TECHNICAL ENGLISH COURSE

SCIENCES AND APPLIED SCIENCES

Bac 3 Geology
Prof Louis Kipata
 Principal aim

• The principal aim of this course is the improvement

of students ‘ ability to read professional literature
and work in a professional environmental using
english as main language
• This course covers authentic material specific to field
of sciences and engineering. In addition, the course
stresses oral and written skills.
• To complete this course, basic english requirements
should be completed first.
 Course objectives

• To develop the ability to read and comprehend

technical texts in the field of applied sciences. This
field covers a wide range of topics so that the
student will be exposed to a variety of articles
dealing with subjects like:
– Geology, minerals; metals - Surveying;
– Mechanics of materials; - Road design and bridges
– Concrete, construction;
– Sewerage;
– Environmental Engineering
 Skills emphasize

• The skills emphasized in this course are the following:

- Vocabulary building through the study of word
construction.
- Ability tp write formal definitions of technical terms and
expression.
- ability to analyze information presented in graphs,
charts, tables, etc…
- remedial grammar; i.e. recognizing various grammatical
structures that will aid the student improve his/her
rhetorical knowledge
 Course policy

• Attendance is obligatory.
• Absences must be justified.
• Regular home assignments must be submitted upon
request.
• As all oral discussions held in class are part of the
learning process students are responsible for taking
notes and reviewing their content before the tests.
• Students will not be allowed to rewrite tests i order to
improve their grades.
• Make-up tests will be administred only with proper
justification of absence.
 Self-reading
– Rocks, soils, minerals and mineral deposits;
– Case histories and the study of Structural Failures;
– The phenomenon of Fatigue;
– Creep;
– Sweeling and Collapsing soil;
– Mining operations;
– Process plants
– Ground water, and so on.
– Concrete properties of reinforced concrete
Students are responsible for all the definitions covered in the
exercices of each chapter above
 1. Course philosophy

• 1. From Mineral to Metal

• 2. Environmental aspects of mining activities
• 3. Safety in mining industries
• 4. Mineral, Metals and sustainable development
- What are minerals?
- Why is mining important?
- Geography of mining
- Demand for minerals
- Reserves and resources
Metals have certain properties that distinguish them from
other elements. Metals reflect light and have a shiny
appearance. They are also good conductors of electricity and
heat.
A mineral is the most solid material found on earth. The
earth's land and oceans and all rest on a layer of rock made of
minerals. Minerals also include such substances as rock salt,
pencil "lead," and such rare ones as gold, silver, and gems.
Ore is a mineral or a rock that contains enough metal to make
it worth mining. Often, two or more metals can be obtained
from the same ore. Ores naturally occur in beds and veins,
mixed in with valueless minerals called gangue.
Metals are chemical elements that conduct electricity.
In nature, they occur in the form of minerals, which are
chemical compounds containing metals and with specific
chemical and physical characteristics.
Minerals occurring in sufficient quantity and grade to be
economically exploitable are called ores.
• Aluminium: Transport, packaging, construction, high
tension power lines
• Copper: Electrical conductors, construction,
transport
• Gold: Investment, jewellery, electronics
• Lead: Batteries, pigments, ammunition,
radiation shielding
• Nickel: Stainless steels, electroplating
• Platinum: Jewellery, catalysts
• Silver: Electronics, sterlingware
• Tin: Tinplate in packaging, solder, pigments
• Zinc: Galvanizing, brass and bronze
 Most important metals in world
mining 2005
Metal Share in total value Volume of output
of metallic mineral (metal content in
production % kilotonnes)
(estimates)
Iron ore 21.9 800 000
Copper 18.0 16 900
Gold 13.5 3
Nickel 4.9 1 300
Zinc 3.4 10 300
Bauxite 1.5 31 000
Others 36.8 ..
All metals 100.0 ..
 Why is mining relevant to development?
Because…

• Around twenty developing countries depend on mining for

more than half their export income – and the number is
increasing
• Ease of entry into mining
– No need to mobilize domestic capital
– Easy access to technology
– No need for government financed infrastructure
– Easy market access
– Transparent and simple standards
– Minimal need for marketing
• Scale of revenues
– The world’s largest mines generated annual sales of more
than US$ 12 billion, annual profits of more than US$ 8
billion in 2006-2007
– Governments can easily appropriate rents
 VALUE OF
WORLD MINING
YEAR 2005 TOTAL ~ 910 billion USD

14% Metals
Industrial minerals
Diamonds
Coal & uranium
51% 27% Crushed rock

2% 6%

Source: Raw Materials Group, Stockholm 2006.

 Mineral

• A mineral is a naturally occurring substance that is solid

and stable at room temperature, representable by a
chemical formula usually abiogenic, and has an ordered
atomic structure. It is different from a rock, which can be
an aggregate of minerals or non-minerals, and does not
have a specific chemical composition. The study of
minerals is called mineralogy.
• There are over 4,900 known mineral species; over 4,660
of these have been approved by the International
Mineralogical Association (IMA).
• The silicate minerals compose of 90% of the Earth’s crust.
 Mineral
• The diversity and abundance of mineral species is controlled
by the Earth’s chemistry. Silicon and oxygen constitute
approximately 75% of the Earth’s crust which translates
directly into the predominance of silicate minerals. Minerals
are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties.
Differences in chemical composition and crystal structure
distinguish various species, and these properties in turn are
influenced by the mineral’s geological environment of
formation. Changes in the temperature, pressure and bulk
composition of a rock mass cause changes in its mineralogy;
however, a rock can maintain its bulk composition, nut as long
as temperature and pressure change, its mineralogy can
change as well.
 Mineral

• Minerals can be described by various physical properties

which relate to their chemical structure and composition.
• Common distinguishing characteristics include
– crystal structure and habit,
– Hardness
– Tenacity
– Cleavage
– Fracture
– Parting
– Specific gravity
 Mineral
• More specific tests for minerals include reaction to acid,
magnetism, taste or smell, and radioactivity.
• Mierals are classified by key chemical constituents. The
silicate class of minerals is subdivided into six subclasses by
the degree of polymerization in the chemical composition.
• All silicate minerals have a base unit of a [SiO4]4- silica
tetrahedra – that is a silicon cation coordinated by four
oxygen anions, which give the shape of a tetrahedron. These
tetrahedra can be polymerized to give the subclasses.
• Polymerization comes from polymorphism: the latter ( in
materials science) is the ability of a solid material to exist in
more than one form or crystal structure.
 Mineral
• Subclasses of silicates are:
– Orthosilicates (no polymerization, thus single tetrahedra),
– Disilicates (two tetrahedra bonded together),
– Cyclosilicates (rings of tetrahedra),
– Inosilicates ( chains of tetrahedra),
– Phyllosilicates (sheets of tetrahedra)
– Tectosilicates (three dimensional network of tetraheda.
Other important mineral groups include the native elements,
sulfides, oxides, halides, carbonates, sulfates, and
phosphates.
 Rock
• In Geology, a rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of
one or more minerals or mineraloids. For example, the
common rock granite is a combination of the quartz, feldspar
and micas ( biotite).
• The Earth’s outer solid layer, the lithosphere is made of rocks.
• Three major groups of rocks are defined: igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic.
• The scientific study of rocks is called petrology, which is an
essential component of geology.
• At a granular level, rocks are composed of grains of minerals,
which, in turn, are homogeneous solids formed from a
chemical compound that is arranged in an orderly manner.
 Rock
• The aggregate minerals forming the rock are held together by
chemical bonds. The types and abundance of minerals in a
rock are determined by the manner in which the rock was
formed.
• Many rocks contain silica (SiO2); a compound of silicon and
oxygen that forms 74,3% of the Earth’s crust. This material
forms crystals with other compounds in the rock. The
proportion of silica in rocks and minerals is a major factor in
determining their name and properties.
• Rocks are geologically classified according to characteristics
such as mineral and chemical composition, permeability, the
texture of the constituent particles, and particle size. These
physical properties are the end result of the processes that
formed the rock.
 Rock
• Over the course of time, rocks can transform from one type
into another, as described by the geological model called the
rock cycle. These events produce three general classes of
rock: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
• The three classes of rocks are subdivided into many groups.
However there are no hard and fast boundaries between
allied rocks. By increase and decrease in the proportions of
their constituent minerals they pass by every gradation into
another, the distinctive structures also of one kind of rock
may often be traced gradually merging into those of another.
Hence, the definitions adopted in establishing rock
nomenclature merely correspond to more or less arbitrary
selected points in a continuously graduated series.
 Mineral Processing

Mineral Processing is the process where raw mined materials

are refined to become useful particles for industry. Image 1 is a
picture of some of the many minerals mined and processed
around the world. Mineral Processing is involved in production
of three main products: aggregates (stone and rock), minerals
(gold, lead, and iron), and coal. Mineral Processing is also used
in the recycling industry.
There are 4 main steps in Mineral Processing:
1. Characterization,
2. Liberation,
3. Separation,
4. Disposition.
Figure 1
Characterization

Characterization is the first step of mineral processing. It is

when the material being processed is identified and its
chemical/physical properties are noted. Characterization
answers two basic questions: What am I processing? and What
property can I use to help me process the material?
In the Characterization step, Sampling is often performed.
Sampling answers the first question; what am I processing?
There are a variety of sampling techniques but each involves
taking a representative sample which is analyzed to identify
the components of the feed material. When the feed material
is identified, important chemical/physical properties of the
material can be identified. The most important property is size.
Other important properties are density, magnetic
susceptibility, and electrical conductivity.
Liberation

Liberation is the 2nd step where dissimilar elements in the feed

material are freed from one another. This is often accomplished
by size reduction.
There are two classes of size reduction machines: Crushers and
Grinders. Crushers deal with large particles usually greater than
1 mm while grinders deal with particles smaller than 1mm.

Crushers handle particles larger than 1mm diameter.

Grinders handle particles smaller than 1 mm
diameter.
There are many types of crushers but all either crush by
Compression or Impact. Compression is the force where a
particle is “squeezed.” Particles are under compression until
they break into smaller pieces. Impact is the force caused by a
particle “smashing” into a hard surface.
Particles are under impact while they experience the rapid
deceleration of hitting a hard immovable surface. The process
of impaction is repeated until the particle breaks into smaller
pieces. Typical crushers have a reduction ratio of 40/6. This
means that if you put a 40 inch diameter particle in them they
will give you a range of particles about 6 inches in diameter.
Figure 2 is an image of a particular type of crusher called a Jaw
Crusher. It uses compression to crush the material.

Figure 2
As with crushers, there are a variety of grinders but they all use
the same concept for grinding. They either have the feed particles
grind against themselves or the feed particles grind against
stronger material. When the feed particles grind against
themselves it is called an Autoginous Mill. When particles grind
against stronger material, it is called a Ball or Rod Mill depending
on the shape of the stronger material used. Image 3 is a picture of
how a ball mill works.

Figure 3
The mineral processing industry has created a Work Index Value
to help understand the hardness of the feed material. This index
assigns values to minerals based on their difficulty to grind.
Therefore a high work index means the mineral is hard to grind.
The coal industry also assigns values to coal based on the coal’s
hardness. Theses values are called the Hardgrove
Grindability. However, in the Hardgrove Grindability Index higher
values signify softer coal which is easier coal to grind.

Work Index Value-Higher Values are harder to grind.

Hardgrove Grindability-Higher Values are softer and
easier to grind.
Separation
Separation is most important step of mineral processing. It is when
the different components of the feed material are separated from
each other. Separation uses chemical and physical properties to
achieve this. Particles are most often separated by size, density,
magnetic susceptibility, and electrical conductivity. Aggregate mineral
processing usually skips this step and continues directly to
disposition.
Size separation is primarily done by Screening. Screening involves
pouring the material through a screen or mesh. Figure 4 is an image
of a series of screens with varying hole sizes. Feed particles that are
retained on the screen are larger than the holes in the screen. Feed
particles that pass through the screen are smaller than the holes in
the screen. Screening is often done in series, so you can create
multiple streams of different size ranges. There are two systems of
standard hole or mesh size, the Tyler and U.S. series. In both systems,
larger mesh sizes correspond to smaller hole sizes.
Tyler Series- Larger Mesh Sizes mean smaller holes in the
screen.
U.S. Series- Larger Mesh Sizes mean smaller holes in the screen.

Figure 4
Density separation is performed by Hydrocyclones and Dense
Medium Separations. Dense Media Separation involves
pouring the material into a specially prepared fluid that has a
density between the components of the feed material.
Material that floats has a lower density than the fluid while
material that sinks has a density greater than the fluid.
Hydrocyclones work on the same premise as Dense Media
Separation but the material and prepared fluid are spun
around in a cyclone. The rotation utilizes the affect of
Centrifugal Force. Centrifugal force is the apparent force
associated with rotation that pushes objects away from the
center of rotation. Feed material that comes out of the top of
the hydrocyclone is the less dense material. Feed material that
comes out the bottom of the hydrocyclone is the dense
material. Figure 5 is an image of the effect a dense media
separator has on the feed particles. Figure 6 is an image of how
a hydrocyclone.
Figure 5 Figure 6
Hydroclones are used extensively with feed particles smaller
than 100 micrometer diameter. Dense Media Separation is used
with larger particles. Hydrocyclones are used with small
particles because small particles need a longer time to
separate. The centrifugal force of the hydrocyclone speeds the
separation time.
Dense Media Separation is used for particles 100 micrometers
diameter and greater.
Hydrocyclones are for particles 100 micrometers diameter and
smaller.

Magnetic susceptibility separation is done by exposing the

material to a magnet. Material that is attracted to the magnet is
magnetic. Material unaffected by the magnetic is non-magnetic.
Magnetic materials include iron and magnetite. Figure 7 shows
how magnetic susceptibility separation works.
Figure 7
Electrical conductivity separation is
achieved by using a High Tension
Separator. A high tension separator
charges the feed particles. Feed Particles
that retain an electrical charge fall into
one bin while those that do not fall into
another bin. Figure 8 shows how a high
tension separator works. An electrical
charge is when the material holds a
surplus of electrons which are negatively
charged particles. Feed particles that
retain an electrical charge are called
Conductors. Conductors include iron,
copper, silver and aluminum. Feed
particles that do not hold an electrical
charge are called Resistors. Resistors
include soil, sand, plastic, and lead. Figure 8
Disposition

Disposition is the final step of mineral processing. It involves the

removal of waste in an environmental acceptable manner and
the sale of the product.
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF MINING OPERATIONS

These Environmental Guidelines for Mining Operations address:

· regulatory frameworks;
· environmental impact assessment (EIAs);
· environmental management systems and programmes;
· environmental monitoring programmes;
· environmental auditing; and
· enforcement.

as applied to all aspects of mining operation, but in particular

· exploration;
· mine operation;
· mine site rehabilitation; and
· small scale mining.
The increasingly integrated and collaborative nature of environmental
control programmes means that all stakeholders - environmental and mining
ministries, companies, communities and public organisations - must
understand the interlocking nature of the various individual instruments
described in this document. There is also an important role for personnel
working in infrastructure and utilities, local government, planning and
financing ministries.
The material presented in these Guidelines consists of recent examples of
environmental management practices and regulations from various mining
countries around the world. The examples necessarily reflect the legal and
administrative context in the country from which they are drawn. They
should not be taken as blueprints to be simply copied elsewhere without
adapting them to different national situations. Each country must decide
itself how to construct and implement its own regulatory framework.
These Environmental Guidelines, therefore, provide a guide to sound
environmental management for regulators, practitioners, managers,
government officials, and mining companies. They are not a prescriptive
manual, but should rather be amended and improved according to the
specific needs of each country.
Mining can be a potential source of wealth in developing countries, a point
emphasised in the 1990s by the adoption of new, or modified mining
policies and legislation in more than 75 countries world-wide. These
changes have, for the most part, been undertaken to promote foreign
investment and the creation of a stable fiscal and regulatory climate
attractive to the international mining community.

But in addition to generating wealth, mining can also be a major source of

degradation to the physical and social environment unless it is properly
managed. These guidelines are designed to assist regulators, particularly
in developing countries, to encourage sustainable mining while at the
same time protecting the environment. In this context, the concept of
sustainability could have a number of definitions. It is taken here to imply
that (a) the carrying capacity of the impacted environment is not exceeded
(e.g. the capacity of the receiving environment to attenuate contaminants
is not breached), (b) the operation does not reduce the capacity of the
biosphere’s environmental functions to support human economic activities,
(c) the area of land functionally required to support a community is not
increased and (d) the operation makes efficient use of materials and
energy in order to reduce economic costs and environmental impacts - the
principle of “more from less”. Fundamental principles to which all
stakeholders are encouraged to subscribe are given in the box overleaf.
Environmental impacts can arise during all phases of the mining process. The
impact matrix in Table 1 summarises the major effects that may potentially
occur.
Minimising the damage of mining operations depends on sound environmental
practices in a framework of balanced environmental legislation.
Drawing on an enhanced knowledge base, and the consequent ability to
integrate sound environmental management practices into the planning and
design phase, best environmental management practice can be more easily
achieved by a new partnership between mining companies or government than
by either party alone.
However, “best practice” is not static. The process of continuous improvement
will certainly allow individual operations to raise their performance over time; but
environmental targets also move as the issues and technologies evolve further.
Fundamental Principles for the Mining Sector
(taken from the Berlin Guidelines: see Appendix 1 for further detail)
Governments, mining companies and the minerals industries should as a
minimum:
1. Recognize environmental management as a high priority, notably during the
licensing process and through the development and implementation of
environmental management systems. These should include early and
comprehensive environmental impact
assessments, pollution control and other preventative and mitigative measures,
monitoring and auditing activities, and emergency response procedures.
2. Establish environmental accountability in industry and government at the
highest management and policy-making levels.
3. Encourage employed at all levels to recognise their responsibility for
environmental management and ensure that adequate resources, staff, and
requisite training is available to implement environmental plans.
4. Ensure the participation and dialogue with the affected community and other
directly interested parties on the environmental aspects of all phases of mining
activities.
5. Adopt best practices to minimise environmental degradation, notably in the
absence of specific environmental regulations.
6. Adopt environmentally sound technologies in all phases of mining activities and
increase the emphasis on the transfer of appropriate technologies which mitigate
environmental impacts including those from small-scale mining operations.
7. Seek to provide additional funds and innovative financial arrangements to
improve environmental performance of existing mining operations.
8. Adopt risk analysis and risk management in the development of regulation and
in the design, operation, and decommissioning of mining activities, including the
handling and disposal of hazardous mining and other wastes.
9. Reinforce the infrastructure, information systems service, training and skills in
environmental management in relation to mining activities.
10. Avoid the use of such environmental regulations that act as unnecessary
barriers to trade and investment.
11. Recognise the linkages between ecology, socio-cultural conditions and human
health and safety, both within the workplace and the natural environment.
12. Evaluate and adopt, wherever appropriate, economic and administrative
instruments such as tax incentive policies to encourage the reduction of pollutant
emissions and the introduction of innovative technology.
13. Explore the feasibility of reciprocal agreements to reduce transboundary
pollution.
14. Encourage long term mining investment by having clear environmental
standards with stable and predictable environmental criteria and procedures.
2. GUIDELINES FOR THEMATIC AREAS
Many organisations, agencies and professions involved in the mining industry have
already developed guidance documents for different activity areas. Each is aimed at
a particular audience, performing a particular function. However it is increasingly
necessary that the various instruments complement each other rather than duplicate
one another or even conflict. In order to apply such guidelines in a consistent manner
it is also important for each stakeholder to understand the environmental roles of
their counterparts in other sections of the industry. Thus the simultaneous
development of regulatory and voluntary instruments needs a good degree of co-
ordination if the final mechanisms are to work effectively. Some instruments can be
used by several partners concurrently, albeit in different ways. For example,
instruments such as Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) are incorrectly believed
to be a regulatory tool only. In fact EIA can, and should, be used also as a mining
project optimisation tool to enable the company to take cost-effective prevention
measures. This section will briefly sketch out a fuller picture of how various
"guidelines" and "codes“ that are now available can be applied in a mining operation.
Such an overview is especially important as many technical and management codes
are now actually written into, or invoked by, environmental regulations. This section
therefore covers:
· technical operations that are subject to guidelines or codes
· managerial functions that are being codified
· environmental control regulations
· financial mechanisms, especially for rehabilitation
· guidelines for small-scale (i.e. artisanal) mining
2.1 Technical Operations

As in most other engineering sectors, a large number of technical standards and

codes have been developed over the years to ensure efficient and safe operation.
These cover mine planning and design, rehabilitation, the design of equipment such
as pressure vessels or pipes, operating procedures for transport and lifting
equipment, safe handling of substances such as explosives, fuels and chemicals,
amongst others.
Technical and operational codes are commonly produced by national professional
associations or standards bodies, but some large companies have developed
extensive internal procedures that are explained in guidance documents available
to personnel. For ease and convenience, regulatory bodies have increasingly
incorporated such codes – essentially descriptive, non-legal, advisory documents -
into their regulatory requirements.
Technical codes and standards have often originated from health and safety
programmes in the past. Increasingly however, environmental matters are also
being compiled into guidelines or handbooks in order to provide structured advice
on the technical aspects of mining operations.
A large number of matters can be subject to technical guidelines, but as their
function is simply to inform on practical aspects of an operation, they will not be
discussed further in this document. It is only necessary to recall their useful
subsidiary role in the development of both regulatory and management guidelines.
2.2 Managerial Functions

The increasing trend towards a preventive "impact avoidance" approach by

industry, and the need to address multiple environmental issues simultaneously,
has required a more structured approach to environmental action by company
managers and regulators than was common in the past. In addition, industry is
now advocating the use of internal procedures, voluntary codes and negotiated
agreements as an alternative to further "command and control“ regulations.
The result has been a series of recent management guidelines, codes and
standards to ensure that companies can follow a more flexible, though not a
less environmentally responsible, approach in a uniform manner.
Management instruments are also important to regulators, and there has been a
gradual trend to incorporate some management standards such as ISO 14001
into environmental regulation or into permitting.
For a general overview of environmental management responsibilities and
objectives we can usefully examine some of the codes of practice or policies
prepared by mining associations.
In recent years, there have been two major initiatives to standardise such an
approach. The most visible recent step in codifying environmental management
functions has been the adoption in 1996 by the International Standards
Organisation of the 14000 series of standards on environmental management
systems (EMS).
2.3.1 Environmental regulation
Because of the number of issues now considered to be “environmental” a wide
range of specific laws and regulations may apply. All countries face the decision
as to how much environmental legislation should be generic to all industries, and
how much should be specific to the mining industry. The administrative
arrangements for enforcement tend to be complex because the division of
responsibilities between mining, environmental, health and water ministries
(amongst others), and between national, provincial or state and local levels of
government is seldom straightforward. There is unfortunately no ideal system,
and each country needs to decide based on its own priorities and circumstances.

Mining Legislation

Mining laws aim to regulate the sector in a variety of ways, and some
environmental requirements such as waste disposal, occupational safety, control
of water contamination are sometimes incorporated into such laws. While mining
laws are rarely specific enough to allow for broad environmental programmes,
this approach is nevertheless a useful first step to environmental control in
countries where the appropriate controls do not yet exist elsewhere, or where
they are very specific to mining operations.
Some environmental matters that mining laws may incorporate into specific
schedules or regulations include:
· safety of structures and operations; limiting exposure to chemicals; explosive
hazards;
· establishment of wastewater retention and treatment techniques, safe
management of contaminated runoff, and groundwater contamination;
· soil erosion control and revegetation procedures during the operation as well
as afterwards;
· requirements to prepare plans for mine waste disposal;
· reclamation and restoration of sites and disturbed areas, and removal of all
unused structures and machinery.

Environmental Legislation

Environmental laws are used to address a wider range of ecological,

conservation, pollution and health issues and have a much wider application
than just mining. Owing to the range of issues, these may be dealt with by
separate laws, perhaps even administered by different agencies such as
pollution, conservation and national parks bodies. Among the matters that may
be covered by specific environmental legislation are:
· environment impact assessment (EIA), or other environmental planning.
Regulations may require that a formal assessment report be prepared for
approval, but may also involve some form of project permit;
· nature conservation, protection of national parks, flora and fauna, endangered
species and special scientific sites as well as cultural heritage and landscape
features;
· water pollution laws to limit discharges into waterways of mine drainage, of
wastewater and also polluted runoff;
· "clean air" laws to regulate air emissions, toxic gases or dusts from mining and
refining operations; and
· soil contamination by wastes and chemicals.
Other issues such as noise, waste disposal and chemicals control are also
sometimes regulated by environmental laws where they do not appear under
health or other legislation.
Where the same issues are also covered by mining laws, the environmental
regulation usually takes precedence.
Environmental Quality Standards and Criteria

Environmental standards, criteria and norms are found in regulations subordinate

to environmental legislation. Criteria are scientifically determined "no-effect" levels
of a pollutant, perhaps with a certain safety factor added. Standards are a
regulatory requirement that provide the numerical limits to which industrial
operations must be designed and managed. They can include:
· ambient water quality in streams, or effluent discharge standards;
· air emissions, and/or workplace air quality;
· noise emissions, or exposure;
· waste disposal, especially waste materials allowed to be dumped; and
· human exposure to dust, toxic chemicals or radioactivity.