Cambridge International oa &ALevel Further Mathematics Further Pure Math il Sophie Goldie Rose Jewell Series editor: Roger Porkess 4 HODDER TE EDUCATION ANHAGHETTEUKCOMPARY‘estos rom the Camp International AS A Level Natomas papers ae prec emis of Conia aeemert Inara Ect, Us tris acknonlged, the {estoy warp ear and commer tht appear his Dok were win by the ath. [Baige kscoment Iterations aston eats oresonsty forthe eal roe to tests tan fon tpt qeron papers which ae condi hs publication The uber oud ke o thank the allowing who fave ie permission to erode petogaphs Photo edits pet © ios - sock va Tnkstah/Gety Images 40 © Chaves Bata 123K, © ort Tock Tiitok 68 © Dusen Sra ea Weel Commons (ps: e.igeca. or i (hus Fva DocientstoneLiense) a8 © Wil Soth/Shutrtesccam; pa © Dean Petal/ Foul: p88 © Harel eta p66 © Ly Natoy/Ftaa. top = bet. 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Cres: please contact Bont Lt, 130 Pak rive, tn ark, Abingdon, Oxon RL SE ‘Gls: (as) 04235 R2aD Foes) 04239400 na efuraon@bokgaok ies {per Fon # ato pam, Monday Satay wih 2 2rhour mesa ansnetog sar You an ‘Eee hau ur weiter wr oat com ch of the mtr in ths ook was published oli apart of the MET StructrdMatenates ro has ber cry adapted fr the CombageInaratoal AS # A level Mater sas ‘hc vl ME suo ea or ur theater comprised atherine Sry, a Hanah, Tey Test Bold Marin oan Mates, Roger Pres ad ee Sees, 1 Sophie Gol Rare evel and Roger Pokss 2018 Fist pubis 2038 by oar earaton, an Machete UK company ‘Grete Hose SO vera Embankment isan Ecc 02 Inpresion umber 10.987 656325 Yer 2022 2021 220 2019 2018 [Alvis reseed, Apr lm any ue permed unde UX apy amr prt of this utaon ‘hay be repre or tanatte nay form of any mes elactone or mechan cng Pctocaprng ad rec, orl than nmin stooge an eal ste, wot rms wing tom the pubs rune ace fm he Capa icnsng Age ine Ferber dete uf sh ences or rpotaieepeucton) my be etained from te Coyaht traning gency ined onto one ato by Diy Tni/Shstestack ‘eine y oar, ne Ung sfevare Sees ‘Typeset Best 3 tte arr Serves Pte, Poncho Ina Ped in Rly ‘catalase recat othe aval fam the Bish Libra sox sresiocere3 Mix Papas rom renner ESS sc" ctos740Contents Introduction v How to use this book vi ‘The Cambridge International AS & A Level Further Mathematics 9231 syllabus. vill 1 Matrices and transformations 1A Macs 42 Matpication of matrices 7 43 Transfomations 1% Tk Successve transformations a 418 marine 3 2. Series and induction 40 2.4 Sequences and series a 222 Using standard results “6 2.3. The method of cifferences 50 24 Proof by induction 56 2.5 othe poos by induction & 3. Roots of polynomials 68 3.1 Polynomials 69 3.2 duadtic equations n 23.3. Cubic equations 6 3.4 artic equations 3 4 Rational functions and graphs 89 “Graphs of ational functions so 42. How to sketch a arenh ofa vatoral function e £3. Obique asymptotes % 4 Shetthing curves related to y= £6) 102 5_ Polar coordinates 5.1. Polar coordinates 5.2 Sketching curves with polar equations 124 15.3 Finding the area enclosed by a polar curve 1316 Matrices and their inverses 61 62 63 The determinant of a 2x2 matrix The inverse of a matrix Finding the inverse of a 33 matrix 7 Vectors Th ‘The vector equation of a plane ‘The intersection of a line and a plane The distance of a point from a plane The angle between a line and a plane The intersection of two planes. The angle between two planes The vector product Finding distances 135 136 141 147 156 157 162 164 165 170 ae 7 183 197Introduction ‘This isthe first ina series of four books supporting the Cambridge International AS &¢ A Level Further Mathematics 9231 syllabus for ‘examination from 2020, It is preceded by five books supporting Cambridge International AS & A Level Mathematics 9709."The seven chapters in this book cover the further pute mathematics requited for the Paper 1 examination. This part of the series also contains a more advanced book for further pure mathematics, and a book each for further mechanics and further probability and satistics. ‘These books are based on the highly success series for the Mathematics in Education and Industry (MEN) sylabus in the UK but they have been redesigned and revised for Cambridge International students; where appropriate, new material has been written and the exercises contain many past Cambridge International examination questions. An overview of the units making up the Cambridge International syllabus is given in the following pages. ‘Throughout the series, the emphasis s on understanding the mathematics as well a routine calculations. The various exercites provide plenty of cope for practising basi techniques; they azo contain many typical examination-style ‘questions, ‘The original MEI author team would like to thank Sophie Goldie and Rose Jewell who have carried out the extensive tsk of presenting their work in 8 suitable form for Cambridge International students and for their many original contributions. They would also like co thank Cambridge Assessment International Education for its detailed advice in preparing the books and for permission to use many past examination questions. Roger Porkess Series editorHow to use this book The structure of the book ‘This book has been endorsed by Cambridge Assessment International Education. It is listed as an endorsed textbook for students taking the (Cambridge International AS & A Level Farther Mathematics 9231 syllabus ‘The Further Pure Mathematics 1 syllabus content is covered comprehensively and is presented across seven chapters, lTeing a structured route throwgh the “The book is written on the assumption chat you have covered and understood the work in the Cambridge International AS & A Level Mathematics 9709 syllabus ach chapter is broken down into several sections, with each section covering, a single topic. Topics are introduced chrough explanations, with key verms picked out in red. These ae reinforced with plentiful worked examples, punctuated with commentary, co demonstrate methods and illustrate application of the mathematics under discussion, Regul exercises allow you to apply what you have learned. They offer a lange vatiety of practice and higher-order question types that map to the key concepts of the Cambridge International sylabus. Look out forthe following, © Probier-sotving questions will help you to develop the ability to analyse problems, recognise how to represent diferent stations rnathematicaly identify and interpret relevant information, and select appropriate methods © Modeting questions provide you with an intodation tthe important skill of mathematical modeling In ths, you take an everyday for workplace situation, ot one that aries in your other subject and present itn a form that allows you to apply mathematics toi @ Communication and proof questions encourage you to become a more fluent mathenuticn, giving you scope to communicate your work. wvith clear, logical agaments and to justify your results. Exercises also include questions from real Cambridge Asessment International Education past papers, so that you can become familar with the types of questions you ae likely co meetin formal assessments [Answers to exercise questions, excluding long explanations and proof, are available online at reduc cambs s0 you can check your work, Ie s important, however, that you have a go at answering. the questions before looking up the answers if you are to understand the mathematics full.ACTIVITY In addition to the exercises, Activities invite you to do some work for ‘yourself, typically to introduce you to ideas that are then going to be taken further In some places activities are also used to fallow up work that has just been covered. Othe hepfil features incl the following. © Tis sb highlights points i wil benefit you to discuss with your teacher of fllow sudens, to encourge deeper exploration and mathensatcalcomménicaton. Ifyou ae working on Your own, there are answers available online at www.hoddereducation.com/ © This is 2 warning sign. Ie is used where a common mistake, swisindereanding or tricky point is being described to prevent you fom zoaling che ame ero. ‘A variety of notes are included to offer advice or spark your intrest ‘on the topic under consideration and explore the deeper lessons that emerge from wat has just been done. Bi Historical notes offer interesting background information about famous ‘mathematicians or results to engage you inthis fascinating fed © Technology note Athough araphial calculators and computers are wat peritedin the txaminatens or ths Cambridge Internationa aplabus we heeinced Technology notes to nate places were working with tem can be hel facta and breaching Finally each chapter ends with the key points covered, pls alist of the Toarning outcomes that summarise whit you lave leased in forun that is closely related tothe syllabus, Digital support Comprehensive online suppor for this book, inching farther questions, 's availble by subscription to MET Ineegnl® onlin teaching and learning platform for AS & A Level Mathematics and Farther Mathemtis, Jntegramath.ong Ths online platform provides extensive, high-qeaiy "esoures, ncladng printable materi, innovative interactive activites and formative and summative aseamens, Our Textbooks lnk Searls withIntegral, allowing you to move with ease between corresponding topics in the ‘Textbooks and Integral [MET Integral® material has not been through the Cambridge International endorsement process. The Cambridge International AS & ALevel Further Mathematics 9231 syllabus The syabus content is asessed over four examination papers. Paper 1: Further Pare Paper 3: Further Mechanics Mathematics 1 #1 hour 30 minutes * 2hours + 40% of the AS Level; 20% of the ‘© 60% of the AS Level;30% ofthe | A Level ALevel ‘© Offered as pare of AS; + Compulsory for AS and A Level_| compulsory for A Level Paper 2: Further Pure Paper 4: Further Probability & ‘Mathematies 2 Statisties © 2hours # Tour 30 minutes #3006 of the A Level #4096 of the AS Level; 20% of the © Compulsory for A Levelsnota | A Level route to AS Level Offered as part of AS; compulsory for A Level _ “The following diagram illustrates the permitted combinations for AS Level and A Level AS Level Further ALLevel Further ‘Mathematics Mathematics Paper 1 and Paper 3 Further Pure Mathematies 1 ‘and Further Mechanics cee [Paper 1,2,3 and 4 Further Pure Mathematics 1 and 2, Further Mechanies and Further Probability & Statistics Paper 1 and Paper 4 ae Further Pure Mathematics 1 and Further Probability & StatisticsPrior knowledge It is expected chat learners will have studied che mujouity of die Cansbvdige International AS & A Level Mathematics 9709 syllabus content before studying Cambridge International AS & A Level Further Mathematics 9231 ‘The prior knowledge required for each Further Mathematics component is, shown in the following table. 9231 Paper 1) ‘9709 Papers Land 3 Further Pure Mathematics 1 cs te 9231 Paper 2: 9709 Papers t and 3 | Further Pure Mathematics 2 if 9231 Paper 3 9709 Papers 1,3 and 4 Further Mechanics 9231 Paper 4 Further Probability & Statistics 9709 Papers 1, Command words ‘The table below includes command words used in the assessment for this syllabus. The use of the command word will relate to the subject context, [calcu wok ou fom glen fies, figures or information conclide fom salable information obsin something (expresion/equaton/ valu) Rom another bya sequence oflogial sept tte te point of topic / give acer and min tres Desc | eva wih craig late nde or cleans te qualify lnporanes mount or __ [rate sfecmething iphin te ut purposes orton 7 make the wansipy betwee things endent pone why and/or how tnd apport with lev evidence ideal rame/ lec ff Interprst iden mening or gfcaes a wlan wo We Gmc Lily apport ease with evidenes/ngument Prove confi te uth ofthe given statement lng & i chain of loge! mahemateal ewoning Show (i) [prov ructred evidence tht least a gen ok [stech [make simple fecal daving sowing ey ste expres in dete i Verify confirm a given statement/resultis ueKey concepts Key concepts ate esental ideas that help students develop a deep ‘understanding of mathematics. “The key conceps ae Problem solving Mathematics is fandamentally problem solving and representing systems and model im different ways. These inchide >» Algebra: this is an essential tool which supports and expreses ‘mathematical reasoning and provides a means to generalise across & number of contexts, » Geometrical techniques: algebraic representations aso describe a spatial relationship, which gives us a new way to understand a situation. > Calculus: this is a fandamental element which describes change in dynamic situations and undedines the links between functions and graphs. »» Mechanical model these explain and predict how particles and objects ‘move or remain stable under the influence of forces. >» Statistical methods: these are used to quantify and model aspects of the ‘world around us. Probability theory predicts how chance events might proceed, and whether assumptions about chance are justified by evidence, Communication Mathematical proof and reasoning is expressed using algebra and notation so that others can follow each line of reasoning and confirm its completeness and accuracy. Mathematical notation is universal. Each solution i structured, but proof and problem solving also invite creative and original thinking. Mathematical modelling ‘Mathematical modelling can be applied to many diferent situations and problems, leading to predictions and solutions. A variety of mathematical Content areas and techniques may be required to create the model. Once the ‘model has been created and applied, che results can be interpreted to give predictions and information about the real world, ‘These key concepts ae reinforced in the different question types included in this book: Problem-solving, Communication and proof, and “Modelling,As tor everything else, so for a mathematical theory ~ beauty can be Perceived but not explained. Arthur Cayley (1821-1895) Matrices and transformations l { \ a apne Ne anand uaa ‘A Figure 1.1 Direct flights between countries by one arin. Figure 1.1 shows some of the direct fights between countries by one airline. How many direct flights are chere ftom: > Singapore to Australia > Australia to New Zealand > the UK to the Philippines? Anse 6 esi ae ave ot hd om end i‘MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS 1.1 Matrices You can represent the number of direct flights between each pair of countries (shown in Figure 1.1} as an array of numbers like this: ‘The array is called a matrix (¢he plural is matrices) and is usually written inside curved brackets. o1040 10020 dood 42102 oo020 Te is usual to represent matrices by capital letters, often in bold print, [A matrix consists of tows and column, and the entries inthe various cells are known as elements o1040 10020 ‘The matrix M=| 0 0 0 1 0 [representing the fights between 42102 00020 the cous has 25 clement arranged in ie ros ad five columns. Mi esrbed ss 3% 3 matin and this ithe order oF he matrix You sae the ‘mer ofr fist then the numberof lumen, So, fr example the mac 4 e a § esa x omaricant = 34 |isa3 x2maeie M 20 aieSpecial matrices Some matrices are described by special names that slate (u dhe auanber of rows and columns or the nature of the elements, 351 avian (4 2 an 2-0-4 | that have the same numberof a ‘rovrs as columns are called square matrices. The matix ( Hi > called the 22 identity matrix or unit mats, seourew FL 100 and similarly | 0.1 0 | is called the 3 x 3 identity matrix, Identity matrices oo1 must be square, and are usually denoted by . oo 00 ThemaicO=(° 2 seal e220 ma: Zo mas be of any order ‘Two matrices are said to be equal if,and only if they have the same order and eich element in one matrix is equal to the corresponding element in the other matrix. So, for example, the matrices A and D below are equal, but B and C are not equal to any of the other matrices. (13 (12 _(130 13 ae(23) (52) (228) »-(24) Working with matrices “Matrices can beaded or subtracted ifthe are ofthe same onde. 2 40), f1-1 4 \_(3 3 4) ¢——J addthe elements * in corresponding a3s) (20-5) 130 psa TH 2 I{ So | —qStteattecenensin a2V\s 4 ‘Corresponding postions paeaee ae cause the matrices are wu(2.12}s(Z 3 ametemtan nes (32)-(§3) a Answers exeises are aable at nous had deduction, com /cambridgeestas a1 MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS Yu can use a calculator to add and subtract matrices of the same order and to multiply a matrix by @ number. I you have a calculator that can handle matrices, find out >» the method for inputting matrices » howto add and subtract matrices >» how to multiply a matrix by a number for matrices of varying sizes. Associativity and commutativity ‘When working with numbers the properties of associativity and ‘men you add numbers it ‘does not matter how the humbers are grouped, the | answer wil be the same. [Addition of numbers is associative. +5) +8=34 (648) When you add numbers, Commutati the order of the numbers can be reversed and the Addition of numbers is commutative, rcs waramte te 4452544¢-————___L same —_______—_———-@ > Give examples to show that subtraction of numbers is not commutative or associative. > Are matrix addition and matrix subtraction associative and/or 1 Write down the order of these matrices, 24 084 w | 6o ti |2a 1] wit (7) 37 532 (iw 4 &est Jeeeto(es) i E (23)+( find, where posible ) A-E fil C+D ii] E+A-B a w) F+D w D-¢ Wi) 4F i (vid 30-420 (i) B42 lid) E-Bay 2 3. The diagram below shows the number of direct ferry crossings on one dla offered by a ferry company between cities P,Q, Rand S. ‘The same information is aso given in the partly completed matrix X. soe =F {il Copy and complete the matrix X. AA second fetry company also offers ferry crosings between these four cities The following matrix represents the total number of dizect ferry crossings offered by the ewo ferry companies, 0232 1 3 0 lil Find the mateix ¥ representing the ferry crossings offered by the second ferry company. (il) Draw a diagram similar to the one above, showing the ferry crossings offered by the second ferry company. 4 Find the values of us x, yand 2 such that (222 2} (2 3) Asin to exercises are avaiable at wus hoddereuction com eambridgcesas i‘MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS Find the posible values of p and g such that p 3 \_[se 2\_(o = 2o9}la¢}los Four local football teams took part in a competition in which every team plays each af the others ewice, once at home and once away. The results matrix after half of che games had been played is Goals Goals Win Draw Lose for” against Sars eee ess Serer eet) Coums | 0 0 3 2 8 Town | 2 0 1 4 3 united | 1 1 1 5 3 {il The results of the next three matches are as follows: Sars 2 Cougars 0 Town 3) United 3 Sars 2 Town 4 Find the results matrix for these three matches and hence find the ‘complete results matrix forall the matches so fi. li) Here i the complete results matrix for the whole competition. 41128 1145 2 312 12 10 13.210 9 Find the results matrix for the lat three matches (Stas vs United, Cougars vs Town and Cougars vs United) and deduce the result of cach of these three matches, A mail-order clothing company stocks a jacket in three different sizes and four diferent colours, 17 8 10 15 6 12 19 3 | represents the number of jackets 24 10 11 6 in stock at the start of one week 2530 ‘The matrix Q=| 1 3 4 6 [represents the number of orders for 5023 Jackets received during the week. (i) Find the matrix P = Q. “What docs this mateix represent? What does the negative element in the matrix mean? ‘The matrixA delivery of jackets is received from the manufacturers during the week, 5 0 10 5 1 ThematricR=| 10 10 5 15. | shows the number of jackets 0 0 5 5 }received. (il Find the matrix that represents the number of jackets in stock at the end ofthe week afer all the orders have been dispatched. lil) Assuming that this week is typical, find the matrix that represents sales of jackets over a six-week period, How realistic is this assumption? 1.2 Multiplication of matrices ‘When you multiply two matrices you do not just multiply corresponding, terms Instead you follow a slightly more complicated procedure. The following example will help you to understand the rationale for the way it is done, ‘There are four ways of scoring poinss in rugby:a try (ive points), conversion (ewo poins),a penalty (three poins) and a deop goal (vhree ppoins). Ina match, Tonga scored three ties, one conversion, two penalties and one drop goal. So their score was ‘eoueu jo voneandirnyy 21 3X541X242x341%3=26. ‘You can write this information using matrices. The tries, conversions, penalties and drop goals that Tonga scored are written as the 1 X 4 row matrix (3 1 2-1) and the points forthe different methods of coring as the 5 451 column matsix | 2 3 ‘These are combined to give the 1X 1 matrix GxS+1x242%341%3) = 26), (Combining matrices in this way is called matrix multiplication and this 5 cumple woten s 012.0%] 2 fee 3 Avon sre ose ot whoo ambien a‘1 MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS ‘The use of matrices can be extended to include the points scored by the ‘other team, Japan. They scored two tres, two conversions, four penalties and one drop goalThis information can be written together with Tonga’ scores as a 2X 4 matrix, with one row for'Tonga and the other for Japan. ‘The mukiplication is then written as 5 3121\2 26 224i)/3 29 3 So Japan scored 29 points and won the match ‘This example shows you two important points about matrix makkipliation. Look atthe orders of the matrices involved, ‘The two ‘middle" numbers, in this case 4, must be the same fr itt be possibie to multiply two matrices. I two matrices can be multiplied, they fre conformable for maltisliation oe “The two ‘outside’ numbers go you the order at the product matrix, in this ease 21 ‘You can see ftom the previous example that mulkiplying matrices involves ‘multiplying each clement in a row of the left-hand matrix by each element in a column of the right-hand matrix and then adding these products. em(83)(3) Solution ‘The product will have order 2% 1 (10% 5) +3 x2)=56 ( AFigure 1.2a(43)(427) Solution ‘The onder ofthis product is 2x3, axatex-ye-0] [axorexy=3 P~p2 % 3! 18 -21 5, (1x94 0x-9) axa) 6x—9=16 (2x3) 6x92 (ee) [33] «ts AB, BA, AC, CA, BC and CB exis? 2x04 01055, ‘Whar do you notice? Solution “The onder ofthis product ie 2 x 2. feat |e 4}ton Multiplying a matrix by che identity matrix as no effet. exn+exn=3 @xm+@xD=2 Cixosaxn= cixat axe Answers exercises ae available ot ‘aopaeus po vnunet‘1 MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS Properties of matrix multiplication In this section you will look at whether matrix multiplication is: > commutative (On page 4 you saw that for numbers, addition is both associative and commutative. Multiplication is also both associative and commutative For example: (8x4) x5=3% (4x5) and 3x4=4x3 ACTIVITY 1.1 ing A= (2-1) ad =(— 8) dite pono AB nd BA snd trae cama on wh rt ai ein come Fs dea pa fins nd Deh it CD = DC B Technology note You could use the matrix function on your calculator. ACTIVITY 1.2 8) aeic=(} 2) de marc pe (i) aB i) Be (i) (ABIC, liv) age) Does your answer suggest that matrix multiplication is associative? Is this true forall 2x2 matrices? How can you prove your answer?In this exercise, do not use a calculator unles asked to, A calculator can be used for checking answers 1 11 Write down the onders ofthese matrices 34-1 tt alo th Ba(2.36) 1 ta e-(4 . 2) a »-( 24 2) 130 O31 Fi ont le) B= 322 lel ( : ) lil Which ofthe following matrix products can be found? For those that can, state the onder ofthe matrix product. fa] AE (b) AF [) FA. (dl CA fe] DE 2 Calculate these product # (25)(3) “aoueu jo vore> ti (2-35)| 5 8 (Check your answers using the matrix function on a calculator if possible. 4 2-9 3 Uns te macs a=( § 9 Jans ( 5 ) om matric multiplication is not commutative, 4 For the matrices a-(3!) -(4zJe “(224 24 2 s)O(s71 7 + D e=/3-2|P=| 260 5} lags cael, where posible the following i) AB Wi) BA Gil CD iM DC WM RF Wi FE Answers to exeises are available at wa od dereductin com /ambridecesias i5 Using the matrix function on a calculator, find Mi for the matrix 20-1 M=| 3 12 aA43 jeans Mx Mx Mx M 2 m(s)n(24) (il Find the matrix product AB in terms of = wy team =(1° nde pol a of: (i) nd he ponte mac rods BA 2 7 tortiemaixa=(2 1 Gna tl a wm {c) at lil Suggest general form for che matrix AM in terms of lil Verify your answer by finding A" on your calculator and confirming it gives the same answer a li. 8 The map below shows the bus routes in a holiday area. Lines represent routes that run each way between the resorts. Arrows indicated one-way scenic routes ‘MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS [Mis the partly completed 4 % 4 matrix chat shows the number of direct routes between the various resors, Spe =o RO oo From goer lil Copy and complete the matrix M. lil Calculate M? and explain what information it contains. li) What information would M8 contain?ra(ase(i 7] tee i 651 Ser ees eee [At che start ofthe piting proces, Stage 0, the order of the strands is given by $=] 6 (i) Show that pre-multipiying S, by the matrix A = gives S,. the matrix that represent the order ofthe stands at Stage li) Find the 3 x 3 matrix B chat represents the transition fom Stage 1 to Stage 2 li Find matrix M = BA and show that MS, gives S,,the matrix chat represents the onder of the strands at Stage 2 liv] Find M# and hence find the order ofthe strands at Stage 4, (ul Calculate M®. What does this ell you? Ano risa ait whedon ambit ii 3 g a 1.3 Transformations You are already familiar with several diferent types of transformation, including reflections, rotations and enlargements, >» The original point, or shape is called the object. >» The new point, or shape, after the transformation, i called the image. >» A tansformation isa mapping of an object onto its image. ‘Some examples of transformations ae illustrated in Figures 1.3 to 1.5 (note that the vertices ofthe image are denoted by the same letes with a dash, eg. A’). A Figure 1.4 Rotation through $0" clockwise, centre 0 ‘A Figure 1.5 Enlargement centre 0, scale factor 2 In this secrion, you will ako meet the idea of > astrotch parallel to the axis oF y-axis » a shear, {A transformation maps an object according toa rule and can be represented by 1 matrix Gee next section). The effect ofa transformation on an object can be found by ooking atthe fit hao the poston vector ofthe pint (*, i.ethe vector fiom the origin to the point (; )So, for example to find the effect ‘of transformation on the point 2,3) you would look atthe effect thatthe teasformstion matt has onthe potion vector eVectors that have length or magnitude of 1 are called unit vectors. In two dimensions, two unit vectors that are of particular interest are a i 1 }- 2 mit yectorin the direction ofthe sai o =| 0 |-aunie vector in the ditection of the y-axis. (0) ees ‘The equivalent unit vectors in chree dimensions are 1 0 | aunt vector in the direction of the x-axis o o J=|/1 |-aumie vector in the direction ofthe y-axis 0 a k=| 0 |—a unit vector in the direction of the 2-axs, 1 Finding the transformation represented by a given matrix Sra: by looking atthe effet of rhukiplying the unit vetoes = ( : ) snti-(! Jorsemne( 3) 9) ‘The image of (: ne this wanformaton i given by (23)() The lelter 1s often used fr the point (1,0) A Figure 1.6 Answers to exercises re avilable at wu hoddeseduation com umbrideextas i{1 MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS. 0 1 (2 s){t(3) sme?) arte tt ‘A Figure 1.7 You can se fom thi that the matrix (i Q src 2 ration, cee the origin, through 180°, oe Describe the transformations represented by the following matrices. w (23) (33) Solution (0-6) CICK) f ( ) spo enn se ie y= 2 ° “G)0KG) GIGKE) cm reese ieeecesaes? ‘Figure 1.10 ‘Figure 1.11Themis (2 2 rene anemencene eorginse fi ser? ‘You can see that the images of f= columns of the transformation matrix. Finding the matrix that represents a given transformation ‘The connection between the images ofthe unit vector i and jad the matrix representing the transformation provide a quick method for finding Youmayfindit | the matrix representing a transformation {heteansbrmation | i common to use the unit square with coordinates © (0,0), E(1,0),P (1,2) This is dane in the next example, ‘iswhen you use and J (0, 1). sree ' street | acon hink about hima of be pois and and fom is youan | Paeet t | Te dowm cheiage oft ait ee Led i oe ' MEIER ving diagram to show the image ofthe unit quae find the mates that represent each of the following transformations: (ila reflection in the s-axis (i) an enlargement of scale factor 3, centre the origin, Solution ti Figure 1.12 You can see from Figure 1.12 that I (1,0) is mapped to itself and J (0,1) is mapped to’ (0,1) oS Sette mageottie (2) ({} So the mattc tt represent «election i the sais it ( ae } - Answers to exercises are alae at‘1 MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS So the image of Lis (3) J ‘You can see from Figure 1.13 that I (1,0) s mapped to 0), and J (0,1) i mapped tJ (0,3. ‘A Figure 1.13 aniteinass 3 (2) So the matrix chat represents an enlargement, centre the origin, seteoeaie(3 03 > Fora geal urmaion prs bythe matic (# §) vin ste img ofthe ont vem (nd (2 > What ste image ofthe origin (0,0) ACTIVITY 1.3 ‘Using the image of the unit square, find the matric which represents a rotation of 45° anticlockwise about the origi. ‘Use your answer to write down the matrices that represent the following transformations (i) a rotation of 45° clockwise about the origin (i)_a rotation of 135° amclockwise about the origin.ind the mati hat eprsen a rotation trough angle @antclockwse ae the vig, 1 lil Use your answer co find the mati that represents tion oF 60" anticlockwise about the origin Solution {il Figure 1.14 shows a rotation of angle @ anticlockwise about the origin. “Hionewsojeuen, ‘Figure 1.16 Call the coordinates ofthe point A’ (p, 4). Since the lines OA and OB are perpendicular, the coordinates of B’ will be (~g, 9) From the right-angled triangle with OA asthe hypotenuse, cos and so p= £038. ‘Similarly, fom the right-angled tangle with OB as the hypotenuse, sind = f104= sno, Sa teine rath p 9m atone (Si) mae 2 T image poineB’(-g,p) has postion vector Ea ‘Therefore, the matrix that represents a rotation of angle @anticlockwise cond —sine lil The matrix that represents an anticlockwise rotation of 60° about about the origin is 1 NB i the origins ( 860° -sinoor) | 2 “2 i sin6o? coseo? J~| V3 4 i 2 “What matrix would represent a rotation through an angle @clockwise about the origin? Ases to exeises are avilable at une deredction.com cambrideextas B‘MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS ACTIVITY 1.4 Investigate the effec of the matrices: re) G3) ‘Describe the general transformation represented by the You could use geometrical software to try ferent values of m and m. Activity 1.4 illustrates two important general results: » Thema # 2 sro set of ele fctor m parle to the sani, on » The matrix ( ' © ) represents a stretch of sale factor m parallel to the oa yas Shears Figure 1.15 shows che unit square and its image under che transformation ay mari | 1 3 cpt emnis(! 3) deste ime (! 2) SS Sete) ‘The point with postion vector ()) is transformed to the point with race} FOF‘A Figure 1.15 ‘This transformation is called a shear, Notice that the points on the x-axis stay the same, and the points J and P move parallel to the x-axis to the right, ‘This shear can be described filly by saying that the x-axis is fixed, and giving, the image of one point not on the x-axis, e.g (0,1) mapped to (3,1). “Suoyeusojsued 1 Geshe wth he idem (and sr 10 ‘with che y-axis fixed has ehe form ka Find the image of the rectangle with vertices A (-1,2),B (1,2), (1,-1) and D (A,-1) under the shear | 1 3 | and show the rectangle and its image on a diagram, ot Solution (ea) (pee al (ere A Figure 1.16 Ansiers to exercises ae avilable at unc hoddreducation. com ambridgextas a{1 MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS ‘The effect ofthis shea isto transform the sides ofthe rectangle parallel to the axis into loping lines, Notice that the ttofthe side A’D' is 1, which __‘fansformation, points above ora x the x-axis move tothe right, is the reciprocal ofthe top right-hand and points below the x-axis ‘dement ofthe matrix [1 3 uo on ACTIVITY 1.5 For each of the points A, B, Cand D in Example 1.7, find lisance between the point and its image distance of original point ftom x-axis ‘What do you notice? In the activity above, you should have found that dividing the distance Dervieen the point and its image by the distance of the original point from the x-axis (which is fixed), gives the answer 3 forall points, which isthe ‘number in the top right ofthe matrix. Tis i alled the shear factor for the shear. G technology note It you have access to geometrical software, investigate how shears are detined ‘There are different conventions about the sign ofa shear factor, and for this reason shear factors are not used to define a shear in this book. It's possible ¢o show the effect of matrix transformations using some geometrical computer software packages, You might find that some packages use different approaches towards shears and define them in diferent waysTaste ys ead he nage fe poi rae i (Dew dig showing he nage of the nt sq under he cnformaon 8 lil Find che matrix that represents che shear S. Solution a Suoneuse)sued € 1 ‘Figure 1.17 » oo(i}-() -(:)() 10 Sothematicepmningsis($ 0 ie "Notice that this matrix is of the form ( a ) {for shears withthe y-axis fixed. Answers to exeises ane avilable ot wweshodderducation om Jeambrigeextas a‘1 MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS Summary of transformations in two dimensions Reflection in the waxis {1 || Reflection inthe pas [71 ? (3 m [Reflection in the 0 1)| Resection intheline (0 =1 line y= 10 Jly=- 0 Rowvn anticlockwise cox9 ~sing)) | Enlargement, centre dhe { & 0 about the origin | Sng caso | | origin scale factor & ok through angle 8 Sertch parallel the [© stretch panel tothe [1° sotmact (¢)|sunactisr [ot Shear x-axis fed, 1) | Stes pans fixed, 10 swith (0,1) mapped to (1) | gj} | 78 (1+0) mapped eo (19) [ig All these tran transformation, straight lines are mapped mapped to itslt ions are examples of linear transformations, Ina linear ‘straight lines, and the origins 1. ‘The diagram shows a triangle with vertices at O, A (1,2) and B (0,2) For each of the transformations below {al draw a diagram to show the effect ofthe transformation on. twiangle OAB. Ib) give the coordinates ofA” and BY, he images of points A and B [cl find expressions for x” and y, the coordinates of P’ the image fof a general poine P(x, 9) (dl find the matrix that represents the transformation.(il Enlargement, centre the origin, scale factor 3 lil Reflection in the s-axis 1 lil) Reflection in the line x + y=0 liv) Rotation 90° clockwise about © (M1 Two-way stretch, scale fictor 3 horizontally and scale factor 2 vertically, Describe the geometrical transformations represented by these matrices, (10 w (9-1 ww [22 = a (33) # (32) w (28) g a m (4e m (93 g w(t) # (54) ; Each of the following matrices reprevent a rotation about the origin, & Find the ange and direction of rotation in each ease. a 1 8 w | 272 tin (0574 -0.819 Bi 0819 0574 2 2 aaeae ease (ial | S22 tm | 2 2 ee 1 v5 NEW 2-2 ‘The diagram below shows a square with vertices atthe points A (1, 1), B(L,=1),C 1,1) and D 1,1), lil Draw a diagram to show the image of this square under the tion matrix M=| 1 4 cme ma=(1*) (il Describe ally dhe wansformation represented by the matrix M, State the fixed line and the image ofthe point A. Anse sia lt indo ambit i‘1 MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS. li) Find the image of the unie square under the transformations represented by the matrices 105 on 7 wa(s) we eee ae parallelogram A’B'C’D’, face li) Find he coordinates ofA” li) Find he matrix that represents the shea ‘The unit square OABC has its vertices at (0,0), (1, 0), (1.1) and (0,1) OABC is sy to ONB'C’ by the transformation defined by the marx [4 3 |, 54 ‘Find the coordinates of A’, B’ and C’ and show that the area of the shape Se cetea (2 ae to the triangle ABC with vertices A (-1, 1),B (1,1) and C (-1, 1). {il Draw a diagram showing the triangle ABC and its image A’B’C’. lil Find the gradient of the line A’C’ and explain how this relates to the matrix M. ‘A.transformation maps P co Pas flows » Bach point is mapped on to the line y =x » The line joining a point to its image is parallel to the y-axis. Find the coordinates ofthe image ofthe point (x,y) and hence show ‘hae this transformation can be represented by means of a matrix, ‘What is that matrix?10 A square has corners with coordinates A (1,0),B (1, 1),€ (,1) and © (0, 0). leis to be transformed into another quadrilateral in the fist ‘quadrant ofthe coorcinate grid. Find a matrix chat would transform the square into: {il arectangle with one vertex at the origin, the sides lie along the axes and one side of length is 5 units (il) a thombus with one vertex atthe origin, two angles of 45° and side lengths of V2 units; one of the sides lies along an axis lil paraletogram with one vertex atthe origin and two angles of 30°; ‘one of the longest sides lies along an axis and has length 7 units; the shortest sides have length 3 unit Is there more than one possibility for any ofthese matrices? Ifo, write down alternative matrices that satisfy the same description 1.4 Successive transformations Figure 1.18 shows the effect of ewo successive transformations on a triangle, ‘The transformation A represents a reflection in the x-axis. A maps the point P to the point A(P), ‘The transformation B represents a rotation of 90° anticlockwise about O. When you apply B to the image formed by A, the point A(P) is mapped to the point B(4(P)). This i abbreviated to BA(P), ee aN “Buonewsoysuen aussasone py BA) A Figure 1.18 © note Notice that a transformation written as BA means ‘carry out then carry outB This process is sometimes called composition of transformations. Look at Figure 1.18 and compare the original triangle with the final image afer both transformations Describe the single transformation represented by BA. > Write down the matrices which represent the transformations A and BB, Calculate the matrix product BA and comment on your answer. Answers to exercises are availble at wae hoddereduction,com /ambridgcestnas i{1 MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS © Note ‘transformation is often denoted bya capital letter The matrix representing this transformation is usually denated by the same. letter, in bold B technology Ityou have a to geometrical software, you could investigate this using several different matricos In gener the matrix for a composite transformation is found by multiplying the ‘matrices ofthe individual transformations in reverse onder. So, for two ‘ansformations the matrix representing the frst transformation ison the right land the matrix forthe second transformation is onthe left. For transformations Tle soonT, qoTythe matrix product woold be 7, ... Ty, ‘You will prove this result for two transformations in Activity 1.6, “The transformations and S are represented by the matrices ale sa -(? ‘} ed rs “Tis applied to the point P wit poston vector P= E }me cee PisP. S is then applied to the point P’. The image of P’ is P” This is illustrated in Figure 1.19. for T and. fi) Fade pstion wecor (; ) of by eel the marc y pee (; } {il Find the pein vector (72 reo eines ei y x product S le } {ii Find the matrix product U = ST and show that U ( ) is the same > How can you use the idea of successive transformations to explain the associativity of matrix multiplication (AB)C = A(BC)?Proving results in trigonometry Ifyou carry out a rotation about dhe unigin Uuuugh angle 8 followed by a rotation about the origin through angle ¢, then this s equivalent to a single rotation about the origin through angle @ + ¢. Using matrices to represent these transformations allows you to prove the formulae for sin(@-+ ¢) and .c0s(@ + 9). This is done in Activity 1.7. © note ACTIVITY 1.7 Assume that arctan s (i) Waite down the matrix A representing rotation about the origin through ange ¢.and the matixB representing a oation about the origin thnoagh angle ¢ (0) Find the matrix BA, representing rotation about the origin through angle 6 followed by rotation about the origin through angle . {iil Write down the matrix © representing a rotation about the origin dhrough angle 0+ 6. {ivl By equating C to BA, write down expressions for sin{@ + and. caslo+ 4. (v]_ Explain why BA = AB inthis case Unless otherwise stated ‘Write down the matrix A that represents an anticlockwise rotation of | 135° about the origin, lil Write down the matrices B and C chat represent rotations of 45° and 90° respectively about the origin. Find the matrix BC and verify that A=BC. (il Catculate the matrix: B® and comment on your answer. a Solution apie a an] 2 aE teedy wi af FE EE ore. gion Regina? Py sox| ¥2 “4 |fo -1)_| “vz ~v pisos | sige OG BOG : Answers to cxaises are wilabe at wwoushodd cambrid suoyeuiioysuen anseaaongsade) bt gas ah laser) jae 1 tw p= | 22-92 || 2 V2 || V2 || atest tae receipes Va VE )\va V2 V2 2) (2 2 “This verifies that three successive anticlockwise rotations of 45° about the origin is equivalent toa single anticlockwise rotation of 135° about the origin (3}-(is}e-( S)eo-(05) tA . an . o3y 10 od a 10 (i) Describe the nformstions dat ae epresented by matrices AB.CandD. (i) Find the following matrix products and describe che single transformation represented in each case (a) BC (| CB (c) DC (4) A? [e| BOB tt] DC’D lil “Write down two other matrix produes, using the matrices A, B,C and D, which would produce the same single transformation as DC*D, 2 The matrix X represents a reflection in the s-axi, ‘MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS “The matrix ¥ represents a reflection in the pax (i) Write down the matrices X and Y. {il Find the matix XY and describe the earaormaton it represen, il Find the matrix WX. lv) Explain geometcclly why XY = YX inthis case GB] 2 The masix P represen rotation of 180° about he origin. “The matric Q represents a election in the ine y= li) Wize down the matrices P and Q {il Find the matrix PQ and describe the wansformation i represents lil Find dhe matrix QP. lv) Explain geometrically why PQ= QP in this case 4 Te tansformations Rand § are represented by the matrices n-(? t)mes-( 3 2] 13 24 lil Find the matrix which represents the transformation RS. lil Find the image of the point (,-2) under the wansformation RS. ° @|: Tre tnsrnaion mp by C= 2 insane single transformation B followed by a single tansformation A. Give {geometrical descriptions of a pair of possible transformations B and A. tnd state the matrices chat represent them. ‘Comment on the order in which the transformations are performed.6 The diagram on the right shows the ‘mage of the unit square OABC under the combined transformation with matrix PQ (i) Write down the matrix PQ. Matrix P represents a reflection, (il State the matrices P and Q and define fally the two transformations represented by these matrices, When describing matrix Q you should refer to the image of the point B. 7 Find the matrix X that represents rotation of 135° about the origin followed by a reflection in the p-axi Explain why matrix X cannot representa rotation about che origin, ‘Suoneusojsued aussazong py Note ‘Assume that a rotation is anticlockwise unless otherwise stated 8) Write down the matrix P that represents a stretch of sie factor 2 parallel to the y-axis. A transformations that ate represented by the matrix Q. (iil Find the mateix PQ. Write a list of the three transformations that are represented by the matrix PQ. In how many different ovders could the three transformations occur? (iv) Find che matrix R for wich the matrix product RPQ would transform an object :o its original postion temic = (3) we down te sin 9 There are two basic types of four-terminal electrical networks, as shown, in the diagrams below. Eh ees Mes eB In Type A the omput voltage Vand current J ate related to the input volage V, and current J, by the simultaneous equations Vea Vi 1k, i Anse eer ot nadia cm anedecctas []{1 MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS. “The simultaneous equations can be writen at ( i | 4 % } (i) Find the matrix A. In Type B the corresponding simultaneous equations ae lil Write down the matrix B that epresents the effect of a Type B network, lil Find dhe mates that represents the effect of Type A followed by Type B. liv) Is the effect of Type B followed by Type A the same asthe effect of | ‘Type A followed by Type B? 10. ‘The matrix B represents a rotation of 45° anticlockwise about the origin. a4 AF Loe (¢ 2) wicca ba ate mae Given that B® =, find exact values for # and b, Write down the transformation tepresented by the matrix D. What do the exact values ‘sand b represent? In questions 11 and 12 you will need to use the matrix chat represents a 1_{t-m? 2m reflection inthe line y= mex. This can be written as — 1 | Teo om m1 11 (i) Find he matrix P shat represents reflection inthe line y = and the matrix Q that represents reflection in the line y = V3: (i) Use matrix maltiglicaion to fnd the single transformation ‘equivalent to reflection in the line 1_ x followed by reflection in theline y = 3x Describe this transformation fll. lil Use matrix mukiplication to find the single eransformation equivalent to reflection in the line y = 3x followed by election inthene y= tes Describe this tansformation fly 12 ‘The anattix R represents a selection inthe line y = mx. is (3 7 } and explain geometrically why tis is the case.1.5 Invariance Fi Invariant points > Ina reflection, are there any points that map to themselves? > Ina rotation, are there any points that map to themselves? Points that map to themselves under a transformation are called invariant points. The origin is always an invariant point under a transformation that can be represented by a matrix, asthe following statement i always true (GH) ‘More generally, point (x,)) is invariant if satisfies the matrix equation: (:)0}-6) For example, the point (~2,2) is invariant under the transformation meme 5)(5)2)4G) ‘oueienu) 54 lil Show chat 6,5) isan invariant point under the transformation represented by M. (i) What can you say about the invariant points under this transformation? Solution 0 (2) ganas tenn mte te transformation represented by M. (co eG These pints al ae } ( ) xy )_f x have the orm = Both equations simply to y= {4.21 Thepoint ( si es lis ust one ot pierre Hpehrsentis || She mera pin ofthe taafrmntion wel he pois on he line y= Anse exes oe veo wade ides |‘ MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS ‘The simultaneous equations in Example 1.10 were equivalent and so all the invariant points were on a straight line. Generally any matrix equation set up to find th invariant points wl lead to two equations ofthe form ax + by ‘which can aso be expressed in the form y = ~9.These equations may be ‘equivilent, in which case this sa line of invariant points Ifthe two equations are not equivalent, the origin isthe only point that satisfies both equations, and so this the only invariant point Invariant lines ‘Aline AB is known as an invariant line under a transformation ifthe image of every point on AB is ako on AB, Its important co note that it is not necessary for each of the points to map to itself it can map to itself of to some other point on the line AB. Sometimes itis easy to spot which lines are invariant. For example, in Figure 1.20 the position ofthe points A~F and their images A'-F” show that the transformation is, a reflection in the line So every point on I maps conto itselfand / saline of invariant points. mir live! Look atthe lines perpendicular to the mirror line in Figure 1.20, for example the line ABB’A’. Any point on tone of these lines maps onto another point on the same line Such a line is invariant but itis hot a line of invariane points. A Figure .20 Fn homies fearing ty ie mai = Solution Letthe origina point xtc | bets pandthe Suppose the invariant line has the form sr + image point be). (HEI G)+ x! = Sie hme +6 = (3+ mx + ee Using y = mi + 6 ly = an + sme +0) = (2+ Ams + de [As the line is invariant, x,y‘) als lies on the le,so "= mx"-+€, + y and yf = 2x dye0= For the and Figure lines, ) (m= 3}e = 0 € m = 3 ore = 0¢ solution as m2 + me So, there are two possible solutions forthe invariant line: mahe=Oery m=-2c=0ey=-2x of this transformation, together with its invariant Find the invariant points un following matrices, 2 What lines if'any are invariant under the following transformations? (il) Rotation through 180° about the origin (i) Rotation chrough 90° about the origin liv) Reffection in the line y= [vl Reflection in the line y [vil Shea, x-axis fixed aetbbe me awa 1 (on? 4 m= 2)x + (mn — 3}e left-hand side to equal zero, both m? +m ~ 2 = 0 and (m — 3}e (m= 1 +2) = 0 6 m= 1orm =-2 m= dis nota viable souesieny si, Pe 1.21 shows the effect A Figure 1.21 he transformations represented (32) Gs) @(23) »G 3) Enlargement, centre the origin, Answers to exercises ave anilable at unas hodderedation som /cambridgeesias i3. The diagram below shows the effece on the unit square of a 06 08 transformation epresented by A= : oy 08 -0.6 lil Find three point that are invariant under this transformation lil Given that this transformation isa reflection, write down the ‘equation ofthe mieror line lil) Using your answer to pat il write down the equation of an invariant lin, other than the tairrr line, under this reflection. liv). Justify your answer to part [il algebraically {1 MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS 4 Forthematixm=| 4 1 m4 (i) show ehat che origin isthe only invariant point li) find the invariant lines ofthe transformation represented by M. 5 il Find the invariant lines of the transformation given by the matrix (3 4) ee ee eee i i reemen-(' 3) sirarrere See eer qrenenater ee 1=m _2m | 7 The maix| 1+" oe represents a reflection in the line y = me. lem Tm Prove thatthe line y = nor saline of imvariant points.od @|> ry) lea}ly ‘Show that imvariane poins other than the origin exe ifad ~ = ¢ +d 1. ‘isa unaltion ofthe plane by the vector (;) The pint (3) ‘mapped to the point (2, y'). 6 (Write down equations fo and in ceems of andy. fi ‘The point (X, ¥) is che image of the point (x, ) under the combined transformation TM where ( ti KEY POINTS ve 1 2 3 | (10 4)(x il Verify hat |” |=|.0 1 6 || y | produces the same equations x} looila as those obtained in pare Ui. ‘ouewenuy 1 y |=] 08 06 6 || y x) (06 08 «)(x 1 o oli i) lol Show that ifa=~4 and b=2 then (0,5) is an invariant point of TM, (b| Show that ifa=2 and b= 1 then'TM has no invariant point. (c)_ Find a relationship berween a and b that must be satisted if TM 's to have any invariant points A matrix isa rectangular array of numbers ot leter ‘The shape of a matrix is described by its order.A matrix with r rows and columns has order rX e. ‘A matrix wit the ame number of tows and columns is called @ gv matrix Thematix O=(® 8) known the 232 zo main. Zero es Armatrix of the form 1=(1 9) is known at an identity matrix All ientcy matrices are aqare, with Ison the lending dingoal and zeros chsewhere Matrices can be added subtracted if they hae the same one “wo matrices A and B can be multiplied to give mati AB if thet fonder ae of the form pq and ¢% respectively The resulting ‘matrix will ave the onder 9% Ansues to exercises are evaable at wnt oddereduction com /cambridcesnas a2 i is developed further in Chapter & Matrices and thei inverses 8 Matrix muliplicaton Row from lft matrix with calurn fom right matrix [pat pote qos ge+sd, 4 9 Mates: addition and multiplication are associative: =(A+B)+C 10. Matrix addition is commutative but matrix multiplication is generally A+B=B+A ABs BA 11 The matrix M=(® §) represents the transformation that maps The nfo wit pbahdoa! pot () eine pela rec eee ae a 42. Alief he marin roccentng common tonformationslcudng toons eccnseolrgemens asics and shen given. 00 peor 24. 13 Under he eanstirmaion repented by Mthe nage oft = (2) i aie ca dee ell (9) ste nomtcione orm. 16 "The compose ofthe easfomation reprsented by M followed by fia tonal N cpr i a pct NL 18-7) an invariant point under a narmation represented by aesmarc tom (;)-(7) 116 Aline AB is known as an invariant line under a transformation if the image of every point on AB is alo on AB,LEARNING OUTCOMES [Now that yous have finished this chapter, you should be able to f= understand what is meant by the terms onder of'a matrix square matric raid i = carry out the matrix operations 3 subtraction z multiplication by aselar f= undentand when matrices are conformable for multiplication and be able to caery out matrix muliplication f= use a caleusto to carry out matrix operations 1 undertind the use of matrices to represent the geometric transformations inthe s-y plane roation about the origin reflection in lines trough the origin enlargement with centre the origin svetch parallel co the coowdinate axes shear with the axes a xed Hines 1 recognise thatthe matrix product AB represen the wansformation that resus from the tansformation represented by B followed by the transformation represented by A sind the matrix that represens given transformation or sequence of transformations ‘= understand the meaning of invariant’ in the context of transformations represented by matrices 2s applied to points ss applied to lines 1 solve simple problems involving invariant points and invariant lines for example locate the invariant points ofthe transformation find the iwariant lines ofthe transformation show lines ofa given gradient are invariant fora cerain teamsformation. Anse exis valle ot wnat cm smb {]Series and induction Great things are not done by impulse, but bya series of small things brought together. Vincent Van Gogh (1853-1890) PE aE) ‘A Figure 2.1 Phases of the Moon. > How would you describe the sequence of pictures of the Moon shown in Figure 2.1?2.1 Sequences and series A sequence ian ordered st of objects with an underlying rule. For example: 2,5,8,11,14 ‘Aeris isthe sum ofthe terms of mumerial sequence: DHSHOHI ELE > How would you describe this sequence? 9 Notation ‘There area number of different notations which are commonly used in ‘writing down sequences and series: >» The terms of a sequence are often written a8 ayy dy + OF ty My My > The general term of a sequence may be written aso, Of, (Sometimes the leters k or 7are used instead of r.) >> The lst cerm is usually written as 6, oF ty » ‘The sum S, ofthe first n terms of a sequence ean be written sing the symbol 5 (the Greek capital, sigma), S,=4,44, +4, +..44, ‘The numbers above and below the E are the limits of the sum. They show thatthe sum inches al theo from a, 0 a, The limits may be omitted if they are obvious, so that you would just write Ea, or you might write Yoo, (meaning the sum oF, foal values of ‘When discussing sequences you may find the following vocabulary helpful: >> In an increasing sequence, eich term is greater than the previous term, >> Ina decreasing sequence, each term is smaller than the previous term, >» In an oscillating sequence, che terms lie above and below a middle umber, >» The terms ofa convergent sequence get closer and closer toa limiting value. Defining sequences (One way to define a sequence is by thinking about the relationship between fone term and the next. Ansiers to exercises are available at wow hoddereducation com feambvidetoas ‘Sauls pue saauanbos |2 SERIES AND INDUCTION ‘The sequence 2, 5,8, 11, 14, .. can be written as j= 2 ¢——T Youneed to say where the sequence starts 1,43. €—— You find each term by adding 3 to the previous term. ‘his is called an inductive definition or term-to-term definition ‘An akernative way to define a sequence isto describe the relationship Deoween the term and its position. Tn thin case, Brod. ‘You can sce that, for example, substituting r= 2 into this definition gives iy = (3X 2) — 1 = 5, which is the second term of the sequence, ‘This is called a deductive definition or position-to-term definition. The series of positive integers (ne ofthe simplest ofl sequences i the sequence of the integer: 1,2,3,4,5,6, ‘As simple as iis it may not be immedistely obvious hovr to calculate the sum ofthe ist few integers for example the sum ofthe fist 100 integers Sra r424...+ 100 (One way of reaching a etal is illustrated below. Spo = 14243+...+ 98499-4100 <——J caltthe sum Sp Rewrite Syqy in reverse Soo = 100499498 +...434241 ‘Adding these wo lines together, by matching up each term with the one below it, produces pairings of 101 each time, while giving you 2599 0n the left-hand side. Sco = 1+ 24 34. #98 +99 +100 Sq = 1004 9+ 98 4.4 3424 1 2Syq = 101 +101+ 101+... +1014 101+ 101 "There are 100 terms on the right-hand side (since you were originally adding 100 terms together) s0 simplify the right-hand side: Sq = 100 % 101 and solve for Sia 28 = 10100 Sa = 5050 ‘The sum ofthe frst 100 integers is 5050,