E · dS = = ∇·E=
0 0 ε0
‹
Gauss' law for magnetism B · dS = 0 ∇·B=0
˛
dΦ ∂B
Faraday's law E · dr = − B ∇×E=−
dt ∂t
˛
1 dΦ 1 ∂E
Ampere-Maxwell law B · dr = 2 E + µ0 I ∇×B= 2 + µ0 j
c dt c ∂t

12.9 Special Relativity

Lorentz contraction : L = L0 /γ where γ = 1/ (1 − v 2 /c2 ).
p

time dilation : ∆t = γ∆t0 .

Lorentz transformation eqns:
x0 = γ(x − vt), t0 = γ(t − vx/c2 ), y 0 = y and z 0 = z .
Relativistic momentum p = γmv .
Relativistic energy E = mc2 + K = γmc2 .
Relativistic energy equation: E 2 = (pc)2 + (mc2 )2 .
 37

12.10 Photons, atoms and quantum mechanics

Photons: E = hf , p = h/λ.
Photoelectric equation: hf = Kmax + Φ, where Φ is the work function.
Compton scattering: ∆λ = h(1 − cos φ)/mc.
Heisenberg uncertainty principle: ∆px ∆x ≥ ~/2
A particle with momentum p has de Broglie wavelength: λ = h/p
The Schrödinger equation

~2 d2 ψ(x)
One-dimension: − 2
+ V (x)ψ(x) = Eψ(x)
2m dx
~2 ∂ 2 ∂2 ∂2
 
Three dimension: − + + ψ(r) + V (r)ψ(r) = Eψ(r)
2m ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
~2 2 e2
Hyrogen atom: − ∇ u(r) − u(r) = Eu(r)
2m 4π0 r

The energy levels of a particle (mass m) in an innite square well of width L are
given by
h2 2
En = n.
8mL2
The electron energy levels in the hydrogen atom are:
13.6
En = − eV.
n2

The probability of nding a particle, described by a wavefunction ψ(x), between

´b
positions x = a and x = b is P = a |ψ(x)|2 dx.
The wavelength of radiation absorbed/emitted by an electron going from energy
level Ei to Ef is " #
1 1 1
= R∞ 2 − 2
λ ni nf
where R∞ is the Rydberg constant.
The transmission coecient for a particle of mass m tunnelling across a barrier of
height V and width L is
r
8π 2 m(V − E)
T = e−2bL where b =
~2

Fermi-Dirac distribution: f (E) = [exp {(E − µ)/kB T } + 1]−1

Bose-Einstein distribution: f (E) = [exp {(E − µ)/kB T } − 1]−1
 38

12.11 Nuclear Physics

Rutherford scattering: For α-particle of kinetic energy K , the distance of closest
approach to a gold nucleus is
qα qAu
d=
4π0 K

Mass excess: ∆ = M − A.
Binding energy: ∆Ebe = mc − M c2 .
P 2
BE per nucleon: ∆Eben = ∆Ebe /A.
Radioactive decay:

dN
R=− = λN → N (t) = N0 exp (−λt)
dt

Half-life: T1/2 = ln 2/λ.

α-decay:
A A−4 0 4
ZX → Z−2 X + 2 He

β -decay: p → n + e+ + ν and n → p + e− + ν̄ .
 39

13 PHYSICAL CONSTANTS AND CONVERSIONS

13.1 Physical constants

speed of light in vacuum c = 3.00 × 108 m s−1 = 3.00 × 1010 cm s−1

elementary charge e = 1.6 × 10−19 C

(elementary charge)2 e2 = 2.31 × 10−28 J m = 2.31 × 10−19 erg cm

(e in esu not Coulombs )
Planck constant h = 6.63 × 10−34 J s = 6.63 × 10−27 erg cm
h/2π = 1.055 × 10−34 J s = 1.055 × 10−27 erg cm

unied atomic mass constant mu = 1.66 × 10−27 kg = 931 MeV/c2

mass of proton mp = 1.67 × 10−27 kg = 1.67 × 10−24 g

mass of electron me = 9.11 × 10−31 kg = 9.11 × 10−28 g

ratio of proton to electron mass mp /me = 1836

Bohr radius a0 = 5.29 × 10−11 m

Rydberg constant R∞ = 1.097 × 107 m −1

Rydberg energy of hydrogen RH = 13.6 eV

Bohr magneton µB = 9.27 × 10−24 J T −1

Fine structure constant α = 1/137.0

permeabililty of a vacuum µ0 = 4π × 10−7 H m −1

permittivity of a vacuum 0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F m −1

Avogadro constant NA = 6.02 × 1023 mol−1

Faraday constant F = 9.65 × 104 C mol−1

Boltzmann constant kB = 1.38 × 10−23 J K−1 = 1.38 × 10−16 erg K−1

 40

gas constant R = 8.31 J K−1 mol−1

Stefan-Boltzmann constant σSB = 5.67 × 10−8 J s−1 m−2 K−4 = 5.67 × 10−5 erg s−1 cm−2 K−4

Gravitational constant G = 6.67 × 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2 = 6.67 × 10−8 cm3 g−1 s−2

acceleration of free fall g = 9.81m s−2

radiant energy density const a = 7.56 × 10−16 J m−3 K−4 = 7.56 × 10−15 erg cm−3 K−4

13.2 Astronomical constants

Mass associated with one hydrogen m = 2.38 × 10−24 g = 2.38 × 10−27 kg
nucleus for cosmic composition

Solar mass M = 1.99 × 1033 g = 1.99 × 1030 kg

Solar radius R = 6.96 × 1010 cm = 6.96 × 108 m

Earth mass M⊕ = 6.0 × 1027 g = 6.0 × 1024 kg

Earth radius R⊕ = 6.4 × 108 cm = 6.4 × 106 m

Solar luminosity L = 3.83 × 1033 erg s−1 = 3.83 × 1026 J s−1

Astronomical unit AU = 1.50 × 1013 cm = 1.50 × 1011 m

Parsec pc = 3.09 × 1018 cm = 3.09 × 1016 m

13.3 Conversions
1 km = 103 m = 105 cm

1Å (angström unit) = 10−10 m = 10−8 cm

1 year = 3.16 × 107 s

1 eV = 1.6 × 10−19 J

Celsius temperature = thermodynamic temperature - 273.15