12

12
GRADE

Geography
CAPS

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Susan Rushton

Susan Rushton
3-in-1
Grade 12 Geography 3-in-1 CAPS
CLASS TEXT & STUDY GUIDE

This well-illustrated Grade 12 Geography 3-in-1 study guide uses concise explanations and a wide range of practice exam
questions with memos, to help you master all the concepts in the curriculum.

Key Features:
• Comprehensive notes arranged into modules and units
• Exam questions and memos per module
• Mapwork section with notes and examples of various types of exam questions and calculations
• Colour topographical map and orthophoto

This study guide is an ideal learning companion for all Grade 12 Geography learners, from those who are struggling to grasp
basic concepts to those who are determined to achieve top marks.
 12
GRADE

Geography
CAPS
Susan Rushton
3-in-1

THIS CLASS TEXT & STUDY GUIDE INCLUDES

1 Notes

2 Questions and Memos per Module

E-book
3 Mapwork
o p h o
d
to an Map available
Orth al
o g r aphic
r Top ded
colou inclu

2014 publication | 2019 edition | ISBN: 978-1-920568-88-7 310321 | TAS

 CONTENTS
Grade 12 Examination Outline ............................................................................ i Module 3: Rural and Urban Settlement .........................................55 - 79
Unit 1 Study of Settlements ............................................................................ 55
Unit 2 Rural Settlements ................................................................................ 57
NOTES with QUESTIONS and MEMOS
Unit 3 Rural Settlement Issues ....................................................................... 58
Module 1: Climate and Weather ...................................................... 1 - 33 Unit 4 Urban Settlements ............................................................................... 61
Unit 1 Mid-latitude Cyclones ..............................................................................4 Unit 5 Urban Hierarchies ................................................................................ 62
Unit 2 Tropical Cyclones ..................................................................................12 Unit 6 Urban Structure and Patterns .............................................................. 64
Unit 3 Subtropical Anticyclones and the Resultant weather over South Africa ....15 Unit 7 Urban Settlement Issues ...................................................................... 68
Unit 4 Microclimates ......................................................................................... 18 Questions ........................................................................................................ 70
Questions .........................................................................................................23 Memo ............................................................................................................... 76
Memo ................................................................................................................ 30

Module 4: Economic Geography of South Africa ....................80 - 104

Module 2: Geomorphology ............................................................... 34 - 54 Unit 1 The structure of the Economy .............................................................. 80
Unit 1 Drainage Basins in South Africa ............................................................34 Unit 2 Agriculture ............................................................................................ 81
Unit 2 Fluvial Processes ................................................................................... 37 Unit 3 Mining .................................................................................................. 84
Unit 3 Catchment and River Management .......................................................43 Unit 4 Secondary and Tertiary sectors ........................................................... 86
Questions ......................................................................................................... 45 Unit 5 The informal sector .............................................................................. 92
Memo ................................................................................................................ 51 Questions ........................................................................................................ 94
Memo ............................................................................................................. 100

MAPWORK: GEOGRAPHICAL SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES

Notes .................................................................................................. 105 - 126

Exam Questions ....................................................................................... 127

Exam Memo ............................................................................................... 133

1 NOTE:
UNIT

When interpreting a synoptic weather map, one must be able to: 2 TROPICAL CYCLONES
NOTES

1. Identify the season e.g. summer, winter.

2. Read and interpret the isobars and isobaric patterns.

General characteristics
3. Identify and name the three high pressure systems (South
Atlantic, South Indian, Kalahari). • Tropical cyclones occur from late summer to early autumn.
4. Identify the mid-latitude cyclones and associated frontal • They move from east to west as they form in the tropical easterly wind belt.
systems (cold, warm, occluded). • They affect the east coasts of continents.
5. Draw a cross section of a frontal system labelling the main • They dissipate when they reach cooler latitudes or as they reach land (friction
features. slows the wind and there is less moisture to provide energy).
• They are named alphabetically. The first tropical cyclone of the season starts
6. Identify the air movement and the associated wind (remember
with the letter A, followed by B, C etc., e.g. Cyclone Eline – 5th cyclone of the
a wind is named by the direction from which it blows).
season.
7. Identify and explain the origin and effect of berg winds, coastal • The centre of the tropical cyclone is called the 'eye' and has:
lows, tropical cyclones.  a calm central point
8. Predict the weather conditions as the frontal systems  light or no winds
approach or move over a weather station.  no rain
 very low pressure (960 hPa)
9. Describe the weather conditions by analysing the information
 a 30 - 50 km area of subsiding air
of a weather station.
 high temperatures (± 32ºC)
10. Compare the synoptic weather map with a satellite image and  towering cumulonimbus clouds surrounding it
identify relative frontal systems and pressure zones.
general movement of system
High Pressure
gently
sinking
UNIT 2: TROPICAL CYCLONES

air

rapidly
rising air cumulonimbus

eye

Low Pressure

400 km 0 400 km
Cross section through a tropical cyclone
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Areas of formation and associated terms Conditions necessary for formation 1

NOTES
• Tropical cyclones occur between 5º and 30º N and S. They do not develop • Warm oceans: occur in late summer when sea temperatures are warm.
within 5º of the equator as Coriolis force is zero there.
• Hot air temperatures: late summer and early autumn air rises, a low pressure
• They develop over warm tropical oceans; Different names are given develops and the rising air cools and condenses. Develop at ITCZ where hot,
where temperatures in the region to tropical cyclones moist air from tropical easterlies converges.
of 27ºC occur. according to the region
where they occur. • Water vapour: to condense and release latent heat to provide energy.
• Tropical cyclones usually occur on the • Steep pressure gradient: so winds converge on the low pressure and begin
east sides of continents because of the warm ocean currents found there. to rotate because of Coriolis force.
• Tropical cyclones move from the equatorial areas towards the coast. When • Pressure in the centre of the low pressure must be below 1000 hPa.
they reach land they turn eastwards away from the coast.

• Tropical cyclones occur in the following areas:

 Atlantic Ocean: West Indies, Gulf of Mexico, south and east coasts of Stages in the formation of a tropical cyclone
USA – known as hurricanes.
Formative stage
 Indian Ocean: India, Madagascar, Mauritius and southern Africa
(Mozambique) – known as cyclones. • A low pressure cell develops.

 Pacific Ocean: China Sea and Japan – known as typhoons. • The atmospheric pressure is still above 1000 hPa.

 Australia – known as cyclones.

Immature stage
• Pressure decreases to below 1000 hPa.

• Gale force winds develop.

• Air circulation is clockwise (Southern Hemisphere).

UNIT 2: TROPICAL CYCLONES

hurricanes Mature stage
typhoons
• Pressure is very low (e.g. 960 hPa) and pressure gradient is very strong.

• Hurricane force winds develop and heavy rain occurs.

equator
cyclones • The worst weather is in the forward left-hand quadrant.

cyclones Dissipating or degenerating stage

areas in typical path of • Pressure starts to rise.
which tropical tropical cyclones
cyclones form • Winds decrease in speed but heavy rain continues to fall.
Distribution of tropical cyclones
• Dissipates over land or if it moves into a higher pressure area.
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1 Associated weather patterns Cyclone Idai
Formed 4 March 2019
NOTES

• Very strong pressure gradient causes hurricane-force winds.

Dissipated 21 March 2019
• Torrential rain causes intense flooding.
Lowest pressure 940 hPa
• Hot, humid and calm weather in the eye caused by descending warm air.
Tropical cyclone Idai was one of the worst tropical
• A storm surge (bulge of sea water) may lead to flooding of the coastal areas. cyclones on record to affect Africa and the Southern
Caused by high winds pushing on the ocean's surface. The wind causes the Hemisphere. It caused catastrophic damage in
water to pile up higher than ordinary sea level. Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Malawi, leaving more
than 1 000 people dead.

Idai brought strong winds (> 195 km/h) and caused

Satellite images and synoptic weather maps
severe flooding.

Satellite image of a tropical cyclone (e.g. Idai) A major humanitarian crisis unfolded in the wake of the
cyclone, with hundreds of thousands of people in
urgent need of assistance across Mozambique and
Zimbabwe. A cholera outbreak followed. Infrastructural
damage was estimated to be over US$1 billion.

• The satellite image shows the tropical cyclone's extensive cloud cover.

• Note that the clouds spiral in a clockwise direction (air movement is clockwise
around a low pressure in the Southern Hemisphere).

• The eye can be clearly seen as an opening in the middle of the cloud mass.
UNIT 2: TROPICAL CYCLONES

Identification on synoptic weather maps

• A tropical cyclone can be identified by:

 a low pressure cell found between 5º and 30º N and S.

 the date will be late summer or early autumn.

 the symbol will be in the middle at the eye.

 the name of the tropical cyclone will be present.

A satellite image of cyclone Idai

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Impact on human activities and the environment SUBTROPICAL ANTICYCLONES 1
UNIT

NOTES
• Tropical cyclones can cause substantial loss of life and damage to property
3 AND THE RESULTANT
as a result of:
 the high sea-level and the high waves flooding into low-lying, often WEATHER OVER SOUTH AFRICA
densely-populated coastal areas

 strong winds along coastal areas

 excessive flooding caused by torrential rain High-pressure cells that affect South Africa

 landslides destroying crops, settlements and infrastructure • Atmospheric circulation over southern Africa is greatly influenced by the
Subtropical high pressure belt (30º S).
 damage to crops, livestock, homes, infrastructure (bridges, telephone
lines, electricity) • This pressure belt is made up of three anticyclones:

 lack of clean water, food shortages  South Atlantic/St. Helena High Pressure
Situated in the Atlantic Ocean, causes southwesterly winds to blow
towards the land.

 South Indian/Mauritius High Pressure

Pre-cautionary and management strategies
Situated east of Durban in the Indian Ocean, causes northeasterly winds
to manage the effect of tropical cyclones
to blow towards the land.
• Weather stations can identify and predict the path of tropical cyclones and  Kalahari/Continental High Pressure

UNIT 3: SUBTROPICAL ANTICYCLONES

so issue warnings.
Situated over the interior of South Africa.

• Disaster management centres have been established to manage crisis

situations, such as: food, water and medical supplies and support, temporary
housing, rescue operations etc.
NE
• Prepare the community so that people know evacuation procedures and how
to prepare themselves and their property.

• Land use planning: limit development in coastal areas.

SW

Subtropical HP (anticyclone) cells affecting South Africa

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1 General characteristics of the THREE high pressure cells
• During summer, the interior warms up and air rises forming a surface low
pressure cell.
NOTES

• High pressures, also called anticyclones, are associated with descending air. • This rising air meets the descending air from the Kalahari cell at a point higher
They result in clear skies and no rain. than the top of the escarpment.
• Air circulation is anticlockwise around anticyclones in the Southern • The point where the two cells meet, is called the inversion layer.
Hemisphere.
• Because the inversion layer is higher than the escarpment, moist air from the
• The anticyclones move south in the Southern Hemisphere summer and north
east coast (South Indian High Pressure) can be fed into the interior where it
in winter.
brings rain.
• During summer, these cells are weaker due to the warm surface air rising
whereas in winter, the cells are stronger due to the cooler air sinking.

Kalahari HP
Influence of anticyclones on SA's weather and climate

South Atlantic High Pressure

inversion layer
• Causes southwesterly winds to blow towards the land off the cold Atlantic Ocean.
• Originates from subsiding air and the air circulates in an anticlockwise direction.
moist winds blocked
• It brings cool, dry, stable air to the west coast.
Indian Ocean
South Indian High Pressure
• Moves away from the coast in summer but is nearer to the coast in winter. Winter
• The anticlockwise circulation results in northeasterly winds that bring rain
UNIT 3: SUBTROPICAL ANTICYCLONES

to eastern South Africa.

• This is because moisture is picked up as the air moves over the warm
Mozambique current. Kalahari HP

Kalahari High Pressure

inversion layer
• During winter, the Kalahari High is the dominant pressure cell over the interior.
This causes the inversion layer to sink lower than the escarpment and thus no
moisture can reach the interior from the east coast.
moist air moves
• The result is that the interior has dry winters and mild days as the descending into the interior
air is warmed adiabatically.

Indian Ocean
changes in the pressure and temperature of a parcel
of air, when heat from outside is not added or
Adiabatic Summer
removed; the air will either expand or contract, thus
producing changes of pressure and temperature

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Development of travelling disturbances associated with Coastal Low Pressure system 1
anticyclonic circulation • Coastal low pressures develop over the coast of Namibia and move

NOTES
around the coast.
Moisture front and Line thunderstorms • The circulation is clockwise and this causes onshore winds on the
one side and off-shore winds on the other side.

South African berg wind

• A berg (mountain) wind usually occurs during winter.

NE winds • It is a hot, dry wind and is followed by a cold front and cold,
wet weather.

South • Formation of a berg wind:

Indian
HP
 High pressure over the interior; low pressure on the coast.
South  Cold front approaches the land and sets up a pressure gradient
Atlantic
HP between the interior high and coastal low pressure.
 This causes warm air to move from the interior towards the
coastal area.
The moisture front and formation of line thunderstorms  As these winds blow down from the plateau/mountains to the coast, they
heat up adiabatically and bring warm, dry conditions.
• A moisture front is formed at the convergence zone of air masses from the
 Berg winds usually occur along the east coast and move along
Atlantic and the Indian Ocean.
the coast towards KwaZulu-Natal.

UNIT 3: SUBTROPICAL ANTICYCLONES

• The South Atlantic High Pressure brings in SW
winds from the Atlantic Ocean. This air is cold NB: Cold air cannot • Berg winds bring warm, dry conditions and consequently a threat
and does not hold much moisture. The Atlantic hold much moisture. of veld fires.
Ocean (Benguela current) is cold and so feeds
cold, dry air onto the land from the west.
interior high
• The South Indian High Pressure brings in NE
winds from the Indian Ocean. This air is warm NB: Warm air can
and moist. The Indian Ocean (Mozambique hold more moisture.
current) is warm, so warm moist air is fed onto
the land from the east.
• The cold, dense Atlantic air (SW) moves in underneath the warm, moist coastal low
Indian air (NE), forcing it upwards. This results in a moisture front and
causes condensation and convection clouds to develop. mid-latitude
cyclone
• The moisture front brings a line of thunderstorms and heavy rainfall over
the central parts of South Africa. Also called a 'storm line'. Berg wind
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1 UNIT Katabatic and Anabatic winds

4 MICROCLIMATES
NOTES

clear night
warm
VALLEY CLIMATES air rises
cool air
sinks
Slope aspect

the weather conditions within a small

Microclimate local area such as a valley or an Katabatic wind Anabatic wind
urban settlement (mountain breeze) (valley breeze)

angle at which the rays of the sun

Slope aspect
strike a slope • Katabatic winds
an area that does not receive any  Occur at night.
Shadow zone
direct sunlight
 Valley slopes cool down as a result of terrestrial radiation.

• In the Southern Hemisphere, the slopes that face north are warmer as the  The air in contact with the slope cools down and the dense, cool air sinks
down the valley slopes.
sun's rays are more direct.
 These winds are also called mountain breezes, e.g. the Mistral in the Alps,
• South-facing slopes are cooler, as the sun's rays strike them at an oblique Switzerland and the Bora along the Adriatic Coast (east coast of Italy).
angle.
• Anabatic winds
 Occur during the day.

 Mountain slopes are heated and the warm air rises up the valley slopes.
UNIT 4: MICROCLIMATES

south north
 These winds are also called valley breezes.

north- south-
facing facing
slope shadow slope
zone

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Temperature inversions Radiation fog 1
• A temperature inversion is an atmospheric condition where temperature • Radiation fog generally forms when the air near the surface cools due to

NOTES
increases with height. The warmer air lies above the cooler air. terrestrial radiation.

• Occurs on clear, still winter nights. • It occurs on cold, cloudless nights.

• Air resting on the surface of upper slopes cools down and becomes more • In the morning, the earth's surface heats up and the fog evaporates, clearing
dense and sinks. the valley of fog.

• Cool air moves down the slope and collects on the valley floor.

• Results in a warmer air layer above a cold air layer: a temperature inversion.
Influence on human activities

Settlement
• In rural areas in the Southern Hemisphere, people will settle on the more
temperate, middle, north-facing slopes to avoid the cold valley floor and
cold air
frost pockets in winter, or the low temperatures on the higher slopes.
inversion cool air
warm air layer sinks to
• In urban areas in the Southern Hemisphere, people prefer to settle on the
bottom of
cold air valley north-facing slopes to get maximum insolation from the sun, especially in
frost pocket
the cold winter months.

Temperature inversion
Farming
• Crops that are affected by frost are cultivated on valley slopes to avoid the
Thermal belts frost pocket that occurs at the bottom of the valley.

• A thermal belt is a zone on the side of a valley where night-time temperatures

• An example is in the Western Cape where the frost-resistant crops are grown
remain relatively mild. Temperatures above and below the thermal belt are
on the lower valley slopes, while vineyards and other frost-sensitive deciduous
much colder. There is little frost damage in this zone.

UNIT 4: MICROCLIMATES
fruit is grown on the warmer middle and upper slopes.

Frost pockets
• Frost pockets are found where cold air collects on the valley floor.

• In the early morning, if the dew point temperature is below 0ºC; water vapour
condenses directly into ice crystals, and frost occurs.

• This lower part of the valley then becomes known as a frost pocket.

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1 URBAN CLIMATES the rise in temperature that the
earth experiences because gases
Greenhouse
NOTES

Reasons for differences between rural and urban climates in the atmosphere (carbon dioxide,
effect
nitrous oxide and methane) trap
Temperature differences energy from the sun

• Cities have higher average temperatures and a smaller difference between Ultraviolet shortwave rays that are part of the
day and night temperatures than rural areas. radiation energy that comes from the sun

small particles such as dust or

• The reasons are: Hygroscopic
sea salt on which water vapour
particles
 Artificial surfaces such as tar roads and concrete buildings absorb and can condense
retain heat longer than the natural surfaces of rural areas.

 Glass and steel in cities reflect the heat.

Wind differences
 There is more air pollution in cities which prevents maximum terrestrial • A city has lower wind speeds because of the friction of buildings, etc.,
radiation, especially at night. however the winds are more turbulent than in the surrounding areas.
 Heat islands over cities trap heat so less radiation takes place.
• The reasons are:
 The steep thermal gradient between cities and surrounding areas reduces air
 High-rise buildings cause more turbulence.
flow, so less heat is lost, enhancing a greenhouse effect.

 Human activities in cities, e.g. people, machines, vehicles, air conditioners,  Buildings channel high-speed winds and gusts occur at corners of buildings.
etc., generate heat.

Pollution differences
• Ultraviolet radiation is 30% lower in cities than in surrounding areas in winter.
• Cities have higher pollution levels than surrounding areas.

Rainfall/precipitation differences • The reasons are:

• Cities have more fog and rainfall than the surrounding rural areas.  Trapped smoke/fog is more concentrated.
UNIT 4: MICROCLIMATES

• The reasons are:  Gaseous pollution from cars, engines and industry cannot escape.
 A higher concentration of hygroscopic particles brought about by pollution
 Development of heat islands.
results in more fog developing.

 Less moisture in the air due to less surface water to evaporate, while runoff  Acid rain more frequent.
is higher due to artificial surfaces and drains.
 Poor visibility due to fog.
 Higher rainfall (particularly convectional rainfall) with cloud cover 5 - 10%
higher over cities.  Greenhouse effect caused by pollution.

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Urban heat islands
Night 1
• City surfaces lose heat more rapidly at night than the surrounding rural

NOTES
Causes and effects natural surfaces.
Day
• The city cools at night, therefore upward-moving air currents are not so strong.
• Hot air rises above a city and cool air moves in from the surrounding
suburbs and rural areas. • The heat island becomes shallower and the air forms a denser layer.

• Warmer air over the city rises so a heat island mushrooms over the city. • Temperature differences are not so great, making air movement in the city
less strong.
• The heat island encloses the built-up area.
• Pollution is more concentrated at night resulting in a pollution dome developing.
• The heat island is less concentrated during the day.

heat island

hot air rising

cool air cool air

Strategies to reduce the heat island effect

• A number of steps can be taken to reduce the heat island effect:
 Increase tree and vegetation cover.

UNIT 4: MICROCLIMATES
 Create green roofs – rooftop gardens or eco-roofs.

 Install cool, reflective roofs. Urban planners may also paint structures white
or other light colours or use reflective materials to build houses, pavements
and roads thus increasing the overall albedo of the city.

the solar energy (shortwave radiation)

reflected from the earth back into
Albedo
space; it is a measure of the reflectivity
of the earth's surface

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1 Pollution domes
Strategies to reduce the pollution dome effect
• Changing dark surfaces to light reflective surfaces.
NOTES

• A pollution dome is a mass of polluted air in and above a city.

 Dark surfaces absorb more heat than light surfaces.
• The air is prevented from rising by the presence of an inversion above it.
 Lighter surfaces are cooler and produce less heat.

Causes • Greening
• The main sources of air pollution are vehicle exhausts and the burning of
 Trees and plants shade cities from incoming solar radiation.
fossil fuels. These gases pollute the air above a city.
 Roof gardens in the CBD help to cool the buildings and create pleasant
• Usually pollutants would rise with the air in convection currents and then be environments for workers.
carried away by the wind. However, if there is a temperature inversion, the
pollutants are unable to rise because they are quickly cooled to the
temperature of the surrounding air that is trapped under the inversion layer.
This results in a pollution dome forming over a city.

if there is a wind, the pollution

Pollution plume is carried downwind to form a
pollution plume

a mixture of smoke and fog

(pollution particles act as
Smog
hygroscopic nuclei and attract
water vapour to form smog)

Effects
• Health problems – lung infections, asthma attacks.
UNIT 4: MICROCLIMATES

• Acid rain – sulphur and nitrogen in the atmosphere form acid rain which destroys
buildings and trees.

• Insolation is reduced as sun’s rays cannot easily penetrate through pollution.

• Visibility is reduced due to smog.

• Fossil fuels increase greenhouse gas emissions (such as carbon dioxide) and
contribute to climate change.
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