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Physics Unit 4

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Physics Unit 4

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Nandish Mandadi
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~ A. kourtho | SEMICONDUCTORS AND MAGNETIC MATERIALS INIT =1V: a SEMICONDUCTORS s: £ Semicon es which have resistivity i The Sonductors (10°) and insulator SOARS Afons ad fr which coniectvais IE, C wee enormously by adding suitable GAIA impurities (oping) are calle \ ii, energy’ bonds are broken, they have equal number of electrons and holes and have very small conductivity. 1 leV conductors. i : ei oe ea forbidden : ap of about leV between valence band and conduction band are calle semiconductors. ii. At Ok semiconductors are insulators. At room temperature some covalent iv. Semiconductors are divided into elemental and compound semiconductors depending on composition. v. Semiconductors are divided into intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors depending on doping. Depending on the type of impurity, semiconductors are divided into p-type and n-type semiconductors, Inn semiconductors: valence band SiatOK i. Semiconductors in pure form are called intrinsic semiconductors. ii, Each semiconductor atom has four valence electrons, which participate in covalent bonds and material acts as insulator at OK - iii, At room temperature some covalent bonds are broken and the material gets some number of electrons and holes. Material gets negligible conductivity. iv. The electrons and holes are called thermally gen extrinsic Invinsic semiconductor ated charge carriers. v. Electrons occupy bottom levels of conduction band and holes occupy top levels of valence band. vi. Fermi level is mid way between valence band and conduction band, vii. Electron concentration in conduction band, n= ime 134 he vill. Hole concentration in valance band, p=2¢ ” ' Extensis semiconducte’® atoms are added to pure ( mpuri en suitable ir t aes it eated extrinsic semicondu ; rs have CO! i Extrinsic semiconductors ha ns are doped to semicon Sait pentavalent impurity ato iii, a : : i the’ x semiconductors. ee a en impurity atoms are doped to sem! iv. If trivalel type semiconductors. v. Doping increases the vi, In p-type semiconductors band, In n-type semiconductor Doped) semiconductor then . temperature. nductivity at room: or then they are y are called i ly. conductivity of the RS a y Ae i 1 is just al Fermi energy level t s it is just below bottom of conduction ban . E ; tion, band Freeelectron fame Ev | valence band n-type semiconductor ntype Si i. Semiconductor doped with pentavalent atoms like phosphorous (P). arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), etc., is called n-type semiconductor. ii. Four valence electrons of pentavalent atoms participate in covalent bonds and the fifth electron is donated to the crystal. iti, These electrons move freely in conduction band and give conductivity. iv. As the dopant is donating free electrons to semiconductor, the impurity is called donor impurity. These electrons occupy bottom of conduction*band v. After donating an electron to the crystal, positive ion. These ions are immobile. vi, In n-type semiconductors electrons are maj minority carriers. Conduction is mainly due to ~viiz Semiconductor as a whole is neutral since number of electrons and positive charges are equal. viii. Fermi energy level each donor atom converts into jority charge carriers and holes are electrons. is just below the bottom of conduction. ix, Electron concentration in conduction band, n = Delype semiconductor: Semiconductor doped with tritavalent atom ini nico atoms like aluminium (A\ alli (Ga), indium (In), etc, is called p-type semiconductor (46, saliym ii. Three valence electrons of trivalent atoms partici) deficit of fourth electron acts as a hole, a positive ch ipate in covalent bonds. The arge carrier, conduction band Erp Hole E Vv |_valence band p-type semiconductor p type Si The hole attracts an electron from neighbouring atoms and the hole is shifts to the position of attracted electron. Thus holes move and give conductivity. iv. As the dopant is accepting electron from the semiconductor, the impurity is called acceptor impurity. Holes occupy top of valence band. v. After accepting an electron from the crystal, each acceptor atom converts into negative ion. These ions are immobile. vi. In p-type semiconductors holes are majority charge carriers and electrons are minority carriers. Conduction is mainly due to holes. vii. Semiconductor as a whole is neutral since number of holes and neg: tive charges are equal. viii. Fermi energy level is just above the top of a band. ix. Hole concentration in valance band, p = 2@2*1)°"exp(, 'fferences between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors: Intrinsic semiconductors Extrinsic semiconductors i. These are pure form of i. These are doped semiconductors. semiconductors. ii. These contain very small number ii. of thermally generated charge These contain very large number of charge cartiers obtained by carriers. doping. iii, These are of only one type. iii.. These are of p-type and n-type. iv. These contain equal number of iv. In p-type holes and in n-type electrons and holes. electrons are majority carriers. v. “Resistivity is high’ ~ ~ ~~ v. Resistivity is low. : vi. Conductivity is low. vi. Conductivity is high. vii. Fermi level is at middle of valence vii. Fermi level is either closer to band and conduction band. valence band or conduction band. Drift current: . Charge carriers have random motion in a semiconductor with net displacement zero in the absence of electric field. jnfluence of der the inflt 0 niconductor Y jeld is called drift sem fie e) in . lectric ii, Charge carriers drift (slowly move) applied el a of cit ng, the jon n, are electric field. The net velocity along jer concentation ge it ie! a sider a semiconductor of aie field E. Le iii, Expression: a ere Tee onl cross section A, length | and take time t to travel fength |e cartiers have dtift velocity va Ie ttle = SALE @ iv, The dtift current, Hoan > = ly Drift current density, Wr A Q Ja = neva f charge @ vity wo} . ‘i .d mobility V. Average drift velocity per unit electric field is calle rR _ carrier, i E A . ‘i = E Substituting this value in current density, Jg = ne p Diffusion current: i, The movement of Particles due to concentration gradient is known as diffusion and the current SO Constituted is called diffusion current. ii. Expression: Consider a semiconductor . : 4 *with carrier concentration gradient - 2 Negative si p. carrier concentration diffusion a ign is taken as p decrease with 5 Distance. x x increase of x. : iii. The diffusion current density is directly proportional to the concentration gradient. lop 2 _ up o Jop = -D, 2 i) where D, is diffusion constant or diffusiv ity ffusion is defined as T unit concentration gradient, ¥. Similarly for electrons, Here as ¢ carries negative sign, Jon Einstein’s equat The relation between mobility 4 and diffusion coefficient D of charge carriers 's known as Einstein's relation, al is applied, drift and diffusion cun Tents establish in a are equal and balance each other, excess electron concentrz at position x in a semiconductor, An on current e D, 22 ~ ennalge ceacdS iv. Coefficient of dij ©! coefficient of diffusion of holes. charge pe diffusion current density per unit is taken as positive. |... F fois equal to diffs; acts as a ndle, ay, y AneE pn = ae AneE iv. From kinetic theory of gases, i iv. ° i y, From the above equations, D, > ‘This is called Einstein’s equation. Similarly for holes, Ippo 2 This is called Einstein’s relation. Hall effect: . oo SE aan When a current vy along ¥ axis carrying” conductor or : | Semiconductor is placed in a ' | B along — transverse magnetic field, an ve : electric field is developed : inside it perpendicular to both : Talons Xo cuzsent and magnetic field. (v,) © ——} ' along? This phenomenon is known ! as Hall effect. The generated >> semivondicto voltage is called Hall voltage. De or vondactor ii, Consider a semiconductor carrying a current I along X- direction. A magnetic field B is applied on it along Z-direction. Then charge carriers in semiconductor experience a force, Be vg and move along Y-direction. ili. Thus there is a potential difference between the faces perpendicular to Y- direction. This potential difference is called Hall voltage, Vy ._ iv, Due: to this Hall voltage, char opposite to their motion in Y-direction. v. At equilibrium these two forces are equal. eEn = Bevg > Ey = Byg But current density, J=nevwy @ t J > hy pes ar ® “ Eu = (By) ——_ > Ey = Ru(BJ) ———___ o 1 Ra ae jent. where, Hall coefficl where, : ps js n-type ae jcondicl0l auctor is ee micon : . : , pet EN ey see ctor is P. i c nl ‘ : If the Hall eee oy ad ie te 7 Ifthe Hall coef ten ae concentration 15 0 HH coefficient, cat on of mobility: arge caries i js calcula = te ted by measurin Ie of known Hall coeffici g conductivity and o=nep oRu ent, magnetic flux density Using a semiconductor samp! B can be calculated. Ey = Ry BJ ‘ fo ve A va ke = ee her Vu ° Be en Here. tis the thickness of sample along which magnetic lines of flux travel. : v. Hall effect semiconducting devices are used as sensors to sense magnetic fields and are used in magnetically activated electronic switches as non- contacting keyboards and panel switches. hand gap semiconductors and indirect band gap semiconductors: Indirect band gap semiconductors conduction band E ji. A semiconductor having same value of wave vector for minimum of conduction band and maximum of. valence band is direct band gap _., Semiconductor, il, An electron from conduction b; can recombine with hol band directly, and le in valence emitting photon, A semiconductor having different values of wave vector for minimum of conduction band and maximum of valence band is'Girect band gap semiconductor. An electron from conduction band recombine with hole in valence band indirectly through traps. Here and photon are emitted. a phonon aes iv. Material is not heated. iv. Material is heated due to phonon. My Sobability of recombination is v. Palm of recor : i low. 7 . vit Mean life time of charge carriers is vi, Mean life time of charge carriers is vi. igh eons ii 5 ger lifetil f carriers, vii. Due to photon emission, these are vil Due to longer lifetime Ot used in optoelectronic devices _ these are used in on ifi er viii These are mostly from compound vii These are mostly from semiconductors. semiconductors. : Ed ix. Examples are InP, GaAs, etc., ix. Examples are Si, Ge. p-n Junction: ; a. , The transition region between p-material and n-type material in a single semiconductor crystal is called p-n junction. ; Formation of p: mnction: < p-region joo n-region 7 os 8 OF a COOCLHHOOO a. Theory Sd i. An intrinsic semiconductor is doped with |> 2 © © Ise oe lHoeceeeoo® lo trivalent impurities on left and pentavalent aa Tea te OO9GOH OOO) impurity atoms on right side to form p-n junction. ii. At the interface between the two regions, == S cepletion region mobile charge carriers recombine. iii, These recombination are just stopped after starting as p-region gets negative potential and n-region gets positive potential. This potential difference stops further recombinations. Hence the potential difference is called potential barrier. iv. The region at the interface is depleted (empted) of mobile charges and is called depletion region. v. As the region is having immobile charges without neuwalizing mobile ‘ges, it is called as space charge region. As the material changes from one g through interface, it is also called as transition chi type to other type while pas: region, b. Types of formation: p-n Junction is generally formed by three methods. i, Grown junction: Extrinsic semiconductor is grown from melt. During the middle of the growth process impurities of opposite kind are added to the melt so that crystal grows further with opposite types. ii, Alloyed or Fused junction: In this type, p-type and n-type materials are kept in contact and fused together by proper heat treatment to form the junction. i Dithused- ee Diffused junction is formed by impurity diffusion echnique. The diffusion proces: el iffusi solid diffusi a pi s employs either gas diffusion or ‘Solid diffusion ee example in gas diffusion, a wafer of n-type silicon is heated at about 1000°C 1 a gaseous atmosphere of high concentration of b diffuse into silicon forming ea junction, Sron toms, The boron atoms nal. aN strate and an n-type substr i i ui ‘s'for a short impurity is pant nae substrate fo! My] . = . a p-type ww . a into In solid diffusion poms noms if both are heated. The ward + nctiotl «or is called for distance and form p-n junction. ential barrier 15 © ot to decrease P al voltage tion. se potent junction. i. Application of extemal voltage ae biasing. It allows current throug] ee pplication of external voltage rite 2. It does not allow current throug e 1 barrier is called revers al MAGNETIC MATERIAL! ion: A pole is a point at introduction: : i. A magnet consists of two poles, north pole and south pole. A po which magnetic force is maximum. Fi din 7 * -xpresse il. The strength of magnetic pole is called as pole strength, m. It is exp: ampere-meter i Lis iii, The product of pole strength, m and the separation between the poles, 21 called magnetic moment, jt, It’s unit is ampere-meter” iv. Intensity of magnetisation: Magnetic moment per unit volume of substance is called intensity of magnetisation, M. It’s unit is ampere/meter M = = Aim v. Masnetic induction: Magnetic induction or magnetic flux density is the number of lines of magnetic force passing through unit area perpendicularly. I's unit is weber'meter” or tesla B= * womort vi. Magnetic field imensity: Magnetic field intensity or ma @ point is the force experienced by a unit north 1s ampere/meter. It is also c ignetic intensity, H at pole placed at that point. It’s unit alled magnetising force. H=5 am Vii Magneti¢ induction is-directly proportional: toa pplied magnetic field, BouH where 41 is called : of force pass, ~ ¥ Permeability: Magnetic Permeability is the, magnetic field intensity. It’s unit j ‘atio of magnetic Viii. Intensity of magnetisation is induction to 8 H/m (henry/meter) directly Proportional to applied magnetic field. Ma«H M = 4H = M > ee netic susceptibility of a material is the ratio of intensity of susceptability: Magnetic rtibility i iat to magnetic field intensity. It has no units. ix “Relative permeability: The ratio of permeability of the medium to : ace or vacuum is called relative permeability. It has no permeability of free sp units. n= 4 Ke and = jy = 42X 107H/m Relation between B.H and M: ' Magnetic intensity, H is the force experienced by a unit north pole. : ber of lines of magnetic force per unit area. Magnetic induction, B is the num! Magnetic induction is directly proportional to magnetic field. BoH B= aH ® where pt, permeability is ratio of magnetic induction to magnetic intensity. Relative permeability. », is the ratio of permeability of medium, p to : @ oe permeability of vacuum. 1). = a Ho Hr : Ho HH Mo Hy H+ pto H - po H a: = Wy H+ po (te- 1H ——> @) Susceptibility is the ratio of intensity of magnetisation, M to magnetic intensity. Ml = M H ae ; > M = 4H Comparing (jt, - 1) Hand 7H. Z= wel Then. B= wH+poxH > B = ju H+ py M (-M = xH) > B = jw(M+H) © This is the relation between B, M and H. ... Relation between yi and y: Vee ee H is the force exp ienced by unit north pole. lagnetic induction, B is the number i i ‘ ici 7 r of lines of magneti i Bis cf Magnetic induction is directly proportional to magnetic field. nee BouH B= pH Va @ where jt, permeability is ratio d 7 ‘ability io of magnetic j i agneti a induction to magnetic j ignetic intensity Ak ised | ° of permeability (9 i ratio of” } me : Relative permeability, py is the ratio , and intensity of at jum, Hoo Be = ising force, permeability of vacuum, of magnetising ice Further magnetic induction, B in term: ty (M+H) i is gi B magnetisation, M is given by, ic ee po aya H. ae oe aan Me ae @ = Mai Hu ic intensity. . ae to magnetic int Susceptibility is the ratio of intensity of magnetisation, M SS y= M eres) ® This is the relation between , and y.. Origin of magnetic moment: : . aud Materials are made up of atoms. These atoms consist of positive ck ee which negative electrons revolve in their orbits. The movement o: eaerke give rise to current and hence atomic magnetic moments in a material. Permanent magnetic moments in atoms can arise due to the following three reasons, i. The orbital magnetic moment of the electron. ii. The spin magnetic moment of the electron and iii. The spin magnetic moment of the nucleus, i. The orbital magnetic moment of the electron: Abn Let m be the mass of the electron and r be the radius of the orbit in which it moves with ee anguiar velocity . Then the electric current oo) due to revolving electron, 1 = number of ——"'m, -e times the electron passing per second X charge on it, = TS “we oie a ~Hence.the. orbital acts _as_a_circu) magnetic field Perpendicular to the area of the orbit. It Then the Magnitude of the magnetic moment of that di Mme = 1A = S8q72 cp 2m where, m@r? = ?, orbital angular momentum As ¢ is quantized in terms as h/2n, larcoil Carrying Current, which Produces a acts as a magnetic dipole, ~ opole; moe = Im dq ¢> Where £ is orbital quantum number. AL : | s ® eh Smo ~ iam > Hmo = Hot ® choo 24? 7 a A where He= pty = 9.27X 10™Am? , a fundamental unit of magnetic moment known as Bohr magneton. ii, Spin magnetic moment of electron: — ; : ' Electron has spin motion in their orbit. Magnetic moment arise due to spin . The magnetic moment due to spin motion of electron, ® otion als mig ee Mims = gon is spin quantum number. where s Spin magnetic moment of nucleus: ; a . Atomic nucleus possesses intrinsic spin which is called as nuclear spin and etic moment is associated with it. The nuclear magnetic moment is hence ami e nu expressed in the unit of nuclear magneton, 1, and is given by, Be = pe = 5.05 X107Am? © where Mp is mass of proton. ; ' Note: Bohr magneton: The magnetic moment generated by orbital motion of a simple single electron system is called Bohr magneton. Classification of magnetic materials: Depending on the magnetic properties, magnetic materials are divided into five types. They are, i. Diamagnetic materials il. Paramagnetic materials ii. Ferromagnetic materials iv. Antiferromagnetic materials v. Ferrimagnetic materials lamagnetic materia (¢ materials in which the atoms will have random a. orientations of magnetic moments in the absence of a ) magnets field are called diamagnetic mat Ss. . b. When the external magnetic field is applied, the motion of electrons\in their orbits changes resulting in induced - magnetic morhent in a direction opposite to the direction of applied field c. Magnetic Jin f force are repelled by these materials. Bin=- Bou ignetic effect is weak and often masked by other kinds d. Generally diama magnetism, e. Permanent dipoles ar absent in these materials. f, Relative permeability i$ Jess than one, ,< 1. \ 2 LAE 2 ater saa pepative in these magnetisation 4 NBN ii pet ve ‘ h. Magnetic susceptibility inneens x eat th i. Magnetic susceptibility is indep ali Hi i Examples are organic materials an ii, Paramagnetic materials: ‘tal magnetic 2 Each electron in an orbit has ee thermal moment and spin magnetic moment. toms become vibrations, the net momentee all the al and there is no magnetisation. . b. When the extemal field is applied, ie ving tendency for dipoles to align with the field gi rise to an induced positive dipole moment. . ee c. When placed in a magnetic field, it attracts the magnetic lines of force. ; . ic dipoles. d. Paramagnetie aorss form a collection of non-interacting May in the direction e. When placed in extemal field, there is an induced magnetism of the field. £ Relative permeability of these materials is slightly greater than one, ee g. When placed in external magnetic field, the intensity of magnetisat positive and moderate. . . h. Magnetic susceptibility is low and moderate, but positive. i, Magnetic © susceptibility is inversely x of Proportional to absolute temperature, which is called as Curie’s law. g. The intensity of =f ea where C is Curie’s constant. J. The variation of susceptibility with T, absolute temperature in inverse manner is Paramagnetic material shown in the figure. k. Examples are alkali metals and transition metals and rare earths. iii. Ferromagnetic material: a. The materials in which the magnetic: moments are predominantly due to spin magnetic moments of electrons, which will be aligned parallel to each’ ~ other to a maximum extent are ferromagnetic materials. b. Due to exchange coupling between adjacent atoms, even in the absence of external field, they 7 Bin>> Bou exhibit strong magnetisation. AL a ne c. When placed in a magnetic field, it attracts the magnetic lines of force very strongly. tf ced d, These materials consist of small regions which are spontaneously magnetise called domains. ; ‘i e. There is a strong induced magnetism in the direction of applied magnetic field. f. Relative permeability of these materials is very high, p, >> 1. g. When placed in extemal field, the intensity of magnetisation is positive and very high. h. Magnetic susceptibility is positive and high for these materials. i. Magnetic susceptibility depends on temperature. It's variation with absolute % : temperature is given by, = = = This is called Curie-Weiss law, where Tc is Curie temperature. i. The variation of susceptibility with absolute temperature in paramagnetic region is of these materials is shown in the figure. E k. Transition and rare earth metals like iron, cobalt, nickel are examples. Ferrimagnetic material iv, Antiferromagnetic materials: a. The materials in which the exchange forces produce a tendency for anti parallel alignment of electron spins of neighbouring atoms due to small distance between them. b. The spin alignment is anti parallel for neighbouring atoms with equal magnetic moments magnitude. ¢. The most characteristic feature of these materials is the occurrence of.a rather sharp “AXING in’ the susceptibility ~ vérsug temperature curve. The temperature at which maximum occurs is called Neel temperature, Ty. ee Antiferromagnetic material d. Above Neel temperature, the Susceptibility is given by, y = at where, C is Curie constant and 0 is paramagnetic temperat Lure, yi iM th ta d Neel srature and beyon eptibility increases slightly with temperature ©. Initially sus temperature it decrease$ with temperature. han one, Pr? 1 . £ Relative permeability’ of these materials is greater tha Id, the intensity of 8. When these materials are placed in magnetic field, magnetisation is positive and moderate. a: h. Magnetic susceptibility of these materials is low and positive. iWhenT>Ty, Ss and when T> 1. f. When placed in external field, the intensity of magnetisation is positive and x very high. g. Magnetic Susceptibility is positive and : high for these materials. h. Susceptibility of these materials varies with temperature. The variation of it with absolute temperature is shown in Paramagnetic region in the figure. Ferrimagnetic material iForT> Tw, x = £;. They are in paramagnetic region, 2 ForT

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