08_421314-ch04.

qxp 4/3/09 9:00 PM Page 73

Chapter 4

Go Back to Your Roots

to Get Your Degree
In This Chapter
䊳 Solving quadratic equations by factoring
䊳 Exploring methods to solve quadratic equations that don’t factor
䊳 Figuring out how many roots a polynomial has
䊳 Finding the roots of a polynomial
䊳 Using roots and the leading coefficient test to graph polynomials

A polynomial is any expression with more than one term in it. The highest exponent on
any term in a polynomial is its degree. In this chapter, we review solving polynomial
equations to find the solutions, which are also called roots or zeros. We start with a review
of solving quadratic equations — polynomials where the highest exponent is two. Then we
move into equations with higher degrees and show you how to solve them. We also take a
look at using roots to factor polynomials and how to graph polynomials.

Reason Through It: Factoring a

Factorable Polynomial
Before getting started on the nitty-gritty, here’s some vocabulary you should know to be suc-
cessful in this chapter (and after):

Standard form: What most textbooks use to write a quadratic equation: ax2 + bx + c = 0
Quadratic term: The term with the second degree: ax2
Linear term: The term with the linear degree: bx
Constant: The term with zero degree: c
Leading coefficient: The number multiplying the term with the highest degree: a
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74 Part I: Foundation (And We Don’t Mean Makeup!)

In math, the process of breaking down a polynomial into the product of two polynomi-
als with a smaller degree is called factoring. In general, factoring works best on quad-
ratic equations and is always the first thing you should try when asked to solve
second-degree polynomials. Some types of factoring (like the difference of cubes or
grouping — more on those later in this section) may work on higher degree polynomi-
als, and you should always check them to see if they’re factorable first. When pre-
sented with a polynomial and asked to solve it, you should always try the following
methods of factoring, in order:

⻬ Greatest common factor: The greatest common factor, or GCF, is the biggest
expression that will divide into all the other terms. It’s a little like doing the dis-
tributive property backwards.
Break each term down into prime factors, look at all those factors to see what
they share in common (that’s your GCF), factor the GCF out from every term by
putting it in front of a set of parentheses, and leave the factors that aren’t the
GCF inside the parentheses.
⻬ The polynomial is a binomial: If the polynomial has two terms, check to see
whether it’s a difference of squares or the sum or difference of cubes.
Difference of squares a2 – b2 always factors to (a – b)(a + b)
Difference of cubes a3 – b3 always factors to (a – b)(a2 + ab + b2)
Sum of cubes a3 + b3 always factors to (a + b)(a2 – ab + b2)
⻬ The polynomial is a trinomial: Try using the FOIL method backwards.
Some teachers teach the “guess and check method,” where you keep trying dif-
ferent pairs of binomials until you happen to stumble on the right one. This isn’t
fun by any means, and you could try all day long and never figure it out (or
maybe the polynomial is prime and won’t factor).
We recommend using the British method (also known as the FOIL method back-
wards) instead. Follow these steps to use this method:
1. Multiply the quadratic term and the constant term. You only do this in
your head (or somewhere else on your paper) and you only do it to pro-
ceed to the next step.
2. Write down all the factors of the result of Step 1, in pairs. Again, you do
this for you only and also to make sure that you list every possibility —
that’s why it’s not guess and check. If you list them all and none of them
work (see Step 3), you know your trinomial is prime.
3. Find the pair from the list in Step 2 that adds to produce the linear term.
Only one of them will work, and if none of them do, it’s prime.
4. Break up the linear term into two terms — the winning pair from Step 3.
You’ve now created a polynomial with four terms. Proceed to the next type of
factoring — a polynomial with more than three terms.
⻬ The polynomial has more than three terms: Try grouping the polynomial.
Group the polynomial into two sets of two. Find the GCF for each set and factor it
out. Find the GCF of the two remaining expressions and factor it out. You end up
with two binomials, exactly what you were looking for!

After you have the polynomial factored, you can use the zero product property to
solve it by setting each factor equal to 0 and solving.
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Chapter 4: Go Back to Your Roots to Get Your Degree 75

Q. Solve the equation 3x2 + x – 2 = 0. Q. Solve the equation 3x3 – 3x = 0.

A. x = 2⁄3, x = –1. Multiply the quadratic term A. x = 0, 1, and –1. Always check for the GCF
and the constant term: (3x2)(–2) = –6x2. first and factor it out: 3x(x2 – 1) = 0. Now
Write down all factors of this, in pairs: –x recognize the “leftovers” as a difference of
and 6x, x and –6x, –2x and 3x, 2x and –3x. squares which factors again: 3x(x – 1)(x +
The pair that adds up to the linear term is 1) = 0. Set each factor equal to 0 and solve:
–2x and 3x. Split the middle term into two 3x = 0, x = 0. x – 1 = 0, x = 1. x + 1 = 0, x = –1.
using this pair: 3x2 – 2x + 3x – 2 = 0. Now
that you have four terms instead of three,
use grouping to factor it: x(3x – 2) + 1(3x –
2) = 0. Notice that the second two factors
only have a GCF of one; you still factor it
out. Now there’s a GCF again — both sets
of terms share (3x – 2) so that can factor
out to the front: (3x – 2)(x + 1) = 0. Finally,
use the zero product property to solve
the equation. If 3x – 2 = 0, then x = 2⁄3; and if
x + 1 = 0, then x = –1.

1. Solve the equation 2y2 + 5y = 12. 2. Solve the equation 16m2 – 8m + 1 = 0.

Solve It Solve It

3. Solve the equation x3 + x2 = 9x + 9. 4. Solve the equation .

Solve It Solve It
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76 Part I: Foundation (And We Don’t Mean Makeup!)

Get Your Roots Done while Solving

a Quadratic Polynomial
What happens when a quadratic equation doesn’t factor? You’re done, right? Well, not
quite. You have two more methods you can use. One we always recommend (the quad-
ratic formula) and the other we don’t (completing the square). However, your teacher
may require you to use both, so we include both here. When you get to graph quadrat-
ics in Chapters 3 and 12, it’s easiest to do by completing the square and then using the
rules of transforming a parent function to get the graph.

Completing the square

Completing the square is the technique to use when you’re specifically told to do so.
Other than that, save it for graphing. Here are the steps:

1. Make sure the quadratic is written in standard form: ax2 + bx + c = 0.

2. Add (or subtract) the constant term from both sides: ax2 + bx = –c.
3. Factor out the leading coefficient from the quadratic term and the linear term:
.

4. Divide the new linear coefficient by two: ; square this: ;

and add this inside the parentheses: .

5. Keep the equation balanced by multiplying the leading coefficient by the

term you just added in Step 4: , and adding it to the other side:
.

6. Divide the leading coefficient from both sides: .

7. Factor the trinomial on the left side of the equation: .

8. Take the square root of both sides: .

9. Solve for x: .

Quadratic formula
Of course, those of you who know the quadratic formula should vaguely recognize the
steps above — they’re the derivation of the quadratic formula. All you have to do is
find the common denominator of both the fractions inside the square root, add them
together, and watch the square root simplify. Ultimately, you end up with the quadratic
formula:
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Chapter 4: Go Back to Your Roots to Get Your Degree 77

Q. Solve the equation 5x2 – 12x – 2 = 0. . Don’t forget to

A. x= . This equation doesn’t factor, check your square roots and simplify them

so you use the quadratic formula to as well: . Finally, 2 goes into

solve it. a = 5, b = –12, c = –2. Plug these
every coefficient and constant in the answer,
values into the quadratic formula:
so it simplifies even further to .
. Now simplify it:

5. Solve x2 – 10 = 2x. 6. Solve 7x2 – x + 2 = 0.

Solve It Solve It

7. Solve x2 – 4x – 7 = 0 by completing the 8. Solve –2.31x2 – 4.2x + 6.7 = 0.

square.
Solve It
Solve It
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78 Part I: Foundation (And We Don’t Mean Makeup!)

Climb the Mountains by Solving

High Order Polynomials
The greater the degree of your given polynomial, the harder it is to solve the equation by
factoring. You should always still try that first because you never know . . . it may actu-
ally work! When factoring fails, however, you begin anew with a longer and more compli-
cated process for finding the roots. We walk you through each step, one by one.

Always begin by finding the degree of the polynomial because it gives you some very
important information about your graph. The degree of the polynomial tells you the
greatest maximum number of roots — it’s that easy. A fourth-degree polynomial will have
up to, but no more than, four roots.

Determining positive and negative roots:

Descartes’ Rule of Signs
When you know the total number of roots, you can use Descartes’ Rule of Signs to deter-
mine how many of the roots are positive and how many are negative. This literally tells
you how many times your graph crosses the x-axis on the negative side as well as on the
positive side. These will all be real roots represented as points on the real number line
that is the x-axis. All you have to be able to do is count!

Make sure that the polynomial f(x) is written in descending order first, from highest degree
to lowest. Look at the sign of each term and count how many times the sign changes from
positive to negative and vice versa. The number of sign changes represents the maximum
number of positive real roots. The rule also says that this number decreases by 2 over and
over again until you end up with 1 or 0 (more on this in the section on imaginary roots).
This gives you the list of the possible number of real positive roots.

Descartes also figured out that if you take a look at f(–x) and count again, you discover
the maximum number of negative real roots. Remember that negative numbers raised to
even powers are positive, and negative numbers raised to odd powers are negative. This
means that f(–x) changes from f(x) only on the odd degrees. Each odd exponent becomes
the opposite of what it was in f(x). Count the number of times the sign changes in this
function, subtract 2 over and over until you end up at 1 or 0, and end up with a list of the
possible number of real negative roots.

Counting on imaginary roots

Imaginary roots happen in a quadratic equation when the radicand is negative. Remember
from Algebra II that you should look at the discriminant (the part of the quadratic formula
under the root sign: b2 – 4ac). If the discriminant is negative, the roots are imaginary. The ±
sign also tells you that there are two of these roots, always in pairs. This is why in the pre-
vious section you subtract by 2; you have to account for the fact that the roots may be in
pairs of imaginary numbers. In fact, the pairs will always be complex conjugates of each
other — if one root is a + bi, for example, then the other one is a – bi.

The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra says that every polynomial has at least one root in
the complex number system. Chapter 11 explains complex numbers in depth, but for
now all you need to know is that a complex number has both a real and an imaginary
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Chapter 4: Go Back to Your Roots to Get Your Degree 79

part. That’s why there has to be at least one complex root — it has to be either real, imaginary,
or both at the same time. Kinda cool, huh?

Because you know the total number of possible roots and the list of possible positive and nega-
tive roots, you can use all that information to determine how many imaginary roots a polynomial
has. Pair up every possible number of positive roots with every possible number of negative
roots. The remaining number of roots in each situation represents the imaginary roots.

Getting the rational roots

The Rational Root Theorem helps you narrow down the possibilities even further. Right now, if
you’ve gone through all the steps, you only know the total number of roots, how many are posi-
tive real, how many are negative real, and how many are imaginary. That still leaves an infinite
number of possibilities! The Rational Root Theorem helps you because it finds the possible roots
that are rational (those that can be written as a fraction). The problem with the theorem? Not all
roots are rational. Keep in mind that some (or all) of the roots are irrational.

To use the Rational Root Theorem, take all the factors of the constant term and divide by all the
factors of the leading coefficient. This produces a list of fractions that are all possibilities for
roots. You could try plugging each one of these possibilities into the original function in the
hopes of finding a root (remember, they’re also called zeros because the value of the function
will be 0). This process is long and tedious because, each time, you’re dealing with the original
function. If there are 50 roots, you’re not helping yourself by plugging and chugging. Instead,
move on to the next step.

Synthetic division finds some roots

With the list from the last section in front of you, pick one fraction and try it to see if it works. If it
does, the quotient is a depressed polynomial. No, it’s not sad — its degree will be less than the
one you started with. You use this quotient to find the next one, each time lessening the degree,
which narrows down the roots you have to find. At some point, your polynomial will end up as a
quadratic equation, which you can solve using factoring or the quadratic formula. Now that’s
clever! If the root you try doesn’t work, you should always try it again to see if it’s a root with
multiplicity — that is, roots that are used more than once.

Here are the steps to use for synthetic division:

1. Make sure the polynomial is written in descending order. If any degrees are missing, fill
in the gaps with zeros.
2. Write the number that’s the root you’re testing outside the synthetic division sign. Write
the coefficients of the polynomial in descending order and include any zeros from Step
1 inside the synthetic division sign.
3. Drop the first coefficient down.
4. Multiply the root on the outside and this coefficient. Write this product above the syn-
thetic division line.
5. Add the next coefficient and the product from Step 4. This answer goes below the line.
6. Multiply the root on the outside and the answer from Step 5.
7. Repeat over and over again until you use all the coefficients.

This process is easier to see with an example. Hold on and we’ll show you. Just know that when
you do synthetic division, you end up with a list of roots that actually work in the polynomial.
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80 Part I: Foundation (And We Don’t Mean Makeup!)

Q. Find the roots of the equation x3 + x2 – 5x + Q. Solve the equation x3 + 8x2 + 22x + 20 = 0.
3 = 0.
A. x = –2, x = –3 ± i. This equation is also a
A. x = 1 (double root), x = –3. We go through third degree, so it will have a maximum of
the whole process described in this section three roots. Looking at f(x) = x3 + 8x2 + 22x
for this example question. + 20 reveals that none of them are positive.
Looking at f(–x) = –x3 + 8x2 – 22x + 20 reveals
The number of roots: First, this equation
that either three or one of them are nega-
is third degree, so it may have up to
tive. If zero are positive and three are nega-
three different roots.
tive, there can’t be any imaginary roots.
Descartes’ Rule of Signs: Next, by look- However, if zero are positive and only one
ing at f(x) = x3 + x2 – 5x + 3, you notice is negative, two of them have to be imagi-
that the sign changes twice (between the nary. The Rational Root Theorem generates
second and third terms and the third and this list of fractions (and we’re only looking
fourth terms). This means there could be at the negatives because we know there
two or zero positive real roots. Next, look aren’t any positive roots): –1⁄1, –2⁄1, –4⁄1, –5⁄1,
at f(–x) = –x3 + x2 + 5x + 3 and notice the –10⁄1 and –20⁄1. These all reduce, respectively,
sign only changes once, giving you only to –1, –2, –4, –5, –10, and –20. Start off with
one negative real root. x = –2 to discover one of your roots:
Imaginary roots: So if two roots are posi-
tive and one is negative, that leaves none –2 1 8 22 20
leftover that are imaginary. But if zero –2 –12 –20
are positive and one is negative, that 1 6 10 0
leaves two imaginary roots.
Rational Root Theorem: Take all the fac- The reduced polynomial you’re now work-
tors of 3 (the constant term) and divide ing with is x2 + 6x + 10. This quadratic does-
by all the factors of 1 (the leading coeffi- n’t factor, so you use the quadratic formula
cient) to determine the possible rational to find that the last two roots are indeed
roots — ± 1⁄1, ± 3⁄1. Reduce the fractions imaginary: x = –3 ± i.
and discard any duplicates to get the
final list: ± 1, ± 3.
Synthetic division: Pick a root, any root,
and use synthetic division to test and
see if it actually is a root. Because we
know the answers (we did write the
question), we have you start with x = 1:

1 1 1 –5 –3
1 2 –3
1 2 –3 0

The last column on the right is the

remainder; because it’s 0, you know you
have one root: x = 1. Also notice that the
other numbers are the coefficients of the
depressed polynomial you’re now work-
ing with: x2 + 2x – 3 = 0. Because this is a
quadratic, we recommend shifting gears
and factoring it to (x + 3)(x – 1) = 0 to be
able to use the zero product property to
solve and get x = –3 and x = 1 (again —
making it a double root!).
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Chapter 4: Go Back to Your Roots to Get Your Degree 81

9. Solve the equation 2x3 + 3x2 – 18x + 8 = 0. 10. Solve the equation 12x4 + 13x3 – 20x2 + 4x = 0.

Solve It Solve It

11. Solve the equation x3 + 7x2 + 13x + 4 = 0. 12. Find the roots of the equation x4 + 10x3 +
38x2 + 66x + 45.
Solve It
Solve It

Strike That! Reverse It! Using Roots

to Find an Equation
The factor theorem says that if you know the root of a polynomial, then you also know a
factor of the polynomial. These two go back and forth, one to the other — roots and fac-
tors are interchangeable. Your textbook may ask you to factor a polynomial with a degree
higher than two, and it just won’t factor using any of the techniques we describe in the
earlier sections. In this case, you must find the roots and use them to find the factors.

If x = c is a root, then x – c is a factor and vice versa. It always works, and that’s some-
thing you can count on. Nice, huh?
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82 Part I: Foundation (And We Don’t Mean Makeup!)

Q. Use the roots of x3 + x2 – 5x + 3 = 0 to factor and x = –3. Using the factor theorem, if
the equation. x = 1 is a root, then x – 1 is a factor (twice);
and if x = –3 is a root, then x – (–3), or x + 3,
A. (x – 1)2(x + 3) = 0. This is the question from is a factor. This means that x3 + x2 – 5x + 3 = 0
the first example in the last section. You factors to (x – 1)2(x + 3) = 0.
found that the roots are x = 1 (double root)

13. If the roots of a polynomial are x = –3, –2, 4, 14. If the roots of a polynomial are x = 2 and
and 6, what’s the polynomial? 4 ± 3i, what’s the polynomial?

Solve It Solve It

15. Factor the polynomial 6x4 – 7x3 – 18x2 + 13x 16. Factor the polynomial x4 + 10x3 + 38x2 + 66x
+ 6 = 0. + 45.

Solve It Solve It

Graphing Polynomials
Now that you have your list of the roots of your polynomial, you’ve done the hard
work to graph the polynomial. Remember that roots or zeros are x-intercepts — you
now know where the graph crosses the x-axis. Follow these steps to get to the graph:

1. Mark the x-intercepts on your graph.

2. Find the y-intercept by letting x = 0. The shortcut? It will always be the constant
term.
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Chapter 4: Go Back to Your Roots to Get Your Degree 83

3. Use the leading coefficient test to determine which of the four possible ways
the ends of your graph will point:
a. If the degree of the polynomial is even and the leading coefficient is posi-
tive, both ends of the graph will point up.
b. If the degree of the polynomial is even and the leading coefficient is nega-
tive, both ends of the graph will point down.
c. If the degree of the polynomial is odd and the leading coefficient is positive,
the left side of the graph will point down and the right side will point up.
d. If the degree of the polynomial is odd and the leading coefficient is negative,
the left side of the graph will point up and the right side will point down.
4. Figure out what happens in between the x-intercepts by picking any x-value
on each interval and plugging it into the function to determine if it’s positive
(and, therefore, above the x-axis) or negative (below the x-axis).
5. Plot the graph by using all the information you’ve determined.

Q. Graph the equation f(x) = x3 + x2 – 5x + 3. x = –3. The y-intercept is the constant y = 3.

The leading coefficient test tells you the
A. See the graph in Figure 4-1. This is the graph starts by pointing down and ends by
first example from the section on solving pointing up. The double root at x = 1 makes
higher order polynomials again. You found the graph “bounce” and not cross there.
that the roots are x = 1 (double root) and

Figure 4-1:
The graph of
f(x) = x3 + x2
– 5x + 3.
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84 Part I: Foundation (And We Don’t Mean Makeup!)

Q. Graph the equation f(x) = x3 + 8x2 + 22x + 20. A. See the graph in Figure 4-2. This is the
second example from the section on
solving higher order polynomials. You
found one real root of x = –2, as well as the
complex conjugates x = –3 ± i.

20

Figure 4-2:
The graph of
f(x) = x3 + 8x2
+ 22x + 20.
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Chapter 4: Go Back to Your Roots to Get Your Degree 85

17. Graph f(x) = x4 + 2x3 – 13x2 – 14x + 24. 18. Graph f(x) = 6x4 – 7x3 – 18x2 + 13x + 6.

Solve It Solve It

19. Graph f(x) = 12x4 + 13x3 – 20x2 + 4x. 20. Graph f(x) = x4 + 10x3 + 38x2 + 66x + 45.

Solve It Solve It
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Chapter 5
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
In This Chapter
䊳 Figuring out exponential functions
䊳 Looking at logarithmic functions
䊳 Using exponents and logs to solve equations
䊳 Working with exponential word problems

E xponential growth is simply the idea that something gets bigger and bigger (or smaller
and smaller) very fast. Exponential and logarithmic functions can be used to describe
growth or decay. They have many practical applications, such as determining population
growth, measuring the acidity of a substance, and calculating financial growth. In addition,
they’re central to many concepts in calculus (a good reason to master them in pre-calculus!).
They’re different from the other functions we’ve been dealing with so far because their vari-
ables are no longer in the base of the expression (more on that later).

In this chapter, you practice solving equations, simplifying expressions, and graphing expo-
nents and logarithms. In addition, you can practice manipulating functions to solve equations
and practically applying the concepts to word problems.

Things Get Bigger (Or Smaller) All the Time —

Solving Exponential Functions
Exponential functions are functions in which the variable is in the exponent. When the base of
the exponent is greater than 1, the function gets really big really fast, and when it’s less than
1, it gets really small really fast.

In exponential functions, the variable is in the power of the expression. The base can be any
constant, including a special constant that mathematicians and scientists define as e. This
irrational constant, e, has a value that’s approximately 2.7182 and is extremely useful in expo-
nential expressions (and in logarithms, but we’re getting ahead of ourselves).

Solving exponential equations requires that you recall the basic exponent rules:
a b a+b
c ·c =c

–a 1
c =
ca
a b a·b
(c ) = c
a a a
(c · d) = c · d
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92 Part I: Foundation (And We Don’t Mean Makeup!)

0
c =1
a b
if c = c then a = b

While graphing exponential equations, it’s important to recall the tricks for transform-
ing graphs (see Chapter 3 for a refresher).

Q. Solve for x in 8
4x + 12
= 16
2x + 5
. Q. x x
Sketch the graphs of (A) y = 2 , (B) y = 2 + 1,
x+3 –x x
(C) y = 2 , (D) y = 2 , and (E) y = –2 , all
A. x = –4. First, in order to utilize our expo- on the same set of axes.
nential rules, it’s helpful if both expres-
sions are the same base. So, knowing that
3 4
A. Graphs B–E are all transformations of the
8 = 2 and 16 = 2 , by factoring and rewrit- first graph A (see Chapter 3 for a review
ing using exponents, you can rewrite both of transformations of graphs). By adding 1
sides of the equation with a base of 2: to graph A, the result is graph B, a shift up
3(4x + 12) 4(2x + 5)
2 =2 . Now that your bases are of 1 unit. By adding 3 to the exponent of
the same, you can set your exponents graph A, the result is graph C, shifted 3
equal to each other (using properties of units to the left. Graph D is the result of
exponents): 3(4x + 12) = 4(2x + 5). Next, making the exponent negative, which
you can simplify using the distributive results in a reflection over the y-axis, and
property of equality: 12x + 36 = 8x + 20. graph E, created by negating the base,
Finally, you can solve algebraically: results in the reflection of the graph over
4x + 36 = 20; 4x = –16; x = –4. the x-axis. See the resulting graphs in
Figure 5-1.

16

12

D
4
B
C
A

–12 –8 –4 4 8 12
E
–4

Figure 5-1: –8
Transforma-
tions of the –12
exponential
equation –16
with base 2.
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Chapter 5: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 93

1. Solve for x in 27
x+3 3x – 9
= 81 . 2. Solve for x in e
2x – 4 6x + 8
=e .

Solve It Solve It

3. 2x x
Solve for x in (5 – 1)(25 – 125) = 0. 4. x
Solve for x in 3 · 9 – 8 = –7.

Solve It Solve It

5. Sketch the graph of y = –3 – 4.

x
6. Sketch the graph of y = –3e
x–2
.

Solve It Solve It

The Only Logs You Won’t Cut:

Solving Logarithms
Just as multiplying by the reciprocal is another way to write division, logarithms are
simply another way to write exponents. Exponential and logarithmic functions are
inverses of each other. In other words, logarithmic functions are really just another
way to write exponential functions. So you may ask, “Why do you need both?” Well,
logarithms are extremely helpful for an immense number of practical applications. In
fact, before the invention of computers, logarithms were the only way to compute
many complex computations in physics, chemistry, astronomy, and engineering.
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94 Part I: Foundation (And We Don’t Mean Makeup!)

For solving and graphing logarithmic functions (logs), remember this inverse relation-
ship and you’ll be sawing . . . er, solving logs in no time! Here’s this relationship in
equation form:
y
y = logbx
b = x.

Just as with exponential functions, the base can be any number, including e. In fact, a
base of e is so common in science and calculus that loge has its own special name: ln.
Thus, logex = lnx.

Similarly, log10 is so commonly used that it’s just written as log (no base written).

Remember our review of domain from Chapter 3? Well, here’s one of those times when
domain can be tricky. The domain for the basic logarithm y = logbx is x > 0. Therefore,
when you’re solving logarithmic functions, it’s important to check for extraneous roots
(review Chapter 1).

Here are more properties that are true for any logarithm:

logb1 = 0
logbb = 1
The product rule: logb(a · c) = logba + logbc
The quotient rule:
c
The power rule: logba = c · logba
x
logbb = x

If logba = logbc, then a = c

Using these properties, simplifying logarithmic expressions and solving logarithmic

functions is a snap (we did say logs, not twigs, right?).

Q. Rewrite the following logarithmic expres- A.

sion to a single log: 3log5x + log5(2x – 1) –
2log5(3x + 2).
Using the properties of logs, begin by
rewriting the coefficients as exponents:
3
3log5x = log5x and 2log5(3x + 2) =
2
log5(3x + 2) . Next, rewrite the addition of
the first two logs as the product of logs:
3 3
log5x + log5(2x – 1) = log5x (2x – 1).
Last, rewrite the final log as a quotient:
3 2
log5x (2x – 1) – log5(3x + 2) =
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Chapter 5: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 95

Q. Sketch the graphs of (A) y = log2x, 15
(B) y = 1 + log2x, (C) y = log2(x + 3), and
(D) y = –log2x, all on the same set of axes.
10

A. First, in Figure 5-2, you can see that graphs

B–D are transformations of graph A. Graph 5
B is a shift of 1 up, graph C is a shift of 3 to
B A
the left, and graph D is a reflection of graph C
A over the x-axis. Second (nifty trick here), –10 –5 0 5 10
these are all inverses of graphs A–D in the D
exponential section (refer to Figure 5-1). Figure 5-2: –5
Another way to graph logarithms is to Transfor-
change the log to an exponential using the mations
properties of logarithms, find the inverse –10
of the loga-
function by switching x and y, graph the rithmic
inverse, and reflect every point over the equation –15
line y = x. For a review of inverses, see with base 2.
Chapter 3. Here, we stick with transforming
the parent graph.

7. Rewrite the given expression as a single 8. Solve for x in

logarithm: ln4x + 3ln(x – 2) – 2(ln2x +
.
ln(3x – 4)).

Solve It Solve It

9. Solve for x in lnx + ln(2x – 1) = ln1. 10. Find logb(48b) if logb2 = 0.36 and logb3 = 0.56.

Solve It Solve It
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96 Part I: Foundation (And We Don’t Mean Makeup!)

11. Sketch the graph of y = –3 + log(x + 2). 12. Sketch the graph of y = ln(x – 2) + 4.

Solve It Solve It

Putting Them Together: Solving Equations

Using Exponents and Logs
Now, we show you how to put these two lovely functions together. By keeping in mind
y
the inverse relationship (y = logbx
b = x), you can solve even more complex prob-
lems. Aren’t you excited?!

A helpful key to remember when solving equations using exponents and logs is that if
the variable is in the exponent, convert the equation into logarithmic form. This is
especially helpful if you use natural log (ln) or the common log (log10x, often referred
to as just logx) because you can plug the variable into your calculator to get a decimal
approximation of the solution.

One pitfall to avoid when manipulating logs relates to the products and quotients
of logs. Remember: not . These are entirely different

expressions. In fact, if you plug them into your calculator, you can see that
while . The same can be said for products and

logs: log6 + log7 = log(6 · 7), not log(6 + 7).

Q. log(50x + 250) – log x = 2. means log10): . Because

2
A. x = 5. Start by combining the logs as a 10 = 100, you can rewrite the equation as

quotient: . Next, rewrite . After cross-multiplying,

in exponential form (remember that log you can then solve algebraically:
50x + 250 = 100x; 250 = 50x; x = 5.
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Chapter 5: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 97

Q. x
Solve for x in 3 = 2
(x + 2)
. algebra, you can distribute the ln2 across
(x + 2): x · ln3 = x · ln2 + 2 · ln2. Still using
A. . First, recognize that the algebra, get the terms with the variable on
the same side by subtracting x · ln2 to the
opposite side: x · ln3 – x · ln2 = 2 · ln2.
variable is in the exponent of each term, so Then, using distributive property again,
you can easily remedy that by taking either remove the x as a greatest common factor:
log or ln of both sides. We’re going to use x(ln3 – ln2) = 2 · ln2. Finally, isolate x by
ln, but it really doesn’t make a difference. dividing ln3 – ln2 from both sides:
x (x + 2) x (x + 2)
So 3 = 2 becomes ln3 = ln2 . Then,
. Last, use the quotient rule
you can use properties of logarithms to
solve. Start by changing the exponents to simplify and get .
to coefficients: x · ln3 = (x + 2)ln 2. Using

13. Solve for x in log(x – 6) – log(x + 3) = 1. 14. x

Solve for x: 3 = 5.

Solve It Solve It

15. x x
Solve for x in 4 – 4 · 2 = –3. 16. x
Solve for x: 3 = 5
(2x – 3)
.

Solve It Solve It
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98 Part I: Foundation (And We Don’t Mean Makeup!)

Solving Exponential Word Problems . . . Argh!

When will I ever use this? Well, in addition to using exponential functions in a mathe-
matics course, they actually have many practical applications. Common uses of expo-
nential functions include figuring compound interest, computing population growth,
and doing radiocarbon dating (no, not some new online matchmaking system). In fact,
these are so common, many teachers make you memorize their formulas. If you need
nonstandard formulas to do a problem, they’ll be provided in the question itself.

Here are formulas for interest rate and half-life:

⻬ Compound interest formula: where A is the amount after t time

compounded n times per year if P dollars are invested at interest rate r.
r·t
⻬ Continuous compound interest formula: A = Pe , where A is the amount after t
time if P dollars are invested at interest rate r continuously throughout the year.
⻬ Formula for the half-life of a radioactive element: M ( x ) = c ⋅ 2 h where M(x) is the
−x

mass at the time x, c is the original mass of the element, and h is the half-life of the
element.

Q. If you deposit $600 at 5.5% interest com- Q. How old is a piece of bone that has lost
pounded continuously, what will your 60% of its carbon-14 (half-life of carbon-14
balance be in 10 years? is 5,730 years)?

A. $1,039.95. Because this is continuous com- A. Approximately 7,575 years old. We can
pound interest, you use the formula A = figure out this problem using the formula
rt
Pe when you’re solving for A. A = for half-life. First, because 60% of the
(0.055)(10)
$600e . Plugging this into a calcula- carbon-14 is gone, the mass of carbon
tor, you get approximately $1,039.95. remaining is 40%, so we can write the pres-
ent mass as .40c. Therefore, the equation
−x
will be: 0.40c = c ⋅ 2 5,730 . We can start solving
this by cancelling c from both sides:
−x
0.40 = 2 5,730 . Taking the natural log of both
sides allows us to move the variable− x from
the exponent position: ln 0.40 = ln 2 5,730 ,

then . From here, we

can solve algebraically: ;

.
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Chapter 5: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 99

17. If you deposit $3,000 at 8% interest per 18. The half-life of Krypton-85 is 10.4 years.
year compounded quarterly, in approxi- How long will it take for 600 grams to decay
mately how many years will the investment to 15 grams?
be worth $10,500?
Solve It
Solve It

19. The deer population in a certain area in 20. If you deposit $20,000 at 6.5% interest com-
pounded continuously, how long will it take
year t is approximately . for you to have $1,000,000?
When will the deer population reach 2,000?
Solve It
Solve It