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 With increasing stress on a material ,i.e. ,by applying load ,there

are possibilities that a material may fail before reaching the
desired stress value.
 To improve the hardness of a substance so that it is able to sustain
more load in the elastic region process of strain hardening is done
 Here ductility is compromised to get hardness and strength
 PRINCIPLE
 The ability of a metal to plastically deform depends on the ability of
dislocation to move
 If the concentration of the dislocation increases , the material resists their
further outflow by resisting further deformation or becoming more
harder.
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• THEORY OF WORK HARDENING

• STAGES OF WORK HARDENING
• ADVANTAGES
• DISADVANTAGES
• ANNEALING
• INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
• REFERENCES
• DEMONSTRATION
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Before work hardening, the lattice of the material

exhibits a regular, nearly defect-free pattern
As the material is work hardened it becomes
increasingly saturated with new dislocations, and
more dislocations are prevented from nucleating (a
resistance to dislocation-formation develops).
This resistance to dislocation-formation manifests
itself as a resistance to plastic deformation; hence,
the observed strengthening.
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• STAGE I : Easy Glide Region

• STAGE II : Linear Hardening Region
• STAGE III : Parabolic Hardening Region
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• Shear stress is almost constant.

• Very low work hardening rate.

• BCC system do not exhibit an easy glide.

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• Increase in degree of cross slip.

• Low hardening rate.

• Shape is parabolic.

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No heating required.

Better surface finish.
Superior dimensional control.
Better reproducibility and interchange ability.
Directional properties can be imparted into the
metal.
Contamination problems are minimized.

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Greater forces are required.

Heavier and more powerful equipment and
stronger tooling are required.
Metal is less ductile.
Intermediate anneals may be required to
compensate for loss of ductility that
accompanies strain hardening.
Undesirable residual stress may be produced.

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Annealing is done when strain hardened materials are

exposed to heat above recrystallization temperature for
definite time and then it is cooled at room temperature.
 It has 3 basic stages :
RECOVERY
RECRYSTALLIZATION
GRAIN GROWTH

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 The relief of some of the internal strain energy of a previously cold-
worked material.
 Relieves the stresses from cold working
 Recovery involves annihilation of point defects.
 Driving force for recovery is decrease in stored energy from cold work.
 During recovery, physical properties of the cold worked material
are restored without any observable change in microstructure.
 Recovery is first stage of annealing which takes place at low
temperatures of annealing.
 There is some reduction, though not substantial, in dislocation
density as well apart from formation of dislocation configurations
with low strain energies.

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 Let us now examine the changes that occur when a
sample is heated from room temperature.
 At first, recovery occurs in which there is a change in the
stored energy without any obvious change in the optical
microstructure.
 Excess vacancies and interstitials anneal out giving a
drop in the electrical resistivity.
 Dislocations become mobile at a higher temperature,
eliminate and rearrange to give polygonization.
 Modest effects on mechanical behaviour
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• This follows recovery during annealing of cold worked material.
Driving force is stored energy during cold work.
• It involves replacement of cold-worked structure by a new set of
strain-free, approximately equi-axed grains to replace all the
deformed crystals.
• This process ocurs above recrystallisation temperature which is
defined as the temperature at which 50% of material recrystallises
in one hour time.
• The recrystallization temperature is strongly dependent on the
purity of a material.
• Pure materials may recrystallize around 0.3Tm, while impure
materials may recrystallise around 0.4Tm, where Tm is absolute
melting temperature of the material.
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 The nucleation of new grains happens in regions of
high dislocation density.
 Nucleation begins in a jumble of dislocations. The
recrystallised grain will essentially be free from
dislocations.
 A greater nucleation rate leads to a finer ultimate grain
size.
 There is a critical level of deformation below which there
will be no recrystallisation at all.
 A critical strain anneal can lead to a single crystal
recrystallisation.
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• Grain growth follows complete crystallization if the material is
left at elevated temperatures.
• Grain growth does not need to be preceded by recovery
and recrystallization; it may occur in all polycrystalline
materials.
• In contrary to recovery and recrystallization, driving force for this
process is reduction in grain boundary energy.
• Tendency for larger grains to grow at the expense of smaller grains
is based on physics.
• In practical applications, grain growth is not desirable.
• Incorporation of impurity atoms and insoluble second phase
particles are effective in retarding grain growth.
• Grain growth is very strongly dependent on temperature
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 Construction materials - High strength reduces the

need for material thickness which generally saves
weight and cost.
 Machine cutting tools (drill bits, taps, lathe tools) need
be much harder than the material they are operating
on in order to be effective.
 Knife blades – a high hardness blade keeps a
sharp edge.
 Anti-fatigue - Hardening can drastically improve the
service life of mechanical components with repeated
loading/unloading, such as axles and cogs.
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S.No. Cold working Hot working
It is done at a temperature below the Hot working is done at a temperature
1
recrystallization temperature. above recrystallization temperature.
It is done below recrystallization temperature Hardening due to plastic deformation is
2.
so it is accomplished by strain hardening. completely eliminated.
Cold working decreases mechanical properties
3. of metal like elongation, reduction of area and It increases mechanical properties.
impact values.
4. Crystallization does not take place. Crystallization takes place.
5. Material is not uniform after this working. Material is uniform thought.
6. There is more risk of cracks. There is less risk of cracks.
Cold working increases ultimate tensile In hot working, ultimate tensile strength,
7. strength, yield point hardness and fatigue yield point, corrosion resistance are
strength but decreases resistance to corrosion. unaffected.
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S.No. Cold working Hot working

8. Internal and residual stresses are Internal and residual stresses are not produced.
produced.

9. Cold working required more energy for It requires less energy for plastic deformation
plastic deformation. because at higher temperature metal become
more ductile and soft.

10. More stress is required. Less stress required.

11. It does not require pickling because no Heavy oxidation occurs during hot working so
oxidation of metal takes place. pickling is required to remove oxide.

12. Embrittlement does not occur in cold There is chance of embrittlement by oxygen in
working due to no reaction with oxygen at hot working hence metal working is done at
lower temperature. inert atmosphere for reactive metals.

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DEMONSTRATION

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