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3rd International Symposium on Transportation Studies in Developing Countries IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1000 (2022) 012031 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1000/1/012031

Road Infrastructure Deficiency and Road Safety Audit at

Black Spot Area in Rural Road

G Sugiyanto1, R Suciningtyas1, E W Indriyati1, Yanto1, B Mulyono1 and M Y

Santi2
1
Jenderal Soedirman University, Department of Civil Engineering, Purbalingga,
Central Java, Indonesia
2
Health Polytechnic Ministry of Health of Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
[email protected]

Abstract. One of the factors that caused traffic accidents is road infrastructure. Strategies to
minimize the road deficiency infrastructure is implementation of the forgiving road, self-
explaining road, and self-regulating road. The purpose of this study was analyzing the
deficiency of road infrastructure and implementing the road safety audit at black spot areas in
rural areas. Study location in Bojongsari Street, Purbalingga. Parameters that are analyzed in
deficiency of road infrastructure include the road geometric condition, road pavement
performance, and road equipment facilities. Parameters that analyzed in road geometric
condition, namely stopping and passing sight distance, lane width of road, and road shoulder
width. The results of this study show that the highest passing and stopping sight distance of all
vehicles was motorcycles at 304.48 m and 64.67 m. The road pavement performance based on
pavement condition index for the longitudinal/transverse cracking conditions is 94 and for the
lane or shoulder drop-off condition is 77. Recommendations given based on road safety audit
results for road geometric is to improve the road shoulder, for pavement condition improves
shoulder drop-off and longitudinal/transverse cracking. For the road equipment facilities are to
install the maximum speed limit sign of 40 km/h and install the warning sign.

1. Introduction
One of the most important measures for reducing fatalities and minimizing the severity of traffic
accident victims is safe road infrastructure design. Strategies to minimize the deficiency of road
infrastructure, first is forgiving road (roads that are able to minimize the severity of accident victims
when a collision), second is self-explaining road (roads that are able to explain the purpose without
“communication”), and third is self-regulating road (roads that are able to create compliance without
warning) [1]. One of the factors that caused traffic accidents is road infrastructure including the
geometric design, road pavement [2], side friction, and environment. One of the methods to analyze
the infrastructure deficiency is road safety audit. Road safety audit reports on the potential road safety
issues and identifies opportunities for improvements in traffic safety for all road users [3]. Road safety
audit is one of the approaches to improve the traffic safety and reduce the number of traffic accidents
[4-5]. Driving speeds affect the risk of being involved in a crash and the severity of injury. The main
risk factor for the occurrence of accidents in road traffic is speed [6]. The strategies to improve road
safety by applying the safe road infrastructure designs, determining the speed limit of vehicles, system
theory, improved the pavement material [7-8] and assessment [9].
The purpose of this study is to analyze the road infrastructure deficiency black spot area in rural
areas with a case study in Bojongsari Street, Purbalingga. Bojongsari Street is the highest ranked road

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3rd International Symposium on Transportation Studies in Developing Countries IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1000 (2022) 012031 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1000/1/012031

with traffic accidents in Purbalingga District with 20 cases of the accident, 5 deaths and 57 slightly-
injured people [10]. One of the methods that can be used to determine road pavement performance
based on road damage type using pavement condition index (PCI). PCI is a numerical index between 0
to 100 [11]. The PCI rating range and scoring scale can be seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Scoring scale of pavement condition index [11].

2. Method
2.1. Location of the study
The location of the study was in Bojongsari Street, Purbalingga precisely in the connecting line
between Purbalingga and Bobotsari. This road included collector road functions. In this street, the
location of the black spot is located in front of Vocational High School or SMK N 1 Bojongsari.
2.2. Data collection
The number of victims and traffic accident data in Purbalingga District from 1 st January 2016 to 31st
December 2018 were obtained from the Purbalingga Police [10]. Based on the number of traffic
accident data and number of traffic accidents victims then used to determine the black spot location
based on the equivalent accident number (EAN) and upper control limit (UCL) method [12-13]. The
weight of the EAN based on Directorate General of Highways Republic of Indonesia [14] is weight
value 12 for fatality, weight value 3 for a severe-injury and for minor-injuries, weight value 1 for
property damaged only. Road geometric and asphalt pavement conditions were acquired based on field
observation. Speed gun Bushnell is used to obtain the vehicle’s speed. The passing and stopping sight
distance is measured based on the design speed, PIEV time, gravitation acceleration, and the friction
coefficient between tires and road surface.
2.3. Analysis approach
2.3.1. Stopping sight distance
According to the AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials),
“stopping sight distance (SSD) reflects a distance within which a driver can effectively see an object in
the roadway and stop their vehicle before colliding with the object” [15]. The stopping sight distance
declared in meter [16] can be determined by referring to Equation (1).
𝑉𝑅 2
𝑉𝑅 ( )
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 𝑇 + 3.6 (1)
3.6 2𝑔𝑓
with:
VR is design speed in km/h, T is perception, identification, emotion, and volition (PIEV) time (2.5
second), g is gravitation acceleration with a value of 9.8 m/s2, and F is coefficient of friction between
tires and road surface for flexible pavement type 0.35 to 0.55.
2.3.2. Passing sight distance
According to the AASHTO, “passing sight distance (PSD) is the distance that drivers must be able to
see along the road ahead to safely and efficiently initiate and complete passing maneuvers of slower
vehicles on two-lane, two-way highways using the lane normally reserved for opposing traffic” [15].

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3rd International Symposium on Transportation Studies in Developing Countries IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1000 (2022) 012031 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1000/1/012031

“PSD is a consideration along two-lane roads on which drivers may need to assess whether to initiate,
continue, and complete or abort passing maneuvers” [17]. Provision of PSD would need a clear area
inside each curve that would extend beyond the normal right of way line [18-19]. Factors that
influence the passing sight distance were PIEV time and speed of vehicle. There is a relationship
vehicle speed and passing sight distance, higher speed more passing sight distance.

2.3.3. Longitudinal/transverse cracking

Longitudinal/transverse cracking occurs in single or parallel road pavements. The number of total
longitudinal crack length and the width crack was used to classify the severity level. The value of PCI
for longitudinal transverse cracking are determined based on the distress density value for longitudinal
and transverse cracking in percent (%), the deduct value for longitudinal transverse cracking, the total
deduct value, the corrected deduct value (CDV) and the PCI refer to Equation (2).
PCI = 100 - CDV (2)
2.3.4. Lane or shoulder drop-off
Lane or shoulder drop-off is the difference of elevation between pavement edge and road shoulder.
The value of lane or shoulder drop-off is based on the position of road shoulder elevation toward
pavement edge elevation on the right side and the left side then classified as a low, medium, or high
level. The PCI values for shoulder drop-off are determined based on the distress density value for lane
or shoulder drop-off in percent (%), the deduct value for lane or shoulder drop-off, the total deduct
value, the corrected deduct value and the pavement condition index or PCI using the Equation (2).
2.3.5. Road equipment facilities
There are six parameters that are analyzed in road equipment facilities, namely number and condition
of speed limit sign, curve direction sign, warning sign, traffic signals, road marking, and the lightning
condition. The conditions of road markings according to the Ministry of Transportation standard of
road marking PM Number 67, 2018 [20]. Traffic signals, curve direction and warning signs according
to standard signs of Ministry of Transportation PM Number 13, 2014 [21].

3. Result and discussion

3.1 Condition road geometric and speed of vehicle
3.1.1 Condition of road geometric
Bojongsari Street Purbalingga, Central Java is a collector road with two lanes two way without median
or undivided (2/2 UD). Road width is 8.0 m (2 x 4.0 m) with the road shoulder width of 100 cm. The
road shoulder of the side from Bobotsari direction has a width of 2.5 m while for the side of the
direction of Purbalingga the road width is 2.9 m. But from the road shoulder width, only 1.0 m can be
used because of the side obstacles or hazards in the form of quite a lot of trees and street vendors.
Bojongsari Street does not have sidewalks and road medians. The type of pavement is flexible
pavement. Road markings are in good condition. Land use around the road in the form of houses and
residents' shops and shops. Furthermore, the difference between elevation of pavement edge and road
shoulder is 13 cm on the right side and 3 cm on the left side. The standard of road shoulder width is
minimum 150 cm and width of road is 600 cm [22].
3.1.2 Speed of vehicle, passing and stop sight distance
Vehicles speed data was distributed into seven types of vehicles. Passing and stopping sight distance
of each vehicle were measured based on the design speed of the road and vehicle's maximum speed
[23]. Total vehicles taken in the field survey is 215 vehicles, with an S-curve of vehicle speed can be
seen in Figure 2.
Based on Figure 2, 90% of motorcycles, 76% of passenger cars (PC), 50% of large trucks (LT),
40% of pick-up, 30% of large bus (LB), 20% of micro bus (MB) and 20% of light truck (LT) exceed
the maximum speed limit in the field as many as 40 km/h. The higher speed the more accidents [23-
24]. Woolley et al. [25] and Qu et al. [26] discuss impact of lower speed limit in fuel consumption.

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3rd International Symposium on Transportation Studies in Developing Countries IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1000 (2022) 012031 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1000/1/012031

MC PC PICK-UP LT HT MB LB

Figure 2. S-curve of vehicle speed and the speed limit in Bojongsari Street.
The highest speed of all vehicles was motorcycle at 73 km/h. The maximum speed of each vehicle
was large bus at 63 km/h, pick-ups at 61 km/h, passenger cars at 55 km/h, light trucks at 48 km/h,
heavy trucks at 44 km/h, and micro bus at 44 km/h. The maximum speed for all type vehicles in
Bojongsari Street is 73 km/h. Based on a speed survey in the field using speed gun Bushnell, the
average speed of motorcycle at 51 km/h, passenger car at 44 km/h, pick up and large bus at 40 km/h,
heavy truck at 38 km/h, light truck at 36 km/h, and microbus at 35 km/h. Statistical analysis of vehicle
speeds results, include the mean of speed, mode of speed, median of speed, variance of speed, a
standard deviation of speed, the amount of data, and 15th, 50th, and 85th percentiles for each type of
vehicles in Bojongsari Street is shown in Table 1. Passing and stopping sight distance for each vehicle
type in Bojongsari Street can be seen in Table 2.
Table 1. Statistical analysis of vehicle speed in Bojongsari Street
Passenger Pick- Light Heavy Micro Large
Analysis of statistical Motorcycles
cars ups trucks trucks bus bus
Mean of speed (km/h) 51 44 40 36 38 35 40
Modus of speed (km/h) 48 40 29 34 43 30 32
Median of speed (km/h) 51 44 37 35 41 36 39
Variance of speed (km/h) 65 29 91 29 46 33 89
Standard deviation (km/h) 8 5 10 5 7 6 14
Amount of data (n) 75 50 30 30 10 10 10
Minimum speed (km/h) 31 32 26 25 27 25 20
Maximum speed (km/h) 73 55 61 48 44 42 63
Percentile 15th 43 39 28 30 27 29 26
(km/h) 50th 51 44 40 36 38 35 40
85th 58 51 50 42 42 40 56

Based on Table 2, the highest passing and stopping sight distance of all vehicles was motorcycles
at 304.48 m and 64.67 m. The lowest passing and stopping sight distance of all vehicles was microbus
at 214.80 m and 38.08 m.
Table 2. Stopping and passing sight distance in Bojongsari Street
Type of vehicle Stopping sight distance/SSD (m) Passing sight distance/PSD (m)
Motorcycles 64.67 304.48
Passenger cars 52.33 265.24
Pick-up 45.77 242.83
Micro bus 38.08 214.80
Large bus 45.77 242.83
Light trucks 39.58 220.41
Heavy trucks 42.63 231.62

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3rd International Symposium on Transportation Studies in Developing Countries IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1000 (2022) 012031 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1000/1/012031

3.2 Condition of road pavement

3.2.1 Longitudinal/transverse cracking
Along 350 m, total longitudinal crack length in Bojongsari Street was 45 m with the width crack < 5
mm, which was in low severity level (L level). The Bojongsari Street width is 8.0 m. Based on the
total longitudinal crack length 45 m and width crack is <5 m, the value of PCI for longitudinal
transverse cracking are determined as follows:
a. The distress density value for longitudinal/transverse cracking is {(45)/(8x350)}x 100% = 1.607%.
b. Based on Figure 3, with the distress density value is 1.607% and the width of cracks < 5 mm (low
severity level or L level), the deduct value for longitudinal transverse cracking is 5.
c. Along the 350 m road section that wasn’t divided into several unit segments, total deduct value 5.
d. Based on Figure 4, the CDV with the total deduct value for longitudinal/transverse cracking is 5
and the road section that is not divided into several unit segments or q = 1 is 6.
e. The pavement condition index or PCI = 100 - CDV = 100 - 6 = 94. The PCI for the
longitudinal/transverse cracking in Bojongsari Street of 94, included in good condition (86-100).

Figure 3. Relationship distress density and the deduct value for longitudinal transverse cracking [11].

3.2.2 Lane or shoulder drop-off

In Bojongsari Street, the position of road shoulder elevation toward pavement edge elevation is 13 cm
on the right side, which is classified as medium level. The shoulder drop-off on the left side of the
road is 3 cm. This happens because the pavement is overlay while the road shoulder elevation is still
constant. The difference of elevation between pavement edge and road shoulder (shoulder drop-off) in
Bojongsari Street can be seen in Figure 5.

Figure 4. Total deduct value and corrected deduct value for roads and parking lots: asphalt [11].

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3rd International Symposium on Transportation Studies in Developing Countries IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1000 (2022) 012031 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1000/1/012031

Figure 5. Shoulder drop-off in Bojongsari Street, Purbalingga.

The PCI values for shoulder drop-off in Bojongsari Street are determined as follows:
a. The distress density value for lane or shoulder drop-off is {(350) / (8.0 x 350)} x 100% = 12.50%.
b. Based on Figure 6, the distress density value is 12.50 % and the different elevation of pavement
edge and road shoulder is 13 cm which is classified as medium severity or M level, the deduct
value for lane or shoulder drop-off is 23.
c. Along the 350 m road section Bojongsari Street not divided into unit segments or q = 1, the total
deduct value is the same as the deduct value is 23.
d. Based on Figure 4, the corrected deduct value (CDV) with the total deduct value is 23 and the road
section reviewed not divided into several unit segments or q = 1 is 23.
e. Pavement condition index or PCI = 100 - CDV = 100 - 23 = 77. The PCI value for the lane or
shoulder drop-off condition in Bojongsari Street is 77, included in satisfactory condition (71-85).

Figure 6. Relationship distress density and deducts value for lane or shoulder drop-off [11].
3.3 Road equipment facilities
The conditions of road markings on Bojongsari Street are quite good according to the Ministry of
Transportation standard of road marking PM Number 67, 2018 [20]. Lighting of streets in the field is
sufficient with the average distance between lighting lamps is 50 m, not in accordance with the
standard requirements is 48 m. Traffic signals, curve direction and warning signs in the field are very
lacking with standard signs of Ministry of Transportation PM Number 13, 2014 [21].
3.4 Road safety
In this study, there are three parameters that are analyzed include condition of road geometric,
condition of road pavement and harmonization of road equipment facilities. Parameters that analyzed
in road geometric condition, namely stopping and passing sight distance, lane width of road, and road
shoulder width [27]. Analysis of road infrastructure deficiencies for the pavement condition covers
two indicators namely longitudinal/transverse cracking and the difference between elevation of
pavement edge and road shoulder (lane or shoulder drop-off). The standard for lane or shoulder drop-
off is determined using two values, based on pavement condition index in the amount of 85 and based
on the difference between elevation of pavement edge and road shoulder < 1 cm.

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3rd International Symposium on Transportation Studies in Developing Countries IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1000 (2022) 012031 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1000/1/012031

Parameters that analyzed in road equipment facilities includes six aspects namely number and the
condition of speed limit sign, number and the condition of curve direction sign, number and the
condition of warning sign, the availability of traffic signal sign, the availability and condition of road
markings, and road lightning condition and distance between the road lightning. Three categories of
victims are fatality, severe injured, and slightly injured [28]. Based on the data on the causes of traffic
accidents, it is found that the parameters that cause the victim to die are stopping sight distance,
passing sight distance, road shoulder width, longitudinal and transverse cracking, lane or shoulder
drop-off, and road equipment facilities (speed limit sign, warning sign, and traffic signal sign).
The measurement results of three parameters and the severity rates of casualties in Bojongsari
Street shown in Table 3. RSA results include the probability value, severity level, risk valuation and
the recommendations to increased traffic safety shown in Table 4.
Table 3. Analysis of infrastructure deficiency and severity rates of casualties in Bojongsari Street
Parameter and criteria Measurement Deviation Fata- Severe Minor
No. Standard
(unit) results (%) lity injured injured
I. Road geometric condition
1. Stopping sight distance (SSD)
SSD of motorcycles (m) 75 64.67 13.37 1 0 4
SSD of passenger cars (m) 75 52.33 30.23 0 0 2
SSD of pick-up (m) 75 45.77 38.97 0 0 0
SSD of microbus (m) 75 38.08 49.22 0 0 1
SSD of large bus (m) 75 45.77 38.97 1 0 3
SSD of light truck (m) 75 39.58 47.23 0 0 1
SSD of heavy truck (m) 75 42.63 43.16 0 0 1
2. Passing sight distance (PSD)
PSD of motorcycles (m) 350 304.48 13.01 1 0 5
PSD of passenger cars (m) 350 265.24 24.22 1 0 3
PSD of pick-up (m) 350 242.83 30.62 0 0 2
PSD of micro bus (m) 350 214.80 38.63 0 0 1
PSD of large bus (m) 350 242.83 30.62 1 0 2
PSD of light truck (m) 350 220.41 37.03 0 0 1
PSD of heavy truck (m) 350 231.62 33.83 0 0 1
3. Road lane width (m) 3.00 4.00 -33.33 0 0 0
4. Road shoulder width (m) 1.50 1.00 33.33 1 0 0
II. Road pavement performance
1. Longitudinal and transverse cracking 85 94 -10.59 1 0 1
2. Lane or shoulder drop-off (PCI) 85 77 9.41
2 0 1
Lane or shoulder drop-off (cm) < 1 cm 13 cm -1200
III. Road equipment facilities
1. Number of speed limit sign1) Min. 1 0 -100
2 0 4
Condition of Speed limit sign (%) 100 0 -100
2. Number of curve direction sign Min. 3 0 -100
0 0 4
Condition of curve direction sign (%) 100 0 -100
3. Number of warning sign Min. 1 0 -100
1 0 3
Condition of warning sign (%) 100 0 -100
4. Availability of traffic signal sign Available No -100 1 0 1
5. Availability of road markings2) Available Available 0
0 0 1
Condition of road markings (%) 100 85 -15
6. Distance between the road lightning (m) Min. 48 50 -4.17
0 0 1
Condition of road lightning (%) 100 100 0
1)
: Ministry of Transportation Republic of Indonesia, PM Number 13, 2014 [21].
2)
: Ministry of Transportation Republic of Indonesia, PM Number 67, 2018 [20].

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 3rd International Symposium on Transportation Studies in Developing Countries IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1000 (2022) 012031 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1000/1/012031

Table 4. Road Safety Audit Result and Recommendation in Bojongsari Street, Purbalingga
Probability Severity Risk Recommendations to improve road
No. Parameter value level valuation
Risk category
safety
I. Road geometric condition
1. Stopping sight distance 2 100 200 Medium Passive response
2. Passing sight distance 2 100 200 Medium Passive response
3. Road lane width 0 0 0 Negligible Passive response
4. Road shoulder width 2 100 200 Medium Improve shoulder to 150 cm wide
(increased 50 cm).
II. Road pavement performance
1. Longitudinal or transverse 0 100 0 Negligible Passive response
cracking
2. Shoulder drop-off 5 100 500 Extreme Immediate response. Improve the road
shoulder construction and increase the
construction thickness of the shoulder
parallel to the road pavement elevation.
III. Road equipment facilities
1. Speed limit sign 5 100 500 Extreme Immediate response. Install the
maximum speed limit sign 40 km/h
2. Curve direction sign 5 10 50 Low Monitoring. Install the curve direction
sign and guardrail along the curve.
3. Warning sign 5 100 500 Extreme Immediate response. Install the warning
sign along with black spot location.
4. Traffic signal sign 5 100 500 Extreme Immediate response. Install the warning
light sign.
5. Road marking 1 10 10 Negligible Passive response
6. Road lightning 1 10 10 Negligible Passive response
The analysis result of road infrastructure deficiency and RSA in Bojongsari Street as follows:
a. Road geometric infrastructure deficiencies. The stopping and passing sight distance is in the
medium risk category with risk valuation value is 200 and passive response. Road lane width is in
the negligible category. Road shoulder width in the fair risk category with the risk valuation value
is 200. The recommendation to improve road safety is to increase the road shoulder to150 cm width
(increased 50 cm) along Bojongsari Street.
b. Road pavement infrastructure deficiencies. The shoulder drop-off entering into the extreme risk
category with the risk valuation is 500. The recommendation is to increase the construction
thickness parallel to the pavement.
c. Road equipment facilities. Three parameters or criterias categorized in very dangerous or extreme
risk i.e.: the warning sign, the speed limit and traffic signals signs. The recommendation to improve
road safety is install the maximum speed limit sign of 40 km/h to guide the road user, install the
warning sign along with black site in Bojongsari Street and install the traffic signal sign (install the
warning light one phase or two phases). The road marking and road lightning entering in negligible
risk category or passive response.
Sight distance is one of the important areas in highway geometric design [17]. The capacity of a
two-lane, two-way road is increased if a large percentage of the roadway’s length can be used for
passing maneuvers [29-31]. Based on the research Yang et al. in 2015 [32] and Sugiyanto et al. [33-
34], road users evaluate their travel cost in terms of travel time, crash risk and speeding. Traffic safety
and security is very important in infrastructure development [35]. High speeds and speeding trigger
crash frequency [36]. The other study, speeding increases the risk of crash occurrence and severity of
traffic accident victims [37]. Installing the speed camera can decrease exceeding the speed limit
because the driver views on the speed and enforcement [38]. In the other study by Illahi et al. in 2020
[39] that utilizes the Geographic Information System tools and extraction of a map delineating the

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3rd International Symposium on Transportation Studies in Developing Countries IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1000 (2022) 012031 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1000/1/012031

high-risk priority zones. A majority of the drivers considered breaking the speed limit as a way to
reduce their travel time [40].

4 Conclusion and further research

Based on the results of road infrastructure deficiency in Bojongsari Street, the following conclusion
can be drawn: the highest speed of all vehicles was motorcycle at 73 km/h, the highest passing and
stopping sight distance of all vehicles was motorcycle at 304.48 m and 64.67 m. The PCI for the
longitudinal/transverse cracking conditions is 94 and for the lane/shoulder drop-off condition is 77.
The further research is focused on determining the maximum speed limit value of the vehicle.
Vehicle speed limit is determined based on vehicle type and land use, such as educational areas,
residential areas, industrial areas and central business district. The maximum speed limit values are
differentiated for 2-wheeled vehicles and 4-wheeled vehicles or more.

Acknowledgments
“The authors fully acknowledged the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research and Technology
Republic of Indonesia for the approved fund of Basic Research”.
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