SCIENCE 114: ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

CHAPTER I: STOICHIOMETRY

Stoichiometry chemical knowledge.1 In fact, you probably

➢ Atomic Mass, Avogadro’s Number and have performed quantitative and qualitative
Molar Mass analyses in other chemistry courses.
➢ Chemical Reactions and Equations ➢ Analytical Chemistry – A branch of
➢ Balancing and Problems Based on Chemical chemistry that deals with the identification of
Equations compounds and mixtures (qualitative
analysis) or the determination of the
➢ Definition of Chemistry and Analytical proportions of the constituents (quantitative
Chemistry analysis): techniques commonly used are
➢ Chemistry – is often described as the area titration, precipitation, spectroscopy,
of chemistry responsible for characterizing chromatography, etc.
the composition of matter, both qualitatively
(Is there any lead in this sample?) and The definition of Analytical Chemistry is
quantitatively (How much lead is in this examining materials by separating them into
sample?). As we shall see, this description their components and identifying each one and
is misleading. how much there is of each one.
➢ Most chemists routinely make qualitative
Using mass spectrometry to measure charged
and quantitative measurements. For this particles to determine the composition of a
reason, some scientists suggest that substance is an example of analytical-chemistry.
analytical chemistry is not a separate branch
of chemistry, but simply the application of

Stoichiometry
1. Atomic Mass
• The atomic mass is a weighted average of all of the isotopes of that element, in which
the mass of each isotope is multiplied by the abundance of that particular isotope. (Atomic
mass is also referred to as atomic weight, but the term "mass" is more accurate.)
• Avogadro’s Number. Avogadro's number is a number of units in one mole of any substance
(defined as its molecular weight in grams), equal to 6.02214076 × 1023. The units may be
electrons, atoms, ions, or molecules, depending on the nature of the substance and the character
of the reaction (if any).
• Molar Mass. In chemistry, the molar mass of a chemical compound is defined as the mass of
a sample of that compound divided by the amount of substance in that sample.
• The molar mass is the mass of a given chemical element or chemical compound (g) divided by
the number of grams of a compound/compounds. The concept that allows us to bridge these two
scales is molar mass. Molar mass is defined as the mass in grams of one mole of a substance.

Determine the no. of moles found in 2 grams water, H2O.

Step: 1. Get the Molecular weight of water.

H = 2 = 1.0094 g/mole = 1 g/mole x 2 = 2 g/mole

O = 1 = 15.9994 g/mole = 16 g/mole x 1 = 18 g/mole H20

Step 2. 18 g/mole H2O = 9 mole H2O

2 g H2O

2. Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations. A chemical equation shows the starting
compound(s)—the reactants—on the left and the final compound(s)—the products—on the right,
separated by an arrow (equal sign). In a balanced chemical equation, the numbers of atoms of each
element and the total charge are the same on both sides of the equation.
Chemical Reactions. Forms of elements or compounds that used to add or compose each other,
decomposes or simply exchange portion from it in the production of product. It is composes of reactants
and product. Example are the one below:

_2_ H2 +__ O2 = _2_ H2O → Balanced Reaction

REACTANTS PRODUCT
H=2 X2=4 H =2 X 2 = 4
O =2 O =1 X 2 =2

In the process of Food Making Photosynthesis

_6_CO2 + _7_H20 → __C6H1206 +_6_ O2 + __H20 → balanced Reaction

Reactants Product
C =1 C =6
O = 2 +1 = 3 = 19 O = 6 + 2 + 1 =9
H= H=

Note: The overall reactions consisting the reactants and product of the chemical reaction is also term as
Chemical Equation.

In a chemical reaction it should be always balance the reactants and product as a general rule as
embedded in the Law of Conservation of Matter (Mass). The process of Balancing is a total process of
“Trial and Error” Method. Total number of atoms found in the reactant must be the same in the product
as required.

3. Balancing Chemical Equations and Problems Based on Chemical Equations:

500 g CO2 x = 11.36 Moles CO2

44 g CO2

Then: moles of Known (CO2) from the Balance Equation:

11.36 mole CO X = 1.89 mole CHO

6 mole CO

Next Step: Need to have the Mol. Wt. of C6H12O6 C=6x 32 = 192g/mole ; H 12 x 1 = 12 g/mole; 0 =6 x
16 = 96g/mole = 300 g/mole C6H1206

Thus MW for C6H12O6 is = 300 g/mole

Therefore: 1.89 mole of C6H1206 = 567 grams C6H12O6.
1 mole C6H12O6

A. Balanced Reactions ======== N+3 + I-1 ==

NI3

1. _3_ IBr +_4_ NH3 → _1_NI3 + _3_NH4Br

2. _1_ Sb2S3 + _12_ HCl = _2_ H3SbCl6 + _3_H2S
3. _4_C6H5Cl + _1_ SiCl4 +_8_ Na = _1_ (C6H5)4Si + _8_ NaCl
4. _12_ HClO4 + ___ P4O10 = _4_ H3PO4 + _6_ Cl2O7
5. ___ Na2CO3 + _4_ C + ___ N2 = _2_ NaCN + _3_ CO
B. Problems Based on Chemical Equations:
1. In no. 5 Equation, calculate the number of moles produced of Sodium Cyanide (NaCN) when 750
grams of Na2CO3 reacts with carbon and nitrogen with the equation as cited in #5.
_1_ Na2CO3 + _4_ C + _1_ N2 = _2_ NaCN + _3_ CO
750 g Na2CO3 → Given ? of Moles of NaCN → Unknown

MW of Na2CO3 = Na =2 x 23 = 46; C =1 x 12 = 12; O =3 x16 = 48 = 106 g/mole

750 g Na2CO3 X 1 mole Na2CO3 = 7.08 mole Na2CO3

106g Na2CO3

= 7.08 mole Na2CO3 x _2_ moles NaCN

1 mole Na2CO3 = 14.16 moles NaCN

2. In #3 equation, determine the number of grams which were produced when 680 grams of Hexynyl
chloride reacts with silicon chlorate with the equation as cited.
_4_ C6H5Cl + _1_ SiCl4 +_8_ Na = _1_ (C6H5)4Si +_8_ NaCl
680 g Given (C6H5Cl) ? g Unknown ((C6H5)4Si _)

Steps:
Mass of Given → Moles of Given → Moles of Unknown → Mass of Unknown
1. x __336.0 g (C6H5)Si 680 g C6H5Cl x 1 mole C6H5Cl x 1 mole (C6H5)4Si = _510
g_(C6H5)4Si
112 g C6H5Cl 4 moles C6H5Cl 1 mole (C6H5)Si

1 mole (C6H5)Si
a) 680 g C6H5Cl x 1 mole C6H5Cl = 6.04 mole C6H5Cl
112 g C6H5Cl

b) 6.04 mole C6H5Cl x 1 mole (C6H5)4Si = 1.51 mole (C6H5)4Si

4 moles C6H5Cl

c) = 1.51 mole (C6H5)4Si x 336.0 g (C6H5)Si = 507.36 g_(C6H5)4Si

 CHAPTER II: REACTIONS IN CHEMICAL point, salt particles remain undissolved even
EQUATIONS how intense the stirring to it.
2.2. Writing Net Ionic Compounds.
REACTIONS IN CHEMICAL EQUATIONS Writing net ionic compounds based on the
1. General Properties in Aqueous Solution degree of attraction sent by its components. Its
2. Precipitation Reactions either on the degree of polarization sent by the
3. Neutralization Reactions negative charge or the degree of sending off by
a. General Properties of Acids and Bases cations in attaining stableness or we call a
b. Neutralization Reactions and Salts compound formation.
4. Redox Reactions 3. Neutralization Reactions. The form of
Oxidation- Reduction, Oxidation Numbers and reaction where both acid nor base attains their
Activity Series neutral state. Here, the acidity or basicity of the
compound upon combination sets their
REACTIONS IN AQUAEOUS SOLUTION concentration to a lesser degree and attains the
INTRODUCTION neutral state of being salt or neutral compound.
Chemical reactions always occur in -A neutralization reaction is when an acid and
anywhere. Chemical reactions taken place when a base react to form water and a salt and
two or more substances, atoms or molecules, involves the combination of H+ ions and OH-
brought together. Existing conditions always ions to generate water. When a solution
favor such reactions and it give specific form of is neutralized, it means that salts are formed
product, this consider as the overall Chemical from equal weights of acid and base.
Equations. It may alter in such form by the 3.1. General Properties of Acids and
action of atmospheric or environmental Bases. In here, we should see and differentiate
conditions therein. characteristics of an acid to a base. We know
that acid had a sour taste and pH ranges from
REACTIONS IN AQUAEOUS SOLUTIONS. lower than seven to 1. As the acid pH descends
The sum total of all chemical reaction that taken its acidity becomes stronger. Concentrated acid
place in an aqueous solution. When we say had its desired form of usage. Same with
aqueous denotes that a certain medium is in Alkaline or a base. As pH goes higher than 7, its
liquid state. Or in other way around it contains a basicity becomes stronger.
solvent water (universal solvent). W e all know 3.2. Neutralization Reaction and Salts.
then that the earth comprises 70% water, thus Neutralization reaction taken place with the
most form of matter on earth in a solution form reaction of acid and bases by lowering both the
or it contains water. acidity or basicity of a reaction in attaining the
1. General Properties of Aqueous neutralization point. A condition that acid and
Solutions. When we say aqueous solution, this base reacts together a specific form of salt were
means to say that the existing solution is in form.
water form. It always had solvent water with the 4. Redox Reactions. The form of chemical
solute in either solid, liquid or gas. reaction with the removal and incorporation of
2. Precipitation Reactions. This the form of oxygen in a chemical reaction, called redox
reaction that at the end precipitates form. It is reaction or oxidation-reduction reaction or vice
either that the precipitate that was form at the versa.
end came from the solute added or from the 4.1. Oxidation and Reduction. In the
impurities of either from the solvent or from the process of oxidation, an electron will be losses
solute or both. In the other way around formation to the energy level of the atom and become
of precipitates considered to be the presence of oxidize or become positive charge, depending
ions in the medium. on the number of electrons used to donate or
2.1. Solubility Guidelines for Ionic losses to another atom that needs the electron
Compounds. Solubility refers to the ability that number to complete up to eight. If it loses one, it
a solute will be dissolve in a given solvent at a becomes +1, +2 if losses 2 and so on.
given temperature and time. All forms of solute Reduction means the acceptance of electron of
has the capacity to be dissolve to a solvent. All an anion to complete the 8 numbers of electrons
solute has its saturation point or its limit to be at its outermost shell. If it accepts 1 becomes -1
dissolved in a given volume of solvent. Like salt and if accepts 2 becomes –2 and so on.
in water, when salt granules attains its saturation 4.2. Oxidation Numbers. The above
condition to donate and accept electrons
denotes their oxidation number or oxidation 4.3. The Activity Series. The reactivity
state. These elements arrange to their series is a series of metals, in order of reactivity
prominent place in the periodic table if wanted to from highest to lowest. It is used to determine
verify. Thus family 1A denotes to have a valence the products of single displacement reactions,
of +1 and family IIA denotes +2 valences. whereby metal A will replace another metal B in
Positive valence denotes for a metal element a solution if A is higher in the series. Activity
and negative valence denotes for non metal series of some of the more common metals,
elements. listed in descending order of reactivity.

HOW TO REMEMBER THE REACTIVITY SERIES?

P lease Potassium MOST REACTIVE

S top Sodium ↑
C alling Calcium |
Me Magnesium |
A Aluminum |
C areless (Carbon) |
Z ebra Zinc |
I nstead Iron |
T ry Tin |
L earning Lead |
H ow (Hydrogen) |
C opper Copper |
S aves Silver |
G old Gold LEAST REACTIVE↑

A simple Process of remembering a Reactivity Series is by making an acronyms behind.

Please Potassium (K)

Send Sodium (Na)
Lions, Lithium (Li)
Cats, Calcium(Ca)
Monkeys Magnesium (Mg)
And Aluminum (Al)
Zebras Zn (zn)
Into Iron (Fe)
Lovely Lead (Pb)
Hot Hydrogen (H) (non metal)
Countries Copper
Signed Silver (Ag)
General Gold (Au)
Penguin Platinum (Pt)
 CHAPTER III: MOLECULAR GEOMETRY, A chemical bond is an attraction between
CHEMICAL BONDING AND BOND POLARITY atoms that allows the formation
OF SUBSTANCES of chemical substances that contain two or more
atoms. ... More sophisticated theories are
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY, CHEMICAL valence bond theory which includes orbital
BONDING AND BOND POLARITY OF hybridization and resonance, and the linear
SUBSTANCES combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital
• Molecular geometry, also known as method.
the molecular structure, is the three-
dimensional structure or arrangement of Forms of Chemical Bond:
atoms in a molecule. Understanding 1. Covalent Bond – Bond that exists between
the molecular structure of a compound non-metal atoms. The first element possesses
can help determine the polarity, positive charge and the second is of negative
reactivity, phase of matter, color, charge.
magnetism, as well as the biological Example: 1. C +2 + O-2 → CO
activity. 2. N+3 + S-2 → N2S3
• Molecular geometry is the name of 2. Ionic Bond – bond that exist between metal
the geometry used to describe to non-metal atoms.
the shape of a molecule. The electron- Examples: 1. Na + + Cl- → NaCl
pair geometry provides a guide to the 2. Fe+3 + O-2 → Fe2O3
bond angles of between a terminal-
central-terminal atom in a compound. 3. Metallic Bond – Special type of chemical
The molecular geometry is the shape bond. Exist between both metal atoms which
of the molecule. they are both positively charge.
• Trigonal Pyramidal · Trigonal Planar ·
Seesaw · Square Pyramidal. Many will question how it becomes
• Molecular geometry is the three- possible when in the process it should be that
dimensional arrangement of the atoms positive charge were been attracted by negative
that constitute a molecule. It includes charge. Positive and negative should always
the general shape of the molecule as occur. But on the manner of both metal atoms
well as bond . which are both positive could happen. The
answer is that still the same manner that
negative and positive charge join together. So in
this case, lets examine the charges of particles
in an atom. Positive charge particle is the proton
which is inside the nucleus and electron were
the negative charge which are found outside the
nucleus of an atom. So in this manner where the
protons used to moved to sea of electrons of
other atoms forming a metallic compound. This
is the prime reason for which metal compounds
were a good conductor of heat and electricity.
Example 1. Fe p+ + Fe (e-) = Fe metal
compound

A Lewis Structure is a very simplified

representation of the valence shell electrons in a
molecule. It is used to show how the electrons
are arranged around individual atoms in a
molecule. Electrons are shown as "dots" or for
bonding electrons as a line between the two
Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry - atoms.
Chemistry ... We can illustrate the formation of a water
molecule from two hydrogen atoms and an
oxygen atom using Lewis dot symbols.
 Lewis structure of H2O
Complementary results
Images

Description
Lewis structures, also known as Lewis dot Figure [Link].1: The Electron Distribution in a
formulas, Lewis dot structures, electron dot Nonpolar Covalent Bond, a Polar Covalent
structures, or Lewis electron dot structures, Bond, and an Ionic Bond Using Lewis Electron
are diagrams that show the bonding between Structures. In a purely covalent bond (a), the
atoms of a molecule, as well as the lone pairs of bonding electrons are shared equally between
electrons that may exist in the molecule. the atoms. In a purely ionic bond (c), an electron
has been transferred completely from one atom
In chemistry, bond polarity is the separation of to the other. A polar covalent bond (b) is
electric charge along a bond, leading to a intermediate between the two extremes: the
molecule or its chemical groups having an bonding electrons are shared unequally between
electric dipole or dipole moment. ... In a bond, the two atoms, and the electron distribution is
this can lead to unequal sharing of electrons asymmetrical with the electron density being
between atoms, as electrons will be drawn greater around the more electronegative atom.
closer to the atom with higher electronegativity. Electron-rich (negatively charged) regions are
shown in blue; electron-poor (positively charged)
regions are shown in red.
Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity
The two idealized extremes of chemical
Bond Polarity
bonding:
The polarity of a bond—the extent to
• Ionic bonding – in which one or more
which it is polar—is determined largely by the
electrons are transferred completely from
relative electronegativities of the bonded
one atom to another, and the resulting ions
atoms. Electronegativity (χχ) was defined as the
are held together by purely electrostatic
ability of an atom in a molecule or an ion to
forces—and
attract electrons to itself. Thus, there is a direct
• Covalent bonding – in which electrons are correlation between electronegativity and bond
shared equally between two atoms. polarity. A bond is nonpolar if the bonded atoms
have equal electronegativities. If the
Most compounds, however, have polar electronegativities of the bonded atoms are not
covalent bonds, which means that electrons are equal, however, the bond is polarized toward the
shared unequally between the bonded atoms. more electronegative atom. A bond in which the
Figure [Link].1 compares the electron electronegativity of B (χBχB) is greater than the
distribution in a polar covalent bond with those in electronegativity of A (χAχA), for example, is
an ideally covalent and an ideally ionic bond. indicated with the partial negative charge on the
Recall that a lowercase Greek delta (δδ) is used more electronegative atom:
to indicate that a bonded atom possesses a
partial positive charge, indicated by δ+δ+, or a lesselectronegativeAδ+−moreelectronegativeBδ
partial negative charge, indicated by δ−δ−, and −lesselectronegativemoreelectronegativeA−Bδ+
a bond between two atoms that possess partial δ−
charges is a polar bond.
One way of estimating the ionic character of a
bond—that is, the magnitude of the charge
separation in a polar covalent bond—is to
calculate the difference in electronegativity
between the two atoms:
 Δχ=χB−χA.Δχ=χB−χA. where QQ is measured in coulombs (CC)
and rr in meters. The unit for dipole moments is
To predict the polarity of the bonds in Cl2, HCl, the debye (D):
and NaCl, for example, we look at the
electronegativities of the relevant atoms (Table 1D=3.3356×10−30C⋅m(9.3.2)(9.3.2)1D=3.3356×
A2): χCl=3.16χCl=3.16, χH=2.20χH=2.20,and χ 10−30C⋅m
Na=0.93χNa=0.93. Cl2Cl2 must be nonpolar
because the electronegativity difference (ΔχΔχ)
is zero; hence the two chlorine atoms share the
bonding electrons equally. In NaCl, ΔχΔχ is
2.23. This high value is typical of an ionic
compound (Δχ≥≈1.5Δχ≥≈1.5) and means that
the valence electron of sodium has been
completely transferred to chlorine to form
Na+ and Cl− ions. In HCl, however, ΔχΔχ is only
0.96. The bonding electrons are more strongly
attracted to the more electronegative chlorine
atom, and so the charge distribution is
When a molecule with a dipole moment is
+H−δ−Clδ+δ−H−Cl placed in an electric field, it tends to orient itself
with the electric field because of its
Remember that electronegativities are difficult to asymmetrical charge distribution
measure precisely and different definitions (Figure [Link].2).
produce slightly different numbers. In practice,
the polarity of a bond is usually estimated rather
than calculated.

Bond polarity and ionic character increase

Figure [Link].2: Molecules That Possess a
with an increasing difference in electronegativity.
Dipole Moment Partially Align Themselves with
an Applied Electric Field In the absence of a
As with bond energies, the electronegativity of
field (a), theHClHClmolecules are randomly
an atom depends to some extent on its chemical
oriented. When an electric field is applied (b),
environment. It is therefore unlikely that the
the molecules tend to align themselves with the
reported electronegativities of a chlorine atom
field, such that the positive end of the molecular
in NaClNaCl, Cl2Cl2, ClF5ClF5,and HClO4HClO
dipole points toward the negative terminal and
4 would be exactly the same.
vice versa.
Dipole Moments
The asymmetrical charge distribution in a
polar substance such as HClHCl produces
a dipole moment where QrQr in meters (mm). is
abbreviated by the Greek letter mu (μμ). The
dipole moment is defined as the product of the
partial charge QQ on the bonded atoms and the
distance rr between the partial charges:

μ=Qr(9.3.1)(9.3.1)μ=Qr
 CHAPTER IV: THERMOCHEMISTRY AND the other hand, is the average kinetic energy of
CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS a body had. T is not considered transferable for
what temperature of one body or system when
1. Nature of Energy poured to another, there is a resulting
-Heat-Temperature-Systems and temperature which is not the same from the
Surroundings original one. Measure through a thermometer
2. Laws of Thermodynamics with at least three common scale. The degrees
Processes-Reactions and Clorimetry Centigrade scale which is commonly used in
our country, the farhenheit scale for widely
THERMOCHEMISTRY used in English speaking countries. The third
INTRODUCTION which is the Kelvin scale which is considered as
This term divided into two thermo and the one used in the laboratory. It is considered
chemistry. Thermo means heat and Chemistry absolute temperature to which its lowest is 273
is the branch of science with the sum total of all degree kelvin which is compared to as -272 in
chemical reaction goes on earth and even in the the degree Celsius scale. There are three
universe. That is why thermochemistry is one formulas to which Temperature scales be
segment of study in chemistry dealing on the converted. These are the following;
study of heat and its properties and changes it a. From oC to oF
undergoes. Heat is the prime form of energy oF = 9/5 (oC) + 32

produces by the sun or as the main form of

energy as fuel burns or one energy transform to b. From oF to oC
o
another form. C = 5/9 (oF - 32)

1. THE NATURE OF ENERGY. c. From oC to oK

When we say energy is the capacity oK = oC + 273

to do work. The process in which an stored 1.2. System and Surroundings. In this
energy for every substance is been releases or part, the term system refers to any object in the
oxidizes to be transform into an specific use. universe or any part of our planet earth.
The sun, being the main source of energy on Example to which is your body, that is
earth behaves to release its energy every now considered as one system with all it amenities
and then. But being believe that its process is of found therein. It has a heat embedded in it as it
nuclear and a complete cycle of fusion and has its embedded stored energy. The space lies
fission of the radioactive nuclei it found that just outside in it were considered already as its
almost no form of matter is lost but it is been surroundings. System and surrounding for every
replenish. Like in fusing hydrogen atom, its form of matter is unique and no exact similar
forms into helium atom and when Helium atoms condition for every body and its surroundings for
splits it forms into hydrogen. In between process each one differs from one another.
tremendous amount of energy is been release
off to the universe and a attraction of it absorb 1.3. Transfering Heat Energy: Work and
by our planet earth. Heat. Transfer of heat energy from one medium
to another denotes utilization of such amount.
1.1. Heat and Temperature. These two Heat energy employs to every reaction that
terms falls under the study of thermochemistry. taken place within a system. Amount of heat
Heat is considered as the total kinetic energy allows every reaction mechanism to occur. In
of a body and it is transferable from one body to any form of reaction taken, heat is form and
another. Like the heat from that of the mixing utilize in a medium. Work in other hand denotes
substrate in the pan when the saddle is left as the force exerted per unit area. In every form
behind soak in the contents in the pan. When of work done in the medium or outside
you will grip the saddle to mix it again you will environment denotes that heat is utilized.
find out that the handle of the saddle is already
hot and you could not hand it without no damp 2. THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS.
cloth to use. Heat is dependent on the quantity The first law of thermodynamics relates
of a body that the longer you heated a body the as similar to the law of conservation of energy.
longer it takes also to release heat that is being This only supposes that energy could not be
absorb by it. Measured in calorimeter and have created during chemical reaction. Another one it
a unit of calorie or kilocalorie. Temperature in explains as everything on earth remains
constant. It only undergoes phase change. process transfers energy to the
Water for example during rainy season its surroundings only as work.
concentration found abound on the lower (c) isobaric, where the system's pressure
surface of the earth. It used to flood low lying is constant. An isobaric process is a
areas and flows to the sea. But then the sea thermodynamic process in which the
does not overflow. This only explains the pressure remains constant. This is
unequal distribution of it on earth. That in such usually obtained by allowing the volume
place it is in low concentration or at another to expand or contract in such a way to
form, either in form of gas or vapors. neutralize any pressure changes that
would be caused by heat transfer.
2.2. Relating Heat and Work. These (d) isochoric, where the system's volume
shows how heat and work interrelate each other. is constant. An isochoric process is a
In every form of work done or being accomplish thermodynamic process in which the
heat is form or exerted. The more intense the volume remains constant. Since the
work done the more volume of heat is being volume is constant, the system does no
exerted. The means only justify what is required work and W = 0. ("W" is the abbreviation
to to be utilize. for work.

2.3. Endothermic and Exothermic

process. These two terms denotes how heat in 3. ENTHALPY AND ENTHALPHIES OF
the inside and outside affects existing REACTION
phenomena to undergo as needed. Endothermic Enthalphy denotes on the change of
reaction implies what happen inside a sytem as heat that exist in a certain body or system. This
what is been directed to happen as a regular imparts in the change of heat that always exists.
process to attain stability or what is needed to In any instance change of heat occurs as what
happen as in growing organism. The outside activity or activities will be done as required to
environment only denotes as how it is being be done within a system.
happen. Outside force contribute to such
condition as to what is needed to follow or had a • CALORIMETRY is the process of
varying factor to the outcome result of any measuring the amount of heat released
reaction. or absorbed during a chemical reaction.
By knowing the change in heat, it can be
Thermodynamic Process determined whether or not a reaction is
(a) isothermal, where the system's exothermic (releases heat) or
temperature is constant. endothermic (absorbs heat).
(b) adiabatic, where no heat is exchanged
by the system; In thermodynamics,
an adiabatic process is a type of
thermodynamic process which occurs
without transferring heat or mass
between the system and its
surroundings. Unlike an
isothermal process, an adiabatic
 CHAPTER V: GASES
GAY LUSSAC’S LAW – states that the
1. Characteristics of Gases. Gases have pressure of a given amount of gas held at
three characteristic properties: constant volume is directly proportional to the
(1) they are easy to compress, Kelvin temperature. If you heat a gas you give
(2) they expand to fill their containers, the molecules more energy so they move faster.
and This means more impacts on the walls of the
(3) they occupy far more space than the container and an increase in the pressure.
liquids or solids from which they form.
An internal combustion engine provides a
good example of the ease with which gases
can be compressed.

2. Gas Laws. Laws that relate the pressure,

volume, and temperature of a gas. Boyle's
law—named for Robert Boyle—states that,
at constant temperature, the pressure P of a
gas varies inversely with its volume V, or PV
= k, where k is a constant. Charles's law—
named for J. -A. The Combined Gas Law combines Charles
Law, Boyle s Law and Gay Lussac s Law. The
Combined Gas Law states that a gas pressure
x volume x temperature = constant.

Combined Gas Law - Concept - Chemistry

Video by Brightstorm

Effusion refers to the movement of gas particles

through a small hole.

GRAHAM’S LAW – states that the effusion rate

of a gas is inversely proportional to the square
BOYLE’S LAW – This empirical relation, root of the mass of its particles.
formulated by the physicist Robert Boyle in
1662, states that the pressure (p) of a given • Graham's law of diffusion was one of
quantity of gas varies inversely with its the breakthroughs in the field of
volume (v) at constant temperature; i.e., in chemistry. Thomas Graham discovered
equation form, pv = k, a constant. this law in 1848, and it is also known as
the graham's law of Diffusion.
• Graham's Law which is popularly
known as Graham's Law of Effusion
was formulated by Thomas Graham in
the year 1848. Thomas Graham
experimented with the effusion process
and discovered an important feature:
gas molecules that are lighter will travel
faster than the heavier gas molecules.

CHARLE’S LAW – a statement that the volume

occupied by a fixed amount of gas is directly 3. Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
proportional to its absolute temperature, if the 4. Effusion and Diffusion
pressure remains constant
 CHAPTER VI: INTERMOLECULAR FORCES axis and temperature on the x-axis. As
OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS we cross the lines or curves on the
• Intermolecular forces determine bulk phase diagram, a phase change occurs.
properties, such as the melting points of 6. Colligative Properties
solids and the boiling points of liquids. In the context of defining a solution, colligative
Liquids boil when the molecules have properties help us understand how the
enough thermal energy to overcome the properties of the solution are linked to the
intermolecular attractive forces that hold concentration of solute in the solution. The word
them together, thereby forming bubbles of “colligative” has been adapted or taken from
vapor within the liquid. the Latin word “colligatus” which translates to
• Solids have the strongest intermolecular “bound together”. In the context of defining a
force of attraction. In liquids, it is less than solution, colligative properties help us
solid but more than gases and in gases, it is understand how the properties of the solution
very weak. are linked to the concentration of solute in the
1. Kinetic Molecular Theory of Liquids solution.
and Solids. The kinetic-molecular Colligative Properties
theory is a theory that explains the 1. Boiling point elevation. Boiling point
states of matter and is based on the elevation is the difference in temperature
idea that matter is composed of tiny between the boiling point of the pure solvent and
particles that are always in motion. The that of the solution. The molal boiling-point
theory helps explain observable elevation constant is equal to the change in the
properties and behaviors of solids, boiling point for a 1-molal solution of a
liquids, and gases. nonvolatile molecular solute.
2. Properties of Solids and Liquids. 2. Freezing point depression. Freezing point
solid: Relatively rigid, definite volume depression is a colligative property observed in
and shape. In a solid, the atoms and solutions that results from the introduction of
molecules are closely bonded that they solute molecules to a solvent. The freezing
vibrate in place but don't move around. points of solutions are all lower than that of the
liquids: Definite volume but able to pure solvent and is directly proportional to the
change shape by flowing. In a liquid, the molality of the solute.
atoms and molecules are loosely 3. Relative lowering of vapour pressure. The
bonded. relative lowering of vapor pressure is the ratio of
3. Phase Change and Phase Diagrams. lowering of vapor pressure to the vapor pressure
Phase diagram is a graphical of the pure solvent. Where, P1 and P2 are the
representation of the physical states of a vapour pressures of the solvent and the solute,
substance under different conditions of respectively. Since, the solute is non-volatile, its
temperature and pressure. contribution to the total vapour pressure will be
4. What is phase changes and phase zero, i.e. P2=0.
diagrams? For a given solution, the relative lowering of
vapour pressure is given as the ratio of lowering
vapour pressure of the solvent in a solution to
the vapour pressure of the pure solvent
4. Osmotic pressure. Osmotic pressure is
defined as the pressure that must be applied to
the solution side to stop fluid movement when a
semipermeable membrane separates a solution
from pure water.
Colloids. What is osmotic pressure?
• Osmotic pressure can be defined as the
minimum pressure that must be applied to a
5. Phase diagram is a graphical solution to halt the flow of solvent molecules
representation of the physical states of a through a semipermeable membrane
substance under different conditions of (osmosis). It is a colligative property and is
temperature and pressure. A typical dependent on the concentration of solute
phase diagram has pressure on the y- particles in the solution.
 CHAPTER VII. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CHAPTER VIII: CHEMICAL KINETICS AND
SOLUTIONS EQUILIBRIUM
It can be expressed in several ways. Colligative Chemical kinetics is the branch of physical
properties of a solution depend on only the total chemistry concerned with the understanding of
number of dissolved particles in solution, not on the rates of chemical reactions. Chemical
their chemical identity. Colligative properties equilibrium is the phase where both reactants
include vapor pressure, boiling point, freezing and products occur in concentrations that have
point, and osmotic pressure. no further intention of changing with time.
1. The Solution Process. The formation of a
solution from a solute and a solvent is a 1. Factors Affecting Rates of Chemical
physical process, not a chemical one. Reactions
Substances that are miscible, such as • Concentration of reactants. The increase
gases, form a single phase in all proportions in the concentration of reactants, the rate of
when mixed. Substances that form separate reaction increases. Ions and molecules
phases are immiscible. interact to form a new compound on
increasing the concentration. The decrease
What are the three steps of the solution in the concentration of reactants, fewer
process? molecules and ions are present and the rate
Introduction of reaction decreases.
Step 1: Separate particles of the solute from • Pressure. Increasing the pressure on a
each other. reaction involving reacting gases increases
Step 2: Separate particles of the solvent from the rate of reaction. Changing the pressure
each other. on a reaction which involves only solids or
Step 3: Combine separated solute and solvent liquids has no effect on the rate.
particles to make solution. • Temperature. If the temperature is raised,
the kinetic energies of both A and B are
Solution Formation-Intermolecular Forces on increased so that there are more collisions
Solution Formation. Solution formation per second, and a greater fraction of these
involves the mixing of two or more substances will lead to chemical reaction. The rate,
that are usually found in the same phase therefore, generally increases with
(homogenous solution). In order for a solution to increasing temperature.
actually form, the solute molecules must form • Catalyst. catalyst is a substance which
intermolecular bonds with the solvent molecules. increases the rate of a chemical reaction but
it is not used up (remains chemically
2. Saturation and Solubility. When a solid is unchanged at the end). It provides an
added to a solvent in which it is soluble, solute alternative reaction pathway of lower
particles leave the surface of the solid and activation energy.
become solvated by the solvent, initially forming • Nature of reactants. Rate of a reaction
an unsaturated solution. (b) When the maximum depends on the nature of bonding in the
possible amount of solute has dissolved, the reactants. Usually the ionic compounds
solution becomes saturated. react faster than covalent compounds. The
3. Factors Affecting Solubility. There are two reactions between ionic compounds in water
direct factors that affect solubility: temperature occur very fast as they involve only
and pressure. Temperature affects the solubility exchange of ions, which were already
of both solids and gases, but pressure only separated in aqueous solutions during their
affects the solubility of gases. dissolution.
• Orientation of reacting species. Same as
What are the 4 factors affecting solubility? Nature of reactants
Temperature, pressure and the type of bond and • Surface area. Increasing the surface area of
forces between the particles are few among a reactant increases the frequency of
them. collisions and increases the reaction rate.
Temperature: By changing the temperature we Several smaller particles have more surface
can increase the soluble property of a solute. ... area than one large particle. The more
Forces and Bonds: Like dissolves in like. ... surface area that is available for particles to
Pressure: Gaseous substances are much more collide, the faster the reaction will occur
influenced than solids and liquids by pressure.
2. Catalysis. Catalysis is a term describing a 3. Heterogenous Equilibria
process in which the rate and/or the • When the products and reactants of an
outcome of the reaction is influenced by the equilibrium reaction form a single phase,
presence of a substance (the catalyst) that whether gas or liquid, the system is
is not consumed during the reaction and that homogeneous.
is subsequently removed if it is not to • A heterogeneous equilibrium is a system in
constitute as an impurity in the final product. which reactants and products are found in
3. The Content-Concept of Equilibrium. two or more phases. The phases may be
What are the concepts of equilibrium? any combination of solid, liquid, or gas
phases, and solutions. When dealing with
these equilibria, remember that solids and
pure liquids do not appear in equilibrium
constant expressions.

• Equilibrium is the state in which market

supply and demand balance each other, and
as a result prices become stable. Generally,
an over-supply of goods or services causes
prices to go down, which results in higher
demand—while an under-supply or shortage
causes prices to go up resulting in less
demand.

Chemical Equilibrium
1. Concept of Chemical Equilibrium.
• Chemical equilibrium is a dynamic process
that consists of a forward reaction, in which
reactants are converted to products, and a
reverse reaction, in which products are
converted to reactants. At equilibrium, the
forward and reverse reactions proceed at
equal rates.

2. The Equilibrium Constant.

• Every chemical equilibrium can be
characterized by an equilibrium constant,
known as K eq. The K eq and K P
expressions are formulated as amounts of
products divided by amounts of reactants;
each amount (either a concentration or a
pressure) is raised to the power of its
coefficient in the balanced chemical
equation.
• Equilibrium is when the rate of the forward
reaction equals the rate of the reverse
reaction. All reactant and product
concentrations are constant at equilibrium.
 CHAPTER IX: NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY neutrons are lost) and the atomic number (z)
will decrease by two units. The element is
Nuclear Chemistry said to "transmutate" into another element
• Traditional chemical reactions occur as a that is two z units smaller. An example of an
result of the interaction between valence α transmutation takes place when uranium
electrons around an atom's nucleus (see our decays into the element thorium (Th) by
Chemical Reactions module for more emitting an alpha particle, as depicted in the
information). following equation:
• In 1896, Henri Becquerel expanded the
field of chemistry to include nuclear changes (Note: in nuclear chemistry, element symbols
when he discovered that uranium emitted are traditionally preceded by their atomic weight
radiation. [upper left] and atomic number [lower left].)
• Soon after Becquerel's discovery, Marie
Sklodowska Curie began studying • Beta Radiation (β) is the transmutation of a
radioactivity and completed much of the neutron into a proton and an electron
pioneering work on nuclear changes. Curie (followed by the emission of the electron
found that radiation was proportional to the from the atom's nucleus: ). When an atom
amount of radioactive element present, and emits a β particle, the atom's mass will not
she proposed that radiation was a property change (since there is no change in the total
of atoms (as opposed to a chemical property number of nuclear particles); however, the
of a compound). Marie Curie was the first atomic number will increase by one
woman to win a Nobel Prize and the first (because the neutron transmutated into an
person to win two (the first, shared with her additional proton). An example of this is the
husband Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel decay of the isotope of carbon called
for discovering radioactivity; the second for carbon-14 into the element nitrogen:
discovering the radioactive elements radium • Gamma Radiation (γ) involves the emission
and polonium). of electromagnetic energy (similar to light
energy) from an atom's nucleus. No
Radiation and nuclear reactions particles are emitted during gamma
• In 1902, Frederick Soddy proposed the radiation, and thus gamma radiation does
theory that "radioactivity is the result of a not itself cause the transmutation of atoms;
natural change of an isotope of one element however, γ radiation is often emitted during,
into an isotope of a different element." and simultaneous to, α or β radioactive
Nuclear reactions involve changes in decay. X-rays, emitted during the beta
particles in an atom's nucleus and thus decay of cobalt-60, are a common example
cause a change in the atom itself. All of gamma radiation.
elements heavier than bismuth (Bi) (and
some lighter) exhibit natural radioactivity and • Radioactive decay proceeds according to a
thus can "decay" into lighter elements. principle called the half-life. The half-life
Unlike normal chemical reactions that form (T½) is the amount of time necessary for
molecules, nuclear reactions result in the one-half of the radioactive material to decay.
transmutation of one element into a different For example, the radioactive element
isotope or a different element altogether bismuth (210Bi) can undergo alpha decay to
(remember that the number of protons in an form the element thallium (206Tl) with a
atom defines the element, so a change in reaction half-life equal to five days. If we
protons results in a change in the atom). begin an experiment starting with 100 g of
bismuth in a sealed lead container, after five
There are three common types of radiation and days we will have 50 g of bismuth and 50 g
nuclear changes: of thallium in the jar. After another five days
• Alpha Radiation (α) is the emission of an (ten from the starting point), one-half of the
alpha particle from an atom's nucleus. An α remaining bismuth will decay and we will be
particle contains two protons and two left with 25 g of bismuth and 75 g of thallium
neutrons (and is similar to a He nucleus: ). in the jar. As illustrated, the reaction
When an atom emits an a particle, the proceeds in halves, with half of whatever is
atom's atomic mass will decrease by four left of the radioactive element decaying
units (because two protons and two every half-life period.
Radioactive Decay of Bismuth-210 (T½ = 5 Interactive Animation: Two Types of Nuclear
days) Chain Reactions
The fraction of parent material that remains after • Nuclear fusion: reactions in which two or
radioactive decay can be calculated using the more elements "fuse" together to form one
equation: larger element, releasing energy in the
Fraction remaining = 1 process. A good example is the fusion of
2n (where n = # two "heavy" isotopes of hydrogen
half-lives elapsed) (deuterium: H2 and tritium: H3) into the
The amount of a radioactive material that element helium.
remains after a given number of half-lives is
therefore: Nuclear Fusion of Two Hydrogen Isotopes
Amount remaining = Original amount * Fraction Interactive Animation: Nuclear Fusion
remaining • Fusion reactions release tremendous
amounts of energy and are commonly
The decay reaction and T½ of a substance are referred to as thermonuclear reactions.
specific to the isotope of the element undergoing Although many people think of the sun as a
radioactive decay. For example, Bi210 can large fireball, the sun (and all stars) are
undergo decay to Tl206 with a T½of five days. enormous fusion reactors. Stars are
Bi215, by comparison, undergoes decay to primarily gigantic balls of hydrogen gas
Po215 with a T½ of 7.6 minutes, and Bi208 under tremendous pressure due to
undergoes yet another mode of radioactive gravitational forces. Hydrogen molecules are
decay (called electron capture) with a T½ of fused into helium and heavier elements
368,000 years! inside of stars, releasing energy that we
receive as light and heat.
Stimulated nuclear reactions
While many elements undergo radioactive decay Summary
naturally, nuclear reactions can also be • Beginning with the work of Marie Curie and
stimulated artificially. Although these reactions others, this module traces the development
also occur naturally, we are most familiar with of nuclear chemistry. It describes different
them as stimulated reactions. There are two types of radiation: alpha, beta, and gamma.
such types of nuclear reactions: The module then applies the principle of
1) Nuclear fission: reactions in which an half-life to radioactive decay and explains
atom's nucleus splits into smaller parts, the difference between nuclear fission and
releasing a large amount of energy in the nuclear fusion.
process. Most commonly this is done by
"firing" a neutron at the nucleus of an atom. 4. Fission and Fusion of Radioactive Nuclei
The energy of the neutron "bullet" causes
the target element to split into two (or more)
elements that are lighter than the parent
atom.
2) The Fission Reaction of Uranium-235
During the fission of U235, three neutrons are
released in addition to the two daughter
products. If these released neutrons collide with
nearby U235 nuclei, they can stimulate the
fission of these atoms and start a self-sustaining
nuclear chain reaction. This chain reaction is the
basis of nuclear power. As uranium atoms
continue to split, a significant amount of energy
is released from the reaction. The heat released
during this reaction is harvested and used to
generate electrical energy.