Global Program

Management
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Paula Wagner, MBA, PMP, has more than 20 years of
business experience in technology, strategy, and planning.
As a long time Turner Broadcasting employee, her experi-
ence encompasses leading multimillion-dollar cutting-edge
technology projects, research and development, long-range
technology planning, business planning and development,
financial management and forecasting, and process
engineering. Ms. Wagner teaches project, program, and
portfolio management at DeVry/Keller Graduate School
of Management.

Bruce T. Barkley is a former federal senior executive, vice

president of The Learning Group Corporation, and program
analyst in the federal Office of Management and Budget. He
is a former faculty member at the University of Maryland
University College and now serves on the senior faculty at
DeVry/Keller Graduate School of Management. Mr. Barkley
is the author of Project Risk Management, Integrated Project
Management, Customer-Driven Project Management with
James H. Saylor (translated into Chinese), and Project
Management in New Product Development, all published by
McGraw-Hill.
Global Program
Management

Paula Wagner, MBA, PMP

Bruce T. Barkley

New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London

Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan
Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto
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 Contents

Introduction xv

Chapter 1. The Global Setting for Program Management 1

Introduction 1
Global Forces 2
Strengthening the Business for Global Project Delivery 3
Global Mission 3
Global Vision 6
Global Strategic Management 8
Global Values 9
Global Goals 10
Developing a global strategic plan 10
Global strategy 11
Setting global objectives 11
Crafting a global strategy 12
Implement and execute the global strategy through portfolios,
programs, and projects 13
Evaluate and align performance 13
Industry and global competitive analysis 14
Organization’s internal factors 16
SWOT 17
Strategic cost analysis 18
Benchmarking 19
Competitive advantage and strategy 19
Alliances and collaborative partnerships 20
Merger and acquisition strategies 21
Outsourcing 21
Global competitive strategies 21
Location, location, location 23
Profit sanctuaries 24
Critical markets 24
Other strategies 24
Diversification strategies 26
Summary 26

Chapter 2. The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 29

Introduction 29

v
vi Contents

What Is Program Management? 29

Project Management Institute 30
Relationships with Other Project Standards 33
The Role of the Program Manager 34
Benefits management 36
Program stakeholder management 38
Program governance 40
The skills of a program manager 41
External Program Elements 43
Program Life Cycle 44
Program formulation 45
Program delivery of benefits 45
Program closeout 45
Program management processes 46
Initiation process 53
Planning process 56
Develop program requirements 59
Develop program architecture 60
Develop program work breakdown structure
(PWBS) 60
Develop program management plan 62
Develop program infrastructure 63
Develop program schedule 65
Plan communications 66
Plan program risk management 68
Plan program procurements 73
Financial plans 75
Estimate program costs 76
Budget program costs 78
Plan program stakeholder management 79
Identify program stakeholders 80
Program governance structure 83
Plan for audits 84
Plan for program quality 85
Executing process 86
Manage program architecture 89
Manage component interfaces 90
Engage program stakeholders 95
Approve component initiation 96
Monitoring and Controlling Process Group 97
Monitor and control program performance 97
Manage program issues 99
Monitor and control program scope 100
Monitor and control program schedule 101
Report program performance 102
Monitor and control program risks 104
Administer program procurements 105
Monitor and control program financials 106
Manage program stakeholder expectations 108
Provide governance oversight 110
Manage program benefits 111
Monitor and control program changes 113
Closing Process Group 114
Close program 114
Close program procurements 116
Approve component transition 117
 Contents vii

The Importance of Program Management Support Systems 121

The program management office (PMO) 121
Human resources 122
Information technology 123
Facilities and supplies 123
Customers and new product design 123
Local regulation 123
Procurement 123
Communication/translation 124
Demographics/culture 125
Quality 126
Economics of scale 126
Other Considerations 127
More on outsourcing 127
Administrative support 127
More on human resources 127
Integration in global and international programs 127
Tools in building an integrated program management system 128
Building an organization-wide global program management system 128
Program/portfolio planning and development system 130
Resource management system 131
Program information technology system 131
Product/service development process 132
Interface management 132
Program monitoring and control system 133
Change management system 134
Program evaluation system 134
Limitations of integrated program management systems 134
Microsoft program support for program management 135
WBS and task outline 135
Integrating programs in Microsoft Project 139
Summing up the Microsoft Project integration function 141
Tools used to build an integrated program management system 141
Implementing a global PMO 141
Building a PMO 142
Organizational needs identification 143
Analyze and prioritize 144
Build a plan of action/PMO charter 144
Gain support 146
Implement the plan 146
Report status 147
Continuous improvement process 147
Value of a PMO 148
Structure of the PMO 149
Roles and responsibilities of the PMO team 149
Maturity model of a PMO 150
Summary 150

Chapter 3. Global Portfolio Management Strategies 153

Introduction 153
The Global Portfolio 153
Programs as Unifying and Organizational Themes 153
A World Without a Program and Project Portfolio and Program
Management System 155
Portfolio Development 156
viii Contents

What Is Portfolio Management? 157

Why Are Portfolios Needed? 159
Developing a Portfolio Process 160
Portfolio Process 162
Phased-in process 162
Standards 162
Continuous improvement 163
Portfolio process management 163
Project portfolio benefits 170
How Portfolios, Programs, and Project Management Relate 172
Global project portfolios 173
Programs in a portfolio world 173
Goals of a project portfolio 173

Chapter 4. Global Program Management Strategies 181

Introduction 181
Western Technologies: A Typical Global Corporation and a Framework for
Linking Program Management to Business Strategy 182
How does Western manage this process? 185
Western’s approach to program management 186
The Eastern Case: Another Global Project Company 188
Background 189
Risk-based strategy and program development 190
Eight strategies and key measurements 193
Overview 194
Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats 195
Eastern’s strategic plan 197
Underlying elements of the risk-based strategic plan 198
Measures of effectiveness 199
Communicating strategy and risk 207
Program development 209
The Alignment of Programs with Strategic Objectives 213
Programs Are Organizational Commitments 213
Postscript 215

Chapter 5. Global Program Risk Management 217

Introduction 217
Program Risk 217
Risk Management 219
Sample program risk matrix 221
Program Risk Management According to PMI 224
Issues involved with program risk 224
Risk Management Planning 228
Inputs to risk management planning 229
Issues not addressed in PMBOK 230
Tools and techniques for risk management planning 231
Outputs from risk management planning 231
Risk Identification 232
Inputs to risk identification 232
Project planning outputs 232
Risk categories 233
Tools and techniques for risk identification 234
Outputs from risk identification 235
 Contents ix

Qualitative Risk Analysis 235

Inputs to qualitative risk analysis 235
Tools and techniques for qualitative risk analysis 236
Outputs from qualitative risk analysis 236
Quantitative Risk Analysis 237
Inputs to quantitative analysis 237
Tools and techniques for quantitative risk analysis 237
Outputs from quantitative risk analysis 237
Risk Response Planning 238
Inputs to risk response planning 238
Tools and techniques for risk response planning 238
Outputs from risk response planning 239
Risk Monitoring and Control 239
Inputs to risk monitoring and control 239
Tools and techniques for risk monitoring and control 240
Outputs from risk monitoring and control 240

Chapter 6. The Global Program Manager 241

Introduction 241
The Global Program Manager 241
The Global Program Manager “Job Description” 242
General responsibilities 242
Specific responsibilities 242
Skills and attributes 243
Global Program Management: What Does It Really Involve? 244
Implement business strategy: make the business case for the program and
assure alignment 244
Create a program workforce, team, and support system for results 244
Acquire program resources and funding 244
Interface with program stakeholders and sponsors 244
Ensure effective planning, scheduling, budgeting, monitoring,
and review 245
Build a supporting global program network 245
Balance program discipline with innovation and creativity 245
Program Managers versus Single Project Managers 245
The Transition to Program Manager 247
Global Reference of Program Management 248
Program Reference 248
Explanation of Concept 248
Program Manager Competencies 248
Training the Global Program Manager 250
Language, diversity, and codes and symbols of the global culture 250
Single and multiple project management systems 250
Global program portfolio planning, delivery systems, and issues 251
Technology developments relevant to the program 251
Business support functions and operations 251
Managing Virtual Teams and the Technology 251
Negotiating Skills 252
Contracts 252
Using International Culture Codes 253
Global Schedule Conflicts and Negotiations: A Global Website
Design Case 254
Background 254
Project schedule 254
x Contents

Program manager’s decision 255

Assumptions 255
Earned value calculations 256
Negotiating from Interests 257
Scheduling: What Is the Program Manager Competency? 257
Cost estimating and earned value 258
Resourcing 258
Quality 260
Managing Conflict and Risk Globally 261
Global time management and the issue of time zones 261
Strategic leadership 263
Ethics and morals in a global context 263
Administrative issues; nuts and bolts of the global program manager position 264
Getting reports from project managers and rolling them up for executives 266
Communications 266
Assembling the right team in a virtual context 266
Reviewing/feedback to project managers/coaching 267
Motivating people in a global program 267
Business savvy 268
Office politics 268
Scheduling and resource planning for outsourcing 268
Scrubbing the schedule 270
Baselining the schedule 270
Managing schedules on the network 271
Resource planning for outsourced activity 272
Preparing staffing policy and plans 272
Resource planning: rules of thumb 274
Preparing program budgets 274
Roles in the Program Management Process 275
Departmental and Functional Manager Roles 277
Risk Management Plan 278
Program review and monitoring 278
Program team roles 278
Program review and monitoring and the senior management role 280
Senior Management Roles: Creating the Conditions for
Project Success 281
What Are the Typical Project Management Windows for Program Review? 282
Introduction to phase 1 283
Introduction to phase 2 284
Introduction to phase 3 286
Introduction to phase 4 287
Sample tools 290
Summing Up: 10 Key Roles of the Program Manager 292
What Does the Program Manager Expect from Project Managers? 293
What about project team members? 294
Program Manager Review Agenda 294
Sample Program Review Questionnaire 295
Program Management Information System 296
Procedures for Schedule Tracking and Reporting 296
Program tracking information 297
Program Review Meetings and Reports 299
Reports, meetings, and documentation 300
Issues in program management improvement 300
Design and follow consistent planning procedures 300
Monitor baseline #1 300
 Contents xi

Monitor against baseline or current 301

Report consistently 301
Network Information Exchange 301
Program managers and workforce planning 301
Feedback 302
Training and professional development 303

Chapter 7. Partnerships, Contracts, and Procurement 305

Introduction 305
Innovation and Outsourcing 306
Developing partnerships and supplier relationships 306
Licensing and other program issues overseas 308
The global avionics program management case 308
Postscript 310
Doing good with program management: collaborative programs targeting
international social development 310
What is a program in these cases? 310
Program strategy 311
Benefits management 311
Program governance 311
Strategic partnerships and stakeholder management 311
Program design 311
Lessons learned 312
Classic program manager role in procurement 312
Procurement process and program manager roles 313
Organizational interrelationships and interfaces 313
Interface with procurement 315
Other program manager procurement issues in
a global context 315
A case: airport designer dumped 316
Make-or-buy decisions 318
Types of contracts used in local markets 319
Doing business internationally 319
Finding drivers of competition worldwide 322
Program contract management and risk 323
Risk and Types of Contracts 323
Global e-procurement 324
Downside risks of global program e-procurement 325
Open-ended global collaboration on the Internet 325
Summary 326

Chapter 8. Federal Program Management 327

Introduction 327
What’s Wrong with Federal Program Management? 327
What is wrong? 328
What kind of change? 330
What Is Real Program Transparency? 330
Coordinating Federal Program Management 331
A new Office of Federal Innovative Management in the Executive Office
of the President 331
Global Reference 331
Program Reference 332
Explanation of concept 332
xii Contents

Structural Change 333

Past approaches to management reform 334
Resurrecting a Reagan administration proposal 335
Functions of OFIM 337
Program planning and evaluation 338
Common program and project management methodology 338
Energy independence: a case example and an introduction to the concept 339
Global reference 339
What Happens in the Real World of Federal Program Managers? 339
Program reference 340
Energy independence/clean fuels program strategy and program objectives 341
OFIM Program Role in Energy Independence 341
OFIM Involvement in Heath Care Reform 342
Federal Agency Portfolio Management 342
Federal Agency Program Management Systems, Tools, and Techniques 342
Promoting innovation in federal programs 343
New organizational structure for new programs 343
Curbing new unaligned programs 344
New programs and outsourcing 344
Organizational learning 344
Six key strategies to create innovation in federal program management 345
Remove barriers to the generation of new ideas 345
Promote return on innovation and creativity 345
Paradigms as barriers to new programs and services 346
Provide a system of information and feedback on current programs and services 346
Create a positive place for new ideas to incubate 346
Generate a process of filtering, evaluating, and transitioning new ideas
into a portfolio and program development process 346
Create real agency program management success stories 347
The Structure of a Federal Energy Independence Program 347
A Customer-Driven Public/Private Partnership 347
Performance Budgeting and Energy Independence 348
Coordinating Agency Program Setup 348
Integration as a Leadership Function 350
Integration as a Wide-Ranging Quality and Process Improvement Standard 350
Tools in building an integrated federal program management system 351
Summary 358

Chapter 9. New Global Program Development 359

Introduction 359
What Have We Learned about New Global Program Management? 359
Generating Creative Program Concepts 364
New organizational structure for new programs 364
New products and outsourcing 365
Restructuring for global program management 365
Examining competencies and outcomes 365
The Broadband Case: An Application 365
Strategic global objectives 366
Global program development 366
Global portfolio of projects 366
Global program manager 367
Global program benefits 367
Calculating rate of return 367
 Contents xiii

Global partnering and strategic alliances 368

Global transparency 368
Government relations 368
Regulatory issues 368
Culture and language issues 368
Equipment production and delivery 368
Education content censorship 369
Summary 369

Appendix A. Program Risk Management Checklist 371

Appendix B. Microsoft Applications for Program Management 379

Project Consolidation to Create Programs 379
Project Server for Program Support 379
A Word of Caution 380

Appendix C. Global Project Management Strategies in a Program

Management World 381
Project Management 381
Global Reference 382
The program world 382
Explanation of Concept 383
Definition of a project 383
The purpose of a project 384
Deeper Understanding—Strategy of Use 385
Project management process 385
Work breakdown structure 388
Time management 388
Risk plan 389
Cost management 389
Project team offsite 390
Project life cycle 390
Project process groups 391
Throughout the phases 394
Project plan 394
How are projects selected? 395
Knowledge and maturity 396
Maturity model benefits 399
Triple play of constraints 399
Project manager 403
Sponsor 409
Customer 409
Project engineer 409
Functional manager 409
Contract administrator 410
Stakeholders 410

Index 413
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 Introduction

Global program management involves directing the design, development, deliv-

ery, and monitoring of major, long-term business or agency initiatives in coun-
tries and communities that are foreign to the home country. The setting for
global program management is worldwide. To be successful, the process requires
an extraordinary degree of leadership, organization, communication, and tech-
nical and managerial competence and agility, along with a keen sensitivity to
foreign markets, cultures, and values—and a little luck.
Two major developments spurred us on in the development of this book: the
Project Management Institute’s (PMI) recent publication of the first Standard
for Program Management—expanding the narrow concept of “projects” to a more
realistic and longer-term context for achieving major benefits—and the expansion
and dynamics of the global economy generated by new communication technolo-
gies and international trade policies. PMI’s new standard is broad and compre-
hensive, and provides a new framework for generating and nesting projects in
a more strategic and global program framework. And the forces of the global
economy now exhibit themselves in a wide variety of products and services as the
world becomes flat, as described by Thomas Friedman in The World Is Flat, and
barriers to global marketing and business development disappear.

Flow of This Book

Our book reflects the movement of the field to a broader and more enterprise-
wide perspective.
Chapter 1, “The Global Setting for Program Management,” provides an initial
look at the organizational and global setting for program management, includ-
ing the process of strategic business and agency planning for global success.
Chapter 2, “The Standard for Program Management According to PMI,”
is a specific and targeted discussion of the new PMI Standard for Program
Management, a useful reference for those who seek and/or maintain the new
PMI program certification or who simply want to know about the program
standard for their own career and/or company development. This chapter also

xv
xvi Introduction

includes a detailed discussion of the role of the program management office as

an integral part of the program standard.
Chapter 3, “Global Portfolio Management Strategies,” discusses the develop-
ment of strategies, programs, and candidate projects into a strategic portfolio of
projects. The chapter addresses the portfolio development process to ensure that
the right projects are generated, chosen, funded, and delivered in the context of
broad program benefits and goals worldwide.
Chapter 4, “Global Program Management Strategies,” further addresses the
process through which companies align their strategies and programs to ensure
success, profitability, and program benefits. The chapter also discusses two
generic cases: Western Inc. and Eastern Inc.
Chapter 5, “Global Program Risk Management,” provides a discussion of
program-level risk and how risk is assessed, monitored, and mitigated on a
program scale.
Chapter 6, “The Global Program Manager,” addresses the characteristics and
leadership competencies of program managers who do business globally.
Chapter 7, “Partnerships, Contracts, and Procurement,” emphasizes the
process through which global companies find and secure partners to provide
program support and supply chain benefits.
Chapter 8, “Federal Program Management,” a specialized chapter, discusses
applications or project management in the federal sector, including a proposed
new Office of Federal Innovative Management in the Executive Office of the
President.
Chapter 9, “New Global Program Development,” a special-case application,
is a focused discussion of how new products can be encouraged and developed
in a program framework.
Appendix A, “Program Risk Management Checklist,” is a practice checklist for
program managers to ensure that risks are anticipated and managed. Appendix
B, “Microsoft Applications for Program Management,” provides a short discus-
sion of how Microsoft Project can support global program management. Finally,
Appendix C, “Global Project Management Strategies in a Program Management
World,” supplies refresher information on project management concepts and also
how they integrate with program management.

The Global Setting

Program managers face challenges globally in five distinct categories: technical,
regulatory/legal, political, economic, and social/cultural.

Technical.Technology is linking economies and customers together so that

communication is no longer a major barrier to doing business in foreign
countries.
Regulatory/legal. Local laws and regulations govern the design and devel-
opment of markets and programs, thus complicating the process of program
management across national borders.
 Introduction xvii

Political. Varying levels of political stability and unrest generate risks and
threats to successful program development and delivery, thus adding uncer-
tainty to programs already characterized by a creative and changing develop-
ment process.
Economic. Economic conditions, currency values, and pricing issues are faced
by program managers as they attempt to estimate program costs and deliver
on time and within budget.
Social/cultural. Language and cultural differences generate major chal-
lenges as programs are delivered in countries whose values and lifestyles
vary widely.

The Program Management Setting

The setting of this book is the program, not individual projects. This means that
one must conceptualize at a higher level or abstraction and a higher level of
business/agency planning and management to understand broader, program-
level strategies, goals, objectives, and projects. It is the difference between
NASA’s shuttle program and a particular part of the program to develop alter-
native fuel safety systems. It is the difference between Alcatel’s global cable
development program and a component project to develop a seagoing vehicle
for laying oceanic cable. It is the difference between targeting a company’s
resources in a particular part of the world to increase market share and a spe-
cific marketing project to elicit local values and needs.
The setting of this book is benefits, not project outputs. Programs create long-
term benefits—e.g., NASA creates a Space Shuttle competency and technology
transfer program that makes major contributions to space science and domestic
science and technology; a platform for Internet operations around the world is
created and the groundwork for flexible expansion of cable-based or satellite-
based communications and data flows is established; jobs for poor people in
Africa are created by establishing a series of individual training and technology
projects throughout the continent.

The Business Setting

Program management is a part of a total business strategy and support system;
thus, successful program management starts with a solid business structure and
competency. Good global business planning creates programs and projects that
can deliver on longer-term business goals and objectives, and good operational
planning provides the production facilities and program and project support
systems so that businesses can be delivered anywhere in the world. Program
managers are business officers who see the big picture in their companies or
agencies, understand where the organization is going, and can link planning to
solid operations and program development.
xviii Introduction

Seven Principles
We identify seven key principles that seem to be associated with successful
global program management at the operational level:

1. Tight central control of quality and cost. Because so many forces are work-
ing against consistency and working toward fragmentation of an agency’s
global outreach, the global enterprise administering programs must ensure
discipline and tight control of quality, and it must exercise tight cost control
to ensure long-term profitability.
2. Loose guidance on local operations, team relationships, and schedules. Here,
the global enterprise ensures that headquarters decisions and biases do not
dominate local delivery of programs. Because those closest to program deliv-
ery in foreign environments are better able to translate programs to local
conditions and needs, central program management must loosen the reins
on team operations, schedules, and contracting. The key is leadership and
vision, but not micromanagement.
3. Liberal approach to changes and shifts in program and project scopes of work.
Central program managers must create agile programs; they have to let go
in a way that is not characteristic of the traditional project management
process. Because scopes of work and other program components are subject
to more complex and unanticipated forces in a global context, local changes
and views must not only be tolerated, but also encouraged. This will come
hard to some program managers, who are accustomed to locking into up-front
schedules and costs as if they were the gospel.
4. Complete understanding of local regulatory, safety, and public policy dynam-
ics. Global program managers must know the local lay of the land and provide
useful guidance for local program team members to interpret and translate
program interests into local initiatives. A thorough understanding of local
governmental and regional (e.g., European Union) policies is essential to good
global program management.
5. Establishment of locally empowered program and project teams. Teams must be
set up to perform locally and have enough delegation of power and responsibility
to make necessary changes to program and project elements to succeed locally.
Program managers in New York cannot run their program to create a local
food processing plant and delivery system in Munich; they must have people in
Munich who understand the local context for program development.
6. In-depth risk assessment of key program and project activities in the context
of local conditions. Risk potentials are higher and more consequential in
global program operations; implications of program and project failure are
more severe. Things can get bad very fast, driven by forces often out of control
of the program manager and even the local team. Of course, with more risk
comes more opportunity, since successful mitigation of risk often opens up
new markets and business opportunity.
 Introduction xix

7. Direct liaison with home-based governmental and diplomatic circles to ensure

consistency with national intents. Central program managers have to keep on
top of changes and dynamics in diplomatic circles in their own home countries so
that they can reflect those forces—especially the goals of their home country—in
program delivery. Sometimes, the biggest obstacles to doing business globally
are in the home country.

Change and Program Management

Project changes are placed in the context of overall program benefits. In a field
characterized by command and control tools—e.g., tight scopes of work, linked
and controlled scheduling structure, tight cost controls, etc.—the demands of
global competition require new, more agile approaches. The shift in thinking
from project to program is from tight, centralized notions of management to
loose, decentralized, open-loop program delivery, from internally driven cor-
porate strategies to open, partner-driven, web-based collaboration and peer
decision-making. Program managers must sometimes give away traditional
controls to generate local teams that respond to local talent and local conditions
to satisfy customers and client needs as they change.
So the reader versed in traditional project management tools will see in this
book some of the paradoxes inherent in the move from project to program. While
program managers must be able to call up traditional, centrally administered
project management tools to address major issues, the reality of today’s global
markets requires program managers to focus on building local coalitions and
partnerships, and seeking out and trusting local talent on-site, rather than on
running things from a central control point with classic project tools. The new
approach recognizes that programs are actually creative and dynamic processes
to produce long-term benefits that require teams throughout the world to con-
tinuously build coalitions locally and to redefine and redesign program products,
benefits, and outcomes as their local constituents see them.
The new emphasis on long-term benefits and broad program outcomes and
on building lasting international partnerships changes the job description of
tomorrow’s program manager, whether in the private or public sector. Now the
role becomes one of leadership and personal diplomacy, of packaging outsourced
relationships to allow partners and contractors to own the program and to contrib-
ute product ideas and systems that make the program better and more respon-
sive. This sea change does not mean that traditional project management tools
and techniques are rendered obsolete, but rather that these tools are seen more
as guideposts and criteria for making locally staged decisions as the process
evolves.
Striking changes beginning in the global environment in the 2000s suggest
that program management will get more challenging. Unstable political set-
tings, restructuring of economic and financial systems, and major shifts in how
governments interact with the business community all suggest the importance
of environmental monitoring and risk assessment. The design, planning, and
xx Introduction

management of a program in tomorrow’s global economy must take into account

the changes going on in the financial and market world. National economies are
going through major contraction and restructuring, governments are interven-
ing in business investment and finances to spur growth, and business is reeling
from the deepest recession in many decades. How does a program manager
approach this kind of global challenge, and how does classic program and project
management change as a result?

1. Design programs that can generate early impacts on generating jobs.

2. Limit programs to confined goals and objectives with realistic benefits.
3. Target programs on economic and technology goals that align with appropri-
ate foreign government objectives and recovery programs.
4. Target technologies that stimulate local development, manufacturing, and
marketing competencies.

This book also captures and defines a major new trend in business manage-
ment—core program management, a concept that defines program management
as the mainline business function. In other words, programs target resources in
a given global market. They are not simply oriented to new systems or products
as much as they are focusing resources locally.
At the same time, many recurring and administrative business services are
being outsourced. This trend toward putting the best resources of the company
in programs and projects has focused them on strategic change and innovation,
new product development, system upgrades, and research and development in
order to stay competitive. The trend has been accelerated by increasing global
pressure to reduce cycle times for new products and services, and by the need
to focus the business workforce on innovation and change. One iteration of
a product is now typical, requiring companies to redefine their products and
services constantly.
Global Program
Management
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 Chapter

1
The Global Setting for
Program Management

Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to explore and set the context for global program
management. What makes global management different from domestic
management, and how do program managers—as differentiated from project
managers—handle such conditions?
Global conditions increase both risk and opportunity at the same time. While
global marketing and program development open up major new markets for
business development, global forces increase risk and uncertainty. These risks
and uncertainties require that businesses structure themselves to be global in
their thinking and actions. They embed the global theme in their business plan-
ning, and they continuously conduct environmental scanning—the process of
monitoring key program success indicators globally—in order to understand and
anticipate forces that will affect program success. And they characterize them-
selves in global terms in their mission, vision, values, and strategic plans.
Program management capacity, that is a corporation’s core competency in
designing and implementing long-term programs globally, is a strategic differ-
entiator in itself. Foreign sponsors and clients look to a company’s infrastruc-
ture and process to support multiple projects involving many countries and
many cultures. Foreign owners and customers depend on the management and
administrative capacity of global program managers to deliver on complex pro-
grams such as: (1) the development of a major global information network; (2)
the installation of a major, global communication system; (3) the development
of major power and/or utility systems in foreign countries; and (4) rehabilitating
buildings all over the world to make them more energy efficient. They look for
proven executive and management talent with the experience to build relation-
ships across countries and to build international partnerships.

1
2 Chapter One

Global Forces
The global forces that translate to success factors can be categorized as follows:
technical, regulatory/legal, political, economic, and social/cultural.

1. Technical. Technology is linking economies and customers together so that

communication is no longer a major barrier to doing business in foreign coun-
tries. But the cycle of change in technology is so rapid that major investments
in technology-oriented programs can be endangered midstream.
2. Regulatory/legal. Local laws and regulations govern the design and devel-
opment of markets and programs, thus complicating the process of program
management across national borders. For instance, one country might employ
major safety restrictions on oil discovery and exploitation, while another
might have no safety restrictions. Legal issues include intellectual property
protection, licensing, and trademark protection, complicated enough in the
home country but more complex in a global context.
3. Political. Varying levels of political stability and unrest generate risks
and threats to successful program development and delivery, thus adding
uncertainty to programs already characterized by a creative and changing
development process. Terrorism has become a major risk in various parts of
the world, and danger is no longer restricted to one part of the world. With
governments going through major upheavals, programs can be endangered
by the threat of terrorist actions. One country might suddenly move to expro-
priate or nationalize an industry related to an ongoing program, while an
adjoining country might be encouraging more private enterprise and deregu-
lating its markets.
4. Economic. Economic conditions, currency values, and pricing issues face
program managers as they attempt to estimate program costs and deliver on
time and within budget. Major unemployment in parts of the world creates
both risk and opportunity. While global programs can generate jobs, they can
also threaten local economies with change and job loss as new technologies
overtake old ones.
5. Social/cultural. Language and cultural differences generate major chal-
lenges as programs are delivered in countries whose values and lifestyles
vary widely. Language and culture differences create differences in cus-
tomer demand and how markets behave. A program designed to create a
quick market for a given line of products or system enhancements can be
stalled because local values interpret those new products or systems as
being contrary to local standards. A good example would be a project to
introduce a new mobile communication system in a country where women
are not encouraged to participate actively in business decisions, or even to
use new technologies.

Thus, the global business landscape is changing and evolving. No longer are
we faced with the dimension of local concerns, but rather multidimensional
 The Global Setting for Program Management 3

forces of a global backdrop. In this rapidly changing world, where the economy
in one country affects the economies in other countries, for a company to remain
buoyant and even prosper, it is essential for an organization to remain agile. The
organization needs the flexibility of a clipper ship even if they are an aircraft
carrier. A business must sustain a clear understanding of underlining compo-
nents that propels them forward, while keeping a hand on the pulse of the global
atmosphere. For a company to thrive in the frenzied waters of the global market,
it has to make tough decisions. Where is the business going to optimize and
invest its limited resources? How is the company going to capitalize on strategic
partnerships? Where is the next frontier for growth? How is the organization
going to maintain its core business while developing new markets?
Setting the groundwork for good global program management requires the
business or agency to establish its mission and values and to understand itself
first. Then, the core to any business project venture is the strategic investment
decisions the organization makes. This includes decisions on where a number
of core business functional areas can be outsourced, such as human resources,
accounting, and manufacturing. It is possible that the left-brain process-oriented
activities can be outsourced, whereas the right-brain creative process for stra-
tegic decision-making becomes central to the operation of the organization. In
the project portfolio process, an organization determines where to invest to main-
tain its business and power it forward. The project portfolio process allows for
identification, analysis, optimization, and execution of strategic programs and
plans. Programs leverage both the strategic elements of portfolios and the tactical
capability of projects to align the program’s efforts to produce business benefits.
Projects provide for the tactical ability to deliver on business objectives.

Strengthening the Business for Global Project Delivery

Businesses targeting global markets and programs increasingly restructure
their core mission, vision, and values in the context of global change and oppor-
tunity. In many cases, businesses turn their attention to global markets through
a redefinition of their mission and values, fundamentally shifting the focus of
the business. While there is value in the products of such an exercise, the real
benefit is in the changes in mindsets that occur during the process, widening
horizons about what is possible around the world.

Global Mission
The process of developing a new, globally oriented mission for a business involves
redefining what the business is all about in a global context. Global opportunity
may even change the core nature of the business. The mission statement for
an organization states the purpose of the business. This statement allows the
business to clearly define what business they are operating. A mission state-
ment can be used for a number of purposes. It could be a tool used to signal the
intent to go global. It can inform the public of what the company provides, or
4 Chapter One

it can be used internally to serve as a gauge for decision-making by executive

leaders. The mission could be a powerful tool or motto used to drive performance
by having the staff focus on a common purpose; if the staff know that programs
are going global, they are likely to respond with more energy and enthusiasm
because of the opportunities worldwide. Some companies publish their mission
statements in their annual reports for their investors and potential clients.
The mission statements can be concrete and tangible, or conceptual and
belief-driven. Concrete areas would center on:
Q Products and services
Q Main customers or markets
Q Areas the business operates within

Belief areas—or values—would include:

Q Philosophical and social concerns of the business
Q Competitive advantage
Q Image or quality standards
Q Reasons for existence

The concrete areas might be considered the “hard” areas, while belief areas
could resonate with people and be considered the “soft” areas.
Here are some examples of mission statements from various companies using
both hard and soft components:
Q The Dow Chemical Company
Q Slogan/motto:
Living. Improved daily.
Q Description:
The Dow Chemical Company is a chemical company whose specialty is
performance plastics, such as engineering plastics, polyurethanes, etc.
Aside from this, Dow is also into performance chemicals, agricultural
sciences, hydrocarbons and energy, etc.
Q Mission statement:
To constantly improve what is essential to human progress by mastering
science and technology.
Q Global Gillette
Q Slogan/motto:
Welcome to everyday solutions.
Q Description:
Global Gillette is a manufacturer of shaving equipment, specializing par-
ticularly in razors and blades, aside from being a manufacturer of batteries
 The Global Setting for Program Management 5

as well. Its brands include Sensor, Trac II, Mach3, M3Power, Fusion, and
Duracell for its batteries product.
Q Mission statement:
We will provide branded products and services of superior quality and value
that improve the lives of the world’s consumers. As a result, consumers
will reward us with leadership sales, profit, and value creation, allowing
our people, our shareholders, and the communities in which we live and
work to prosper.
Q Harley-Davidson, Inc
Q Slogan/motto:
Define your world in a whole new way.
Q Description:
Harley-Davidson, Inc., is the manufacturer of a line of motorcycles, with
over 32 models of touring and custom Harleys. Aside from their line of
motorcycles, Harley-Davidson also offers motorcycle accessories, motor-
cycle clothing apparel, and engines.
Q Mission statement:
We fulfill dreams through the experience of motorcycling by providing to
motorcyclists and to the general public an expanding line of motorcycles
and branded products and services in selected market segments.
Q The Walt Disney Company
Q Description:
The Walt Disney Company operates a global entertainment portfolio of
media networks, parks and resorts, studio entertainment, and consumer
products. This wide array reaches out to the world through its television
broadcasts, Internet businesses, theme parks, and the many ventures of
The Walt Disney Company’s subsidiaries.
Q Mission statement:
The mission of The Walt Disney Company is to be one of the world’s lead-
ing producers and providers of entertainment and information. Using our
portfolio of brands to differentiate our content, services, and consumer
products, we seek to develop the most creative, innovative, and profit-
able entertainment experiences and related products in the world. (www.
missionstatements.com)

The Gillette mission statement is indicative of the intent to go global.

Reference to the world’s consumers is a good example of how companies signal
their intent in their mission statements.
To construct a global mission statement, you have to understand what is
unique about your organization and how it will compete globally. What makes
this organization different from another one? Why would a world customer or
client select you above your competitor? What would be the few tangible success
6 Chapter One

measures? The mission statement goes through a number of iterations before

it is finally complete. It should provide information on how this organization is
unique, as well as an identity and purpose for the organization.
When constructing a global mission statement, it is important to consider who
the customers are. What products, services, and/or technologies are needed to
satisfy that customer group? Is the business customer-driven or market-driven?
Are the products, services, and technologies specialized, integrated with other
systems, or commodities?
Mission statements should be well crafted and specific. The statement serves
as a boundary to what the organization will and will not pursue. It defines a
business position. If the mission statement is ill-defined, not specific, or unclear,
it will not aid as a tool in decision-making. The mission should provide a strong
identity for the organization.
Mission statements can be created for all levels in the company. The approach
to the creation would be top-down. The mission from the corporation would be
created first, then departments would describe how they contribute to the firm’s
mission. The department mission would also include the department’s role and
responsibilities within the business and where the department is headed in
relation to the big picture of the business.

Global Vision
There is often confusion between mission and vision statements. Both mission
and vision statements are important and complement one another; however,
there are distinctive differences. Where mission statements concentrate on
the current state of affairs, the vision statement has its sight set on the future
state of the organization. The mission is a reminder of why the business exists.
The vision inspires propagation of a new harvest. And that new harvest for a
global company is worldwide in dimension. As it expresses its intent to deliver
programs worldwide, the vision gives a message not only to its competitors, but
also to its workforce. A vision statement is the emotional component of the busi-
ness plan: “ This is where we get excited about what we want to become.”
The vision statement is more than a picture of the future of the company; it
also provides a framework for strategic planning on a global scale. The vision
can be constructed to concentrate at the corporate, division, department, or
business unit level. It can answer the question of where do we want to go and
how I am going to contribute to getting there. The vision statement keeps to the
forefront what we are trying to build. Though the vision statement doesn’t tell you
how to get there, it does provide a destination to aim toward for your planning
purposes. A global vision can create a sense of differentiation and confidence in
the workforce as they begin to think of themselves as part of their company’s
response—and perhaps even their nation’s response—to the global economy.
Programs with worldwide reach are exciting in themselves.
Vision statements allow you to dream and capture your passion on paper. Generally,
they are produced for “in-house consumption” and are not necessarily publicized
 The Global Setting for Program Management 7

outside the organization. A vision statement is a tool used to help with decision-
making in determining where the organization should invest the organization’s
resources, including people’s talents, technical resources, facilities, and money to
name a few.
To create a vision statement, it is important to understand the organization’s
core competencies in a global context. What business are you in? The vision goes
beyond the mission and describes the desired future outcome, and inspires and
energizes the staff to reach that target. The outlook of the vision statement is
often five to ten years into the future. Some organization’s vision statements
look out further than ten years.
At the beginning of a vision statement, you should have a powerful first
paragraph capturing the essence of the vision in a memorable phrase, picture,
or metaphor. The beginning of the statement will trigger the rest of the vision
explanation. Visions are unique to the organization and are not a one-size-fits-
all statement. Vision statements tend to be longer than mission statements.
The vision should be as long as it needs to be to create a complete picture.
The picture that is described in the statement should feature the best possible
outcome—a vision that may be beyond what is thought currently achievable.
A vision is not used as a measuring stick for success, but rather it is used to
spur creativity and ingenuity. It stretches expectations and generates leaping
out of old shells.
Some questions can be used to help create a vision statement.
Q What will our global customers want in the future?
Q What are the expectations of our global stakeholders and shareholders?
Q Who will be our global competitors, partners, or suppliers?
Q How will emerging technology affect the industry?
Q What are the global or governmental factors that might affect our business?

Some might not feel comfortable creating “unrealistic” visions. However, if you
set a path for the clouds, you will never reach the stars. If needed, two versions
of the vision statement could be produced: one more realistic and the other more
ambitious. In the early 80s, it might have seemed highly unrealistic to have the
vision of a PC in every household, but Microsoft stayed true to this ambitious
vision. It is true that even today, not every home in the world has a PC, or even
runs Microsoft products; however, that just means Microsoft is still in the process
of achieving their vision. The vision provides a cohesive document describing the
business the organization plans to pursue. It also provides long-term direction
and the big-picture perspective of where the company is headed.
Vision statements keep the mind open to what is possible. When employees
are committed to the vision, they will make decisions that are aligned with it.
Employees will not be confused on the business’s direction or try to move in too
many directions. A vision helps provide a foundation for improved execution of
the organization’s strategy.
8 Chapter One

Global Strategic Management

The global strategic management process answers the questions of what we
are going to do, where in the world are we going to do it, and how we are going
to get it done. Strategy takes a holistic as well as a component view of the
situation. Strategic management is the process of planning, analyzing both
the internal and global environments, clearly defining the objectives and direc-
tion of the company, implementing that strategy, evaluating the success of the
strategy, and then adjusting the plan to achieve the greatest program benefits
and rewards for the organization.
Strategy examines the current business and its environment, and then ana-
lyzes potential options based on how they will provide a competitive advantage,
and then executes the decided-on plan. A strategic plan drives ideas to action.
The process then repeats itself with the examination of the business and the
environment, and determines what has changed and what is emerging. Strategy
is the path to competitive advantage. The strategic plan allows for decisions to
be made that affect the investment of the organization’s resources. It focuses
on what is inside and outside of the organization’s business perimeters. When
developing a strategy, thought is given to markets, products, services, and inter-
nal competencies. To formulate the strategic plan, executives take a step out
of normal business operation mode to focus on the broader perspective of the
organization.
First, the company needs to determine its business objectives on a global
scale and then decide upon the best way to achieve them. The organization then
determines what resources are required to execute the plan. The business objec-
tives are housed in the organization’s mission statement. What is the purpose
of the organization? What values does the organization hold? The core ideals
of an organization are its foundation and usually remain constant over time.
The ideals provide decision-making guidance. The mission statement focuses on
what the organization is, and is composed of three main components: business
purpose, values, and goals.
The business purpose describes why the entity exists. The purpose of a
company generally remains unchanged over time. The purpose answers the
question, “How will the business be profitable?” The organization should never
define the purpose too narrowly by focusing on a single project or service. As
an example, consider the railroad industry. A railroad organization’s mission
could be something like:
To operate railroads in this territory and support railroads worldwide and
their customers’ needs.
Railroads in the United States reigned supreme until the highway system and
airline industry gained much of railroad’s market. If the rail industry defined
itself as in the transportation industry rather than the rail industry, during
their strategic management process they would have made different investment
decisions in the beginning, which could have led to different opportunities. The
execution on the strategy could have led to the players in the transportation
 The Global Setting for Program Management 9

business being different than what they are today. Having a too narrow a
mission can stunt long-term growth for a business.
Some companies create impressive think tanks and develop wondrous
products, but in order not to disrupt its core business, they fail to capitalize on
the investment. As reported in the article “How Xerox Forfeited the PC War”
by Rob Landley, September 18, 2000, Xerox narrowly defined their business to
the super computer market. The super computer market had large margins
compared to the personal computer market. As the article states:
. . . Xerox PARC invented modern desktop computing. Windows, icons, mice, pull-
down menus, “What You See Is What You Get” (WYSIWYG) printing, networked
workstations, object-oriented programming—the works. Xerox the copier company
feared the paperless office and formed a think tank to invent it before anybody
else could, but once its commandos had succeeded, it simply couldn’t bring itself to
disrupt its core business of making copiers.
Xerox could have owned the PC revolution, but instead, it sat on the technology
for years. Then, in exchange for the opportunity to invest in a hot, new pre-IPO
start-up called Apple, the Xerox PARC commandos were forced—under protest—to
give Apple’s engineers a tour and a demonstration of their work. The result was the
Apple Macintosh, which Microsoft later copied to create Windows.

A well-crafted strategic plan can launch a company into greater market

domains. A poorly crafted strategic plan can be like putting your fist into a
bucket of water, taking it out, and expecting it to leave an impression.
After the organization answers the how, it moves on the question of why. The
answer to the “why” question takes the purpose statement to the next level of
clarity. The purpose of a business should not only describe the area it operates
within, but also should capture the minds and hearts of the employees.

Global Values
Most companies and agencies generate key values that go to the heart of the orga-
nization. These values usually remain unchanged even if the business environment
changes. If the market tastes change and conflict with core values, the business
can migrate to new markets to stay true to its core values. Examples of core values
are innovation, superior customer service, collaboration, and sustained growth on a
global scale. Value statements can be structured in a number of ways. To illustrate,
here are the value statements from the IBM and Microsoft websites:
IBM’s value . . .
Q Dedication to every client’s success

Q Innovation that matters—for our company and for the world

Q Trust and personal responsibility in all relationships

www.ibm.com/ibm/us/en

Microsoft’s value . . .
As a company, and as individuals, we value integrity, honesty, openness, per-
sonal excellence, constructive self-criticism, continual self-improvement, and
10 Chapter One

mutual respect. We are committed to our customers and partners and have a pas-
sion for technology. We take on big challenges, and pride ourselves on seeing them
through. We hold ourselves accountable to our customers, shareholders, partners,
and employees by honoring our commitments, providing results, and striving for
the highest quality.
www.microsoft.com/About/default.mspx#values

Global Goals
The goals of an organization describe the future state of the business. The goal
is the vision of the potential opportunities for the company, e.g., “It is our goal
to dominate the world market for mobile phone systems, especially in develop-
ing countries.” The visionary goals are long-term objectives rather than tactical.
These goals could be focused on a target market or on becoming number one or
two in the markets that you are currently operating in. Visionary goals are often
stretch goals. However, most companies seem to achieve their goals because
of the inspiration they cause within the staff. The vision provides direction,
purpose, alignment, motivation, and inspiration.
Ted Turner, a true visionary, had the inspiration to create a “New York Times
of the airways.” Critics of the 24-hour news service called the venture crazy
and instead of referring to the organization by its proper name, Cable News
Network (CNN), they dubbed it Chicken Noodle News. Turner was committed
to serious journalism and soon gained loyalty from viewers and respect from the
journalism industry. The ratings for the network were known to surpass those of
the three major networks at the time, beginning as early as the breaking-news
reporting of the Persian Gulf War in the early 1990s. Turner motivated his staff
to do more with less, to achieve what was thought unachievable, and to redefine
the creation of network television, all through sheer force of will and the desire
to get it done. Turner’s vision and inspiration created a new segmentation: the
24-hour niche broadcast market. And the target was clearly global in nature.

Developing a global strategic plan

To begin a strategic plan, a critical look at the current operation needs to take
place. The strategic plan is generally undertaken by the business owners or
executive members of the company. The focus is a two- to four-year outlook.
Some companies stretch their outlook beyond four years; regardless of the dura-
tion of the outlook window, the plan is updated periodically to ensure alignment
with corporate structure and market conditions. Strategic planning is usually
done outside normal business operations. Time has to be allotted to suspend
day-to-day business operations and concentrate on the future direction of the
organization. The strategic process needs to be a realistic approach to the future
of the business, where the cause and effect of decisions are evaluated. The stra-
tegic planning process is ongoing and is reviewed periodically. At the conclu-
sion of strategic planning sessions, decisions are documented, action items are
reviewed, and plans are structured for the dissemination of decisions.
 The Global Setting for Program Management 11

To begin the strategic planning process, a number of components need to be

in place, which provide the foundation for strategic planning. First, there needs
to be a clear understanding of the status of the business and its potential to go
global. Often, this type of study is done through a SWOT analysis on a global
level. SWOT stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. An
organization examines its core internal strengths and weakness. It then looks
outside the organization for opportunities and threats. The SWOT analysis
provides valuable information for the company to build a strategic plan and
direction for global program development.

Global strategy
After the mission and vision, the next step is to create the roadmap that takes
you from the current state and drives you to the vision. This roadmap is your
corporate global strategy. The corporate strategy maps out specific actions
required to successfully implement the plan. It integrates the goals, policies,
and tactics into a cohesive whole. The strategy defines business approaches to
lead to a successful outcome. This roadmap is the plan on how to satisfy custom-
ers, achieve performance targets, strengthen the organization’s market posi-
tion, and outlines the procedures on how the business should be run. To think
strategically, you need to understand where you are and where you want to go.
The new destination can include financial and strategic objectives.
There are five tasks of strategic management.

1. Create a mission and vision.

2. Set measurable objectives.
3. The objects should be both short- and long-term objectives.
4. Craft a strategy to achieve the objectives.
5. Implement and execute the strategy.
6. Evaluate performance, review the situation and new developments, and initi-
ate corrective action.

Deliverables related to these five tasks are revised and improved upon over
time.

Setting global objectives

Global objectives set measurable indicators of success, e.g., we intend to increase
our global market share by 12 percent through new product development
globally and ensure a profit margin of over 10 percent in the process.” It also
motivates teams by giving them a way to track their progress and measure their
success. Objectives convert mission statements into performance targets. It is
critical that objectives be created so that they are both challenging and achiev-
able. Objectives should push organizations to be inventive and focused on their
actions to reach desired results. Clear objectives prevent confusion, complacency,
12 Chapter One

and stagnation. Objectives should set specific performance targets and spell out
how much of what is going to be achieved by when. Objectives for an organization
are the same as in project management; they should be measurable, quantifiable,
and timely.
Both financial and strategic objectives should be created. Financial objectives
provide targets to improve financial performance. An example of a financial objec-
tive would be to increase earnings by a certain percentage over a certain period, say,
15 percent by the end of the year. Strategic objectives focus on increasing market
share and improving competitiveness. They can include becoming the number-one
business or being the low-cost solution in a particular market. There could also
be a focus on diversifying into new businesses, creating strategic alliances,
collaborative partnerships, or introducing new products to the market.
Financial performance reflects past decisions and actions, which could be
called “lagging indicators.” On the other hand, strategic performance signals
how well the company is growing in competitiveness and strength in the mar-
ketplace, which can be considered a “leading indicator.”
Objectives need to reflect both short- and long-term objectives. Short-term
objectives focus on quick gains, or “low-hanging fruit.” These types of objectives
could also be milestones on the way to a long-term objective.
Long-term objectives target three to five years in the future. These types of
objectives help the organization make decisions that will lead them on the path
to achieving the long-term objective success in the future.
Objectives are needed at every layer of the organization. They should be
created first at the corporate level, then move down the chain to the business,
then functional, and then finally the individual level. Objectives that are cre-
ated in a top-down approach allow for objectives that are connected, cohesive,
and unified.

Crafting a global strategy

In developing a strategy, the focus is on opportunities—either doing new things
or doing the old things even better. When developing a strategy to meet its global
objectives, an organization needs to be concerned with the “how” questions—
how to achieve the objectives, respond to global factors, defend against threats,
and grow the business. To create a strategy, you need to combine planned goals
with reactions to market, environmental, and global conditions.
To build a strategy, an organization needs to understand market trends, global
conditions, and their competitors’ positions. The business must be familiar with
their customers’ needs and anticipate their taste changing. Emerging technolo-
gies need to be analyzed. A determination should be made on the appropriate-
ness and effectiveness of a technological solution and how the company could
benefit from it. An organization also looks at ways to increase market share with
acquisitions, new products, or increasing competitive capabilities.
The corporate strategy is created by executive directors of the organization.
The team that makes up this group generally includes the C-level executives:
chief executive officer (CEO), chief financial officer (CFO), chief operating
 The Global Setting for Program Management 13

officer (COO), and so on; the corporate board of directors; division heads; and
other key executives throughout the company. In the book The Medici Effect,
Frans Johansson describes the benefits of diversity and innovation. At the
intersections of diverse domains, ideas ignite and lead to an explosion of new
discoveries. Diversity in the team that builds the corporate strategy will take
the business to new frontiers. Diversity includes age, gender, socioeconomic, cul-
tural, and departmental/functional areas, among others. The team of executives
could benefit from working with their staffs to generate ideas to be analyzed
later by the strategy team. Often, the team charged with creating a strategy is
composed of the same individuals charged with implementing it.
Often, when the corporate strategy is complete, each business and functional
area takes the plan and crafts how their division strategically contributes to
the overall plan. Each individual in the organization is then tasked with how
to contribute to the business and steer business decisions and activities that
support the plan.
An organization’s strategy is a collection of objectives to achieve the business
benefits the organization is seeking. The objectives should fit together as a
cohesive action plan.

Implement and execute the global strategy through

portfolios, programs, and projects
In sports, the team spends countless hours practicing and memorizing plays.
On game day, the plays turn to action on the game field. The strategic plan
moves from the planning phase to the implementation phase. The plan becomes
actionable. Progress is measured. Actions are aligned to the plan.
An organizational culture is created and managed to pursue the strategy.
The three Ps for strategy success are portfolio, program, and projects. The
strategy is administered through the portfolio process. Resources are allocated
to candidate programs and projects that will produce the benefits planned and
aligned with organizational objectives. As in a program management office, best
practices are created and disseminated to allow for a continuous improvement
model. Information is collected on the status of progress. Communications among
teams are standardized and expectations set so that comparison of “apple-to-
apple” information is presented. Managers inspire, motivate, and coach their
staff teams to reach their targeted objectives. The more mature the portfolio,
program, and project process, the better positioned the organization will be in
achieving the benefits it seeks.

Evaluate and align performance

The final task of strategy, just as in the project process, is to evaluate perfor-
mance and align or realign tasks accordingly. The strategy process is not an
isolated event. The strategic plan should not be created and then dropped on
a deserted island. The strategic process is a continuous business function that
is exercised regularly. Global situations migrate states of conditions. Customer
14 Chapter One

needs change. Advancements in technology or new opportunities may appear to

be valuable. The executive board of the organization evaluates earlier decisions
for continued relevance. As new information is gathered and evaluated, updates
are made to the strategic plan and its execution. Expectations of performance
may also be adjusted.

Industry and global competitive analysis

Part of the work in building a strategy is to understand internal and global
environments through a situation analysis. Internal analysis focuses on the core
strengths and weaknesses of the organization. Competencies, capabilities, and
competitive strengths are examined. External analysis focuses on global factors,
industry advancements, and competitive conditions. The results of this analysis
are fed into the mission, vision, and strategic plan for the business.
The external factors to an organization within the industry include buyers,
suppliers, competitors, alternative products or services, and new entrants to
the market. When you step beyond the industry, you have other conditions to
examine, including technology, government regulations, economic conditions,
society, and culture. There are a number of key areas to focus on when analyzing
an industry and competitive environment.
Q Dominant economic traits for the industry
Q Global competitor analysis
Q Drivers of industry change
Q Competitive forces
Q Success factors
Q Industry attractiveness

Dominant economic traits for the industry. When you evaluate the economic
traits for an industry, you look at a number of factors. How many competitors
are there in the industry globally? What is the industry’s size and growth
rate? What are the customers’ needs and requirements? What is the pace of
technological advancements and product innovation? How different are the
products within the industry? How can economies of scale be used to improve
a market position?

Global competitor analysis. In the analysis process, the competitors in the target
industry and global market are analyzed for differences. A strategic group
mapping can be done to graphically depict the organizations with a similar
competitive market position. Strategic groups can be identified as having a
similar price or quality range, using identical technology, offering similar
services, and/or covering the same geographic territories. When an organization
 The Global Setting for Program Management 15

analyzes a strategic group map, they look for driving forces and pressure from
other organizations. They also evaluate the potential for differences among the
groups.
Competitor analysis examines the strategies of the rivals. How do the rivals
position themselves? How do the rivals rank now, and what are the estimates
for their ranking in the future? What is the likelihood that the rival would enter
a new market or produce a new product?

Drivers of industry change. Industries change due to factors that motivate

and alter the actions of those involved in that industry. Drivers can affect
the demand for products to increase or decrease, make competition more or
less intense, or lead to higher or lower profit margins. Types of driving forces
that have changed industries include the Internet, globalization, government
regulation, innovation, and advancements in technology. Customer tastes,
attitudes, concerns, and lifestyle changes can also be driving factors for industry
change.

Competitive forces. Research shows that different industries can sustain

different levels of profitability due to their structure. An analysis of competitive
forces examines the forces within the industry and their strength. A key tool
used to analyze forces is Porter’s Five Forces Model of Competition. This
model depicts how an industry is influenced by five forces. It allows for a better
understanding of an industry in which a business operates.
Q Power of the customers. The force of the power of the customers examines
the buyer. What type of impact does the customer have on the industry? Are
the buyers well informed about the products? Is there a lot of differentiation
between products? How strong is the buyer bargaining power? What is the
relationship between buyer and seller? Are there incentives? Is there price
sensitivity and/or brand identification?
Q Power of the suppliers. All organizations are in need of suppliers for the sup-
plies to build their product. This need leads to buyer/supplier relationships.
Powerful suppliers can exert influence on an industry. How strong is the
bargaining power from the suppliers of raw materials, components, parts,
and other resources?
Q Competition from substitutes. What type of pressure do other industry competi-
tors place on the industry being analyzed? What types of alternative products
or services could compete with the organization’s products or services?
Q Barriers/threats to potential entry. Barriers prevent new entrants into the
market. One barrier for an entrant could be the large start-up costs. Another
barrier could be extreme uncertainty of the industry. Barriers can be cre-
ated by governments, patents and proprietary knowledge, or economies of
scale. There is always the possibility for new entrants to the industry. What
16 Chapter One

advantages would a new entrant have over a longtime contender in the

marketplace?
Q Rivalry among competing sellers. What competition is presented by indus-
try competitors jockeying for more market share or position? Some ways to
combat rivals would be to change price, improve or differentiate the product,
improve distribution channels, and enhance relationships with suppliers.

To use the Five Forces model, first you need to identify the issues with each
of the forces. Then evaluate the strength of each item under all the forces. Then
determine a mitigation plan to capitalize on or alleviate each issue within each
force. This analysis could decipher an unattractive industry. An industry could
be too competitive if rivalry is vigorous, substitutes are strong, barriers are low
to entrants, and suppliers and customers have enormous bargaining power. On
the other hand, if barriers to entrants are high, there are no good substitutes,
suppliers and customers have a weak bargaining position, and rivalry is moder-
ate, the competitive environment could be considered ideal from a profit-making
standpoint.

Global success factors. To understand the success factors for an industry, an

organization examines the access to skilled labor, technological research in the
industry, ability to manufacture with access to materials and economies of scale,
and the distribution chain to get products to market.

Industry attractiveness. Industry attractiveness refers to the conditions of the

organization in relation to the industry to determine suitability. Some factors
help determine the attractiveness of an industry: market size and growth
potential, degree of risk or uncertainty, the organization’s capitalization of
strengths within the industry, and the strength of the organization in relation
to the competition. The opportunities available within an industry depend on
an organization’s ability to capitalize on them.

Organization’s internal factors

External factors that affect an organization help determine market position and
areas that a business might want to capitalize on worldwide. Internal factors
help an organization understand how well they can take advantage of oppor-
tunities and eliminate threats in the marketplace. The organization examines
how the present strategy is faring. Have the organization’s strengths and weak-
nesses changed over time?
The company could have built strengths in research and development by
creating new products or more efficient processes. Improvements could have
been in the supply chain strategy or manufacturing processes. Gains could have
been made in marketing, promotion, or sales. The organization’s talent pool and
financial strategy may have improved. All these strengths, over time, could flip
and become weaknesses.
 The Global Setting for Program Management 17

You can see this trend most prominently in the retail industry. Take McDonald’s,
for instance. McDonald’s initially introduced their “happy meal,” originally
called Circus Wagon Train, in 1977. This product went national in 1979, and
was a huge success. In the 90s, childhood obesity statistics were alarming,
and one of the culprits cited for the rise in childhood obesity was fast food. This
report caused much anxiety for parents, which led to the happy meal not being
a popular meal choice for concerned parents. This criticism slowed sales, but
over time, McDonald’s repaired their image by introducing healthier items
for children.
Some industries don’t recover as well when a strength turns into a weakness.
The American auto industry is known for their large gas guzzling automobiles,
which fall in and out of fashion as the price of gasoline and oil rises and falls.
When analyzing the organization’s competitive strategies, you have to exam-
ine the competitive approach scope. Has the organization strived to be a low-cost
leader, focused on a niche market or differentiation of the product or service?
Has the organization focused on a specific geographic area?
To determine how well the current strategy is doing, you have to examine
both qualitative and quantitative measures. How well has the company met
the current strategy? Is the strategy still relevant? Is the company achiev-
ing its financial objectives? How does the organization compare to industry
benchmarks?
Some of the indicators that can be used to determine if a strategy is success-
ful are:
Q Trend in profit margins
Q Return on investment (ROI)
Q Reputation with customers
Q Ability to acquire and maintain customers
Q Position in the market (leader in technology, innovation, or quality)

SWOT
For a company to successfully deliver a strategic plan, it needs to be well aligned
with the company’s strengths and market opportunities. At the same time,
it needs to defend against threats in the market and internal weaknesses. A
SWOT analysis allows an organization to position itself to its best advantage.

Strengths and weaknesses. Strengths are what an organization does well and
are a benefit for its competitiveness. Strengths can be assets that the company
possesses. The organization could have key competencies in areas that surpass
their rivals’. The workforce could have certain skills, expertise, and experience
that accumulate to a proficiency in an activity. The strengths in an organization
could be the ability to get new products to market quickly, accuracy in filling
customers’ orders, or efficiency in supply chain management.
18 Chapter One

The value of a strength that a business possesses can be determined by its

ability to be copied, repeated, or easily mitigated. Could other organizations
easily copy the strength and adapt it into their business? Could it be repeated
effectively and efficiently? Could rivals easily mitigate the strength with alter-
natives?
Weaknesses are the opposite of strengths. These are areas where the orga-
nization struggles, does poorly, or lacks expertise. Weaknesses are competitive
liabilities.

Opportunities and threats. Opportunities and threats exist outside the walls of
the organization; they exist in the industry or beyond. Opportunities provide
potential advantages for an organization. Threats could harm the long-term
competitiveness of an organization if not handled appropriately. Numerous
conditions could be considered threats to an organization.
Q Rise in interest rates
Q Demographic shifts
Q Political upheaval
Q Government regulations
Q Entrants to the industry with better price, products, or position
Q Emerging technologies

A threat could be turned into an opportunity; however, the opposite is true, too.
A prominent scenario for threats and opportunities falls under the emerging
technologies category. As innovation reaches an industry, how well a company
embraces and capitalizes on the change can lead to the innovation being cat-
egorized as an opportunity or a threat. Some threats that most companies face
today are souring energy prices worldwide and global climate change. Green
technologies like solar and wind energy are improving and becoming a promising
solution. How a company embraces the trend to “go green” could be an oppor-
tunity or a threat to the future growth of the company.
The SWOT analysis can be a powerful tool in determining the best match for
a company’s strengths and market opportunities. It could also identify weak-
nesses that can be corrected and threats that need to be defended against.

Strategic cost analysis

To continue the analysis of a company’s strategy, one must examine the organi-
zation’s costs and how they compare to their competitors. The two key analytical
tools used are value chain analysis and benchmarking.
The organization’s value chain consists of all the activities required to take
a product from concept to execution to the customer’s hands. The value chain
includes product design, production, marketing, distribution, and ongoing sup-
port. Both primary and support activities affect the value chain. The primary
 The Global Setting for Program Management 19

activities directly affect the value change and can be compared to the critical
path in a project. These activities include operations, distribution, sales and
marketing, and service. Support activities indirectly affect the value chain and
are activities around research and development, human resources, and general
administration.
Value chain analysis looks at the cost of the activities, or what could be called
the internal cost structure. It compares the internal costs with those of its com-
petitors. Who is better able to procure raw materials or get a better price from
their customers? The analysis can determine if the costs are an advantage or a
disadvantage for an organization. There could be many reasons for the differ-
ences in costs between an organization and its competitors. Each organization
is structured differently, and those differences can lead to varying internal
operational costs. The way an organization approaches strategy and how it
chooses to execute it are the key.
The value chain can be examined for the entire industry. Key industry activi-
ties need to be determined, along with their associated costs. As in project
management, activity-based costing is used to analyze costs, and it determines
whether the company’s costs are aligned with their rivals.

Benchmarking
Benchmarking compares the cost of activities and provides information on the
standard or best practice in a given area. It provides guidance for an organiza-
tion on how it measures against industry standards. This information allows an
organization to generate a plan to either meet or exceed industry standards by
lowering costs on specific activities. Activities that could be cost-benchmarked
for an organization include training of employees, purchasing materials, paying
suppliers, and processing payroll. Lowering costs in one or more activity can
make a company more competitive.
There are a number of ways to improve the costs of activities. Some cost
activities can be eliminated by streamlining the value chain. High-cost activi-
ties can be relocated to lower-cost geographic areas or performed by cheaper
vendors/suppliers. Best practices can be implemented throughout the company
to streamline costs.
A well-managed value chain can provide a competitive advantage for an orga-
nization. The organization can better coordinate activities to enhance their
capabilities, and economies of scale can be leveraged.

Competitive advantage and strategy

Competitive advantage is when one organization has an advantage over another
organization within their industry. The advantage could be how they attract
customers with a lower-cost solution with the same type of product. The advan-
tage could be that an organization offers the same cost, but a different or more
advanced product or service. Finally, the advantage could be on a narrow focus
of the market in a niche area.
20 Chapter One

A competitive strategy for an organization focuses on enhancements to cus-

tomer relationships, responses to market and global conditions, and strengthen-
ing market position. An organization can use generic strategies. These strategies
focus on cost, differentiation, and segmentation. An organization can focus on
being the low-cost or best-cost provider of a product or service. The low-cost
option is achieved by not only having lower production costs, but all the costs
are lower as well. The value chain for the organization outperforms that of its
rivals, or it streamlines its operation to offer savings. The organization looks at
cost controls or at bypassing costs to produce a low-cost option. Where a low-cost
provider provides the same product at a lower cost, a best-cost provider provides
more value for the money.
Differentiation offers customers more value that cannot be easily matched
by competitors. Differentiated products can build brand loyalty and allow for a
price premium. Differentiation can be captured by uniqueness, one-stop shop-
ping, prestige, technology features, wide selection, or superior service.
Niche strategies concentrate the corporate strategy on a narrow piece of the
market. The narrow focus allows unique capabilities to be added to the product
or service to better target the needs of the customer group. To define a niche
market, an organization can analyze the geographic uniqueness, special require-
ments in a product or service, or an emerging need that is not being met.
There are risks to a focused strategy. Competitors will eventually meet or
exceed your competitive advantage, and niche segments may shift preferences.
Focused strategies can offer a number of advantages, including better position-
ing. When selecting the strategy for an organization, it is important to look
back at the industry and the internal analysis to determine the best fit. Does
the strategy allow the organization to enter new markets, capitalize on its
strengths, or defend against threats?
The strategy that gets you to where you want to go will not necessarily be the
same strategy that keeps you there.

Alliances and collaborative partnerships

An organization may create a strategy, but how to execute on that strategy can
be another challenge. Through analysis, a business may find that they have
weaknesses or outside threats that they can’t manage. An available option is
to develop alliances or collaborative partnerships with other organizations to
strengthen their competitive advantage. Alliances can take the form of shared
research efforts, technology sharing, or shared manufacturing or facilities costs.
Alliances could market each other’s products or services. Costs could be lowered
and/or access to needed capabilities or expertise can be gained. There can be many
advantages and disadvantages to this strategy. Alliances provide participants
access to a global platform while preserving each company’s structure. They also
provide competitive advantages over rivals and enhance market position.
However, alliances can fail due to issues with collaboration and the willing-
ness of parties to adjust to changing conditions, among other issues. Alliances
 The Global Setting for Program Management 21

can be time consuming. There could be barriers to effectively working together

in the form of corporate cultural differences and mistrust by parties on both
sides. It can be difficult to discuss sensitive issues. Another challenge is that
one organization may get too dependent upon the other.
When forming a strategic alliance, it is important to select an ally who has
complementary strengths. An organization should select a business where there
can be mutual benefits, without concern for divulging sensitive information.
Alliances tend to be temporary in nature, because the two companies come
together for a purpose and after the objective is met, they tend to go their own
directions.

Merger and acquisition strategies

Moving to the next level beyond alliances and collaborative partnerships, you
have mergers and acquisition strategies. Mergers happen when two equal
companies decide to join. An acquisition is when one organization purchases or
absorbs another. Here, many of the benefits that you have with alliances and
partnerships are realized. The newly formed organization, whether in a merger
or acquisition, would benefit by gaining access to new territories, technologies,
products, services, skills, and knowledge. Other benefits with the newly formed
company can be in areas of cost savings and enhanced competitive advantage.
It can be difficult to combine the operations of two different companies.
Conflicts can be found in styles and cultural differences, which can limit or
even prevent the synergistic capabilities.

Outsourcing
In a global environment, outsourcing becomes a fundamental strategy for suc-
cess. In outsourcing, an organization hires a second business to provide needed
services, products, activities, or support. An organization should consider an
outsourcing strategy when a second party could perform the service more inex-
pensively, or if local understanding of the culture, government, and policies is
needed. It can also be a good strategy if the second party provides higher quality
and/or faster delivery of products at more economical prices.
Though outsourcing has many advantages, there are factors to consider.
When too many areas are outsourced, it provides the potential of losing touch
of the operation and lowering internal expertise.

Global competitive strategies

Going global adds another dimension to the strategic plan. Will the organization
deploy the same strategy in all countries or modify it for each area? How will the
business be structured, dispersed, or centralized? Are the products and services
going to be customized or standardized? How are communication, information,
and knowledge going to be transferred to all the locations?
22 Chapter One

There are a number of reasons to venture beyond one’s borders. Global busi-
nesses have the opportunity to gain new customers, spread business risk across
a larger market, obtain access to resources, capitalize on core competencies, and
help lower costs. There is a difference between a global and an international
company. Global companies are expansive and operate in 50 or more countries.
International companies tend to operate in a few countries and have conserva-
tive plans for growth in that area. A global strategy is beneficial if the buyers
require little customization and tastes are more homogeneous for the products
that are offered. With a global strategy, organizations operate worldwide.
Global businesses face a number of challenges and need to manage them
with insight and flexibility. There are cultural and market variances. Materials,
manufacturing, and distribution costs vary. Local conditions place different
governmental, political, and economic demands on organizations. At the cus-
tomer level, their tastes in products and their buying habits and capacity vary.
There is a condition where one size doesn’t always fit all. Organizations are
challenged with the decision to offer a standard product abroad or customize
it for local tastes.
There are benefits to globalization. The availability of natural resources and
cost-effective sources of energy provide a fertile ground for growth for some
industries. Wage rates and labor skills, too, can be assets or liabilities in a
different geographic location. The value chain for an organization can vary
greatly, depending on a particular location’s access to the sources that produce
the activities in the chain. Governments have different policies on exports and
imports. Tariffs, a government tax placed on imports or exports, can add to the
overall cost of production. An organization can obtain a competitive advantage
with regard to its global strategy by locating activities in the most beneficial
locales.
Often within an industry, competitors compete globally or multinationally in
the same geographic areas. If one multinational organization “wins” in one coun-
try, it doesn’t guarantee that they will win in all countries. Global competitors,
like the Coca-Cola Company, look for worldwide branding and positioning.
There are many different types of opportunities to compete in internationally.
Products and services can be franchised, exported, or licensed.
In a franchising strategy, the franchisor licenses the organization’s products
or services to a franchisee in an exclusive geographic area to operate the franchi-
sor’s business model and carry the brand name. Per the contractual agreement,
the franchisee pays the franchisor a fee to operate the franchisor’s business
model. In return, the franchisor trains and supports the franchisee to main-
tain the quality and standards that are incorporated into the business model.
It may be difficult to maintain the quality standards with franchisees that are
geographically dispersed. However, a franchisor is able to expand into new
territories with these agreements without capital risk or the need to develop
expertise in understanding the conditions in a specific territory.
Exporting provides a way to sell abroad by maintaining the domestic pro-
duction chain. This strategy allows the ability to test markets without the risk
 The Global Setting for Program Management 23

of capital investment in local production, as well as the ability to reach new

customers. Exporting can be a challenge when production costs abroad can be
more cost effective. Other challenges can be found in export, import, and ship-
ping costs. Variations in exchange rates at times could be an advantage or a
disadvantage with exporting products.
Licensing could be a viable strategy if the organization has technical expertise
or a patented product that is not available abroad. Licensing grants the licensee
permitted access to proprietary information. There could be many limitations,
exemptions, and conditions in a licensing contract. The licensee receives access
to valuable information, processes, and/or technology. Licensing is a strategy
that helps mitigate the risk of committing resources to a geographic area that
the company does not have internal expertise in.
Another strategy could be to use alliances and collaborative partnerships
with complementary competencies, which could provide additional leverage for
penetration into an uncharted market. This strategy allows the competencies of
each organization to amalgamate in a synergistic way to provide access to new
markets that neither of the business could have undertaken individually.
Multicountry strategies provide a good way to begin a global enterprise. The
strategy is matched to the host country’s conditions. A multicountry strategy
is a good option when countries are diverse, customer tastes require custom-
ized products, government regulations prevent a standardized approach, or if
demand for the product is not consistent across the globe. It can be difficult to
coordinate efforts across countries, and it may not be a competitive advantage to
operate in this fashion. Conflicts can occur in transferring competencies across
countries, which can turn into a liability for the organization.

Location, location, location

The real estate industry will tell you there are three Ls to their business: loca-
tion, location, location. Decisions need to be made on how the organization will
structure its location strategy. Should activities be concentrated in a central
location or dispersed geographically?
A concentrated location strategy is best to achieve economies of scale and
enhanced coordination of activities. At times, it is more cost-effective to per-
form activities centrally. It could be easier to scale an operation if it is centrally
located. If there is a concern with access to materials or an extensive learning
curve in order to perform the activity, a central location for all activities is the
best option.
A dispersed strategy allows activities to be located where there is a cost
advantage or a need to be close to the customer. This strategy helps alleviate
trade barriers, distribution costs, and buffers exchange rates. It contributes
to transferring knowledge and expertise to other locations. An organization
can take advantage of favorable costs or conditions. Brand recognition can be
enhanced globally if there is a local presence. An organization can choose how,
when, and where they challenge their competitors.
24 Chapter One

Profit sanctuaries
The intent of organizations may vary industrywide. However, when an organi-
zation discovers a profit sanctuary, they take full advantage of it. Profit sanctu-
aries are markets where a business has a protected and strong market share,
with sustainable profits afforded to them. The position of the organization often
allows for a substantial percentage of the profits in that market. Often, a profit
sanctuary will be in the organization’s home market, which is strategically
crucial to them. An organization is considered a fierce competitor if it possesses
a number of profit sanctuaries, with the ability to aggressively compete with a
domestic competitor that only has the home market as a profit sanctuary.

Critical markets
Critical markets are in countries that offer profit sanctuaries for competitors.
These locations possess sought-after and essential buyers whose business is
important to the organization. Sales are generally high and offer good profit
margins. Competing in all markets would not be advantageous to the organiza-
tion. To be a successful competitor in a global industry, it is essential to compete
in the critical markets.

Other strategies
Countless business strategies are available for an organization to select from to
incorporate in its strategic plan. Industries evolve over time, from emerging and
turbulent, to mature, stagnant, and fragmented. The position an organization
is in changes over time, from new entrant and rapidly growing to an industry
leader or follower. The organization needs to be able to understand the market
and internal conditions to manage their strategy over time.

Strategies for emerging industries. Emerging industries are a fertile ground

for an organization to be bold and creative. Quickly entering an emerging
industry allows you to gain the first-mover advantage positioning. The focus is
on pursuing new customers and gaining entry into new locations. There is risk
with emerging industries. As the dust settles in an emerging industry, a number
of competitors will enter the market.

Strategies for turbulent, high-velocity markets. Turbulent markets are characterized

by exponential advancements in technology, short product life cycles, and evolving
buyer expectations. The turbulent markets force the need to invest aggressively
in research and development. It is critical to be able to shift resources, adapt new
competencies, create new capabilities, and match or exceed competitors’ abilities
to get new products to market. Strategic partnerships could be developed to
better maneuver high-velocity markets. Agility, innovativeness, and flexibility
are keys to success in a turbulent market.

Strategies for mature industries. Mature industries present challenges in finding

ways to be more efficient and effective. The “doing more with less” philosophy
 The Global Setting for Program Management 25

is crucial in a mature industry. The value chain should be streamlined.

Competitors may be available for purchase. It is also a good time to explore
untapped international markets and develop flexible competitive capabilities.
Strategies to differentiate the organization become paramount. The focus should
be on long-term competitiveness. Capacity should not exceed buyers’ needs.

In a stagnant or declining industry,

Strategies for stagnant or declining industries.
it is important to not be overly optimistic about the future. Generally, the
customer group is shrinking and tastes are changing. Substitute products may
have been carved into the market. However, you don’t want to divert resources to
other opportunities too quickly, though you do want to focus on growing market
segments. The focus for a stagnant market is to provide differentiation based
on quality or feature sets. There is also the need to drive down costs, which can
be managed by streamlining, consolidating, or outsourcing activities.

Strategies for fragmented industries. A fragmented industry is one where there

is no market leader; customer demand is dispersed; this is a young industry
with low entry barriers. Fragmented industries need a strategy to become the
low-cost provider. In addition, focus can be placed on specializing in customer or
product type. Another strategy would be to operate in a limited geographic area.

Strategies for industry leaders. An industry leader is an organization with a

proven strategy, strong reputation, and a powerful market position. When you
are the leader in an industry, the focus is on maintaining that position. To keep
your present hold on an industry, it is important to protect the competitive
advantage and constantly strengthen the current market position. A strategy
could be to make it difficult for new entrants to gain access to the market by
challenging the positions that they bring to bear. To challenge new entrants,
an organization needs to provide high levels of customer service, build strong
brands, increase advertising, invest in research and development, and keep
prices low while maintaining quality.

Strategies for runner-up firms. Runner-up organizations fall short of the industry
leader position. Runner-ups can focus on niches in the industry, work to gain market
share, or maintain status. When prices are dropped, new features are added, or
new services are offered, the runner-up organizations need to keep pace with
the industry leader. The focus for runner-ups is to build market share or change
markets. To build market share, the organization can focus on being the low-cost
provider or provide additional features that differentiate itself from the rest of the
pack. They can also focus on a niche or specialist strategy. The runner-ups have
challenges in brand awareness, funding ability, and weaker economies of scale.

Strategies for weak and crisis-ridden businesses. There are a number of options for
a weak business. If resources permit, they can focus on a turnaround strategy.
In this case, the strategy is updated and new objectives are created. To generate
funding, assets may be sold.
26 Chapter One

If funding is not available, the organization may have to pursue a defend

strategy. It is also possible to engage in a fast exit or a slow exit in a harvest
strategy. The harvest strategy focuses on generating cash flow in the short term
and exiting the market in the long term.
Organizations should avoid spreading themselves too thin by pursuing all
opportunities. Success comes from well-positioned strategies that leverage core
competencies harmonized with industry conditions.

Diversification strategies
Diversification allows an organization to pursue the strategy of growth by
increasing profitability through greater sales volumes. A diversified firm is a
grouping of a number of businesses under a single organizational umbrella.
Organizations generally start as a single entity and then grow and expand to
other regions. Growth for an organization can be acquired through market or
product development, market penetration, or diversification. Market penetra-
tion focuses on the same products and the same market and on increasing the
organization’s market share. Market development takes the same products and
sells them in new markets. Organizations could also develop new products for
the same market, which would then be a product development strategy.
Diversification is needed when other growth opportunities have been depleted.
Diversification could be a solution when there is strong competition and market
growth is slow, or when the organization is in a weak competitive position and
there is market growth. Diversification provides an avenue to increase profits
and shareholders’ value.

Summary
Much has been written on business strategies. Only a sampling of the informa-
tion was presented in this chapter to provide an overview of the considerations
that must be identified, analyzed, and executed by an organization.
There are many strategies for expanding beyond the local borders of the orga-
nization’s home field. Often, to survive global competition, a company may be
forced to abandon its focus on a local business operation. For an organization to
be able to enter a new market frontier, it must have assets that are suitable for
maneuvering in the diverse market conditions. The business would then need
to construct a multinational strategy to thrive. Global companies can undercut
domestic-only firms with severe price cuts and offset the losses in other parts
of the business. Industry leaders hold an advantage in that they have a strong
proven brand. However, leadership in an industry can be eroded quickly if an
organization is not agile and is unable to realign its resources and activities to
compete more effectively.
An organization must make crafting and executing a strategic plan a top
priority to maintain its competitive advantage. The strategic plan must be clear
and actionable, and built upon the company’s strengths, assets, and market
opportunities. The plan must also mitigate a business’s weaknesses and defend
 The Global Setting for Program Management 27

against market threats. The strategy needs to allow the organization to differ-
entiate itself from the rest of the pack and highlight growth potential. When an
organization is competing to be the leader in the industry, they must be aggres-
sive in obtaining that objective. If they have achieved the market leader posi-
tion, they need to be just as aggressive in defending that position. To manage
your success in a global backdrop, strategies should be avoided that allow
success in only the best of circumstances. Strategies need to be flexible and
buoyant. Understanding the industry and completing a competitive analysis
will help an organization prepare for the competitors’ reactions.
To compete aggressively in a global market, a firm needs to be well funded,
or have a strategy to offset funding shortfalls through opportunities with alli-
ances, corporate partnerships, franchises, and licenses, among other strategies.
Building a strong value chain process could help the bottom line, as well as allow
for a competitive advantage.
For an organization to be successful, it needs to have a strong portfolio,
program, and project management process. With a strong portfolio process, the
company’s mission, vision, and strategy are kept alive and active. Investments
and resources are aligned with the objectives of the organization. Projects tac-
tically produce the deliverables that they were formed to manage. Programs
align the activities in projects to that of the strategic plan to produce business
benefits.
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 Chapter

2
The Standard for Program
Management According to PMI

Introduction
In Chapter 1, we explored the process of “globalizing” a company, equipping
the business to think and plan globally and to enable it to design, develop, and
deliver programs globally. In effect, the business becomes global when its people
think, plan, and act globally and its programs extend to worldwide markets. The
process involves internal planning and business communication, and sometimes
it requires major restructuring. This transition can be difficult for companies
that do not have a global culture and a history reflecting a worldwide perspec-
tive and global market horizon. However, the process is necessary to success-
fully deliver global programs.
In that chapter, we addressed the global strategic planning process and the
articulation of mission, vision, goals, objectives, programs, and projects in a
worldwide context. Our bottom line in that chapter was that if a business or
agency intends to deliver programs globally, it must reflect that intent in all
of its business planning and strategic thinking. A portfolio of programs and
projects that is generated from the strategic plan of a globalized company has
a much better chance of succeeding simply because of the analysis and plan-
ning involved.

What Is Program Management?

Before we go into the global program management process, we want to describe
in this chapter what program management is and how it differs from project
management.
The standard discussed in this section has a specific language with valuable pro-
cesses and has been commonly accepted for creating program success. Awareness
of the program management methodology helps those who are interested in the

29
30 Chapter Two

field gain access to the breadth of the practice. An understanding of this practice
prepares project managers to collaborate and interact with program managers.
This standard also helps program managers understand the nuances of their
position. Moreover, it allows portfolio managers, stakeholders, project teams, and
anyone involved with a program to understand how they interact with program
managers and what they can expect from them. This information is, therefore,
essential for any person who has to manage multiple projects that culminate
under an umbrella of work to achieve a successful result.

Project Management Institute

The Project Management Institute (PMI) is a nonprofit professional organi-
zation dedicated to advancing the project management profession. PMI was
founded in 1969 by five working project managers, and has grown into an inter-
national organization with members in more than 170 countries. According to
the PMI website, “Project management allows an individual to speak with one
common language, no matter their industry, geography, or whether they manage
projects, programs, or portfolios. This common language steers organizations
toward achieving repeatable, predictable results.”
The primary goal of PMI is to advance the profession of project management
throughout the world by setting standards, conducting research, and providing
education to strengthen the profession. PMI offers a number of certifications,
which are held by people who have the professional experience and understand-
ing of the standards. These certifications include:
Q Certified Associate in Project Management (CAPM)
Q PMI Scheduling Professional (PMI-SP)
Q PMI Risk Management Professional (PMI-RMP)
Q Project Management Professional (PMP)
Q Program Management Professional (PgMP)

This last and most recent certification, PgMP, continues the PMI mission of
advancing the project management practice. In 2006, PMI published the first
edition of The Standard for Program Management. This book provides a guide-
line for managing programs and defines program management and its life cycle.
In 2008, the second edition of this book was released with a number of updates.
Those who earn a PgMP certification have the experience and proven ability to
manage programs. They also have passed the certification test, demonstrating
their understanding of the standards.
This chapter explores The Standard for Program Management and further
explains the concepts in this publication. The standard focuses on all the activi-
ties within a program, which may or may not be project-related work.
The PMI Standard for Program Management defines a program as “a group
of related projects managed in a coordinated way to obtain benefits and control
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 31

not available from managing them individually.” Programs are seen as long-
term business initiatives that involve both projects and supporting systems,
and that focus on benefits and broad outcomes. Programs involve more than
managing many projects at the same time. Program managers oversee the work
of multiple projects and project managers, and coordinate their efforts so that,
in combination, they can achieve a program goal and business objective in the
company’s strategic business plan. A program is a synergistic effort. Here, the
combined impact of the projects that make up the program is greater than if
they stood on their own. Together, as a program, the projects achieve the busi-
ness result that is desired—and often required—for the short- and long-term
success of the company.
The definition of a program involves scale, breadth, and timeline. In terms of
scale a program is wider and deeper, involves more of the company’s resources,
and involves the integration of many projects and supporting systems. Programs
are typically global in nature because they tend to involve other countries and
markets in both program support and market opportunity. A program is required
when the degree of the work involved in a business goal is large enough that a
coordinated effort over time is necessary. Once achieved, the program provides
an enormous benefit to the business and to its clients and customers by ensuring
that not only project deliverables are produced, but also that business goals and
program benefits are achieved. When there are dependencies among projects,
or if there is a need to consolidate and prioritize issues, it is best to centralize
the oversight of the projects within a program structure.
Program management is not about managing the intricacies of individual
projects, but about managing the big picture—the global benefits that the busi-
ness is expecting. With a program, you gain the benefit of integrating all of the
project’s efforts into a program dashboard of information. This information can
be presented to executive management and/or the portfolio governance commit-
tee for a streamlined view of the status and progress of the program. Within a
program, you combine the triple constraints of cost, schedule, and scope into
one system. You optimize the integration of cost, schedule, resources, and efforts
over multiple projects in the program.
Usually, programs are managed within one company with shared resources.
The program manager ensures optimum use of the business’s valuable resources.
At the program level, you manage risk that affects multiple projects or affects
the program as a whole. The program manager becomes the single point for
escalation of issues or scope changes from the projects within his or her domain.
The program manager has a strategic focus and understands how a change in
one project may affect the other projects in the program or the strategic benefits
of the program as a whole. A program allows the ability to produce integrated
deliverables across multiple projects.
Overall, program management can be thought of as the centralized, coordi-
nated management of a program to achieve the program’s strategic benefits and
objectives. It involves aligning multiple projects to achieve the program goals
and allows for optimized or integrated cost, schedule, and effort.
32 Chapter Two

Projects can be assembled under a program umbrella if there is a connection

or an association with a specific market or customer. For example, a convenience
foods business can target a specific market, like an organic foods market, or
“go green,” meaning to eliminate harmful chemicals, products, or processes and
replace them with environmentally friendly alternatives.
According to the Kellogg’s website, this company has a strategic focus on
reducing their impact on the environment:
Corporate responsibility has always been the foundation of Kellogg Company and
a key part of our heritage and culture. More than a century after our founding, we
remain a company consumers rely on to provide consistent, high-quality, great-
tasting foods. “Now more than ever, it’s important to do this while minimizing
environmental impacts and positively addressing global challenges,” said David
Mackay, president and chief executive officer, Kellogg Company.

Here, the Kellogg Company could undertake various projects to achieve the
goal of “minimizing environmental impact” and could group them under a single
program to track the cumulative benefits of this initiative.
Projects could also be grouped together based on a shared capability. Projects
that have collective capability are those that deliver an integrated product. An
example of collective capability would be a company that would like to launch a
new product. Here, each functional area may have a project within its group, but
a program is necessary to tie the work together to achieve the desired collective
benefit. The functional areas that would work with a program could include:
Q Research and development. Generates the product idea or concept and may
also test new product feasibility for manufacture.
Q Marketing. Researches markets to determine if this product has a viable
market with no or limited competition. This functional area would later
develop a product launch plan, including packaging and other marketing
material.
Q Manufacturing. May need to develop an environment to produce the product.
Q Finance. Focuses on understanding the profitability of the product as well as
the development of a break-even-point analysis for decision-maker review.
They would also do a business analysis for selling price based on completion
and customer feedback.

Projects could be centralized in a program under many different circum-

stances. Besides new product development, you could centralize projects based
on escalation level, direction change for the organization, resource constraints,
or risk mitigation.
Q Escalation level. Projects could be linked together based on the escalation
level for specific components such as quality, risks, or constraint. Escalation
is needed when issues cannot be handled by lower levels of staff. Combining
the projects into a program ensures that issues are raised to the appropriate
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 33

person’s or group’s attention. It allows the appropriate managerial level to

resolve the issue in an effective and timely manner. The escalation path could
have two parts: one within the program and the other from the program level
to the executives in the organization or stakeholders for the program.
Q Organizational change in direction. The organization may change direction,
which will affect projects and how they relate to each other. With a change
in direction, the program may no longer support the organizational strategic
goals and, therefore, may no longer be needed. On the other hand, the change
may cause the deliverables of the projects under the program to be redirected.
A program structure allows for better navigation of changes in a business’s
direction or strategy.
Q Resource constraints. Grouping projects together according to the resource
constraints would provide an optimal use of resources. Constraints are cir-
cumstances that place boundaries around a program’s ability to maneuver.
Program constraints could be related to time, cost, resources, and/or deliv-
erables. The program allows a program manager to identify and define con-
straints across the projects within the program. Furthermore, it allows a
better way to analyze and prioritize resource needs. With the knowledge
of resource constraint analysis, a program manager could manage the con-
straints to provide the best optimization of resource allocation.
Q Risk mitigation. Projects that need to mitigate or reduce the probability
and/or impact of a risk occurring should be linked together. Here, a program
focuses on the full risk management process and uses synergistic effort to
create contingency plans and to form decisions around risks to resolve them
at the program level.
Q Task dependency. The program focuses on interdependencies of cross-project
deliverables and manages them at the appropriate level. Linking projects
with task dependencies can provide improvements to schedule and cost man-
agement by eliminating redundant efforts and enhancing how dependencies
are managed.
Q Global barriers. Programs allow the ability to manage processes and inter-
faces across dispersed and global teams to handle language, time, distance,
culture, environment, and resource barriers. It is best for projects to roll up
into a program with additional expertise in global management to aid the
projects with global challenges that they may encounter.

Relationships with Other Project Standards

The project portfolio is the connection between the corporate strategy and the
investment in projects and programs. In your portfolio, business executives
make the decision as to whether or not they will invest in an initiative and how
it will be implemented—whether in a project or a program. The project portfolio
34 Chapter Two

is the 50,000-foot view of the business project investments. A project, which is

a temporary endeavor to achieve a business deliverable, is at the ground level
of work. A program is between these two: the portfolio’s 50,000-foot view and
the project’s ground level view. In a program, a program manager navigates
from the ground level at times, and may roll up her sleeves and dive deep into
a program issue; other times, she focuses on a higher strategic level. Portfolio
management is a continual process and becomes a major functional or opera-
tional area within the business. Programs and projects are temporary. At the
conclusion of a project or program, after the deliverables or planned strategic
results are accomplished, resources are released and the project or program
closes.
Projects produce planned deliverables. Programs deliver results, which are
capabilities and benefits that a company can use to achieve its goals. Another
way to look at it is that projects deliver outputs and programs produce outcomes.
Portfolios focus on identifying, selecting, prioritizing, and providing resources
for projects and programs.
PMI defines a project, a program, and a portfolio as follows:
Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques
to project activities to meet project requirements. A program is composed of mul-
tiple related projects that are initiated during the program’s life cycle and are
managed in a coordinated fashion. The program manager coordinates the efforts
between projects, but does not directly manage the individual projects. A portfolio
is a collection of components (i.e., projects, programs, portfolios, and other work,
such as maintenance and related ongoing operations) that are grouped together to
facilitate the effective management of that work in order to meet strategic busi-
ness objectives. The projects or programs of the portfolio may not necessarily be
interdependent or directly related.

While program managers oversee the efforts of projects, they do not directly
manage any of the projects. Program managers administer the interdependen-
cies of the projects and focus on identifying, monitoring, and controlling these
interdependencies.

The Role of the Program Manager

The program manager’s responsibilities are distinct from that of a project
manager.
It is critical for the program manager to understand and abide by the “rules
of the road” in the office. Program managers need to adapt their management
style to that of the company’s culture. When managing the program team, a pro-
gram manager needs to understand and follow the norms and policies of their
company. A program manager will have varying degrees of authority, depending
on the structure of the company. If they work in a functional company, they will
have little influence, while in a fully projectized organization, they will have
more control over the program and how it operates. This is also true for the
reporting structure for a program manager. In a functional organization, the
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 35

program manager would report to a specific functional area, while in a projec-

tized organization, they would report to the director of the project management
office (PMO). Most programs will fall between the extremes of functional and
projectized organizations and run in a matrix structure.
As a project manager manages a project, a program manager directs the
projects within the program and provides guidance and support to the proj-
ect managers. The program managers manage the project’s interdependencies
among each other, not the projects themselves. The program manager focuses
on the links between projects, which is an iterative process throughout a pro-
gram. At the beginning of a program, in the planning phase, there may be a
top-down approach to planning and organizing the program. The interaction
between a program and a project is from the program level, providing informa-
tion and guidance to the project level. As the program progresses, the top-down
approach transforms into a bottom-up approach as information from the project
teams is raised to the program level. The project teams provide the program
manager with schedules, costs, risks, and issue information and reports. This
information gathering is an iterative cycle. As the program manager receives
the information, she may redirect the project manager to stay on course for the
program to achieve the business benefits that are required.
While a project manager focuses on preventing changes, the program man-
ager focuses on producing benefits and achieving results. Project managers lead
a project team by focusing on project deliverables. A program manager works
to mitigate conflicts and manage shareholder expectations. Project managers
motivate their teams to focus on their task. Program managers set the stage
and provide the vision and inspiration for the course of the program. Where
a project manager monitors and controls tasks, a program manager oversees
projects and non-project-related work. They also have to keep an eye on the
broader picture of the governance or portfolio process. Program managers must
understand corporate changes of direction, as well as opportunities and threats
from their industry.
Project managers have a diverse team to manage. They may manage func-
tional managers, specialists, and technical experts. Program managers, on the
other hand, only manage project managers. Project managers create detailed
plans. Program managers develop high-level planning and reporting tools, and
provide guidance. A project manager’s scope of work resides within only one
project. A program manager’s scope encompasses a broader theme of benefits
delivery through the oversight of many projects. Project managers can measure
success of their projects by time, cost, and quality. A program manager’s suc-
cess is determined by benefits delivered, enhanced or new capabilities for the
company, and the return on investment. When you look at the overall difference
between a project manager and a program manager, you can think of a quilt.
The project manager focuses on delivering one square on the quilt. The program
manager, on the other hand, focuses on the overall technique of execution, all
the squares, and how they will be combined to create the overall design or pat-
tern. Program managers also have to focus on other aspects of the quilt, like the
36 Chapter Two

batting, the backing, how it is put together (or “tying”), and how the quilt will
be used. The program manager focuses on three main areas: benefits manage-
ment, stakeholder management, and program governance.

Benefits management
The purpose of a program is to deliver benefits. A program manager must focus
on the overall benefits that the program delivers. Benefits management is the
skill used to define, create, maximize, and sustain benefits from a program.
These benefits can be tangible and intangible. The tangible benefits are actual,
measurable deliverables. While the intangible benefits can be perceived yet be
of an unquantifiable quality, such as employee morale, this could lead to a tan-
gible result. If the business has a portfolio process, the portfolio will determine
the expected benefits for the program. If a portfolio process does not exist, the
business determines the benefits that should be provided by the program. After
the program is formed, the program manager begins the benefits management
process.
Benefits management includes:
Q Assessing the value of the program with regard to the benefits it will produce
and how it will affect the organization.
Q Ensuring that the expected benefits are SMART (specific, measurable, achiev-
able, realistic, and within a specific time period) goals.
Q Assigning responsibilities for achieving actual benefits expected from the
program.
Q Analyzing risk, impact, and benefits of any changes to the program.
Q Examining interdependencies of the projects within the program.

Planning is core to program management. In the early phases of a program,

a benefits realization plan is created and is maintained during the life cycle of
the program.
Q Communication plan. In this plan, you determine the benefit information
that needs to be communicated and to which stakeholder based on their level
of interest and need. Who needs what information, when do they need it, and
how should it be delivered?
Q Benefit register. This is a document containing the results of the benefits
analysis, listing all the benefits, and describing how they will be realized.
Q Benefit mapping. This is the component of the plan that maps program results
to the expected benefits of the program.
Q Benefit metrics. This component of the plan determines which metrics will be
used to measure benefits. There are a number of ways to measure benefits.
The decision on how to measure the benefit is based on what type of benefit
you are seeking. Is the benefit financial? If so, you could use financial tools
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 37

and techniques like return on investment (ROI), among others. Earned value
can be used to help measure the status of a project and make sure that it is
on track to deliver the benefits planned.
Q Value realization can be used to measure the benefits of the program. It
is a way of understanding the value obtained from the investment.
Q Balanced score card is another technique that can be used as a benefit
metric. This system, developed by Robert Kaplan and David Norton,
uses strategic goals that are segmented into four components: customer,
financial, internal operations, and learning and innovation. Metrics can
be built around each of the four dimensions.
Q Key performance indicators (KPIs) help measure performance at stages
of the program process.
Q Roles and responsibilities. This part of the plan identifies the roles required to
facilitate the benefits management and assigns responsibilities to each role.
Q Transition plan. The transition plan includes how the transition of respon-
sibilities regarding sustainment of benefits to ongoing operations will be
performed.

Figure 2-1 maps out the benefits management process. First, benefits that the
program will be seeking need to be identified. After the benefits are identified,
they need to be analyzed. In the analysis process, benefits are prioritized and
metrics are established to best measure the level of benefit realization at later
stages. Next, the program manager establishes a plan as to how the benefits
will be realized, with ways on how they will monitor the benefits throughout

Benefits management

Benefits Benefits Benefit Benefits Benefits

identification analysis planning realization transition

Derive and Consolidate

Identify business Establish benefits Monitor
prioritize coordinated
benefits realization plan components
components benefits

Transfer the
Qualify business Derive benefits Establish benefits Maintain benefits
benefits
benefits and metrics monitoring register
responsibility

Mapping between
benefits and Report benefits
program planning

Figure 2-1 Benefits management process.

38 Chapter Two

the program. As benefits are achieved, the benefits register is updated and key
information is presented to program stakeholders. At the final stage, benefits
are transitioned to the business.

Program stakeholder management

Program managers are responsible for stakeholder management. Anyone who
can influence a program positively or negatively is a stakeholder. It is easy
to want to avoid negative stakeholders, but it is critical that all stakeholders
receive the appropriate attention, information, and involvement in the program.
At the end of a program, the program manager is responsible for transferring
the benefits to the business.
Program stakeholder management includes understanding and managing the
expectations of the program stakeholders. A program stakeholder is a person
who is actively involved in the program or whose interest may be affected by
the execution or result of the program. Stakeholders can exert influence, both
positively and negatively, over program results. They play a critical role in the
success of the program. The program manager is responsible for ensuring that
stakeholders understand the benefits of the program. It is important to focus
on the positive as well as the negative stakeholders; each can greatly affect the
success of the program. Program stakeholder management is the second theme
of program management. In stakeholder management, you need to:
Q Identify stakeholders
Q Analyze and resolve their issues
Q Manage their needs and expectations

Identifying program stakeholders. There are many ways to identify program

stakeholders. Stakeholders may be internal or external to your company. They
can be at different corporate levels and express different levels of influence on a
program. Identifying and analyzing stakeholders takes time and is an iterative
process. There are some obvious candidates that could be a part of your list.
Q Program manager. The person who is managing the program.
Q Project managers. The people who manage the projects that fall under the
program.
Q Program team members. The people responsible for managing program
activities.
Q Project team member. The people responsible for managing project activities
that fall under the program.
Q Program sponsor. The individual or group in the organization providing
resources, helping remove barriers, and delivering the program results. This
is the person ultimately responsible for delivering program benefits.
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 39

Q Program director. The person with executive ownership of the program. The
program directory may also oversee other programs.
Q Program management office (PMO). The group responsible for defining and
managing program-related governance processes, procedures, standards, tem-
plates, histories, and best practices for all programs within the organization.
Q Program office (PO). The central office that provides administrative support
for all program management team members.
Q Program governance board. This is the group responsible for ensuring that
all program benefits are met and for providing support for managing program
risks and issues.
Q Performing organization. The organization that is performing the work
through projects.
Q Customer. The individual or organization that will receive and make use of
the results, benefits, and capabilities that are delivered by the program.

In addition to the key stakeholders, there could be a number of other stake-

holders—both internal and external to the organization—that may be less obvi-
ous to identify. Examples of external program stakeholders include:
Q Vendors and suppliers may be affected by modifications to policies and pro-
cedures, or the product of the program.
Q Special-interest groups, including those representing the interests of inves-
tors, consumers, and the environment.
Q Government regulatory agencies may need to ensure that current regula-
tions are being complied with and may create new policies that could affect
a program.
Q External customers and society at large might be affected by the program
outcome.
Q Competitors and the marketplace could have an impact on the program.
Q Media outlets have an interest in analyzing and reporting on business pro-
grams. The information documented could have a positive or negative effect
on a program.

Managing stakeholders. To effectively manage stakeholders, first you need to identify

them and how the program will affect them in terms of organizational culture, current
issues, and resistance or barriers to change and then develop a communication
strategy to manage their expectations and improve their acceptance of the program’s
objectives. This process includes examining different levels of stakeholders and their
broader interdependencies among the projects in the program.
The communication plan centers on taking the initiative to deliver timely,
accurate, consistent, and needed information to the appropriate stakeholders.
The communication plan delivers a clear vision to help resolve issues and manage
40 Chapter Two

expectations. It can be summed up as “delivering the correct message, to the cor-

rect the audience, at the correct time.”

Program governance
Program governance is a third area that a program manager focuses on within a
program environment. Program governance provides the mechanism to ensure
alignment between the business strategy and the outcomes of the program. The
methods used in program governance provide oversight and control over the pro-
gram execution. It allows the program manager to assess the state of the program
and determine if adjustments are necessary. Program governance is the process
of developing, communicating, implementing, and monitoring the program’s poli-
cies, procedures, structure, and progression. It provides:
Q A structure for efficient and effective decision-making
Q A consistent method for delivering focus to achieving program goals
Q A process for addressing program risks and stakeholder requirements

The team needs to make sure that the program governance complies with the
overall organization’s governance structure.
Q Corporate processes and structures that drive, monitor, and constrain the
operation of the organization. This process focuses on the company’s mission,
vision, and strategy.
Q Mission. A mission is a brief statement describing the present purpose of
the company. The statement could also include who the key customers are
and critical processes.
Q Vision. A vision statement defines where the organization is going in the
future. It is a source of inspiration and a tool for decision-making for the
company.
Q Strategy. A strategy is a long-term plan of action to achieve the company’s
vision and maintain its mission.
Q Guidance provided by strategic management on the direction the business is
going. The program manager must have knowledge about this process.
Q Practices and policies on portfolio and project management.
Q Formal methods to capture executive needs and issues can be addressed.

In Fig. 2-2, you see the overall program governance process. The process
always starts at the top with the corporate governance team, which usually is
your executive management committee. The corporate governance team develops
the strategic plan. This is presented to the business operations group, who then
implements changes to their functions to meet business goals. Changes that
cannot be implemented easily in operations, due to the nature of the strategy,
move to the corporate project investment branch, then down to the portfolio
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 41

Corporate
governance

Strategic
planning

Operations Corporate project

management investments

Portfolio
management

Program Project
management management

Figure 2-2 Program governance process.

management process. In the portfolio management process, the strategy is broken

into project deliverables and program benefits to be realized through processes.
Program management is concerned with managing the business’s program
investment. As a program progresses, program governance monitors and con-
trols the delivery of benefits. It accomplishes the controlling process with prog-
ress reports and program reviews.
The program board can consist of:
Q Executive sponsor
Q Program director
Q Portfolio manager
Q Business change manager
Q Other necessary stakeholders

The executive sponsor is the primary decision-maker on the board, because

they are ultimately responsible for realizing the benefits of the program.
Participation on the program board is not a full-time position. A heavy reliance
is placed on the program manager and their team.

The skills of a program manager

In order for a program manager to be successful, they must have a blend of skills
and talents. Just like functional managers, program managers need to be strong
42 Chapter Two

leaders. The program manager’s leadership style needs to be aligned with the
overall style of the business and focus on vision, strategy, and guidance. It is a
benefit to the program manager if they have previous technical knowledge or
skills in the field that they are in. People skills are also a basic requirement for
a program manager. The program manager works with executives as well as
those on the front line. Thus, they need to have a positive attitude and remain
flexible, regardless of what comes their way.
As you can see from Fig. 2-3, skills build upon each other to create a strong and
productive program manager. At the base of any great program manager is strong
communication skills. A program manager needs to communicate effectively with
everyone in a timely fashion and while keeping stakeholder needs in mind.
Building upon strong communication skills are the basic skills of technical
knowledge and skill in your particular field, people skills, organization skills,
and time management skills. These basic skills are valuable for anyone to be
successful at the front line of a business.
As you move up the pyramid, project management, political skills, and envi-
ronmental awareness become more critical. All great program managers have a
background in project management and the project management methodology.
Having this background provides valuable insight when they manage and provide
guidance to the project managers that work for them. Office politics plays a part
in any position. As a program manager, having strong political skills provides you
with the ability to gain resources and balance requirements in a politically savvy
manner. Environmental awareness refers to more than the conditions outside
your building. A person who is environmentally aware reads the trade magazines
and news sites. Program managers know what is going on inside their company,

Leadership
skills

Program Strategic
management vision

Project Environmental
Political skills
management awareness

Organizational Time
Technical skills People skills
skills management

Communication

Figure 2-3 Program manager’s skills.

 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 43

industry, government, and society. They know if regulations change. When work-
ing globally, they understand different cultures and customs.
All great program managers have a strong background in the standards of
program management and how best to apply it to their environment. Strategic
vision and an ability to communicate that vision to inspire those under you to
accomplish the work that is required is a high-level talent.
Finally, at the crown of the skill pyramid are leadership skills. The ability to
lead effectively is critical.

External Program Elements

A program’s success can be affected by a number of external elements; however,
these factors can be internal or external to the company. The company that the
program resides in may have other projects, programs, or business functions
competing for the same resources. The program manager needs to identify,
analyze, plan, and determine how to manage these external elements. Many
organizations have established tools, techniques, and policies around best prac-
tices, knowledge bases, and risk information, which can be called organizational
process assets. These organizational process assets can also include financial
management processes, procurement processes, and quality control processes.
A program manager needs to understand how the organization’s process assets
are managed and use them appropriately.
Another element that is external to the program and that could affect it is
enterprise environmental factors. When the company changes to a strategy that
is no longer in alignment with the benefits of the program, this situation would
be considered an enterprise environmental factor. These factors can be a change
of company priority or a realignment of resources. A primary stakeholder may
leave the company and support is lost. On the other hand, a new stakeholder
could join the company and bring a new vision.
Other situations affect a program outside of the boundaries of the company,
and these are called enterprise external factors. These elements can be anything
that happens in the world that we live in that could affect a program.
Enterprise external factors can be found in any of these areas:
Q Economic conditions. Changes in interest rates; a downturn in the local,
regional, or global economy
Q Natural disaster
Q Market needs. A better product or service enters the market and changes the
demand for your program benefits.
Q Government regulations
Q Availability of raw materials

The program manager must look beyond the borders of their program to
the external factors that could affect the successful delivery of the benefits that
the program was formed to provide.
44 Chapter Two

Program Life Cycle

As projects have processes and life cycles, so do programs. The program life cycle
encompasses the five phases of a program: pre-program planning, program initi-
ation, program formulation, program delivery of benefits, and program closeout.
Each phase of the life cycle is unique and can overlap with other phases. Each
phase benefits the program by providing a vehicle for enhanced monitoring and
control of the program. In practice, the five phases may be slightly different in
different environments and should be monitored carefully for variances.
During the preprogram phase, the decision-making committee—whether it be
a portfolio, governance, or executive steering team—determines the strategy and
the benefits that are needed for the business. To achieve the business benefits, the
governing body will determine if a program of work should be created. After the
strategic benefits are understood, a plan is created to initiate a program. In this
plan, key stakeholders are identified and program objectives and how they align
with the business are defined. At this point, initial project approval is given.
In program initiation, the program is further defined. Prior program ben-
efits are analyzed, and a program charter is produced. The program charter
describes the program’s mission, vision, objectives, benefits, assumptions, and
constraints. Many areas can be included in this document.
Q Background. The background section should describe the current situation
or need for new benefits. Here, you want to have the justification for the
program clearly explained.
Q Scope. The scope covers what is included and not included in the program.
This is where the future state of the business is described. What is the vision
of the future of the business, and how will it be achieved by this program?
Q Results. What are the results that you plan to achieve with this program?
Q Benefit strategy. What are the benefits that will be achieved with this program?
Q Concerns, constraints, and assumptions. It is important to list all concerns,
constraints, and assumptions at this point in the program. Later, a program
manager will take these items and analyze the risk each presents and deter-
mine how to manage these risks.
Q Elements. Are there any projects or other program elements that must be
included for planning purposes for this program?
Q Risks. What are the high-level risks or issues with this program?
Q Time. A high-level timescale and major milestones are presented.
Q Resources. What resources are needed for the program?
Q Budget. What is the cost plan for the program?
Q Stakeholders. Who are the key stakeholders?
Q Governance. How will this program be managed, structured, and controlled?
This is a high-level description of how the program will function in later
phases.
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 45

This document is analyzed and, if approved, signed by the appropriate

person(s) to authorize the program to move to the next phase. The program
manager and sponsor are assigned in this phase.

Program formulation
When the program reaches the formulation phase, it begins to become officially
“set up.” In this phase, further definition is given to all the elements of the char-
ter. The scope of the program and its objectives are further defined. The budget
and timeline reach another layer of detail. Dependencies are reviewed. The
program is further analyzed to see that it continues to align with the mission
and strategy of the company. At the end of this phase, a detailed program plan
is produced and ready to be executed upon. Also, the program infrastructure is
created to support the program work. A program management office is created,
and facilities to support the staff are defined. Other necessary tools, techniques,
and processes are formulated and/or provided.

Program delivery of benefits

At a high-level, this phase of the program delivers the benefits that it was cre-
ated to deliver. The projects under the program produce their deliverables, and
the program manager manages interproject activities. A number of activates
occur during this phase.
Q A project governance process is created to monitor and control project activi-
ties and deliverables.
Q Projects are initiated to meet program deliverables.
Q Iterative work continues, where the program plan is managed and updated
according to changes in the environment or any other factors that could affect
the program.
Q Analyze metrics. Benefits are identified, measured, analyzed, and reported
to the appropriate stakeholders.
Q Review and approve change requests when appropriate.
Q Communicate with and manage stakeholders.
Q Work with the program governance board and other appropriate executive
stakeholders to provide them an update on the program status and receive
guidance on strategy or direction changes.
Q Provide guidance to the project managers throughout the projects.

Throughout this phase of the program, benefits will be realized at different

points. The program manager provides vision and guidance during this process.

Program closeout
After all the benefits are realized, the program reaches the fifth and final
phase, program closeout. All program work reaches completion. The benefits
are transferred to the appropriate operation, and resources are released.
46 Chapter Two

A program may reach the closeout phase before all the benefits are realized
due to external factors that prevent its continuation. Regardless of how the
program reaches closeout, the same procedures still apply.
Q Benefits are reviewed with stakeholders.
Q Resources are released. This includes the program organization, team, tools,
equipment, and facilities.
Q Lessons learned are documented and provide feedback to the organization
for improved future program process.
Q Documents are stored for history and guidance and analysis for future pro-
grams and projects.
Q Benefits are transitioned to operations.

As you see in Fig. 2-4, between each phase is a decision point, or gate. At this
gate, a determination needs to be made whether to continue with the program
and add the appropriate resources to move on to the next phase, if it should be
placed on hold, or if it should be killed. If the program ends prematurely at an
early phase, it skips successor phases and jumps directly to closeout and fol-
lows the necessary steps to disband the program. However, if the program is
approved to go to the next phase, the appropriate resources are assigned and
processes are followed, as identified previously.

Program management processes

Program management is a process to achieve a company’s strategic objectives
and benefits by coordinating efforts in a centralized manner. A program is cre-
ated to strategically manage interdependent activities among projects. Issues
are resolved between projects appropriately to best direct efforts to achieve
program benefits. There are five program management process groups.

1. Initiation. Programs and projects are defined and approved.

2. Planning. Plans are developed to build the roadmap to achieve benefits.
3. Executing. Plans are enacted and benefits are realized.
4. Monitoring and controlling. This happens through all the process groups,
where the program is monitored, progress is measured, and variances are
identified and managed according to the plan. Corrective action is taken to
remain on track to deliver program benefits.
5. Closing. Benefits are accepted and the program is formally closed.

Pre- Program
Program Program Program
program delivery of
initiation formulation closeout
planning benefits

Figure 2-4 Program life cycle.

 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 47

As each of the process groups are discussed, the knowledge area that maps
with the process will also be mentioned. Knowledge areas are defined by PMI
and are topics or themes that should be understood by all program managers.
Knowledge areas are broken down into processes or methods, practices, inputs,
tools, techniques, and outputs. Inputs focus on what is contributing to the initial
part of the process. The tools and techniques are used to achieve the desired
output. The output is what has been produced in that process. PMI has the fol-
lowing list of knowledge areas for program management:

1. Integration management
2. Program scope management
3. Program time management
4. Program communications management
5. Program risk
6. Program procurement management
7. Program financial management
8. Program stakeholder management
9. Program governance

Integration management. You can compare integration management to a conductor

of an orchestra. Each part of the program can be compared to the different parts
of an orchestra: woodwinds, brass, strings, and rhythm sections. Each section of a
program is planned and often executed in components. However, they all have
integration points that need to be planned for, monitored, and controlled. Just
like a conductor conducts the orchestra, bringing in and out instruments and
maintaining the pacing of the music, the program manager synchronizes the
different actions of all the process groups.

Q The following are the process activities that occur in this knowledge area.
All process activities are described in the next section under the appropriate
process group.
Q Initiate program
Q Develop program management plan
Q Develop program infrastructure
Q Direct and manage program execution
Q Manage program resources
Q Monitor and control program performance
Q Manage program issues
Q Close program
48 Chapter Two

Program scope management. The scope management area is responsible for

defining, planning, monitoring and controlling, and delivering the results
required for the program. The scope can define what is included and excluded
from the program of work. It specifies what is required to complete the
program.
Q The following are the process activities that occur in this knowledge area.
All process activities are described in the next section under the appropriate
process group.
Q Plan program scope
Q Define program goals and objectives
Q Develop program requirements
Q Develop program architecture
Q Develop program WBS (work breakdown structure)
Q Manage program architecture
Q Manage component interfaces
Q Monitor and control program scope

Program time management. The focus of time management is to develop and

control the program schedule. Here, activities are defined, assigned durations,
and sequenced appropriately. Resources are assigned to activities and leveled
as required.
Q The following are the process activities that occur in this knowledge area.
All process activities are described in the next section under the appropriate
process group.
Q Develop program schedule
Q Monitor and control program schedule

Program communication management. Communication is extremely critical to

the success of the program. Communication management involves planning
who, what, where, when, and how information is communicated.
Q Who needs program information?
Q What information is needed by each stakeholder?
Q Where should this information be delivered (to stakeholders’ electronic
inboxes, shared storage site, or hard copies mailed to offices)?
Q When should the information be delivered (within 24 hours of a meeting,
weekly status updates, monthly progress reports, etc.)?
Q How is the information distributed?
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 49

Who What Where When How

Stakeholder 1 Status Updates E-mailed to the Weekly Program manager
stakeholder and to create and send
posted on shared weekly updates
server site
Stakeholder 2 Progress Reports Posted on the Monthly Program manager
shared server site creates and posts
progress reports
Stakeholder 3 Program Dashboard Printed and Quarterly Program manager
distributed at receives status
governance reports from project
meeting and manager and rolls up
posted on shared the information into
server site a graphical summary
document for the
governance meeting
Stakeholder 4 Meeting Minutes E-mailed to team Within 24 Program manager
and posted on hours after takes notes at the
shared server site the meeting meeting and then
creates the meeting
minutes

Figure 2-5 Stakeholder communication plan.

A communication matrix can be developed for the communication plan that

could look like Fig. 2-5. Other processes areas under communication manage-
ment include distribute information and report program performance.
Q The following are the process activities that occur in this knowledge area.
All process activities are described in the next section under the appropriate
process group.

Q Plan communications
Q Distribute information
Q Report program performance

Program risk management. The purpose of program risk management is to

identify events that, if they happen, could have an effect on the program,
either positive or negative. Program risk events are identified, analyzed,
and responded to in the appropriate fashion, as planned for in the risk
management plan. Depending on the impact and probability of a risk
occurring, the response to the risk could be to ignore, transfer, mitigate, or
avoid it.
Q Ignore or accept risk. You might ignore a risk if the probability and impact is
low. Alternatively, you can accept the risk if there is no other option.
50 Chapter Two

Q Transfer risk. To transfer the risk, you shift the impact of the risk event to a
third party. This is a common practice if there is a great financial impact. In
practice, you could develop a contract with penalties for late delivery equal
to or greater than the cost that would be incurred by the program if the risk
happened.
Q Avoid risk. To avoid a risk, the program plan would be changed to eliminate
the possibility of the risk occurring. One way to avoid a risk is to reduce
program scope.
Q Mitigate risk. To mitigate a risk, you reduce its impact or probability.
Mitigation of risk can be done in the following ways:

Q Designing a backup or redundant process or system

Q Conducting more tests
Q Developing a less complicated system
Q Planning for secondary resource needs
Q Building a duplicate system at a secondary site
Q Modeling the development on a smaller scale to validate the plan

Figure 2-6 is a risk response matrix. A program manager would plot the
identified risks on this chart and then make a determination as to how they
will respond to the risk. The chart lists possible risk responses, depending on
the impact and probability of the risk. The impact refers to what degree the
risk will affect the project.
Q Will it have little or low impact on the program?
Q Will it have some impact, but not too great of a change to the program?
Q Will it have significant impact to the program and be considered a high-
impact risk?

The matrix also looks at the likelihood or probability of the risk occurring.
Q Is there little or no chance of the risk occurring in the program?
Q Is there a good possibility of the risk occurring in the program?
Q Is there a strong possibility of the risk occurring in the program?

The risk management plan defines the meaning of low, medium, and high for
impact and probability. It is one thing to plan for a risk, but another to plan for
and develop the response to the risk. The matrix illustrates possible responses,
depending on where the risk falls on the matrix.
Q The following are the process activities that occur in this knowledge area.
All process activities are described in the next section under the appropriate
process group.
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 51

Impact of risk occurring

Low Medium High

Ignore
Ignore
Avoid
Low Ignore Avoid
Transfer
Transfer
Mitigate
Probability of risk occurring

Ignore
Ignore Avoid
Avoid
Medium Avoid Transfer
Transfer
Transfer Mitigate
Mitigate

Ignore
Avoid Avoid
Avoid
High Transfer Transfer
Transfer
Mitigate Mitigate
Mitigate

Figure 2-6 Risk response matrix.

Q Plan program risk management

Q Identify program risks
Q Analyze program risks
Q Plan program risk responses
Q Monitor and control program risk

Program procurement management. This knowledge area focuses on acquiring

external products and services that are needed for the program. It concentrates
52 Chapter Two

on planning for acquisition needs, developing contracts, selecting vendors, and

managing vendor relationships.
Q The following are the process activities that occur in this knowledge area.
All process activities are described in the next section under the appropriate
process group.
Q Plan program procurements
Q Conduct program procurements
Q Administer program procurements
Q Close program procurements

Program financial management. In financial management, the financial picture

for all the projects are integrated into one budget. The costs are monitored and
controlled throughout the program.
Q The following are the process activities that occur in this knowledge area.
All process activities are described in the next section under the appropriate
process group.
Q Establish program financial framework
Q Develop program financial plan
Q Estimate program costs
Q Budget program costs
Q Monitor and control program financials

Program stakeholder management. Stakeholders play a critical role in the success

of a program. In stakeholder management, stakeholders are identified, analyzed,
and managed according to what is appropriate to their role in the program.
Anyone who can positively or negatively affect a program is a stakeholder.
Q The following are the process activities that occur in this knowledge area.
All process activities are described in the next section under the appropriate
process group.
Q Plan program stakeholder management
Q Identify program stakeholders
Q Engage program stakeholders
Q Manage program stakeholder expectations

Program governance management. The scope and complexity of a program requires

that there is a governance process to ensure that decisions are made and that
activities performed align to the overall organization’s strategy and objectives.
Q The following are the process activities that occur in this knowledge area.
All process activities are described in the next section under the appropriate
process group.
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 53

Q Plan and establish program governance

Q Plan for audits
Q Plan program quality
Q Approve component initiation
Q Provide governance oversight
Q Manage program benefits
Q Monitor and control program changes
Q Approve component transition

Initiation process
In Fig. 2-7, you see the initiate program process. In the preprogram setup, information
is gathered and used to initiate a program. The initiating process begins to execute
on a strategic initiative developed by the company. The governing body determines
the best way to achieve the benefit of the objective. When you initiate a program, it
can include organizing current and proposed projects into the program. In addition,
approval is needed to move on to the next process. The final output of this process is
the program charter, which ties the work that the program is commissioned to per-
form with the organization’s strategy. There are two main functions in the process,
which are initiate program and establish program financial framework.
The initiate program function receives information or inputs. The inputs
for this work are created in the program management life cycle process of
preprogram planning. Initiate program falls under the program integration
management knowledge area. To get started in the process, you need:
Q Strategic directive. This comes from the governing body and outlines what
the program is to achieve.
Q Program business case. This is used to define the business need. It can also
be used as a feasibility study or concept development, where it establishes

Initiation Process
Knowledge area: Program Integration Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Strategic directive • Expert judgment • Program manager

• Program business • Feasibility studies is assigned
case • Comparative • Program charter is
• Existing advantage analysis updated
organization • Cost/benefit • Business case
structures and analysis updates are
policies complete
• Existing • Program roadmap
components is developed and/or
updated

Figure 2-7 Initiate program.

54 Chapter Two

estimates for cost, effort, and scope of the program. At the end of the pro-
gram, the benefits are measured against the business case to determine the
program’s level of success.
Q Existing organization structures and policies. The program must have an
understanding of the business in which it will be operating.
Q Existing components. The program may be established to encompass existing
or in-flight projects or other business components that it will have to manage
and subsequently take on their risks.

The outputs of the initiate program are:

Q Program manager is assigned
Q Program charter is created
Q Business case updates are completed
Q Program roadmap is developed

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Expert judgment. You are relying on an expert’s knowledge and experiences
to provide advice and guidance for the program. Experts can be internal or
external to the organization. The expert can have a functional or technical
background. This person could be a consultant, from a professional or techni-
cal association, or a specialist from a government agency.
Q Feasibility studies. These are conducted to determine the technical or eco-
nomic viability of the program. They can also be used to determine if the
program will attain the benefits as planned. A SWOT analysis can help deter-
mine the viability of the program.
Q Comparative advantage analysis. This is used to compare alternatives to
the proposed solution. What-if analysis could also be done at this time to
determine if the program benefits could be accomplished in other ways.
Q Cost/benefit analysis. This is used to determine if the program is a good
solution to achieve the planned benefit. All program costs are divided by the
benefits of the solution. The benefits can be financial and nonfinancial.

The other part of the initiating process is establishing the program financial
framework, which falls under the program financial management area. This
area defines the financial process for the program and determines if it relates
to the financial functions of the business.
The inputs to this process are:
Q The program funding source is determined before the program begins.
Q Funding goals for the program.
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 55

Q Funding constraints that will limit the program’s funding options.

Q Program business case is used to define the business need. It can also be used
as a feasibility study or concept development where it establishes estimates for
cost, effort, and scope of the program. At the end of the program, the benefits are
measured against the business case to determine the program’s level of success.

The results or output for the establishing program financial framework are:
Q The program financial framework will have appropriate process that inter-
faces with the business’s established processes.
Q Program business case updates and financial plan information would be
added or updated in the business case.

As seen in Fig. 2-8, to achieve the required outputs for this process, the fol-
lowing tools and techniques can be used:
Q Program financial analysis. The financial analysis gathers all the cost-related
information for the program. How will the program be funded? What factors
may affect costs in labor, materials, and availability? The analysis also looks
at feature or function/cost tradeoffs. It investigates the best mix of benefits
for the cost. Analysis can also include benefit/cost analysis, net present value
(NPV), and return on investment (ROI).
Q Payment schedules. Payment schedules are milestones in the schedule to pay
vendors. Using payment schedules, you can forecast cashflow for your program.
Q Funding methods. There are many sources of funding for a program. The
program can be funded internally or externally to the organization. External
sources can include investors, government, and lending institutions.

Initiation Process
Knowledge area: Program Financial Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program funding • Program financial • Program financial

source analysis framework
• Funding goals • Payment schedules • Program business
• Funding constraints • Funding methods case updates
• Program business
case

Figure 2-8 Establish program financial framework.

56 Chapter Two

Planning process
The foundation of the program provides a platform for the program’s success.
Further definition is provided to earlier documents, and the next steps in for-
malizing the program are taken. Every aspect of the program is defined and
planned for in the program planning process. Questions that are answered in
this process include:
Q How will the program be organized?
Q How will the governance structure be handled?
Q What will be needed for the program audits?
Q What are the scope, costs, and risks of the program?
Q Who are all the program stakeholders, and how do they need to be managed?
Q What is the schedule and major milestones of the program?
Q What is the program’s work breakdown structure?
Q How will procurement be handled?
Q How will communications be handled for the project?
Q What are the interdependencies between projects?
Q What are the external factors that could affect the program?

The program planning process is iterative, and the plans are updated through-
out the program until closeout. Due to the nature of a program, this can be a
lengthy process, as updates to the plan will need to be assessed as additions
are made to it. For example, updates need to be administered when a project or
component closes, risk responses are executed, or outside factors that influence
the program occur.
Under the knowledge area of program scope management, there are five parts
to be accomplished in the planning phase:

1. Plan program scope

2. Define program goals and objectives
3. Develop program requirements
4. Develop program architecture
5. Develop program work breakdown structure (PWBS)

Plan program scope. When you plan the program scope, as you can see in Fig. 2-9,
you are tasked with developing a detailed description of the major deliverables,
program objectives, assumptions, constraints, and concerns. This document
provides a basis for making decisions about the program. The scope should also
distinguish between what is included and not included in the program. When you
plan the program scope, you need to start with some basic information.
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 57

Planning Process
Knowledge area: Program Scope Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program business • Expert judgment • Program scope

case • Program statement updates
• Program charter management • Program scope
information management plan
systems updates

Figure 2-9 Plan program scope.

Q The program business case is used to define the business need. It can also be
used as a feasibility study or for concept development, where it establishes
estimates for cost, effort, and scope of the program. At the end of the pro-
gram, the benefits are measured against the business case to determine the
program’s level of success.
Q The program charter was completed in the initiating process.

At the conclusion of this work, you will have a program scope statement and
a program scope management plan.
To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Expert judgment. You are relying on an expert’s knowledge and experiences
to provide advice and guidance for the program. Experts can be internal or
external to the organization. This person can have a functional or technical
background. The expert could be a consultant, from a professional or techni-
cal association, or a specialist from a government agency.
Q Program management information systems. This system is a central server that
houses your program documents. Access to the system is determined by rights
management protocols. The system may also have tools incorporated within it to
help with forecasting, planning, and analyzing your program information.

Define program goals and objectives. From the scope statement, we move to
defining the program goals and objectives. In this part, as seen in Fig. 2-10,
we take the program scope statement and management plan and then create
updates to the scope statement and create the benefits realization plan. A
58 Chapter Two

Planning Process
Knowledge area: Program Scope Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program scope • Selection methods • Program scope

statement • Expert judgment statement updates
• Program scope • Interviewing • Benefits realization
management plan • Focus groups plan
• Customer
acceptance review

Figure 2-10 Define program goals and objectives.

program is created to achieve benefits. The benefits realization plan describes the
program’s goals, objectives, and benefits and how they will be accomplished.
All the program benefits are listed and described in this plan. This plan also
maps the program outcome to the benefits listed within it. The benefits realiza-
tion plan includes information on cost and expected return on investment, which
proves the feasibility of the program and helps acquire funding. Later, cost, ROI,
balanced scorecard, key performance indicators, and value realization tools
are used for metrics to determine if the execution of this plan is on track. This
plan will also be affected by the organization’s environment and external fac-
tors, which should also be included in this document. Roles and responsibilities
and a transition plan are also described. This plan is updated throughout the
program’s life cycle iteratively. As the program progresses, increasing granular-
ity and refined details are incorporated into the plan.
Information-gathering techniques are used to assemble the information that
is encompassed in the plan. Program benefits are identified and aligned with
the organization’s strategic objectives. In addition, a determination is made as
to how the benefits will be realized.
Q Selection methods. These determine how benefits will be selected for inclusion
in the program.
Q Expert judgment. Using the advice of experts in the field to determine what
benefits should be included in the plan.
Q Interviewing. Talking to internal and external stakeholders is an effective
way to gain valuable information for the program.
Q Focus groups. A focus group is a synergistic effort where the group talks
about the subject at hand and is a great way to understand the needs for the
program, solve problems, and find innovative solutions.
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 59

Q Customer acceptance review. This is an effective method to understand cus-

tomer needs and requirements, improve deliverables to better meet customer
needs, and obtain buy-in from the customer by having them involved in the
program process.

Develop program requirements

The develop program requirements process further enhances the requirements
for the program. The information feeding this process, as seen in Fig. 2-11, is
the program scope statement, program business case, program roadmap, and
program change requests. At the conclusion of this process, you have a program
requirements document and component requirements document.
To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Requirements gathering. There are many methods to gather requirements.
You can conduct interviews with internal and external stakeholders or
experts. You can use focus groups or send surveys or questionnaires to the
stakeholders to gather information.
Q Requirements analysis. When you analyze the requirement information, you
need to make sure all the information is accurate and complete, then begin the
process of further clarifying the information. In this process, prioritization of the
information should be conducted using the assistance of critical stakeholders.
Q Design reviews. The program is reviewed by peers and subject matter experts
to make sure that it complies with the appropriate standards and best prac-
tices of the organization.

Planning Process
Knowledge area: Program Scope Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program scope • Requirements • Program

statement gathering requirements
• Change requests • Requirements document
• Program business analysis • Component
case • Design reviews requirements
• Program roadmap • Brainstorming documents
• Expert judgment
• Requirements
validation and
verification

Figure 2-11 Develop program requirements.

60 Chapter Two

Q Brainstorming. Sessions should be conducted with the appropriate stakeholders

who have knowledge of the discussion topic. Brainstorming sessions are a
valuable tool to help with requirements identification.
Q Expert judgment. You are relying on an expert’s knowledge and experiences
to provide advice and guidance for the program. Experts can be internal or
external to the organization. This person can have a functional or technical
background. The expert could be a consultant, from a professional or techni-
cal association, or a specialist from a government agency.
Q Requirements validations and verification. Requirements are further vali-
dated and verified for accuracy and the level of need for the program.

Develop program architecture

The program architecture focuses on how the program is going to be organized.
This document also looks at how each component of the program is going to
relate to the others. It focuses on creating policies and procedures on how the
program is going to operate. To start this document, as seen in Fig. 2-12, you
need the program requirements document. At the end of this process, the pro-
gram architecture baseline is created. The architecture baseline describes the
interfaces of the program, such as their characteristics, deliverables, abilities,
and timing. In order to prepare the architecture baseline, you need technical
knowledge to develop the optimal solution for the program.

Develop program work breakdown structure (PWBS)

The program work breakdown structure (PWBS), as seen in Fig. 2-13, breaks
down the scope information into program deliverables. The PWBS can be

Planning Process
Knowledge area: Program Scope Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program • Technical • Program

requirements knowledge architecture
baseline

Figure 2-12 Develop program architecture.

 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 61

Planning Process
Knowledge area: Program Scope Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program • Expert judgment • Program WBS

architecture • Work breakdown • Work breakdown
baseline structure templates structure matrix
• Program • Management
requirements planning process
document • Task responsibility
• Component matrix
requirements • System
documents configuration tools

Figure 2-13 Develop program work breakdown structure (PWBS).

displayed in outline or organizational chart format. Each deliverable is num-

bered, and the numbers can be used in other documents to keep the informa-
tion organized and aligned throughout all the documents in the plan. Work is
broken down into smaller, more manageable segments. The structure of the
PWBS requirements is hierarchal and deliverable-oriented. The lowest level
of the PWBS is the program packages. These are assigned to project man-
agers to deliver. The program package is where the program ends and the
projects begin. It is also the control point for program managers. Anything
not included in the PWBS is outside the scope of the program and will not
be completed.
The information needed to begin a PWBS includes the program requirements,
components documents, and the program architecture baseline. At the conclu-
sion of this phase, you will have developed a program work breakdown structure
document and matrix.
To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Management planning process. This process defines how the benefits of the
program will be achieved.
Q Task responsibility matrix. This document defines the roles and responsibili-
ties of each of the team members.
Q Expert judgment. You are relying on an expert’s knowledge and experiences
to provide advice and guidance for the program. Experts can be internal or
external to the organization. This person can have a functional or technical
background. The expert could be a consultant, from a professional or techni-
cal association, or a specialist from a government agency.
62 Chapter Two

Q Work breakdown structure templates. The WBS follows a specific structure,

and the program should use the structure outlined by the organization.
Q System configuration tools. These provide a definition of how documentation
and version control should be managed to keep the information consistent.

Continuing with the planning of the program, we move from the scope to the
program integration management knowledge area. The planning activities in
this knowledge area include developing the program management plan and
infrastructure.

Develop program management plan

The purpose of the develop program management plan process is to consolidate
all the information created in all the other planning activities into one cohesive
set of documents. To start this process, as seen in Fig. 2-14, you need the pro-
gram charter, all existing plans, the best practices information, and program
roadmap. The existing plans could include the following:
Q Benefits management plan
Q Scope management plan
Q Communication management plan
Q Staffing management plan
Q Resource management plan
Q Interface management plan
Q Schedule management plan

Planning Process
Knowledge area: Program Integration Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program charter • Program • Program

• Existing management management plan
organizational information systems • Program roadmap
work • Procurement updates
• Best practices processes • Program transition
library • Tolerances plan
• Program roadmap • Planning techniques
• Expert judgment
• Program
management office
(PMO)

Figure 2-14 Develop program management plan.

 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 63

Q Risk response plan

Q Cost management plan
Q Contracts management plan
Q Procurement management plan
Q Quality management plan

Tools and techniques can help facilitate this process. Most organizations have
a centralized document storage system where documents can be stored elec-
tronically. Information is collected, updated, and distributed from this storage
system. User access is granted according to a user rights management plan.
This type of storage system allows for version control. Another tool could be an
organization’s standards plan that describes how information is presented, what
documents are required, and how changes are managed. The change control
process provides information on:
Q How information should be submitted and to whom
Q How changes are analyzed and reviewed
Q A way to track and review requests and changes
Q The approval process, accounting for escalation levels of approvals if
needed
Q How to deploy approved changes

At the conclusion of the develop program management plan process, the plan
reflects the changes and updates. The program roadmap is updated, and the
program transition plan is created.

Develop program infrastructure

The program infrastructure is created to provide the program manager a place
to define the structure of the program and the technical resources needed to
support the work. The information you need, as seen in Fig. 2-15, to begin this
process is the program management plan, organizational standards and poli-
cies, and the program roadmap.
The program infrastructure describes how the program is going to be sup-
ported. Information that should be included in this document is as follows:
Q Program team. The roles and responsibilities of the program team are defined.
The team is responsible for performing the activities of the program.
Q Program office. This provides administrative support for the program.
Q Program board. This is the governing body that has the authority to make
decisions on important issues concerning the program’s budget, scope, or
schedule. Issues are sent to this body for guidance. Members of this body
include the program director, who is responsible for program policies, and
64 Chapter Two

Planning Process
Knowledge area: Program Integration Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program • Expert judgment • Core team

management plan • Component assignments
• Organizational analysis • Program resource
policies and • Review meetings plan
guidelines • Capacity planning • Program
• Best practices management
library processes
• Program roadmap • Program
infrastructure

Figure 2-15 Develop program infrastructure.

the program executive sponsor, who is responsible for removing barriers to

the program’s success.
Q Program management office (PMO). The PMO supports the program board.
It defines and manages program policies and procedures. Generally, the PMO
oversees many programs.
Q Technical infrastructure. This includes facilities for the program to operate
in and computers and other tools needed by the program members.

The develop program infrastructure phase concludes with the creation of core
team assignments, a program resource plan, program management processes,
and a program infrastructure plan.
To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Expert judgment. You are relying on an expert’s knowledge and experiences
to provide advice and guidance for the program. Experts can be internal or
external to the organization. This person can have a functional or technical
background. The expert could be a consultant, from a professional or techni-
cal association, or a specialist from a government agency.
Q Component analysis. The deliverables for the program are broken down into
components, which can be broken down further into benefits packages. Each
component could be an activity, project, or subproject. The sum of components
provides the benefits planned for by the organization.
Q Review meetings. These meetings provide the opportunity for the project
managers to present the status of their projects to the program manager
and other executive members to keep them informed of the progress they are
making on their projects.
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 65

Q Capacity planning. Is the effort of managing the scarce resources that are
involved in the program. When planning, conflicts, constraints, alterna-
tives, or mitigation practices are activated to provide the optimal capacity of
resources for all the components in the program.

Develop program schedule

The planning now turns to the knowledge area of the program time manage-
ment phase, as seen in Fig. 2-16. The program schedule is developed during
this process. Schedules are an iterative process, and there will be updates to
the schedule throughout the program. A base schedule is developed. Progressive
elaboration, meaning continually improving and adding details to the plan as
more information becomes available, thereby creating a more accurate and com-
plete plan, continues throughout the life of the program. The schedule includes
component milestones and interdependency with other component tasks. All the
program deliverables are listed and then sorted into a logical order. Each deliv-
erable is given a duration, and a resource is assigned to it. Major milestones
are defined, which appear in a GANTT chart as zero-duration tasks. To start
this process, you need the PWBS, program constraints, program architecture
baseline, program charter, contracts, and the program’s risk register.
The program schedule shows dependencies among activities within the pro-
gram. The schedule incorporates resources. Resource leveling can also be done
within the schedule. To develop your schedule, you need to know the program
components and the order in which they need to be executed, as well as the
resources needed for each component.

Planning Process
Knowledge area: Program Time Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program WBS • Schedule • Program master

• Program management tools schedule
constraints • Benefits analysis • Component
• Program • Cashflow analysis milestones
architecture • Program schedule
baseline management plan
• Program charter • Program charter
• Contracts updates
• Program risk • Program risk
register register updates

Figure 2-16 Develop program schedule.

66 Chapter Two

The develop program schedule phase ends when the following items are
completed:
Q Program master schedule. The master schedule summarizes the component
schedules and dependencies between the components. This schedule allows
the program manager to determine when benefits will be delivered.
Q Component milestones. These identify the component benefit deliverables.
Q Program charter updates
Q Program risk register updates. Updates to the risk register are completed
as risk information is discovered as the result of component deliverables or
interdependencies.
Q Program schedule management plan. This plan details how the schedule will
be managed and updated in the future. A schedule is a living document and
it is updated as information becomes available.

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Schedule management tools. There are many scheduling tools on the market,
and using one is extremely beneficial for a program manager to manage their
program schedule.
Q Benefits analysis. This document identifies benefits and how the program will
achieve them. It also looks at how the benefits strategically align with the
organization’s goals. During the course of the program, as incremental ben-
efits are achieved, adjustments are made to the schedule to ensure delivery
of future benefits.
Q Cashflow analysis. Determines when and how money comes into (revenues)
and out of (expenses) the program; the “flow of cash.”

Plan communications
As the plan develops, a communications plan needs to be created, as seen in
Fig. 2.17. The communication process is included in the program communica-
tions management knowledge area. The communication plan needs to include
who needs to communicate to whom, what information needs to be conveyed,
in what manner (written or verbal), and in what timeframe.
There are a number of inputs to this process:
Q Program charter
Q Program management plan
Q Governance plan
Q Program stakeholder management plan
Q Organizational communications strategy
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 67

Planning Process
Knowledge area: Program Communications Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program charter • Program • Program

• Program management communications
management plan information management plan
• Governance plan systems • Communications
• Program stakeholder • Communications log
management plan requirements • Communications
• Organizational analysis strategy
communications • Communication
strategy methods
• Program scope
statement
• Program WBS
• Communications
requirements
• Stakeholder register
• Program manager
schedule

Figure 2-17 Plan communications.

Q Program scope statement

Q Program WBS
Q Communications requirements
Q Stakeholder register
Q Program master schedule

At the conclusion of this process, the program communications management

plan, communications log, and communications strategy are established. The
communication plan will outline who will receive what information, in what
way the information will be conveyed, and the frequency of the information.
If needed, an escalation process is described for urgent matters that cannot
be handled by staff. A best practice is to have a glossary of terms so that
everyone is “on the same page” and understands the information. The com-
munication log keeps track of all communication. The communication strategy
addresses the needs and expectations of the stakeholders as they pertain to
communication.
To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Program management information systems. These provide the tools to house
data in a central storage system.
68 Chapter Two

Q Communications requirements analysis. In this analysis, the communication

needs of the stakeholders are determined. Who should communicate what
information to whom? What are the expectations of the stakeholder with
regard to the information they are seeking from the program?
Q Communication methods. Depending on the complexity and urgency of the
information, different methods of communication can be used. More complex
information may require a more formal mode of delivery to fully explain it.

Plan program risk management

The plan program risk management process exists in the program risk manage-
ment knowledge area, as seen in Fig. 2-18. The plan defines how the program
will handle risk-related activities. Risk planning is critical to a program’s suc-
cess and provides visibility to the risks in the program. To create this plan, you
need:
Q Program scope document
Q Program management plan
Q Program architecture baseline
Q Program governance structure
Q Resource plan
Q Program stakeholder management plan
Q Lessons-learned database

Planning Process
Knowledge area: Program Risk Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program scope • Planning meetings • Program risk

document and analysis management plan
• Program • Lessons-learned
management plan review
• Program
architecture baseline
• Program
governance structure
• Resource plan
• Program stakeholder
management plan
• Lessons-learned
database

Figure 2-18 Plan program risk management.

 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 69

At the conclusion of the plan program risk management process, the program
risk management plan is established. The plan will be used throughout the
program as a guide to managing risks. This plan is a detailed document explain-
ing the approach of managing risk in a program, risk categories are defined,
a probability and impact matrix is included, and risk tolerances are defined.
The document also explains how risks are going to be tracked, monitored, and
reported. The roles and responsibilities of those involved in program risks are
specified. Finally, contingency budgeting and timing is added to the overall
program for “relief” from a risk occurrence.
To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Planning meetings and analysis. Meetings are conducted to discuss risks.
The meeting attendees include appropriate program stakeholders and
subject matter experts in the areas of discussion. At the meeting, risk
costs and schedule factors are analyzed and added to the program’s budget
and schedule, where appropriate. Risks are analyzed for the likelihood of
occurring or probability and the impact they would have on the program.
Depending on the results of the analysis, an appropriate risk response is
created.
Q Lessons-learned review. Reviewing the lessons learned from previous pro-
grams and projects can help indicate opportunities for risks in the current
project.

Also within the margins of the risk knowledge area are identify program
risks, analyze program risks, and plan program risk resources.

Identify Program Risks. The identify program risk process is where all program
risks are identifies and defined, as seen in Fig. 2-19. The appropriate stakeholders
and subject matter experts are involved in identifying risks. Risk identification is
an iterative process and is done throughout the life of the program. Information
you need to start this process includes:
Q Program scope document. Any program dependency or assumption listed in
the scope document should be identified as a risk.
Q Program risk management plan. The plan identifies the roles and responsi-
bilities of those involved in program risk and the methodologies that should
be used to identify risks.
Q Component risk management plan. The risks that are listed in the component
plans of the program and how the program integrates the components should
be investigated for program risk elements.
Q Program management plan
Q Program governance structure. The governance structure defines how the
program functions with a set of standards and procedures.
70 Chapter Two

Planning Process
Knowledge area: Program Risk Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program scope • Documentation • Program risk

document reviews register
• Program risk • Information- • Root causes or risk
management plan gathering updates
• Component risk techniques
management plans • Checklist analysis
• Program • Assumption
management plan analysis
• Program governance • Diagramming
structure techniques
• Lessons-learned • SWOT analysis
database • Lessons-learned
• Program stakeholder review
management plan • Scenario analysis

Figure 2-19 Identify program risks.

Q Lessons-learned database
Q Program stakeholder management plan

At the conclusion of this process, you will have a program risk register and
the root causes of risk updates. The risk register lists all the potential risks,
with an explanation for each. With each risk there is also a description of a
proposed response. The root causes for risks are updated and can be used later
for further analysis to discover additional potential risks.
To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Documentation reviews
Q Information-gathering techniques. There are a number of information-
gathering techniques, such as interviewing, brainstorming, business case
analysis, root cause identification, and Delphi technique.
Q Checklist analysis. Checklists can be built for information gathering.
Q Assumption analysis. The assumptions of the program are analyzed to check
the validity of the understanding.
Q Diagramming techniques. A number of diagramming techniques can be used,
such as affinity diagrams, influence diagrams, cause-and-effect diagrams,
and program dependency analysis.
Q SWOT analysis. In a SWOT analysis, one examines the strengths and weak-
nesses of the organization and the opportunities and threats of the environ-
ment around the organization.
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 71

Q Lessons-learned review
Q Scenario analysis. This technique creates a scenario and uses it to determine
what possible outcomes could be derived out of it. The scenarios should focus
on best-case and worst-case outcomes.

Analyze program risks. Analyzing program risks takes the identified risks and
analyzes them quantitatively and qualitatively according to the probability of
them occurring and the impact the risk would have on the program, as seen in
Fig. 2-20. Information you need to start this process includes:
Q Program architecture baseline. There are “typical” risks for each type of pro-
gram structure.
Q Program risk management plan. This defines how risks should be analyzed
and the roles and responsibilities of those involved in the program risk work.
Q Program risk register. Lists, describes, and categorizes the potential risks for
the program.
Q Program management plan. Describes how the program should be managed
and controlled.
Q Lessons-learned database

Planning Process
Knowledge area: Program Risk Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program • Risk data quality • Program risk

architecture assessment register updates
baseline • Risk probability and
• Program risk impact assessment
management plan • Probability and
• Program risk impact matrix
register • Risk categorization
• Program • Risk urgency
management plan assessment
• Lessons-learned • Impact assessments
database of interdependencies
• Data-gathering and
representation
techniques
• Quantitative risk
analysis and
modeling techniques
• Independent
reviewers

Figure 2-20 Analyze program risks.

72 Chapter Two

At the conclusion of this process, updates are made to the risk register.
To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Risk data quality assessment. It is important to understand the assumptions
for the risk.
Q Risk probability and impact assessment. The probability and impact of the
risks are analyzed based on the characteristics of the risk.
Q Probability and impact matrix. This is used to plot the risk information.
Q Risk categorization. Further defines the risk and places it into a category
based on its characteristics. Is the risk a skill-set issue, government regula-
tion, or a technology to be developed?
Q Risk urgency assessment. What is the urgency of the assessment? Is there
something pending?
Q Impact assessments of interdependencies. How do the risks affect the pro-
gram, organization, or strategic goal of the program?
Q Data-gathering and representation techniques. There are many data-
gathering techniques, including Delphi, causal maps, and brainstorming.
Q Quantitative risk analysis and modeling techniques. The risk numerically
quantified. There are a number of techniques that can quantify a risk.
They include sensitivity analysis, simulations, utility theory, and financial
methods.
Q Independent reviewers. Those with previous experience can be consulted to
analyze risk.

Plan program risk responses. You have identified and analyzed risks. The next
step in the process is to plan program risk responses, as seen in Fig. 2-21. In the
response to the risk, the cost of the risk occurring needs to be assessed in terms
of budget, schedule, and the effect to the scope of the program. Information you
need to start this process includes:
Q Program risk register. Lists all the risks, their definitions, priority, and pos-
sible responses.
Q Component risk response plans. Each of the component plans is reviewed
and a determination made if it should be included in the program response
plan.
Q Program risk management plan. Includes how risk will be managed in the
program and the roles and responsibilities of the risk team. The risk toler-
ances of the stakeholders are taken into account as well.

At the conclusion of this process, the program register is updated. Contingency

plans and reserves are created. Change requests are produced.
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 73

Planning Process
Knowledge area: Program Risk Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program risk • Strategies for • Program risk

register negative risks or register updates
• Component risk threats • Contingency
response plans • Strategies for reserves
• Program risk positive risks or • Contingency plans
management plan opportunities • Change requests
• Contingency plan
preparation
• Risk response
action planning

Figure 2-21 Plan program risk responses.

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Strategies for negative risks or threats:
Q Ignore or accept risk. You might ignore a risk if the probability and impact are
low. Alternatively, you can accept the risk if there is no other option.
Q Avoid risk. To avoid a risk, the program plan would be changed to eliminate the
possibility of it occurring. One way to avoid a risk is to reduce program scope.
Q Mitigate risk. To mitigate a risk, you reduce its impact or probability.
Q Transfer risk. To transfer the risk, you shift the impact of the risk event
to a third party. This is a common practice if there is a great financial
impact. In practice, you could develop a contract with penalties for late
delivery equal to or greater than the cost that would be incurred by the
program if the risk happened.
Q Strategies for positive risks or opportunities. When a risk has a positive out-
come, you can accept, enhance, share, or exploit the opportunity.
Q Contingency plan preparation. A reserve needs to be created in an event of a
risk occurring to help prevent a negative effect on the program. The contin-
gency includes money, time, or additional resources to handle the issue.
Q Risk response action planning. The response selected for the risk needs to be
practical and not outweigh the effects of the risk itself.

Plan program procurements

In the knowledge area of program procurement, you have the planning process of
plan program procurement, as seen in Fig. 2-22. When you plan for procurements,
74 Chapter Two

Planning Process
Knowledge area: Program Procurement Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Market • Competitive analysis • Program budget

environmental of service providers estimate updates
factors • Procurement • Program
• Program budget planning procurement
allocation • Expert judgment management plan
• Component scope • Assessment of • Contract
statements organizational management plan
• Program charter competencies • Qualified seller list
• Make-or-buy
analysis

Figure 2-22 Plan program procurements.

you want to create the most effective use of the resources available to you for pro-
gram purchases. The procurement plan should be reviewed and assessed for any
changes and updates. To start this process, you need:
Q Market environmental factors. What are the conditions that will affect pro-
curement with regard to regulations, laws, contracts, and the economy of the
location in which you are doing business, as well as the home office location?
Q Program budget allocation. The funds for the program are allocated by the
program manager, using their best efforts to accommodate the needs of the
components while remaining on track to meet the business benefits.
Q Component scope statements. These are used to understand the procurement
needs of each program component.
Q Program charter

At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:

Q Program budget estimate updates. These are updated based on what is dis-
covered through the analysis.
Q Program procurement management plan. The procurement plan will have a
number of components, including:
Q Identification of required procurements
Q Definition and templates for the contracts that will be used for procurement
Q How the proposal process will function
Q How sourcing decisions will be made
Q List of qualified vendors or service providers
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 75

Q Contract management plan

Q Qualified seller list

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Competitive analysis of service providers. All the vendors are identified and
their products or services are analyzed for the optimal mix of quality versus
cost.
Q Procurement planning. The appropriate stakeholders are involved in procure-
ment planning efforts.
Q Expert judgment
Q Assessment of organizational competencies. An assessment of the organiza-
tion’s competencies must first be captured before outside products or services
are considered.
Q Make-or-buy analysis. For each component of the program, a make-or-buy
analysis is done. Is it more economical to produce the component in-house,
or is there a better solution external to the organization?

Financial plans
In the knowledge area of financial management, you have three planning pro-
cesses: develop program financial plan (as seen in Fig. 2-23), estimate program
costs, and budget program costs. Due to the nature of a program, which is gen-
erally long in duration, funding can come from many different resources. When

Planning Process
Knowledge area: Program Financial Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program financial • Program financial • Program financial

framework analysis plan
• Program WBS • Contract • Program payment
• Funding constraints management schedules
• Program • Analysis of program • Component
management plan operational costs payment schedules
• Program
operational costs
• Program financial
metrics

Figure 2-23 Develop program financial plans.

76 Chapter Two

you develop a program financial plan, you need to keep in mind risk contingency
needs, exchange rates, material cost fluctuations, cash flow expectations, and
changes in the economy. The information you need to develop a program finan-
cial plan is as follows:
Q Program financial framework
Q Program WBS
Q Funding constraints. It is rare to receive all the funding required for a pro-
gram up front. Often, there are milestones in the program where funding is
discussed.
Q Program management plan

At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:

Q Program financial plan. The financial plan will have all the appropriate
financial component documents, including payment schedules, financial
reporting and metrics, and funding schedules.
Q Program payment schedules
Q Component payment schedules
Q Program operational costs
Q Program financial metrics. Metrics are compared to earlier metrics to deter-
mine the health of the program.

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Program financial analysis
Q Contract management
Q Analysis of program operational costs. The operational costs are those inter-
nal to the program’s organization and need to be taken into account for the
purposes of program financials.

Estimate program costs

The program cost estimates (Fig. 2-24) are done in a number of stages. Initially,
you may have a rough order-of-magnitude estimate. As the planning further
refines the requirements of the program, the estimates also become more refined
and closer to reality. The information you need to develop program financial
plan is as follows:
Q Program architecture baseline
Q Contingency reserves
Q Program management plan
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 77

Planning Process
Knowledge area: Program Financial Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program • Total cost of • Program cost

architecture ownership analysis estimates
baseline • Architecture/cost • Component cost
• Contingency tradeoff analysis estimates
reserves • Reserve analysis
• Program • Estimating
management plan techniques
• Program risk • Procurement
register analysis
• Contracts • Computer cost
estimating tools
• Expert judgment

Figure 2-24 Estimate program costs.

Q Program risk register

Q Contracts

At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:

Q Program cost estimates
Q Component cost estimates

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Total cost of ownership analysis. This technique determines the total cost for
implementing the component and ongoing costs such as maintenance.
Q Architecture/cost tradeoff analysis. The design of the component is analyzed
against the cost and is refined until the best design/cost structure is determined.
Q Reserve analysis. This determines an appropriate level of reserve for the
program in case of external factors that affect the program.
Q Estimating techniques. A number of estimating techniques can be used to
estimate costs.
Q Top down: Estimates for costs are given by executives based on historical
information.
Q Bottom-up: Estimates are developed from the individual or team that is
closest to the cost acquisition.
Q Comparison: Estimates are created based on a comparison to other program’s
or components’ costs.
78 Chapter Two

Q Expert opinion: This technique uses the advice of experts who have had
experience in the area in question.
Q Parametric: Uses historical information to develop correlations between
cost drivers and other parameters. This technique can be used if you
know the cost of one tile and the area that the tiles will be laid to get an
estimate of the total cost of the tile floor.
Q Trend analysis: The estimate looks at the trend of a cost to determine the
cost of the current program. Does the cost of lumber go up 25 percent in
February every year? If so, the increase is factored into the cost estimate.
Q Procurement analysis
Q Computer cost estimating tools
Q Expert judgment

Budget program costs

The budget is created at this time with cost estimates from the components,
as seen in Fig. 2-25. All payment schedules and income information are used
to determine the program’s cost. This budget creates a foundation for costs to
be tracked against to determine how successfully the program is progressing.
Budgets are progressively elaborated, meaning that as information becomes
available, updates are made. During the life of the program, the budget is con-
tinuously being improved upon, with more details being added as more accurate
estimates become available. To begin this process, you need the program cost
estimates, the architecture baseline, the program management plan, contracts,
and component cost estimates.

Planning Process
Knowledge area: Program Financial Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program cost • Cost analysis • Program budget

estimates • Reserve analysis baseline
• Program • Program payment
architecture schedules
baseline • Component
• Program payment schedules
management plan
• Contracts
• Component cost
estimates

Figure 2-25 Budget program costs.

 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 79

At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:

Q Program budget baseline
Q Program payment schedules
Q Component payment schedules

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Cost analysis: The costs are analyzed for accuracy and completeness. Items
that are analyzed include contract amounts, payment schedule, and funding
amounts. When this process is concluded, the program has an understanding
of the cashflow of the project.
Q Reserve analysis

Plan program stakeholder management

In the program stakeholder management knowledge area, Fig. 2-26, you need
to create a program stakeholder management plan. The plan specifies how
stakeholders will be identified, analyzed, involved, and managed for the dura-
tion of the program. To successfully manage a program, all stakeholders need
to be identified and analyzed to determine their level of involvement and com-
munication needs within the program.
The information you need to develop the program stakeholder management
plan is as follows:
Q Strategic plan. This is the organization’s strategic plan and it provides valu-
able information on stakeholders who should be included in the program.

Planning Process
Knowledge area: Program Stakeholder Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Strategic plan • Program • Program

• Program charter management stakeholder
• Program sponsor information systems management plan
identification • Stakeholder • Component
analysis stakeholder
management
guidelines

Figure 2-26 Plan program stakeholder management.

80 Chapter Two

Q Program charter
Q Program sponsor identification

At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:

Q Program stakeholder management plan. This plan includes all the details on
how stakeholders will be identified, analyzed, involved, and managed.
Q Component stakeholder management guideline. This guideline provides feed-
back information to all the leaders of the components.

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Program management information systems
Q Stakeholder analysis. A program manager needs a firm understanding of
the political culture the program is operating in within the organization.
The analysis of stakeholders looks at the degree of influence, attitudes, and
communication needs of each of the stakeholders.

Identify program stakeholders

Another planning process for program stakeholder management is identifying
program stakeholders, Fig. 2-27. To effectively identify program stakeholders,
the task should be undertaken systematically. Both internal and external

Planning Process
Knowledge area: Program Stakeholder Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Contracts • Expert judgment • Stakeholder

• Request for • Organizational register
proposals analysis • Stakeholder
• Organizational • Brainstorming inventory
chart • Stakeholder • Program
• Program analysis stakeholder
stakeholder • Interviews management plan
management plan • Focus groups updates
• Questionnaires and • Stakeholder
surveys management
• Program impact strategy
analysis
• Stakeholder
checklist

Figure 2-27 Identify program stakeholders.

 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 81

stakeholders need to be identified. Any person or group that can affect the pro-
gram either positively or negatively should be identified as a stakeholder.
Q Contracts. These are mutually binding agreements between two or more par-
ties. Contracts stipulate conditions and obligations for the seller to deliver
the specified projects or services and the buyer to pay for in it in the terms
defined.
Q Organizational chart. This graphically displays the relationships among
members of a specific group.
Q Requests for proposals (RFP). This is a procurement document to request
proposals from potential sellers for products or services. This document could
also specify any terms, conditions, and needs requirements that the buyer
has from a potential seller.
Q Program stakeholder management plan. Specifies how stakeholders will
be identified, analyzed, involved, and managed in the program environ-
ment. It also describes the process of acquiring and managing stakeholder
information.

At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:

Q Stakeholder register. The register lists all the stakeholders for the program.
This information is used to ensure that stakeholders are communicated with
in the correct method, form, and with the appropriate content. Stakeholders
can include:
Q Project managers: The individuals working on components of the program.
Q Project team members: Those responsible for completing project activities.
Q Program manager: The manager of the program responsible for the
successful delivery of the benefits of the program.
Q Program team members: Those working on program activities.
Q Program sponsor: The sponsor is the champion for the program and is
responsible for helping remove “road blocks” that are in the program’s way.
Q Customer: The organization or individual who will use or receive the
benefits from the program.
Q Program director: The person who will oversee a number of programs and
have executive ownership of them.
Q Program management office (PMO): The group responsible for managing
program-related processes, templates, and procedures. They provide
support for the program teams by handling administrative functions for
the program.
Q Program governance board (committee or group)/steering committee. This
group is responsible for making strategic decisions, supporting the program,
and ensuring that the program delivers the benefits it set out to accomplish.
82 Chapter Two

Q Funding organization: The group providing the funds for the program.
Q External stakeholder: There can be stakeholders outside the program’s
organization. This could include vendors/suppliers, potential customers,
and government agencies.
Q Stakeholder inventory. Provides information on stakeholder issues and pos-
sible responses, and how stakeholders will be affected by the program.
Q Program stakeholder management plan updates. The stakeholder plan is
updated initiatively throughout the course of the program.
Q Stakeholder management strategy. The strategy defines how a program
manager is going to manage and mitigate areas that affect stakeholders.
Mitigation plans can include training and training documentation, and
constant communication with the stakeholders to make sure that they are
involved in the process and have bought into the program’s benefits.

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Expert judgment. Using the opinions of those who have experience and knowl-
edge in stakeholder management.
Q Organizational analysis. Analyzing the organization to understand the roles
and responsibilities of the members. This should be done for internal and
external potential stakeholders.
Q Brainstorming. A way to creatively gather data that can be used to identify
potential stakeholders.
Q Stakeholder analysis. In this process, you analyze the needs and potential
impact or influence a stakeholder can have on the program.
Q Interviews. These discussions allow for a better understanding of the needs
of the stakeholders. Generally, these are open-ended questions to gather data
that is important to the stakeholder.
Q Focus groups. Gather data from a group to better understand the attitudes
of stakeholders. In this technique, group members interact with one another
and build upon each other’s thoughts to achieve a deeper understanding of
the needs of the stakeholders.
Q Questionnaires and surveys. Solicit feedback from stakeholders to better
understand their needs and requirements.
Q Program impact analysis. From the data gathered, an analysis needs to
be done to discover how the information provided affects the program.
Negative impacts need to be managed, and a response plan needs to be
developed.
Q Stakeholder checklist. This provides a simple, high-level list of the roles and
interests of the stakeholders.
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 83

Program governance structure

In the knowledge area of program governance, there are three planning processes:
plan and establish program governance structure, plan for audits, and plan for
program quality.
When you plan and establish the program governance structure, Fig. 2-28,
you focus on identifying the goals and defining the roles, responsibilities, and
structure of the governance board. The governance process is a proactive process.
The purpose of the governance structure is to ensure that the program remains
strategically aligned with the organization’s goals. The governance board pro-
vides support with conflicts, decisions on program changes, and ensures that
the program follows the appropriate policies and procedures for the organization
and external entities such as government laws and regulations. The governance
board includes the following members:
Q The program manager is responsible for managing the program and ensuring
the deliverables are achieved.
Q Project managers and project team members are responsible for delivering
the project’s deliverables.
Q The executive sponsor is responsible for supporting and leading the program
manager and the program to success.
Q The program management office (PMO) provides administrative support for
the program.

A number of items are needed to begin this process. First, you need the strate-
gic directive to make sure that the program is aligned with this mandate. Also,

Planning Process
Knowledge area: Program Governance Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Strategic directive • Program • Governance plan

• Program management • Issue escalation
management plan information system process
• Benefits realization • Organizational • Audit plan
plan planning
• Organizational • Program
charts management office
(PMO)
• Issue management
• Expert judgment
• Best practices
library

Figure 2-28 Plan and establish program governance structure.

84 Chapter Two

you need the program management plan and benefits realization plan. Finally,
you need the organizational charts.
At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:
Q Governance plan. Describes the structure, roles and responsibilities, goals,
and how the group will govern. Is there a formal gate process where the
program checks in to provide a status update?
Q Issue escalation process. This process addresses how issues will be raised to
the governance level.
Q Audit plan. This should be planned for and have periodically defined intervals.

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Program management information system
Q Organizational planning
Q Program management office (PMO)
Q Issue management
Q Expert judgment
Q Best practices library

Plan for audits

A program should always be prepared for an audit, Fig. 2-29. Audits help deter-
mine if what is being delivered is what was originally agreed upon. Audits are
a formal examination of the program’s financial situation and provide a process

Planning Process
Knowledge area: Program Governance
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Notification of audit • Audit planning • Program

• Audit plan • Written deviations management plan
• Program • Program document updates
management repository • Audit plan updates
processes

Figure 2-29 Plan for audits.

 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 85

to examine the program in parts or as a whole to assess the overall progress

performance. Audits can be performed at any time, but usually occur during
the execution or closeout of a program.
Q Notification of audit. Audits are usually planned for in advance, and the
program manager will be notified prior to the audit so that he or she can
assemble the appropriate documentation. There are times when audits have
little or no notification.
Q Audit plan. Part of the program management plan, it includes how the audit
are conducted.
Q Program management processes. These documents provide guidance on the
auditor process and the components that will be reviewed. Programs should
be managed to ensure successful audit outcomes.

At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:

Q Program management plan updates. Updates are made to the program man-
agement plan to effectively plan and prepare for audits.
Q Audit plan updates. After an audit is complete, updates are made to the audit
plan to address any issues raised in the audit process.

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Audit planning. Program managers need to follow the appropriate processes
and ensure that all program documentation is in alignment with what is
expected.
Q Written deviations. There are times when the program process should deviate
from prescribed processes. When a deviation is necessary, it should be fully
documented and approved by the governance board.
Q Program document repository. All program documentation should reside in
a specified location for easy access and retrieval.

Plan for program quality

The plan for program quality is focused on the component level, Fig. 2-30. The
components are responsible for ensuring the quality of their deliverables. Planning
for quality should be a standardized process that is repeatable in order to build
metrics on the quality standards required for the component. To start this pro-
cess, you need the benefits realization plan, the organizational quality standards,
program management plan, and information on external regulations.
At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:
Q Program quality management plan. This states the minimal standards,
required testing, and planning efforts needed for quality. It also defines the
roles and responsibilities for those involved to ensure program quality.
86 Chapter Two

Planning Process
Knowledge area: Program Governance
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Benefits realization • Cost/benefit • Program quality

plan analyses management plan
• Program • Benchmarking
management plan • Checklists
• Organizational • Cost of quality
quality standards
• External
regulations

Figure 2-30 Plan program quality.

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Cost/benefit analyses. There is always a tradeoff between the benefit of a
deliverable and the cost that it takes to produce it. The benefit of planning
for quality is that there is less rework, less cost, higher productivity, and
increased stakeholder satisfaction.
Q Benchmarking. This is a measure of reference to make a comparison. You are
comparing a provided standard to measure the performance of the current
system against to determine if it meets the requirements.
Q Checklists. These help to make sure that requirements are not overlooked.
Q Cost of quality. This determines the cost required to ensure quality. The types
of costs would include appraisal, preventative, and failure costs. These costs
can be internal or external and are broken down as such.

Executing process
The executing process carries out all the plans to deliver the benefits of the pro-
gram. This process follows the plans according to the planned procedures and
policies, as outlined in the program management plan and the subsidiary plans.
The executing process involves managing quality, costs, and schedules, and
making sure that every component is appropriately integrated into the process.
Stakeholders receive the information they need, as defined in the stakeholder
plan. All government regulations and policies are followed as required.
In the program integration management knowledge area, you have two exe-
cuting processes: directing and managing program execution and managing
program resources.
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 87

Executing Process
Knowledge area: Program Integration Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program • Program • Approved change

management plan management requests
• Program information system • Component
performance • Expert judgment initiation requests
reports • Program • Component
• Change requests management office transition requests
• Work results (PMO) • Program issues
• Audit reports • Contract register
• Go/no-go decisions management plan • Program roadmap
• Program roadmap • Decision logs updates
• Impact analysis
• Tolerances

Figure 2-31 Direct and manage program execution.

Direct and manage program execution. The direct and manage program execution
process (Fig. 2-31) provides the benefits intended by the program. It integrates
all the components to ensure that deliverables are executed according to plan.
As the program is in execution, change requests may be generated. Change
requests are handled by the defined program governance process.
Q Program management plan. The program plan is followed and fully executed
at this time.
Q Program performance reports. Performance reports are produced, document-
ing the state of the program.
Q Change requests. These are reviewed for updates.
Q Work results. These are tracked and managed accordingly.
Q Audit reports. These are reviewed to ensure that the proper procedures are
followed.
Q Go/no-go decisions
Q Program roadmap. This documents when new components are added to exe-
cution plan.

At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:

Q Approved change requests
Q Component initiation requests
Q Component transition requests
Q Program issues register
Q Program roadmap updates
88 Chapter Two

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Program management information system
Q Expert judgment
Q Program management office (PMO)
Q Contract management plan
Q Decision logs
Q Impact analysis
Q Tolerances

Manage program resources. Program resources need to be effectively managed

throughout the life of the program, Fig. 2-32. As part of the execution process,
funds, staff, facilities, equipment, and other resources are allocated appropriately.
Day-to-day management of resources is a component-level responsibility.
Q Program management plan. This plan delegates the allocation of program
recourses throughout the program’s life.
Q Component status reports. Identifies issues with resources.
Q Resource availability. Defines when a resource is available to be allocated to
a component.
Q Program resource plan

At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:

Q Program resource plan updates. As new information is acquired, updates are
made to the resource plan.

Executing Process
Knowledge area: Program Integration Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program • Program • Program resource

management plan management plan updates
• Component status information system
reports • Expert judgment
• Resource • Program
availability management office
• Program resource (PMO)
plan

Figure 2-32 Manage program resources.

 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 89

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Program management information system
Q Expert judgment
Q Program management office (PMO)

In the program scope knowledge area, there are two executing processes:
manage program architecture and manage component interfaces.

Manage program architecture

Managing the program architecture is the process for making sure that the com-
ponent interdependencies are intact. Also, it makes sure that the components
are following the rules, regulations, and policies as defined in the plan. Changes
may be made to the program architecture if new components are incorporated
into the program. As seen in Fig. 2-33, the manage program architecture process
includes:
Q Program architecture baseline
Q Program management plan
Q Change requests

At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:

Q Program architecture baseline updates. As changes are made, updates are
administered to the architecture baseline. This is an iterative process and
continues throughout the life of the program.

Executing Process
Knowledge area: Program Scope Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program • Expert judgment • Program

architecture • Change impact architecture
baseline analysis baseline updates
• Program • Approved change
management plan requests
• Change requests • Program
management plan
updates

Figure 2-33 Manage program architecture.

90 Chapter Two

Q Approved change requests. Are incorporated into the architecture of the

program.
Q Program management plan updates. The program plan is updated according
to any new information that is approved during this process.

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Expert judgment
Q Change impact analysis. Any change that is considered for the program needs
to be analyzed for the impact it will have on the program, other components,
and the stakeholders.

Manage component interfaces

Parts of the program scope are operational and project activities, which are
considered components. Managing the component interfaces is critical to the
success of the program. Component cross-points need to be managed to provide
the right support and guidance to ensure success for these intricate connections.
As seen in Fig. 2-34, the manage component interface process includes:
Q Program architecture baseline
Q Program management plan

Executing Process
Knowledge area: Program Scope Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program • Expert judgment • Approved change

architecture • Communication requests
baseline methods • Program
• Program • Review meetings management plan
management plan • Conflict updates
• Change requests management • Program
• Program communications
communications management plan
management plan updates
• Component
stakeholder
management
guidelines

Figure 2-34 Manage component interfaces.

 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 91

Q Change requests
Q Program communications management plan
Q Component stakeholder management guideline

At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:

Q Approved change requests
Q Program management plan updates
Q Program communications management plan updates

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Expert judgment
Q Communication methods
Q Review meetings
Q Conflict management

In the program communication management knowledge area, there is one

process in the execution process, which is distributing information.

Distribute information. The distribute information, Fig. 2-35, process provides the
required information to the program stakeholders, when needed, in the format

Executing Process
Knowledge area: Program Communications Management

Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program • Communication • Program

communications skills performance
management plan • Information- reports
• Communication gathering and • Lessons-learned
messages retrieval systems updates
• Stakeholder register • Information • Program
• Change request log distribution methods communications
• Governance decision • Lessons-learned management plan
• Component charter database updates
• Program manager • Communications
scheduler log updates
• Program WBS
• Communications log
• Communications
strategy

Figure 2-35 Distribute information.

92 Chapter Two

desired, as defined in the stakeholder communication plan. This information

can include progress reports, analysis information, change requests, budget
information, and updates to external factors.
Q Program communications management plan. The defined communication
plan for the program.
Q Communications messages. Distributed to stakeholders throughout the life
of the program.
Q Stakeholder register
Q Change request log
Q Governance decision
Q Component charter. Describes the stakeholders and information they
require.
Q Program master schedule. Defines the timing of program communications.
Q Program WBS. Used to plan communications.
Q Communications log
Q Communications strategy

At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:

Q Program performance reports. The reports that are produced in the program
include status reports, memos, presentations, and dashboards.
Q Lessons-learned updates
Q Program communications management plan updates. Updates are made as
information becomes available.
Q Communications log updates. If distribution triggers, level of information,
or new stakeholders are added to the program, the communication log is
updated.

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Communication skills. One of the most important skills of the program man-
ager is communication skills. The program manager must be able to translate
the information he or she receives into the format that best suits an indi-
vidual stakeholder.
Q Information gathering and retrieval systems. Information is gathered through-
out the program.
Q Information distribution methods. There are a number of distribution meth-
ods, both formal and informal, including verbal methods (face to face, meet-
ings, video conferencing, and formal presentations) and written methods
(e-mails, hard-copy documents, and collaborative software tools).
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 93

Q Lessons-learned database. As information is presented and knowledge is

gained, the lessons-learned database is updated. This is an iterative process
throughout the life of the program.

In the program procurement management knowledge area, there is one pro-

cess in the execution process, which is conducting program procurement.

Conduct program procurement. Conducting program procurements, Fig. 2-36,

focuses on obtaining the required resources, products, services, and/or materials
needed for the program. This process includes procurement metrics gathering,
methods, strategies, and activities.
Q Program assets. These are specified and a decision made on how they will
be obtained. Will the asset be created or produced in-house or is it external
to the organization? Does the organization have the skills and expertise to
produce the asset?
Q Subcontract procurement plans. Components of the procurement plan may be
subcontracted to a third party that is more capable, efficient, and cost-effective.
Q Program procurement management plan
Q Program management plan. The plan is reviewed for conditions or factors
relevant for procurement.

Executing Process
Knowledge area: Program Procurement Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program assets • Procurement • Selected sellers

• Subcontract planning • Identified internal
procurement plans • Bidder conferences services providers
• Program • Distribution RFPs • Requests for
procurement • Develop qualified proposals
management plan seller list • Contract
• Program • Contract management plan
management plan negotiations updates
• Qualified seller list • Proposal evaluation • Program
• Contract system procurement
management plan • Expert judgment management plan
• Component cost • Contract updates
estimates management • Contracts
procedures • Component
• Change control payment schedules
procedures updates
• Seller selection

Figure 2-36 Conduct program procurement.

94 Chapter Two

Q Qualified seller list

Q Contract management plan
Q Component cost estimates

At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:

Q Selected sellers. The ones who have been determined to best meet the objec-
tives of the buyers.
Q Identified internal services providers. The providers that can deliver the
required goods or services.
Q Request for proposals. Sent to the qualified sellers.
Q Contract management plan updates. The plan provides instructions on how
to administer the contract process.
Q Program procurement management plan updates. Updates are made to the
program procurement plan, as determined by the decisions made during this
process.
Q Contracts. Final agreements are made between the seller and buyer.
Q Component payment schedules updates. Updates are made according to deci-
sions made during this process.

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Procurement planning
Q Bidder conferences. Where bidder and buyer meet to discuss the requirements
of the organization and answer any questions. This process provides all par-
ties with the same information at the same time.
Q Distribution of requests for proposals (RFPs). Describes the needs and require-
ments of the buyer.
Q Develop qualified seller list. Those on the list who have passed any required
buyer stipulations and who will receive the buyer’s request for proposal
information.
Q Contract negotiations. Clarifies the agreement terms that binds the seller
to the conditions in the document and the buyer to the payment terms as
outlined in the contract.
Q Proposal evaluation system. The criteria for proposal selection is evaluated
to determine the best vendor to provide the product or service required by
the buyer.
Q Expert judgment
Q Contract management procedures. These are the set procedures as defined
by the organization.
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 95

Q Change control procedures. Define how the contract can be modified in the
future if certain conditions present themselves.
Q Seller selection. In this process, the qualified seller list is narrowed to the
final candidates.

In the program stakeholder management knowledge area, there is one process

in the execution process, which is engaging program stakeholders.

Engage program stakeholders

As seen in Fig. 2-37, engaging program stakeholders is the process to ensure that
stakeholders are involved and active in the program as required. Stakeholders’
needs, issues, and requirements need to be taken into consideration to deter-
mine the appropriate level of involvement.
Q Program charter. Defines the high-level expectation of the program. It also
defines risks and benefits and ways to successfully engage stakeholders.
Q Program stakeholder management plan. Guidelines on how to interact with
the stakeholders.
Q Stakeholder register. Lists all the stakeholders and their needs, requirements,
and issues.
Q Stakeholder inventory. Specifies all the stakeholders and their roles and
responsibilities in the program.
Q Stakeholder management strategy

Executing Process
Knowledge area: Program Stakeholder Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program charter • Stakeholder • Stakeholder metrics

• Program analysis • Stakeholder
stakeholder • Stakeholder impact management
management plan and issue tracking strategy updates
• Stakeholder register and prioritization
• Stakeholder tool
inventory • Program impact
• Stakeholder analysis
management
strategy

Figure 2-37 Engage program stakeholders.

96 Chapter Two

At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:

Q Stakeholder metrics. The level of program participation of the stakeholders
is tracked.
Q Stakeholder management strategy updates. These are meetings to update the
stakeholders on the program status and to discuss issues and concerns.

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Stakeholder analysis
Q Stakeholder impact and issue tracking and prioritization tool. All issues and
concerns are tracked and prioritized to ensure that they are appropriately
addressed.
Q Program impact analysis. An analysis is done to determine if any issue or
decisions have an impact on the program.

In the program governance knowledge area, there is one process in the execu-
tion process, which is approving component initiation.

Approve component initiation

Approving component initiation is the process that decides when a component
will begin, as seen in Fig. 2-38. This process happens throughout the program,
except in the program closeout phase. A number of decision-making factors are
needed in order to determine a component should begin. To receive approval for
a component to begin, a strong business case needs to be presented, a project
manager needs to be assigned, a communication plan needs to be established,

Executing Process
Knowledge area: Program Governance
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program • Reviews • Go/no-go decision

management plan • Expert judgment • Change requests
• Component charter
• Component
initiation requests
• Component
initiation criteria

Figure 2-38 Approve component initiation.

 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 97

and a component tracking procedure needs to be defined. Once a component

is approved, it triggers resources to be activated or assigned to produce the
required deliverables.
Q Program management plan. This includes the strategic plan and charter, and
is used to guide the approval process.
Q Component charter. This is required before a component can be approved.
Q Component initiation requests. This begins the selection process to determine
if approval of a component is appropriate.
Q Component initiation criteria. This is the evaluation information used to help
in the decision-making process.

At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:

Q Go/no-go decision. Defines whether the component has been approved.
Q Change requests. Any changes to the component can affect the delivery of the
program benefits and needs to be reviewed.

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Reviews. Review meetings are decision discussion meetings where the com-
ponent is reviewed and analyzed.
Q Expert judgment

Monitoring and Controlling Process Group

In the monitoring and controlling process group, components are examined to
ensure that they are progressing in the appropriate manner to achieve the deliv-
erables that they were established to produce. If it is determined that a compo-
nent is off track, this process proactively takes the steps necessary to coordinate
corrective action to redirect the component and achieve the desired results. This
process consolidates data on the progress of the components and measures the
planned versus actual progress. External factors could cause the need for cor-
rective action to a component, including changes to policies, market changes,
environmental conditions, economic fluctuation, and government regulations.
In the program integration management knowledge area, there are two pro-
cesses in the monitor and control phase: monitoring and controlling program
performance and managing program issues.

Monitor and control program performance

The monitor and control program performance process examines the current con-
ditions to make sure that the program follows the approved plan. Monitoring and
controlling happens throughout the program life cycle (Fig. 2-39). Information
98 Chapter Two

Monitoring and Controlling Process

Knowledge area: Program Integration Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program • Program • Program

management plan management performance
• Program information systems reports
performance • Earned value • Forecasts
reports management
• Expert judgment
• Review meetings
• Program
performance
analyses

Figure 2-39 Monitor and control program performance.

is collected, analyzed, and distributed to provide trend information to the appro-

priate stakeholders. Depending on the results of the analysis, corrective action
may be taken, which will put the component work in alignment with the benefits
delivery of the program. Two areas needed to start this process: program manage-
ment plan and program performance reports.
At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:
Q Program performance reports. These will be a summary of the status of all the
components in the program. These reports will have a rundown of progress
statements, including what has been accomplished to date, what is planned
for in the near future, risks, issues, earned value status, and change requests
that are under consideration.
Q Forecasts. These are updated with new developments. Forecasts are based
on current conditions and are predictions or estimates where the program is
expected to track.

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Program management information systems. Software systems that provide
tools for documenting and retrieving data.
Q Earned value management (EVM). Integrates schedules, resources, and scope
to objectively measure program performance and progress. Expected results
are measured against actual results to determine progress. The trends identi-
fied in EVM assist in understanding whether or not the program is on track
to deliver its benefits.
Q Expert judgment
Q Review meetings
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 99

Q Program performance analyses. A number of techniques fall under this category.

Q Trend and probability analysis use program metrics to predict the
likelihood of success.
Q Risk analysis examines program risks to ensure that appropriate measures
are being taken to respond to the risks effectively.
Q Issue analysis prioritizes all the issues and defines the impact and root
cause of the issue and how it should be managed.
Q Gap analysis examines metrics and assesses and identifies any gaps
between what is planned and the actual progress in terms of budget, time,
or achieving benefits.

Manage program issues

When monitoring and controlling a program, Fig. 2-40, issues will be identified.
As issues are identified, they need to be managed and escalated appropriately.
An issue can be a concern, an unplanned event, or new information. As issues
are identified, they are documented in the issue register and analyzed by the
governance board. Managing and controlling issues are similar to managing
and controlling risks. The impact of the issue needs to be determined, and a
response for the issue needs to be planned and executed. To begin this process,
you need the program management plan, audit reports, program risk register,
program performance reports, and program issues register.
At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:
Q Change requests. Depending on the appropriate issue response, a change
request may be generated.

Monitoring and Controlling Process

Knowledge area: Program Integration Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program • Issues analysis • Change requests

management plan • Expert judgment • Program issues
• Audit reports register updates
• Program risk
register
• Program
performance reports
• Program issues
register

Figure 2-40 Manage program issues.

100 Chapter Two

Q Program issues register updates. The issue register is updated appropriately

to reflect the identification, definition, analysis, and response to the risk.

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Issues analysis. Follows the accepted plan and procedure that has been
defined by the program management plan. It is critical to determine the root
cause of an issue to make sure that you are addressing it appropriately
Q Expert judgment

In the program scope management knowledge area, there is one process in

the monitoring and controlling process: monitoring and controlling program
scope.

Monitor and control program scope

The program scope is monitored and controlled to ensure that the planned objec-
tives for the program are realized, Fig. 2-41. Programs are large and complex,
and have an extended duration. As the program progresses, it is critical to moni-
tor and control scope. Changes to the scope have an enormous impact on the
program and the components within it. To change the scope of a program, it will
have to go through a formal change control process and receive approval from
the governance board. To begin this process, you need the program scope state-
ment, approved change requests, component transition request, governance
plan, program architecture baseline, and program management plan.

Monitoring and Controlling Process

Knowledge area: Program Scope Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program scope • Expert judgment • Approved change

statement • Review meetings requests
• Approved change • Decision making • Program
requests • Audits requirements
• Component • Program updates
transition request management • Program
• Governance plan information systems management plan
• Program updates
architecture • Program scope
baseline statement updates
• Program • Program document
management plan repository updates

Figure 2-41 Monitor and control program scope.

 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 101

At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:

Q Approved change requests
Q Program requirements updates
Q Program management plan updates
Q Program scope statement updates
Q Program document repository updates

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Expert judgment
Q Review meetings
Q Decision making
Q Audits
Q Program management information systems

In the program time management knowledge area, there is one process in

the monitoring and controlling process: monitoring and controlling program
schedule.

Monitor and control program schedule

Throughout the program, the schedule needs to be monitored and controlled
to keep it in alignment with planned benefits, Fig. 2-42. This process ensures
that components produce deliverables on time. The start and finish time is

Monitoring and Controlling Process

Knowledge area: Program Time Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program master • Schedule • Program master

schedule management tools schedule updates
• Component status • Program metrics • Component
• Program risk • Earned value schedules updates
register management • Program
• Approved change performance
requests reports

Figure 2-42 Monitor and control program schedule.

102 Chapter Two

tracked and compared to planned time estimates. As variances are identified,

corrective action is taken. The schedule is analyzed to identify opportunities
for acceleration or active compression. To begin this process, you need the pro-
gram master schedule, component status, program risk register, and approved
change requests.
At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:
Q Program manager schedule updates. These are made to the schedule accord-
ing to the information and decisions made concerning the schedule.
Q Component schedules updates. These are made to the component schedules
to align with program changes.
Q Program performance reports. The timing of activities, components, and
deliverables is communicated to the appropriate stakeholders.

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Schedule management tools. Used to produce program schedules.
Q Program metrics. Determine the progress of the program. The metrics are,
at times, simple graphical illustrations depicting the status of the program.
Often, the traffic light analogy is used, with red (issue), yellow (warning),
and green (on track) indicators.
Q Earned value management. Integrates schedule scope and resources to mea-
sure the progress of the program.

In the program communication management knowledge area, there is one pro-

cess in the monitoring and controlling process: reporting program performance.

Report program performance

The performance of the program needs to be documented in a report and distrib-
uted to the stakeholders, Fig. 2-43. The report consolidates data to provide stake-
holders with accurate, timely, and concise information. The reports include status
update, budget actuals and forecast, schedule progress, program metrics, risks,
issues, and changes under consideration. To begin this process, you need the pro-
gram management plan, performance reports, budget baseline, master schedule,
go/no-go decisions, variance reports, performance measurements, risk register,
approved changes, issues register, benefits realization plan, and forecasts.
At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:
Q Program performance reports. These are distributed to the stakeholders as
defined in the communication plan.
Q Program forecasts are updated.
Q Communications messages. E-mails, reports, presentations, and voice mails
are ways that messages can be communicated.
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 103

Monitoring and Controlling Process

Knowledge area: Program Communications Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program • Information • Program

performance reports presentation tools performance
• Program budget • Status gathering reports
baseline and compilation • Program forecasts
• Program • Status review • Communications
management plan meetings messages
• Program master • Time reporting • Benefits realization
schedule systems report
• Go/no-go decision • Cost reporting
• Variance reports systems
• Performance
measurements
• Approved change
requests
• Program risk
register
• Program issues
register
• Benefits realization
plan
• Forecasts

Figure 2-43 Report program performance.

Q Benefits realization report. Benefits can be realized throughout the program.

The benefits realization report states which benefits are complete and pro-
vides the status of the ones in progress.

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Information presentation tools. Software to help present the performance
information.
Q Status gathering and compilation. Notification, feedback, presentations,
reports, and records are gathered and compiled for the performance report.
Q Status review meetings. Information is exchanged at this meeting. Meetings
should be held at regularly scheduled intervals, whether weekly, monthly, or
quarterly.
Q Time reporting systems. Software systems that help with generating schedule
reports.
Q Cost reporting systems. Software systems that aid in generating budget
information.
104 Chapter Two

In the program risk management knowledge area, there is one process in

the monitoring and controlling process: monitoring and controlling program
risks.

Monitor and control program risks

Risks are identified and tracked throughout the program life cycle, Fig. 4-44.
Risk triggers are identified. Risks are monitored and controlled, analyzed, and
reanalyzed. The probability and impact of the risks are updated as new infor-
mation presents itself. Risks may change their ratings due to circumstances
that may no longer be valid, or due to a greater impact. To begin this process,
you need the program architecture baseline, risk management plan, risk reg-
ister, performance reports, contingency reserves, issue register, and contract
information.
At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:
Q Preventive actions. These need to be taken to diminish the impact of a risk
on a program.
Q Program risk register updates. Updates are made to the register and new
information is presented.
Q Program risk management plan updates. The plan is updated continually to
improve the risk process.
Q Lessons-learned database updates. These are created as new information is
presented.

Monitoring and Controlling Process

Knowledge area: Program Risk Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program • Risk review • Preventive actions

architecture meetings • Program risk
baseline • Risk audit register updates
• Program risk • Lessons-learned • Program risk
management plan review management plan
• Program risk • Monitor the program updates
register environment • Lessons-learned
• Program • Monitor legal issues database updates
performance reports and climate
• Contingency
reserves
• Program issue
register
• Contract review

Figure 2-44 Monitor and control program risks.

 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 105

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Risk review meetings. Risks are discussed and analyzed. The appropriate
response is assigned to the risk.
Q Risk audit. Part of the normal program audits, the results may cause the risk
process to be updated.
Q Lessons-learned review. To determine if any procedures should be applied in
this type of situation
Q Monitor the program environment for changes and areas that need to be
addressed.
Q Monitor legal issues and climate for changes that could affect the program.

In the program procurement management knowledge area, there is one

process in the monitoring and controlling process: administering program
procurements.

Administer program procurements

Program procurement agreements are administered according to the conditions
documented in the contracts, letters of understanding, or agreement with the
supplier, vendor, or service provider, Fig. 2-45. It is also the responsibility of
the administrator of procurements to make sure that all agreements follow the

Monitoring and Controlling Process

Knowledge area: Program Procurement Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program • Change control • Program budget

procurement system baseline updates
management plan • Engage and • Program
• Program budget manage suppliers procurement
baseline • Payment control management plan
• Contracts system updates
• Approved change • Contract • Contracts updates
requests performance review • Program budget
• Program • Inspection and updates
performance audits • Program
reports • Budget performance
• Payment approval management reports updates
requests system • Payment approval
• Component • Program payment
payment schedules schedule updates

Figure 2-45 Administer program procurements.

106 Chapter Two

appropriate internal policies and procedures, as well as any local government

regulations. To begin this process, you need:
Q Program procurement management plan
Q Program budget baseline
Q Contracts
Q Approved change requests
Q Program performance reports
Q Payment approval requests
Q Component payment schedules

At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:

Q Program budget baseline updates
Q Program procurement management plan updates
Q Contracts updates
Q Program budget updates
Q Program performance reports updates
Q Payment approval
Q Program payment schedules updates

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Change control system
Q Engage and manage suppliers
Q Payment control system
Q Contract performance review
Q Inspection and audits
Q Budget management system

In the program financial management knowledge area, there is one process

in the monitoring and controlling process: monitoring and controlling program
financials.

Monitor and control program financials

In order to prevent program cost overruns, the financials for the program have
to be vigilantly monitored and controlled, Fig. 2-46. Once the initial funding is
granted to the program and expenses are being paid, the monitoring and con-
trolling financial process begins. Metrics are used to determine if the financials
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 107

Monitoring and Controlling Process

Knowledge area: Program Financial Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program financial • Cost change • Contract payments

plan management • Component
• Program system budgets closed
management plan • Contract cost • Program budget
• Program budget management baseline updates
baseline • Status reviews • Approved change
• Contracts • Cost forecasting requests
• Change requests techniques • Estimate at
• Program operational completion
cost analysis • Program
• Earned value management plan
management updates
• Corrective actions
• Program budget
closed

Figure 2-46 Monitor and control program financials.

are tracking according to plan. If there are any discrepancies, they are investi-
gated to determine how the program can get back on track.
Q Program financial plan
Q Program management plan
Q Program budget baseline
Q Contracts
Q Change requests. Some change requests may have a financial impact. The gover-
nance committee reviews all requests to determine how they will be managed.

At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:

Q Contract payments. Payments are made according to the contract conditions.
Q Component budgets closed. As work is completed for the components of the
program, the individual budgets may be closed.
Q Program budget baseline updates. When changes are approved the corre-
sponding financial baseline is updated.
Q Approved change requests. The budget is updated according to approval
requests and funds are integrated into the budget.
Q Estimate at completion. The estimate at completion is an iterative process
and is updated regularly as changes and new information concerning the
budget is presented.
108 Chapter Two

Q Program management plan updates. Updates are made as needed to the plan.
Q Corrective actions. When a problem occurs, corrective actions are taken to
get the budget back on track.
Q Program budget closed. As the program reaches completion, the budget is
closed and reports sent to the appropriate stakeholders, and they are updated
on the closure. Any funds not spent return to the organization.

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Cost change management system. Determines how financials will be analyzed
by looking at planned versus actual financial data and determines how this
affects the program.
Q Contract cost management
Q Status reviews. Regularly scheduled review meetings present the financial state
to the appropriate stakeholder to determine if any actions need to be taken.
Q Cost forecasting techniques. Many forecasting techniques can be used to
determine how the program is progressing, two of which are estimated at
completion and estimates to complete.
Q Program operational cost analysis. The overall operational costs to run the
program have to be monitored and controlled so that they are in alignment
with planned costs.
Q Earned value management. Earned value takes into account the time and cost
of the program and determines if the program is progressing as planned.

In the program stakeholder management knowledge area, there is one pro-

cess in the monitoring and controlling process: managing program stakeholder
expectations.

Manage program stakeholder expectations

It is said that perception is reality. Thus, it is essential to manage stakeholder
expectations to ensure that they are receiving their information they need
and that they are included in the program management process as required,
Fig. 2-47. Program managers must to be proactive in managing stakeholders’
issues and needs. There will be times when stakeholders have conflicting needs.
Program managers must effectively manage the conflicts using negotiating
skills. It is also important for stakeholders to participate at the appropriate
level to ensure program success.
Q Stakeholder management strategy. The strategy explains how to keep stake-
holders appropriately engaged in the program.
Q Stakeholder register. The register lists all the stakeholders and the require-
ments that they have for the program.
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 109

Monitoring and Controlling Process

Knowledge area: Program Stakeholder Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Stakeholder • Negotiation • Stakeholder

management • Conflict management
strategy management strategy updates
• Stakeholder register • Communications • Program
• Stakeholder • Influencing stakeholder
inventory management plan
• Stakeholder metrics updates
• Program • Program
communications communications
management plan management plan
updates

Figure 2-47 Manage program stakeholder expectations.

Q Stakeholder inventory. The inventory lists all the concerns and issues that
the stakeholders have had and uses this information to better serve the
stakeholders’ needs in the future.
Q Stakeholder metrics. Metrics for stakeholders track their involvement in the
program. This information can be used to make sure that stakeholders are
participating at the appropriate level.
Q Program communications management plan

At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:

Q Stakeholder management strategy updates. Updates are made to the stake-
holder strategy according to developments made during this process.
Q Program stakeholder management plan updates. Plans are updated regularly.
This is an iterative process throughout the life of the program.
Q Program communications management plan updates. As the communication
needs of the stakeholders change, this plan needs to be updated.

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Communication is the single most important tool in stakeholder manage-
ment. Timely and regularly scheduled communication with the appropriate
information is critical in effectively managing stakeholders’ expectations.
Q Negotiation is a technique used in a program to help reach compromise with
the stakeholders. The best solution is always a win-win solution, but this
may not always be possible or reasonable.
110 Chapter Two

Q Conflict management. Conflicts need to be management proactively and esca-

lated appropriately.
Q Influencing. A technique used in managing stakeholders’ expectations that
helps shape the understanding of the goals of the program and leads stake-
holders to change their attitudes toward decisions and program plans.

In the program governance knowledge area, there are three processes in

monitoring and controlling: providing governance oversight, managing program
benefits, and monitoring and controlling program changes.

Provide governance oversight

Governance is a system or manner of monitoring and controlling a program,
Fig. 2-48. Providing governance oversight for a program ensures that a program
follows the determined procedures and policies. Governance is the decision-
making body that provides guidance to a program. The governance process
is generally run by a board or a committee, which operates according to the
program governance structure that was established. The information needed
to start this process includes:
Q Governance plan. This plan provides guidance as to the roles and responsi-
bilities of the governance board members and the activities that they should
perform.
Q Gate review decision request. With a gate review request, the governance
board holds a special meeting, or the request is incorporated into one of the
regularly scheduled governance meetings for review.

Monitoring and Controlling Process

Knowledge area: Program Governance
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Governance plan • Reviews • Go/no-go decision

• Gate review • Expert judgment • Governance
decision request decision register
• Program • Governance plan
performance reports updates
• Program issues • Program closure
register recommendation
• Program risk
register
• Program
management plan

Figure 2-48 Provide governance oversight.

 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 111

Q Program performance reports. The governance board receives various pro-

gram reports, such as financial and status reports.
Q Program issues register
Q Program risk register
Q Program management plan. This plan defines the benefits that the program
is to deliver. The governance group uses this information when making
decisions.

At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:

Q Go/no-go decision. Decisions are made during review meetings. Pending the
results of the decision, the request will receive a go or no-go decision.
Q Governance decision register. All requests or information put forth to the
governance committee is listed in a register, along with an explanation of
the item and the result of the decisions and action items that were derived
from the decision.
Q Governance plan updates. The governance structure has built into it a con-
tinuous improvement process. Programs last for an extended duration, and
as situations arise, new thoughts on how to improve the governance structure
are generated and implemented.
Q Program closure recommendation. The governance board reviews the benefits
delivered by the program to determine if the program should be closed.

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Reviews. Governance review meetings are regularly scheduled meetings with
a formal agenda and meeting minutes at the conclusion. During the meeting,
decisions are made concerning change requests, the health of the program,
and possible improvements to the governance process.
Q Expert judgment

Manage program benefits

The status of the program is monitored and controlled throughout the program’s life
cycle, Fig. 2-49. Appropriate program reports and metrics are created and delivered
to the stakeholders according to the communication plan. The reports help stake-
holders determine the status and health of the program. If needed, stakeholders
can determine from the reports if action should be taken to realign the program to
achieve its benefits. Information needed to begin this process includes:
Q Program management plan. The plan is used as a baseline, and the reports
that the stakeholders receive are compared to what was planned to find out
whether the program is on track.
112 Chapter Two

Monitoring and Controlling Process

Knowledge area: Program Governance
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program • Reviews • Benefits realization

management plan • Benefits realization reports
• Program charter analysis • Governance plan
• Program updates
performance reports • Change requests
• Governance plan

Figure 2-49 Manage program benefits.

Q Program charter. The charter is reviewed to verify the benefits that are to be
delivered by the program.
Q Program performance reports. Past performance reports are reviewed to track
trends or emerging changes to the progress of the program.
Q Governance plan

At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:

Q Benefits realization report. This report includes metrics that compare planned
to actual benefits.
Q Governance plan updates. Updates are made to the governance plan to
improve the plan, structure, process, or roles and responsibilities of the gov-
ernance members.
Q Change requests. Change requests may be generated from the review ses-
sion to help realign the program to best deliver the benefits that it set out to
achieve.

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Reviews. Review meetings are a time when the status of the program is ana-
lyzed and the value of the program is reviewed. This could be a gate process
to determine whether or not to proceed with the program.
Q Benefits realization analysis. The benefits of the program and its progress
are reviewed against what was planned for the program. A number of areas
are addressed in this analysis.
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 113

Q Value delivery. Is this program still delivering the value it was to provide
in the fashion it was to provide it?
Q Resource management. Are the appropriate resources assigned to the
program, and are they being utilized appropriately?
Q Performance measurement. Since programs tend to be long in duration, is
it still meeting the required level of performance that was planned?
Q Strategic alignment. Is the program still strategically aligned with the
organization’s goals? If there were changes to the strategy, could the
program be redirected to meet the new benefit requirements?
Q Risk management. Are the risks of the program outweighing the benefits
that it will return?

Monitor and control program changes

Changes are monitored and controlled to make sure that they align with the
organization’s strategy and the program’s benefit plan, Fig. 2-50. Proposed
changes go through the governance process to allow for the appropriate level of
decision-making to determine if the requested changes will be rejected, accepted,
or modified. The information needed to start the monitoring and controlling
program changes process includes:
Q Program management plan. This is reviewed to make sure that the change
is in alignment with the direction in which the program is supposed to be
traveling to achieve the benefits that it set out to complete.
Q Change request log. The log documents all the requested changes, the status
of the change, and the final outcome of the request.

Monitoring and Controlling Process

Knowledge area: Program Governance
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program • Reviews • Approve changes

management plan • Impact analyses requests
• Change request log • Change request
• Change requests log updates

Figure 2-50 Monitor and control program changes.

114 Chapter Two

Q Change requests. Changes follow the documented change control process and
move through the appropriate channels in order for to be considered a viable
candidate for an update to the program.

At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:

Q Approved change requests. These are documented and the appropriate stake-
holders notified of the change approval according to the communication plan.
Q Change requests log updates. The change request log is updated to serve as a
record for the program archive. The log lists all the proposed change requests,
the status of the change, and the final outcome of the request.

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Review meetings. In the review meeting, the change request is analyzed to
verify that it meets the needs of the program and overall organization. A
decision made during the meeting could be that further information or clari-
fication of the request is needed, the request is placed on hold, the request
doesn’t fit into the program and is therefore cancelled, or it is approved and
action is taken to set in motion the change.
Q Impact analyses. The impact of the change must be analyzed from all aspects
of the program, its components, the organization, and external factors. The
risk versus benefit of the change is analyzed, and assumptions are reviewed
to determine if they are viable.

Closing Process Group

The closing process group formally ensures that all aspects of the program are
closed properly according to the plans established for each area. All program
activities cease within the closing process, and benefits are formally transferred
to the appropriate organization’s functional area. The purpose of this process
is to confirm that all conditions have been met in the program contracts, all
financial responsibilities have been completed, all benefits have been delivered,
resources are formally released, and all program information is fully documented
and shared with the organization for the lessons-learned growth process.
In the program integration management knowledge area, there is one process
in the closing process group: closing the program. Closing the program formally
closes all program work and ensures that all program documents are completed
and stored.

Close program
When a program is closed, the organization formally accepts the results of the
program, Fig. 2-51. Prior to the program closing, all component activities must
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 115

Closing Process
Knowledge area: Program Integration Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program transition • Program • Released resources

plan management • Final reports
• Program information systems • Knowledge
management plan • Expert judgment transition
• Program closure • Contract closure • Close program
recommendation procedure

Figure 2-51 Close program.

close first. As each component closes, all their artifacts are transferred to the
program to be archived with the final program documents. When the program
closes, benefits are transferred to the operation, as required by the program
transition plan.
Q Program transition plan. This plan ensures that benefits are transferred to
the organization.
Q Program management plan is reviewed to ensure that all the benefits the
program set out to complete have been achieved and that all aspects of the
program formally come to a close according to the plan.
Q Program closure recommendation. The program governance committee
must sign off on the recommendation to close the program. The program is
reviewed for effectiveness in meeting the objectives it set out to accomplish.
The governance group must approve the closure recommendation in order
for the program to be closed.

At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:

Q Final reports. All program plans are updated and final reports for each aspect
of the program are created, documenting how it achieved its objectives.
Q Released resources. Resources are released from the program and transi-
tioned to the areas identified in the program resource plan.
Q Knowledge transition. The information from the program is transferred to
the organization. Knowledge transfer is fully documented, and there may
be “training sessions” or meetings to get the receivers up to speed on the
information.
116 Chapter Two

Q Closed program. There a couple of ways a program can come to a close: it

can be canceled or end by completing all the objectives it was designed to
deliver.

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Expert judgment
Q Program management information systems
Q Contract closure procedure

In the program procurement management knowledge area, there is one pro-

cess in the closing process group: closing program procurements.

Close program procurements

Program procurement can be closed when all the purchases are complete and
contracts are reviewed to ensure that all the deliverables are achieved, Fig. 2-52.
Stakeholders need to be notified, including the organization’s finance depart-
ment. The information to start this process includes:
Q Program management plan. This plan is reviewed to ensure it provides guid-
ance on the proper procedures in closing the procurement process.
Q Contracts are analyzed to ensure that all conditions have been met.
Q Program budget. The budget is reviewed to assess that the funds are avail-
able to close the program.

Closing Process
Knowledge area: Program Procurement Management
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program • Contract closure • Close contracts

management plan procedure • Procurement
• Contracts • Supplier performance
• Program budget performance review reports
• Program • Budget allocation • Close budget
performance reconciliation allocations
reports
• Component closure
notification

Figure 2-52 Close program procurements.

 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 117

Q Program performance reports. The reports are reviewed to make sure that
all issued documents were properly addressed.
Q Component closure notification. A notification is sent to all stakeholders,
informing them that no additional procurement requests will be taken after
the date specified in the document.

At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:

Q Closed contracts. Contracts are closed and stored in a secure environment
for retrieval if needed at a later date.
Q Procurement performance reports. The performance results of the procure-
ment process are documented and sent to all appropriate stakeholders.
Q Closed budget allocations. When all payments are processed, the budget is
closed according to the financial plan.

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Contract closure procedure. Contracts are scrutinized to verify that all the
conditions have been met and that there are no residual issues that need to
be managed by the program.
Q Supplier performance review. The performance of the suppliers is reviewed
before the procurement processed is closed. This would be the last opportu-
nity to rectify outstanding concerns with the vendor.
Q Budget allocation reconciliation. The “financial books” for the program are
reviewed and reconciled to make sure that all accounts “tick and tie” back to
other financial information and processes.

In the program governance knowledge area, there is one process in the closing
process group: approving component transition.

Approve component transition

Approving component transition is the final step in the component process,
Fig. 2-53. The component is transferred to the operation. Prior to transition, the
program manager ensures that the requirements and objectives of the compo-
nent have been met. Generally, there is a formal review process before transi-
tion. The information needed to start this process includes:
Q Component transition request. A request is made to the governance board to
transition the component. The governance board determines if the component
met the objectives and requirements it was commissioned to meet. It also has
to verify if there were any changes to the program scope that would prevent
the component from being transferred to the operations organization of the
business.
118 Chapter Two

Closing Process
Knowledge area: Program Governance
Inputs Tools & techniques Outputs

• Program scope • Expert judgment • Approved change

statement • Review meetings requests
• Approved change • Decision making • Program
requests • Audits requirements
• Component • Program updates
transition request management • Program
• Governance plan information systems management plan
• Program updates
architecture • Program scope
baseline statement updates
• Program • Program document
management plan repository updates
• Benefits realization • Component
report transition decision
• Benefits realization
reports updates
• Lessons learned

Figure 2-53 Approve component transition.

Q Benefits realization report. The person or group responsible for the compo-
nent produces a report on how the component met all the benefits it set out
to complete. If the results were not met, the component may not transition
and could be terminated.
Q Program scope statement
Q Approved change requests
Q Governance plan
Q Program architecture baseline
Q Program management plan

At the conclusion of this process, you will have completed:

Q Component transition decision. The transition decision should be documented
according to the program standards and stored in a central server system for
archiving purposes.
Q Benefits realization report updates. This report specifies how the benefits were
realized by the component. This report includes all the tools, techniques, and
information about the component, benefits it achieved, and possible future
benefits that can be realized.
Q Lessons learned. This is an iterative process that occurs throughout the life
of the program. Included information that is documented in lessons learned
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 119

are best practices, “words to the wise” information, and experiences gained
through the program process.
Q Program management plan updates. The program plan updates are an itera-
tive process throughout the life of the program. The program log is updated
with a description of the decision, when the decision was made, by whom,
and why it was made.
Q Approved change requests
Q Program scope statement updates
Q Program document repository updates

To achieve the required outputs for this process, the following tools and tech-
niques can be used:
Q Review meeting. The review is a gate where the component is evaluated for
the successful completion of the activities it was created to accomplish.
Q Expert judgment
Q Decision making
Q Audits
Q Program management information systems

The program process has been summarized in Fig. 2-54 to help illustrate what
processes or activities happen at what process area.
PMI created program standards so that program managers could all sing
out of the same songbook, so to speak. Program managers should take the PMI
standards and mold them to best fit their organization’s culture. No two organi-
zations are the same; therefore, no two program management processes will be
the same. However, from program to program, you will see shades of the same
standards presented in this chapter.
Programs were compared to projects and portfolios, each of which carries a
great benefit for an organization. The program management office supports the
program and the program manager. The program manager needs many differ-
ent skills to be successful, including communication, technical, people, orga-
nizational, time management, project management, political, environmental
awareness, program management, strategic vision, and leadership skills.
Program management has a life cycle of preprogram planning, program
initiation, program formulation, program delivery of benefits, and program
closeout. It also has the following processes: initiating, planning, execut-
ing, monitoring and controlling, and closing. Those processes have specific
knowledge areas: integration management, program scope management,
program time management, program communication management, program
risk management, program procurement management, program financial
management, program stakeholder management, and program governance
management.
120 Chapter Two

Initiation Monitor and Closing

Planning Process Executing Process
Process Controlling Process Process

Initiate Plan program scope Direct and manage Monitor and control Close
program program execution program performance program
Establish Define program goals and Manage program Manage program issues Close
program objectives resources program
financial procurements
framework
Develop program Manage program Monitor and control Approve
requirements architecture program scope component
transition
Develop program Manage component Monitor and control
architecture interfaces program schedule
Develop program WBS Distribute information Report program
performance
Develop program Conduct program Monitor and control
management plan procurements program risks
Develop program Engage program Administer program
infrastructure stakeholders procurements
Develop program schedule Approve component Monitor and control
initiation program financials
Plan communications Manage program
stakeholder expectations
Plan program risk Provide governance
management oversight
Identify program risks Manage program
benefits
Analyze program risks Monitor and control
program changes
Plan program risk
responses
Plan program procurements
Develop program financial
plan
Estimate program costs
Budget program costs
Plan program stakeholder
management
Identify program
stakeholders
Plan and establish program
governance structure
Plan for audits
Plan program quality

Figure 2-54 Program process.

 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 121

The benefits of program management are its management of benefits. Program

management is a centralized, coordinated management of a program to achieve
the organization’s strategic benefits and objectives. It involves aligning multiple
projects to achieve the program goals and allows for optimized or integrated
costs, schedules, and efforts.

The Importance of Program Management

Support Systems
Thomas Friedman’s The World Is Flat confirmed today’s movement of informa-
tion in a seamless stream across the globe, facilitating the almost instantaneous
and ubiquitous reach of today’s multinational corporation. The remote design
and development of programs, projects, and products now require a new busi-
ness model of strategic collaborating and partnering, and a new dimension of
localizing and customizing processes. This requirement touches every aspect
of the company, including program and project management, a retooling of the
infrastructure of the business to provide necessary support in new shapes and
forms. The focus of this chapter is on this process of retooling.
Global program management requires global strategies, but often, the key
success factor in worldwide program delivery is in support and outsourced
activities. Boeing Company outsources whole components of aircraft to various
companies in a multitude of nations, integrating components in the assembly
process. Sony purchases components from many different suppliers around
the world, its selection of suppliers keyed to quality and cost. CNN reaches to
any part of the world to gather and report news, working through its complex
partnerships with local news systems and sources.
The quality and effectiveness of what we are calling support, or infrastruc-
ture, systems in this book are the keys to program management success—some
say the key in future success. This is because program management is a total
business-wide effort, not a narrow program concept, and doing business on a
global platform changes everything. Programs engage all parts of the business
or agency and require support in many planning, operational, marketing, and
production functions. Thus, program managers must have a grasp of the total
business and its internal and outsourcing potential, and must have strong com-
pany-wide and organizational support. Projects can be completed in relative
isolation from key business process; programs cannot.
A global program management effort engages all the key business processes
and systems. This includes information, administration, contracts and outsourc-
ing, human resources, production and operations, and marketing/distribution.

The program management office (PMO)

To accomplish these support services, a new global program management office
(PMO) will be necessary, constructed in a global configuration. PMOs will have
local or regional staffs to service program delivery in various worldwide markets.
122 Chapter Two

Support Infrastructure Business Value

Local workforce performance

Human resources
and culture

Seamless data exchange and

Information technology
communications

Local facilities; local labor;

Facilities/materials/equipment
local political support

Customer/product service Local product quality values

Local government and Local/regional regulatory

regulatory contacts costs/trade and tariff

Procurement/contracting Worldwide supply chain

Communication/translation Language barriers

Risk management Local risk assessment

Leveraging national/local
Demographics/culture
culture/characteristics

Reliability, customer
Quality
requirements, flexibility

Economy of scale in global

Economics
context

Figure 2-55 Global program management support model.

The PMO will assist in program planning, program scheduling, cost control, and
communications across language and culture barriers.
Figure 2-55 is a model of global program support, which brings into play most
of the key factors in a program’s success. These are the major success factors in
global program management infrastructure and support.

Human resources
Program managers must have a new regard for global talent and building local
and regional program workforce expertise in designing and developing pro-
grams. This will mean more rather than less virtual teaming and global con-
ferencing. Finding and committing local experts and subject matter experts to
program planning and delivery will require a local presence in human resources,
from hiring to contracting to engineering, administration, production, and sales
and marketing. The program will be localized and decentralized to allow the
center of program gravity to reflect local conditions and culture. This will mean
PMO support on a local scale, guided by a central program strategy.
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 123

Information technology
Program management in a global environment cannot operate without world-
wide networking and data sourcing. Program charters and other documents
will be available on the Web, creating security risks but also opportunities to
leverage local information. Program managers will need to promote common
methods of program planning and delivery using common tools and techniques,
such as a common project management software program accessible to all pro-
gram stakeholders.

Facilities and supplies

While program management rarely involves permanent facilities and supplies,
program planning and delivery usually includes provisions for local business
facilities and operational improvements. Programs, by nature, are temporary,
but do last for a longer duration than the projects under them. Program man-
agers need support in local sourcing decisions and in real estate and property
management issues. If, in the strategic plan for the organization, there is a pro-
vision to maintain a local central support area after the program has concluded
and transitioned to the organization, a more permanent facility and supply
chain may be set up for long-term support in the region.

Customers and new product design

Program design and development typically involve new product lines, new sys-
tems, and product concepts. This will require program initiatives to create new
product differentiation strategies targeted at local markets around the world.
Choices of program priorities will reflect global considerations, and portfolio
development processes to create new program categories will use local workforce
creativity. Programs involving new products will require new global product
design and development processes.

Local regulation
Global companies work in a variety of local cultures, with different public and
government regulations and requirements. This requires that program man-
agers have high regard for the role of political and international agencies and
trade policies. Associated program risks must be assessed and managed. Local
regulation information needs to be monitored and researched on a regular basis
to assess any changes and the impact they have on the program. Major concerns
regarding changes to local regulations should be escalated to the governance
committee in a timely fashion.

Procurement
Procurement focuses on the acquisition of goods and/or services at the best
possible price. Procurement decisions need to weigh selection criteria factors
124 Chapter Two

of quality, quantity, timing, and cost. Global procurement can deliver a signifi-
cant competitive advantage if delivery costs are reduced, superior technology
resources are optimized, and resources are streamlined and favorably acquired.
Global programs will require outsourced partners in designing and develop-
ing deliverables and outcomes. Supply chain management options need to be
reflected in global program design. Procurement decisions concerning “make or
buy” must be housed in an international context.

Communication/translation
If communication is an important success factor in domestic projects, it is cer-
tainly a key to successful global program management. Communicating within
a global program adds a new dimension of complexity to an already multifaceted
situation. You have physical barriers of distance and perceptual barriers of dif-
ferent views on the situation. There are also emotional barriers, where there is
fear from free and open communication in a virtual or long-distance team envi-
ronment. There are cultural barriers, too, where certain behaviors of communi-
cation that are accepted within a group are not known or understood by parties
that are not local. Different communication styles exist in different territories.
Gender communication styles differ in different countries. There can be language
barriers, even among those who speak the same language. With language issues,
there are, at times, difficulties in understanding expressions, jargons, or even
buzzwords. With language differences, you have the added complexity of accuracy
in translations. One word could have different meanings in different contexts.
There is also the hurdle of time zones. Time zones could mean that you have a
conference call at 4 A.M. or 11 P.M. The definition of a “typical” workday evolves
into a “global workday,” which is defined according to the terms and conditions
of the individual global program teams. Overall, communication and translation
issues must be addressed in program planning.
Communication is one of the most important factors in project, program, port-
folio, and program management office processes. The goal of any communication
is to present the right information, to the right person, in the right format, in
the right setting, and at the right time. The program stakeholder matrix would
list the stakeholders with their communication needs, delivery methods, and
time constraints. It is necessary to present the information in the context that
would be most useful for the stakeholder.
Figure 2-56 shows the different qualities of communication message contents
that could be presented to the stakeholders. A PMO receives copious amounts
of data, which is a collection of true facts. This information is not organized in
any particular way. Presenting pure data to a stakeholder would cause a great
deal of confusion and frustration. The stakeholder should not be expected to
sort through data to find the relevant nuggets.
The PMO should take the data and verify its accuracy. From there, it should
assemble and categorize the data to create relevance. This process is not just a sum
of the parts, but a logical construction of building blocks to create information. The
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 125

Perceptive knowing of
what is true and the
ability to set a course of
action to apply it justly
Wisdom

Understanding
Knowledge information
with the ability to
realize the relevance

A collection of gathered facts or data

Information assembled and categorized to produce
meaning and relevance

Data A collection of facts

Figure 2-56 Qualities of communication.

information is then analyzed and prioritized before disseminated to the stakehold-

ers. This process creates increased understanding and decreases uncertainty for the
stakeholders. The value of the information could be used to confirm expectations,
as an input to a decision-making process, or as a trigger for corrective action.
With the information in the hands of the stakeholders, knowledge of the state
and condition of the program is accumulated. Knowledge is the understanding
of the information, with the ability to realize its relevance. The awareness and
understanding of the relevance provides the capacity to act effectively.
Only with the amalgamation of experience, knowledge, and perception is true
wisdom realized. Wisdom becomes the perceptive knowing of what is true and
the ability to set a course of action to apply it justly. Actions are not taken with-
out good judgment and common sense for the greater good. Reaching wisdom
within a program, portfolio, or program management office occurs at a mature
process level within the organization.

Demographics/culture
A special regard for local cultures and cultural codes, e.g., local meanings and
ways of thinking and making decisions, becomes key in understanding others.
126 Chapter Two

Program managers must understand international culture codes (see The Culture
Code by Clotaire Rapaille) and what makes local people tick around the world.
The best program managers will be flexible and proactive. They will work to find
solutions rather than get frustrated with cultural barriers. They will also be
proactive and work to learn and understand. Program managers need to set the
tone for the team as to how the group is going to operate and function. Program
managers will use their leadership skills to guide and direct their team.

Quality
Since quality is defined differently around the world and customer expectations,
needs and requirements vary according to local conditions, program managers will
have to be agile and flexible in how they integrate quality into program planning
and management. Program goals will be framed in terms of continuous improve-
ment and quality. The program manager works to improve processes incrementally.
This is not to say that there may not be breakthrough advancements discovered.
Whether the improvements are incremental or produce a larger leap forward, it is
critical to keep the momentum in the right direction of progress.
As displayed in Fig. 2-57, the best way to improve quality is to plan for it.
After you plan for quality, you need to analyze the benefits with a test case. After
success is reached with the test case, the plan is rolled out to all of the groups
and becomes a best practice for the organization. Finally, after the rollout of a
new process, the PMO processes are assessed to quantify and qualify the ben-
efits that were added to the business. The information from the assessment is
then fed back in to the beginning of the process, and planning begins again to
identify new opportunities for change. The benefits report is presented to all
the stakeholders of the PMO. The quality assurance process is necessary for
a PMO because the environment in which the PMO exists is always changing
and the quality processes need to advance with the changes.

Economics of scale
An economics of scale occurs when efficiencies in areas of cost, time, or quan-
tity are gained when more is produced. Programs develop improvements and

• Plan: Look for and identify opportunities for change

• Execute-deploy changes in “test case” scenarios to validate if the change will be
beneficial to the organization
• Analyze: Examine the results of the change to determine if the benefits are valuable
to the program process.
• Practice-if the benefits prove to be valuable, the change is then moved into a wide-
scale practice.
• Assessment-the practices in the organization are monitored to determine if new
opportunities for change and advancement are possible. This information is then fed
back in to the planning process.

Figure 2-57 Quality assurance in a PMO.

 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 127

upgrades in company products and services; thus, program managers will have
to understand cost control in program delivery, but also how cost in an interna-
tional context affects program outcomes and benefits.

Other Considerations

More on outsourcing
The decision to contact or outsource portions of the program management process
to other countries is largely a question of cost, efficiency, and effectiveness. This
decision is made after several key aspects of the program are “completed” inter-
nationally. This means that processes such as product design, manufacturing,
distribution, and customer support are opened up for local and regional outsourc-
ing, both to reduce costs and also to gain favor in the local marketing area.

Administrative support
There are copious amounts of logistical work within a PMO. A PMO could be
formulated as a support organization. Part of the support that it could offer is
to provide administrative support for a portfolio, program and project manage-
ment teams. The administrative work would encompass clerical assistance for
filing and storing program-related data. The PMO could also assist with acquir-
ing materials and support equipment for the program. Other services provided
could include acquiring and establishing space and facilities. Additional logisti-
cal functions could be performed by the PMO, such as reserving conference room
and booking travel arrangements.

More on human resources

Recruitment and outsourcing is performed in local or regional locations in order
to find nationals who can support a program in their native countries. This
requires language skills and a full appreciation of local workforce characteris-
tics and limitations. Hiring decisions can be difficult within your own culture
and expertise, but when you add the global dimension to the decision of selecting
candidates for positions that you may or may not have ever met in person, this
adds to the complexity of the human resource management of a PMO.

Integration in global and international programs

Integration management focuses on identifying, defining, and coordinating the
intersection points of a program. Global and international programs inher-
ently face additional difficulties with integration issues, simply because the
normal and typical integration barriers are compounded by political, national,
and language issues. Programs to assist developing countries, for instance, are
typically managed by the collective of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs),
donor country managers, and local team members, who often do not agree on the
128 Chapter Two

purposes and goals of the program. Opportunities for fraud, waste, and abuse
are again compounded because of the many players.

Tools in building an integrated program management system

In building a company or agency system to support program integration, there
are 10 areas for process improvement: organization-wide or enterprise-wide
program management systems, program portfolio system development, inte-
grated resource management systems, information technology, technical product
development (including a stage-gateway review system), interface management
system, program portfolio management, program monitoring and corrective
action, change control, and program evaluation.

Building an organization-wide global program

management system
A global program management system has several key ingredients:
Q Integrated Program Management Culture. Leaders develop their organiza-
tions to accomplish integration through systems and communication. This
system involves the development of a culture of defining and capturing work
in terms of programs—e.g., all work of the organization outside of recurring
production work is considered program work with a customer and deliv-
erables. All training and development and incentive systems are built to
encourage that work be accomplished through formal programs and plans
and schedules that integrate cost, time, and quality.
Q Generic work breakdown structure. A generic work breakdown structure is
an outline of tasks in sequence but not linked. The purpose of the generic
WBS is to integrate the work, which is program-coded to capture costs
and task performance history, with the scheduling of any task the com-
pany takes on in any program. The generic WBS defines each task in a
data dictionary, or task definition, that covers what the task expectation
is and what its deliverable is for a safety task in a product development
program.
Q Scheduling system. A scheduling system places all work in a program sched-
uling software—e.g., Microsoft Program or Primavera—assigns resources,
and estimates costs in order to control the work. Integration of all the work of
the company is accomplished through scheduling, which is seen as a process
of committing resources to work.
Q Resource assignment. Resources are assigned to programs and tasks so that
the workforce is integrated into the work that is authorized and sponsored
by the company. Programs are seen as investments in the business plan;
therefore, there is a major impetus to capture the work being performed in
a resource assignment system.
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 129

Q Task linkages and interdependency. Programs are consolidated and tasks

are linked to stress the interdependency of program work. No piece of work
in the company is left unconnected in order to ensure integration. These
interdependencies become key management points for the program manager.
The interdependencies are actively monitored and controlled throughout the
program. Risks at these interdependency points are identified and analyzed,
and a planned response is given for each risk.
Q Matrix team structure. The matrix structure ensures integration because func-
tional departments and program teams are intermingled in every aspect of the
company’s work, from programs to process development to improvement. Program
teams are staffed by functional departments, who are in charge of the quality of
the work and the development of technical systems. Program managers manage
assigned team members toward program deliverables and earned value.
Q Work authorization system. In order to ensure that the work that goes on is
authorized, and directed by the program manager, all work must go through
the defined channels, as planned for by the governance committee and PMO.
The way work is approved is through the baseline schedule, which defines the
authorized work. As work is completed, tasks are assigned, or changes are
approved and the baseline schedule is updated.
Q Knowledge management system. The PMO is the central warehouse for infor-
mation. Information is gathered from the business, programs, projects, out-
side factors, and process. It is then disseminated to the appropriate parties in
accordance with their needs and requirements. Finally, information is stored
for later retrieval needs.
Q Guidelines for program management plan. The program management plan
is defined in a company policy statement to guide the definition and control
of the work. Therefore, the plan must include control points—e.g., stage-
gateway reviews—that assure that managers authorize movement from one
phase or stage to another. Reporting and monitoring strategies, including
the use of earned value to integrate cost, schedule, and quality performance,
should be made explicit. Here, the PMO plays a critical role in defining, over-
seeing, and updating the guidelines for the program management plan.
Q The plan should also address accountability, particularly in view of the
recent legislative and regulatory requirements of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act.
This requirement is in compliance with internal control and accounting stan-
dards, and is no longer optional for program managers. In fact, the price of
disconnected and inconsistently applied efforts throughout a program and
its interfaces, as well as lack of financial tracking systems that provide for
audits, could be business-wide. Compliance with Sarbanes-Oxley, therefore,
is not a choice but a requirement, and the plan should state standards for
estimating costs, tracking the costs, and relating costs to work performed,
as well as the integrity of the closeout procedure and invoices to customers
for work performed.
130 Chapter Two

Q Sarbanes-Oxley standards are accounting practices in the United States.

For programs that are based in other countries, additional accounting stan-
dards and government polices need to be complied with for the program to be
successful. The PMO needs to be aware of the specific requirements to best
advise program teams.

Program/portfolio planning and development system

Q Business planning system and strategic objectives. The integrated company has
a business and strategic planning process that produces a statement of strate-
gic objectives to serve as a guide for all planning and budgeting. Such a system
helps to shape the program portfolio and assures that the company invests in
programs that are integrated with the direction of the business and its owner-
ship. This can also mean that with a change in direction or strategy, company
programs may be adjusted accordingly, placed on hold, or cancelled.
Q Decision process. A defined decision process supports integration because it
opens up the decision-making process. If decision points are not addressed
for a prolonged time, it can lead to waste and ineffective work. Decision trees
are used to assess the commercial value of various decision paths involved
in defining the task structure and sequence of approved programs.
Q Budgeting system. A capital rationing system or some way to allocate com-
pany resources in line with the priority of relative strategic objectives is
part of integration. Once budgets are identified to carry out business plans,
programs are planned and prioritized in the portfolio system, and then costs
are estimated. Finally, programs are funded according to their relative merit
against business plans and available budget. The program maintains the
budget throughout its life cycle and reports the status to the portfolio commit-
tee. Budgets are forecasted. When actuals are available, they are compared
to the forecasted amounts. The variance between forecast and actuals can
pinpoint triggers for risk response plans.
Q Risk management system. A risk management planning system is needed
to identify and assess risks and to generate a risk contingency plan. It is
necessary in an integrated program management system. The risk matrix
is the format for developing risk information that is used in scheduling and
controlling the work.
Q Program definition. Programs are sets of projects with similarities in processes,
products, and customer base. Every company approaches programs differently.
It is up to the PMO and the business that it resides in to define what consti-
tutes a program in their organization. Definition of longer-term product lines
will help to clarify the boundaries of a given program over time.
Q Portfolio pipeline system. A pipeline of approved programs is maintained so
that as funds and resources become available, programs are quickly initiated.
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 131

Program plans and schedules are produced for programs in the pipeline so
that when authorized they can proceed quickly.

Resource management system

An integrated program management organization must manage resources care-
fully, simply because there is value in targeting all resources and equipment on
the right program work. Waste is compounded in programs with multiple tasks
and the effects are felt across the company. A resource pool can be established
using Microsoft Project software, or tailored project management software,
that records all assignments in order to keep a running view of how people and
equipment are being utilized.
Q Workforce planning. A workforce planning system integrates the hiring and
training of personnel with the needs of the program portfolio. In others words,
people, equipment, and systems are brought into the company to fill needs
that are made explicit in the program resource allocation pool, which reflects
both current and planned work.
Q Staffing planning. A staffing system allocates staff to the priority program
needs in order to fully integrate the core competence of the workforce with
the priority needs of key programs. Staff is focused on assignments that are
visible and reviewed regularly.
Q Financial and accounting control. Financial and accounting practices are
assured in a program management system that captures all program costs,
both direct and indirect, and assures internal controls on program costs and
equipment inventories.
Q Earned value: Reports on work progress and costs are used to calculate
earned value so that the company knows how each program is doing in
terms of schedule and cost. EV reports are a beneficial tool in monitoring
and controlling a program’s progress. It identifies issues in a program. The
PMO uses tools like EV to track and monitor the progress of a program and
reports the results to executive management.
Q Industry standards: Industrial cost and work standards are used to
control the estimated duration of scheduled tasks, e.g., using a trade
association to schedule an industry-wide activity on which there are work
and industrial standards.

Program information technology system

A program information system that documents all program work in consoli-
dated schedules and resource pools assures that work is staffed, planned, and
monitored in a uniform way. This allows a comparison of program progress and
supports decisions on where to focus resources.
132 Chapter Two

Q Network system. All program and program information—e.g., schedules, resource

pools, program review and gate review data, and configuration management
documents—are kept on a company intranet to allow wide-ranging visibility.
Q Accessibility to key information. Accessibility to information is controlled and
focused on need-to-know criteria. However, customers are regularly informed
on program and program progress through Microsoft Program Central web-
based reporting systems that allow review of schedules without parent soft-
ware or a similar software system.
Q Reliability planning. Reliability planning targets products with failure
mode effects assessments and functional hazard assessments, along with
risk matrix documents, to consistently design and test reliability of product
performance to customer requirements and specifications.
Q Workforce training. Workforce training is designed to meet program needs as
evidenced in work performance feedback reviews and lessons-learned exercises
with program teams in closeout. Workforce training can be developed to best
serve the needs of the users. The training can include detailed documentation,
with screenshots of the system, a flip card with high-level information, live train-
ing events with hands-on skills development, and/or online training tools.

Product/service development process

Integrated program management cannot be accomplished without integrated
product development processes with strong stage-gate milestones.
Q Cooper stage-gateway process. Program management is a process of managing
time, cost, and quality, but the underlying strength of any program integra-
tion process is a strong, phased development process, with clear controls
on entry to the next stage. Gate reviews are documented, and generic work
breakdown structures and data dictionaries are developed for all product and
service development activities. The PMO defines the process and the stages
that the programs need to follow. As the maturity PMO of the organization
increases, this process will improve over time.
Q Technology support and testing. Technical support that meets industry stan-
dards assures that product integration and testing is verifiable. Designs are
tested against specifications, specifications are tested against scope of work,
and scope of work is traced to customer requirements and expectations. It is
best if tests are aligned to the PWBS (program work breakdown structure)
and tasks in the timeline.

Interface management

Q Matrix organization. Interfaces between functional departments—e.g.,

accounting, engineering, program management, and testing—are assured
through strong interface management. Separate departments and functions
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 133

are brought together constantly through information and reporting systems

and face-to-face review meetings at key gates.
Q Program review meeting formats. Review meetings are controlled by
generic meeting agendas and data and information support from a profes-
sional PMO or staff. This way, review information is objective and consis-
tent. Having a consistent format allows stakeholders to easily understand
the information. The PMO is responsible for creating the formats that the
programs follow for meetings and the documents such as meeting min-
utes and agendas. Here, you obtain an apples-to-apples comparison of
information.
Q Procurement interface. Due to the importance of contract and outsourced
work, contractor personnel and processes are integrated with sponsor com-
pany personnel and processes. Common scheduling and reporting systems
are designed.
Q Financial, accounting, and internal control interface. New impetus for strong
accounting and accountability reporting now requires that program manag-
ers capture costs and related them to work performed and equipment pur-
chased and in inventory.
Q Marketing and sales interface. Integration of marketing, sales, and program
work is accomplished by assigning marketing and sales personnel to program
teams. They attend and input to the teams on customer developments and
learn what they can and cannot commit to customers and when.
Q HR interface. The interface with HR is important to integrate personnel and
HR policies and procedures with program work and priorities. Performance
reviews are left flexible, yet important, in assigning resources to future
programs.

Program monitoring and control system

When monitoring and controlling a program, constant communication between
stakeholders, company executives, and project teams is required for successful
delivery of the program benefits.
Q Program management office (PMO). Monitoring is based on earned value
reporting, and quality is assured by a task planning system that relates
percent (%) complete to defined milestones in the baseline schedule.
Q Corrective action/risk management process. Contingencies and corrective
actions are based on remaining work and are forward-oriented. Contingencies
are embedded in schedules to assure that should risks occur, contingencies
have already been scheduled and budgeted.
Q Escalation system for decisions. Conflicts and differences within program
processes are reviewed regularly by top management to assure that decisions
are not delayed.
134 Chapter Two

Change management system

Q Change order system. All changes to a scope of work are submitted by pro-
gram team members or the sponsor/customer to assure that changes are
reviewed and managed. It is critical that a formal change control system be
in place. The PMO monitors the changes to projects and programs to advise
as needed on the direction of the change and how it could affect the business
or deliverables for the program.
Q Change impact system. Change impact statements are prepared for all
substantial changes, with risk, schedule, cost, and quality impacts specified.
Any change to a program has an impact. The impact could be minor or major.
The impact system would define what the change is, how it will be executed,
who would be involved in the change, the environments that will be affected,
and will notify all appropriate stakeholders of the change if it is approved
for implementation.

Program evaluation system

Q Document lessons learned. Closeout includes a lessons-learned meeting with

all appropriate program stakeholders present and documentation of out-
comes. During this process, the entire program is reviewed from start to
finish. The team discusses what went well with the program process. It also
reviews areas for improvement for the next program. The PMO is made
responsible for assuring that lessons learned are integrated into future pro-
grams and stored in a central archive for future retrieval needs. The PMO
guides and educates current and future programs on the lessons learned
where appropriate.
Q Financial auditing system. A financial and program audit system is managed
to assure accountability and internal control of all assets. This system audits
all assets from cradle to grave. Assets due to retire can be added to the port-
folio process to be prioritized for replacement among the other investments
the portfolio is managing.

Limitations of integrated program management systems

Systems don’t integrate programs, people do. Even if the organization is able to
design and install compatible systems to help integrate programs, they will not
work if the people who manage the work don’t use them. Configuration manage-
ment as an integrating function in product development between design and
production cannot be effective if the configuration manager does not see both
ends of that spectrum. Program managers who are obsessed with schedules and
on-time delivery at any price, and who do not care about costs simply because top
management or the customer has not focused on costs, will not be successful in the
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 135

business as a whole. The lesson is this: Individual program success should not be
at the expense of the business itself. To assure that this does not happen, company
leadership must continuously work toward an integrative vision and process at
all levels of the organization—they must daily walk the integrative talk.

Microsoft program support for program management

Microsoft Project is a program integration tool and is particularly useful in
integrating tasks, schedules, costs, and quality at the program level. This tool
can be used to build schedules, manage resource allocations, and determine if
a program is on track.

WBS and task outline

As shown in Fig. 2-58, tasks are outlined to show major summary tasks—e.g.,
develop program management—and then are broken down into subtasks—
e.g., program scope management—that build, or roll up, to the summary task.
This is the beginning of integrating tasks so that the level of work breakdown
is scaled to the particular needs of the program.
Linkages between tasks are accomplished through identification of prede-
cessors. These linkages integrate tasks with each other; thus, this is a second
integration function of the software.
Tasks are integrated with resources through the assignment of resources to
individual tasks—that is, by highlighting the task and adding resources and
percent assignment in the task information box.
Costs are then estimated for each resource after resources are assigned.
Microsoft Program allows cost entry in the Resource Sheet view, where person-
nel resources are listed (see Fig. 2-59).

ID % Task Name Duration Start Finish Predecessors Resource 2001

Complete Group Q3
32 0% Develop Project Management Plan 38 days Tue 11/27/07 Thu 1/17/08
33 0% Project Scope Management Plan 2 days Tue 11/27/07 Wed 11/28/07 31
34 0% Generic Work Breakdown Structure 2 days Thu 11/29/07 Fri 11/30/07 33
35 0% Schedule Management Plan 2 days Mon 12/3/07 Tue 12/4/07 34
36 0% Cost Management Plan 2 days Wed 12/5/07 Thu 12/6/07 35
37 0% Quality Management Plan 2 days Fri 12/7/07 Mon 12/10/07 36
38 0% Process Improvement Plan 2 days Tue 12/11/07 Wed 12/12/07 37
39 0% Staffing Management Plan 2 days Thu 12/13/07 Fri 12/14/07 38
40 0% Communication Management Plan 2 days Mon 12/17/07 Tue 12/18/07 39
41 0% Risk Management Plan 2 days Wed 12/19/07 Thu 12/20/07 40
42 0% Procurement Management Plan 2 days Fri 12/21/07 Mon 12/24/07 41
43 0% Milestone List 2 days Tue 12/25/07 Wed 12/26/07 42
44 0% Resource Calendar 2 days Thu 12/27/07 Fri 12/28/07 43
45 0% Schedule Baseline 2 days Mon 12/31/07 Tue 1/1/08 44
46 0% Cost Baseline 2 days Wed 1/2/08 Thu 1/3/08 45

Figure 2-58 GANTT chart view, entry table.

136 Chapter Two

ID Task Resource Name Type Material Label Initials Group Max. Units Std. Rate Ovt. Rate Cost/Use Accrue At Base Calendar Code
1 Test Eng Work T 100% $70.00/hr $0.00/hr $0.00 Prorated Standard
2 ME Work M 100% $70.00/hr $0.00/hr $0.00 Prorated Standard
3 Bob Smathers Work B 100% $70.00/hr $0.00/hr $0.00 Prorated Standard
4 Bill Carter Work B 100% $70.00/hr $0.00/hr $0.00 Prorated Standard
5 John Smoltz Work J 100% $70.00/hr $0.00/hr $0.00 Prorated Standard
6 Ryan Brookings Work R 100% $70.00/hr $0.00/hr $0.00 Prorated Standard
7 Ryan Brown Work R 100% $70.00/hr $0.00/hr $0.00 Prorated Standard
8 Pete Hallings Work P 100% $70.00/hr $0.00/hr $0.00 Prorated Standard
9 Bill Dow Work B 100% $70.00/hr $0.00/hr $0.00 Prorated Standard
10 Ben Gay Work B 100% $70.00/hr $0.00/hr $0.00 Prorated Standard
11 Bob Harris Work B 100% $70.00/hr $0.00/hr $0.00 Prorated Standard
12 Bart Starr Work B 100% $70.00/hr $0.00/hr $0.00 Prorated Standard
13 Dennis Bloom Work D 100% $70.00/hr $0.00/hr $0.00 Prorated Standard
14 Bud Manaker Work B 100% $70.00/hr $0.00/hr $0.00 Prorated Standard
15 Bart Werrel Work B 100% $70.00/hr $0.00/hr $0.00 Prorated Standard
16 Ben Schwartz Work B 100% $70.00/hr $0.00/hr $0.00 Prorated Standard

Figure 2-59 Resource sheet view.

ID % Task Name Duration Start FinishPredecessors Resource 2001

Complete Group Q3 Q4
176 0% Performance Requirements 95 days Tue 6/3/08 Tue 10/14/08 71
177 0% Requirements analysis 15 days Wed 6/4/08 Tue 6/24/08 71
178 0% Data analysis 19 wks Tue 6/3/08 Tue 10/14/08 71
179 0% Simulation Studies 14 days Wed 6/4/08 Mon 6/23/08 71
180 0% Interface Integration 70 days Wed 6/4/08 Tue 9/9/08 71
181 0% Electrical 16.5 days Wed 6/4/08 Thu 6/26/08 71
182 0% Mechanical 5 wks Wed 6/4/08 Tue 7/8/08 71
183 0% Software 4 wks Wed 6/4/08 Tue 7/1/08 71
184 0% Powertrain 14 wks Wed 6/4/08 Tue 9/9/08 71
185 0% Wheels 0.6 wks Wed 6/4/08 Fri 6/6/08 71
186 0% Outsource Controls 5 days Wed 6/4/08 Tue 6/10/08 71
187 0% Contracts 0.1 wks Wed 6/4/08 Wed 6/4/08 71
188 0% Supplier negotiations 2.5 days Wed 6/4/08 Fri 6/6/08 71
189 0% Collaboration and partnering 1 wk Wed 6/4/08 Tue 6/10/08 71

Figure 2-60 GANTT chart view, entry table.

Then, durations are estimated for each task based on the best guess or standard
duration for that task, as shown in Fig. 2-60. This completes the definition
of work that is the basis for Microsoft Program assumptions, that is, work =
time × resources. Each task is measured, not only in terms of the definition
of the work itself in a generic work breakdown structure with deliverables,
but also in terms of time and resources—e.g., 5 person days. Thus, the actual
work of the task is defined in terms of how long it will take, given the resources
assigned to do it.
Fixed costs—e.g., equipment, capital assets—are estimated and entered
in a different view and table. Since fixed costs are associated with tasks, not
resources, fixed costs are entered into the cost table (see Fig. 2-61).
The integration of risk into the scheduling process is accomplished through
the use of the PERT analysis tool, as shown in Fig. 2-62. Here, three alternative
durations are estimated: expected, optimistic, and pessimistic. Then weights are
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 137

ID Fixed Cost Fixed Cost Accrual Total Cost Baseline Variance Actual Remaining 2001
Q2 Q3
67 $0.00 Prorated $22,400.00 $22,400.00 $0.00 $0.00 $22,400.00
68 $0.00 Prorated $2,100.00 $2,100.00 $0.00 $0.00 $2,100.00
69 $0.00 Prorated $4,200.00 $4,200.00 $0.00 $0.00 $4,200.00
70 $0.00 Prorated $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00
71 $0.00 Prorated $4,900.00 $4,900.00 $0.00 $0.00 $4,900.00
72 $0.00 Prorated $2,800.00 $2,800.00 $0.00 $0.00 $2,800.00
73 $0.00 Prorated $8,400.00 $8,400.00 $0.00 $0.00 $8,400.00
74 $0.00 Prorated $822,860.00 $737,240.00 $85,620.00 $0.00 $822,860.00
75 $0.00 Prorated $127,740.00 $3,360.00 $124,380.00 $0.00 $127,740.00
76 $50,000.00 Prorated $50,560.00 $560.00 $50,000.00 $0.00 $50,560.00
77 $0.00 Prorated $560.00 $1,120.00 ($560.00) $0.00 $560.00
78 $75,500.00 Prorated $76,060.00 $1,120.00 $74,940.00 $0.00 $76,060.00
79 $0.00 Prorated $560.00 $560.00 $0.00 $0.00 $560.00
80 $0.00 Prorated $295,840.00 $191,520.00 $104,320.00 $0.00 $295,840.00

Figure 2-61 GANTT chart, cost table.

ID % Task Name Duration Start Finish

Predecessors Resource
Complete Group Apr
153 0% Safety 10.8 wks Wed 6/4/08 Mon 8/18/08 71
154 0% Security 14 days Wed 6/4/08 Mon 6/23/08 71
155 0% Seating 2 wks Wed 6/4/08 Tue 6/17/08 71
156 0% Visibility 1 day Wed 6/4/08 Wed 6/4/08 71
157 0% Controls 2 days Wed 6/4/08 Thu 6/5/08 71
158 0% Dashboard 3 days Wed 6/4/08 Fri 6/6/08 71
159 0% Trunk 10 days Wed 6/4/08 Fri 6/27/08 71
160 0% Hood 5 days Wed 6/4/08 Tue 6/10/08 71
161 0% Tires 3 days Wed 6/4/08 Tue 6/10/08 71
162 0% Capacity 5 days Wed 6/4/08 Tue 6/10/08 71
163 0% Six Sigma Supplier management 86.81 days Wed 6/4/08 Thu 10/2/08 71
164 0% Key Processes 11.5 days Wed 6/4/08 Thu 6/19/08 71
165 0% Process Performance Indicators 8 wks Wed 6/4/08 Thu 10/2/08 71
166 0% Process improvement strategy 3 wks Wed 6/4/08 Tue 6/24/08 71
167 0% Measures 3 days Wed 6/4/08 Fri 6/6/08 71
168 0% Data collection 3 days Wed 6/4/08 Fri 6/6/08 71

Figure 2-62 GANTT chart, PERT chart view.

placed on each scenario by the program manager, depending on risk severity

in that task and other information in the risk assessment, and documented in
a risk matrix. Then Microsoft Program calculates a new duration based on the
weights and durations estimates, as shown.
This function integrates risk into scheduling by giving the program manager
a way to reflect risk information and insight from the risk management process
directly into the scheduling and planning process.
138 Chapter Two

ID Task Name Act. Start Act. Finish % Comp. Act. Dur. Rem. Dur. Act. Cost Act. Work

Critical: No Thu 4/17/97 NA 17% 9.72 wks 47.48 wks ($95,936.00) 849 hrs
1 Select Architect Thu 4/17/97 NA 2% 0.77 wks 38.63 wks $1,040.00 49 hrs
2 Recruit & Train Managers Thu 4/17/97 Fri 6/27/97 100% 10.28 wks 0 wks $5,872.00 312 hrs
5 Create Production Design Tue 6/17/97 Mon 7/14/97 100% 4 wks 0 wks $3,528.00 164 hrs
6 Building Concept Thu 5/1/97 Wed 5/14/97 100% 2 wks 0 wks $4,312.00 88 hrs
10 Permits and Approvals Tue 8/5/97 NA 12% 0.36 wks 2.64 wks $1,680.00 24 hrs
12 Plant Personnel Recruiting NA NA 0% 0 wks 8 wks $0.00 0 hrs
13 Equipment Procurement NA NA 0% 0 wks 24 wks $0.00 0 hrs
14 Raw Material Procurement Tue 7/15/97 NA 80% 6.44 wks 1.56 wks $2,632.00 132 hrs
16 Product Distribution Plan NA NA 0% 0 wks 2 wks $0.00 0 hrs
17 Landscaping NA NA 0% 0 wks 3 wks $0.00 0 hrs
18 Truck Fleet Procurement NA NA 0% 0 wks 8 wks $0.00 0 hrs
22 Sales/Revenues Mon 6/2/97 NA 5% 2 wks 36 wks ############ 80 hrs
Critical: Yes Thu 4/17/97 NA 39% ######## 36.11 wks $228,488.03 707.92 hrs
3 Select Real Estate Consultant Tue 7/1/97 NA 89% 1.79 wks 0.21 wks $1,824.00 68 hrs

Figure 2-63 Tracking GANTT and tracking table.

Actual costs are entered in Microsoft Program through the tracking GANTT
and tracking table (see Fig. 2-63). Here, the program manager can enter actual
hours worked or costs incurred during a given period. However, this requires
deactivating the automatic calculation of actuals that Microsoft Program fig-
ures based on work performed. The best integration can be achieved through
an electronic interface between the company timesheet and purchasing system
to allow automatic entry of real-time costs into program. This now allows the
program manager to see true earned value at any point in the program without
entering any actual costs or hours manually.
Earned value is calculated and presented in Fig. 2-64, showing the schedule
variance (SV) between the budgeted cost of work performed and the budget cost

ID Task Name BCWS BCWP ACWP SV CV EAC BAC VAC

112 Vertical Integration $1,120.00 $0.00 $0.00 ($1,120.00) $0.00 $1,120.00 $1,120.00 $0.00
113 International consortia $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00
114 Supply interfaces $5,600.00 $0.00 $0.00 ($5,600.00) $0.00 $4,480.00 $5,600.00 ($1,120.00)
115 Configuration Management $2,800.00 $0.00 $44,880.00 ($2,800.00) ($44,880.00) $53,920.00 $2,800.00 $51,120.00
116 Software tailoring $0.00 $0.00 $44,880.00 $0.00 ($44,880.00) $52,800.00 $0.00 $52,800.00
117 Data Entry $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $560.00 $0.00 $560.00
118 Change management $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $560.00 $0.00 $560.00
119 Tooling $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $11,200.00 $0.00 $11,200.00
120 Pre Manufacturing inspection $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $2,800.00 $0.00 $2,800.00
121 Safety system $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $2,800.00 $0.00 $2,800.00
122 Drawing $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $2,800.00 $0.00 $2,800.00
123 Alignment $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $0.00 $2,800.00 $0.00 $2,800.00
124 Electrical Components $4,480.00 $0.00 $0.00 ($4,480.00) $0.00 $2,240.00 $4,480.00 ($2,240.00)
125 Component designs $2,240.00 $0.00 $0.00 ($2,240.00) $0.00 $2,240.00 $2,240.00 $0.00
126 Chassis Assembly $85,120.00 $0.00 $0.00 ($85,120.00) $0.00 $168,000.00 $85,120.00 $82,880.00
127 Panels $36,400.00 $0.00 $0.00 ($36,400.00) $0.00 $36,400.00 $36,400.00 $0.00

Figure 2-64 Tracking GANTT and earned value table.

 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 139

ID Resource Name Apr 12, '98 Apr 19, '98

Details
S M T W T F S S
1 Facility Specialist Work 8.33h 8.33h 8.33h 8.33h 3.42h
Recruit & Train Managers Work
Select Real Estate Consultant Work
Building Concept Work
Building Design Work
Site Selection Work
Select General Contractor Work
Building Construction Work
Plant Personnel Recruiting Work
Equipment Installation Work 3.42h 3.42h 3.42h 3.42h 3.42h
Landscaping Work 4.92h 4.92h 4.92h 4.92h
Select Architect Work
2 Project Manager Work
Recruit & Train Managers Work
Select Real Estate Consultant Work
Select General Contractor Work
Permits and Approvals Work

Figure 2-65 Resource Usage view.

of work scheduled at any given point in the program. Cost variance, the variance
between the budgeted cost of work performed and the actual cost of that work
performed, is shown, along with estimate at completion, budget at completion,
and variance at completion.
In order to keep track of actual work to be performed by resources assigned to
individual or multiple programs, the Resource Usage view (Fig. 2-65) allows the
program manager to see each assigned worker on the program and a breakdown
of work to be performed based on the plan by task. Note that the facility special-
ist is overallocated and associated work is shown in red—based on an eight-hour
day, the specialist is overallocated by .33 hours during the week shown.

Integrating programs in Microsoft Project

One of the challenges with program management is running several programs
at once, orchestrating and monitoring several programs, all with their own
program managers. The IMS (integrated master schedule) can be constructed
using the Microsoft Program Insert function. Highlighting an open task below
a current program, a new program can be inserted to allow for a consolidated
master schedule.
In Fig. 2-66, we have integrated two programs: Integrated Transportation System
(ITS) and New Plant. This was accomplished using the ITS program as the base,

ID % Task Name Duration Start Finish Resource 2003

Complete Group Q2
1 0% Integrated Transportation System 343 days Mon 6/25/07 Wed 10/15/08
243 0% New Plant 263.1 days Fri 6/1/07 Wed 6/4/08

Figure 2-66 Integrated programs.

140 Chapter Two

ID Resource Name September October

Details
8/26 9/2 9/9 9/16 9/23 9/30 10/7 10/14
Integration Gateway 3: Organizational Development Work
Integration Gateway 4: Global Team Composition and Development Work
Integration Gateway 5: Support Systems Audit Work
Business Strategy Work 40h
Portfolio Development Work 32h
Project Selection Criteria Work 8h 24h
Demand studies Work 16h 24h
43 Ben Sheets Work
Systems design Work
Hardware Work
1 Facility Specialist Work 12h 10.8h 6h 8.4h 12.85h 8h 4.55h 2.4h
Select an Architect Work
Select Real Estate Consultant Work
Building Concept Work
Building Design Work 1.6h 8h 8h 4.55h 1.6h
Site Selection Work 12h 9.6h

Figure 2-67 Resource Usage view of integrated programs.

then going to “Insert,” then “Program,” and highlighting “New Plant” from another
directory and inserting it. This is the beginning of the process of integrating a pro-
gram of programs in one schedule to allow multiprogram control.
Resources from both programs can now be displayed in the Resource Usage
view (Fig. 2-67) to monitor resources committed to both programs and to identify
potential conflicts, overallocations, and underallocations of personnel.
Here we can see how staff are allocated to two separate programs: Ben Sheets
working in the ITS Program and the Facility Specialist working in the New Plant
program. The Resource Usage view allows us to view all resources by task.
The Tasks Usage view allows us to view resources from a tasking view—e.g.,
each task from each integrated program is shown with all resources assigned
to it (Fig. 2-68). Here, we can see that the Prototype Full Integration task,

ID Task Name 2008

Details
Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr
Lour Bentt Work 0h
240 Chassis Available Work 0h
Lour Bentt Work 0h
241 Prototype Full Integration Work 40h
242 Build Work 40h
David Bart Work 40h
243 New Plant Work ######## 869h 863.8h 766.4h 466h 527.2h
1 HUNTSVILLE PROJECT Work ######## 869h 863.8h 766.4h 466h 527.2h
2 Select an Architect Work
3 Recruit and Train Managers Work
4 Select Real Estate Consultant Work
5 Pre Production Plan Work 21.6h
Production Specialists Work
Manufacturing Engineering Work
Project Manager Work 21.6h
6 Create Production Plans Work 108.8h 147.2h

Figure 2-68 Tasks Usage view.

 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 141

Build, is staffed by David Bart at 40 hours in April, while the Preproduction

Plan task in the New Plant program is staffed by the project manager at 21.61
hours in November.

Summing up the Microsoft Project integration function

No software is going to integrate programs unless the managers and program
staff involved want to integrate programs. As evidenced previously, Microsoft
Project has the capacity to document and display schedule and resource infor-
mation on a multiprogram portfolio and provide for cross-comparisons of tasks,
resources, and costs. However, the motivation and incentive to integrate pro-
grams must come from the leadership of the organization and be demonstrated
daily in program execution decisions. As implied in the new PMI PMBOK stan-
dard on integration, program execution is the “proof of the pudding” in inte-
gration. It is in the execution that key program decisions are made—e.g., how
scarce resources are allocated to competing programs. These decisions can be
made in a vacuum by individual program managers entirely in the interest of
their own programs, or they can be made by those same program managers in
the interests of the whole organization and its business goals. This is where
company leadership sets the tone; if programs are to be managed for the good
of the company as a whole, then each program manager sees himself or herself
as part of a collaborative management team, making judgments about company
investments beyond their own interests. That is the integration challenge.

Tools used to build an integrated program

management system
When building a company or agency system to support program integration,
there are 10 areas for process improvement: organization-wide or enterprise-
wide program management systems, program portfolio system development,
integrated resource management systems, information technology, technical
product development (including a stage-gateway review system), interface man-
agement system, program portfolio management, program monitoring and cor-
rective action, change control, and program evaluation.

Implementing a global PMO

A PMO should be implemented as an integral component of the organization.
Unlike a project or program, a PMO doesn’t have a specific duration. A PMO
is similar to a portfolio, where once correctly established, becomes a mission-
critical functional department for the organization. An organization can out-
source many functional areas within the business, including manufacturing,
accounting, finance, marketing, and human resources. However, the one area
that should never be outsourced is the mission, vision, and strategy for the
company, which is achieved through the portfolio process and supported by the
PMO. The portfolio process allows for the selection of company investments.
What the company invests in determines the business’s future viability.
142 Chapter Two

Many have heard of failed or troubled PMOs. Failure can be caused by “biting
off more than you can chew,” by providing services that are not relevant or
a priority for the organization, or by the organization misunderstanding the
benefits that a PMO provides.
To properly set up a PMO, first, an executive sponsor for the process needs
to assemble a team. There are two schools of thought on the team. First, the
team could be composed of small group representing key stakeholder interests,
along with the selected program director to develop the program. The advantage
to this process is that you embed stakeholder acceptance and support in the
process by having them intricately involved in it. The disadvantage with this
method is that it could take time to get the stakeholders up to speed on the
process and the importance of the standard.
The second approach is to have a small group consisting only of PMO mem-
bers. The advantage of this is that the PMO members would be “experts” on the
PMO process and would be able to implement a valuable PMO. The downside
to having only PMO members involved, however, is that there may be problems
with buy-in from the organization and long-term support for the process. It
is also possible that PMO experts might not possess the breadth or depth of
understanding of the business to achieve a successful implementation of a PMO
that meets the business’s needs. To offset stakeholder lack of support, the PMO
sponsor has to be an active advocate for the process. Moreover, the PMO needs
to continually market itself to the business and present the value they bring to
the organization in a timely fashion.
With either method, it is best to have a small team (five to seven people) involved
in the creation of the PMO. When there are too many cooks in the kitchen, the
soup becomes spoiled. Through the PMO development process, the team would
regularly report on its status and gain approval from key stakeholders as the
PMO develops.

Building a PMO
When you take on the responsibility to create a new service, it is best to define
it as a project and manage it with a standard project management process.
Following a project management methodology when building your PMO pro-
vides a framework for success. Some believe that you can take a shortcut and
build a PMO within a few weeks. Depending on the size and project maturity
level of the organization, a PMO could be fast-tracked. However, in most orga-
nizations, it is important to build a PMO one step at a time. When you rush
into creating a new department for your organization, critical elements can be
missed and important bridges might become damaged.
The PMO should be developed using the fundamental steps of initiation,
planning, executing, monitoring and controlling, and closing processes. When
the PMO is fully developed, the project would then close, transfer to “normal”
operations, and the ongoing maintenance of improving the functions of the PMO
would continue. As you can see from Fig. 2-69, a PMO development team needs
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 143

• Identify needs of the organization

• Analyze and prioritize the needs
• Build a plan of action
• Gain support from key PMO stakeholders and sponsor
• Implement the plan in achievable stages
• Report status to stakeholders to further gain support
• Continually build, develop, and refine the process

Figure 2-69 PMO development and ongoing maintenance process.

to go through a number of steps to successfully build and maintain a PMO. PMO

requirements need to be gathered, identified, analyzed, and prioritized.
The business needs to define why a PMO is needed before it determines what
it needs to do. The next step would be to build a plan of action on how best to
implement the PMO. The plan needs to be socialized with the organization to
gain support and confirm the goals of the PMO. After support is gained, the
PMO implements the approved plan and continually updates stakeholders on
its status. Once the PMO achieves the goals of the plan, the team works to con-
tinually improve the process. Over time, the needs of the business may change
and grow. After the initial implementation, alterations and/or additions to the
process may be required. The PMO team then works with the organization to
reassess the needs of the business, builds additional services as required, and
refines current process as needed to the PMO framework.

Organizational needs identification

To build a successful PMO, you first need to research the current organization
using standard tools and techniques to gather information. It is best to under-
stand the immediate needs of the business from the stakeholders’ point of view.
Some of the tools that could be used for information gathering include:
Q Information-gathering techniques. There are a number of information-gathering
techniques, such as business case analysis, root cause identification, and the
Delphi technique.
Q Brainstorming. Sessions should be conducted with the appropriate stakehold-
ers who have knowledge of the discussion topic. Brainstorming sessions are
a valuable tool to help with requirements identification.
Q Expert judgment. You are relying on an expert’s knowledge and experiences to
provide advice and guidance for the program management office. Experts can
be internal or external to the organization. This person can have a functional
or technical background. The expert could be a consultant, from a profes-
sional or technical association, or a specialist from a government agency.
Q Diagramming techniques. A number of diagramming techniques can be used,
such as affinity diagrams, influence diagrams, cause-and-effect diagrams,
and program dependency analysis.
144 Chapter Two

Q Organizational analysis. Analyzing the organization to understand the

roles and responsibilities of the members. This should be done for potential
internal and external stakeholders. The organizational analysis should also
include observing the environment. Much can be learned from observing the
organizational processes that may or may not be communicated fully by the
stakeholders. Observations should be reviewed with stakeholders.
Q Interviews. These discussions allow for a better understanding of the needs
of the stakeholders. Generally, these are open-ended questions to gather data
that is important to the stakeholder.
Q Focus groups. Gather data from a group to better understand the attitudes of
the stakeholders. In this technique, group members interact with one another
and build upon each other’s thoughts to achieve a deeper understanding of
stakeholders’ needs.
Q Questionnaires and surveys. Solicit feedback from stakeholders to better
understand their needs and requirements.

The output of this process is a PMO requirements document. The require-

ments document includes details on the process in which the information was
gathered, who was involved in the process, and a list of all the requirements,
with a description of each requirement.

Analyze and prioritize

The PMO requirements document then goes through a refining process, where
the requirements and their definitions are analyzed and prioritized. A few stan-
dard tools can help with this process.
Q Requirements analysis. When you analyze the requirement information, you
need to make sure that all the information is accurate and complete, and
begin the process of further clarifying the information. In this process, pri-
oritization of the information should be conducted using critical stakeholders
to help in this process.
Q Requirements validations and verification. Requirements are further vali-
dated and verified for accuracy and the level of need for the program.
Q Assumption analysis. The assumptions of the requirements are analyzed to
check the validity of the understanding.

At the conclusion of this process, the PMO requirements document is

updated.

Build a plan of action/PMO charter

From the PMO requirements documents, a plan of action is created to imple-
ment the PMO. This plan is similar to a program/project plan. One of the docu-
ments that is created is the PMO charter. The charter describes the business
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 145

need for the PMO and who is sponsoring it. It also describes the role and direc-
tion of the PMO. A number of questions should be asked to help address the
formation of the PMO.
Q What are the current issues with the business process that can be addressed
with a PMO?
Q What are the mission, vision, and strategy of the PMO?
Q What services will it offer initially and in the future?
Q What services will it not offer?
Q How would new services be rolled out to the business?
Q What are the roles and responsibilities of the PMO team?
Q Who would be the sponsor for the PMO?
Q Who are the stakeholders for the PMO?
Q How is the PMO going to be funded?
Q Is it going to be a fully allocated service?
Q What key performance metrics will be used to measure success?

The same tools and techniques you would use to build a project plan are used
for this process.
Q Work breakdown structure templates. The WBS follows a specific structure,
and the PMO should use the structure outlined by the organization.
Q PMO schedule. The schedule details the tasks involved in the creation of the
PMO.
Q Feasibility studies. These are conducted to determine the technical or eco-
nomic viability of the PMO. They can also be used to determine if the PMO
will attain the benefits as planned. A SWOT analysis can help determine the
viability of the PMO.
Q Task responsibility matrix. This document defines the roles and responsibili-
ties of each of the team members of the PMO and any stakeholders that are
needed for building it.
Q Capacity planning. This is the effort of managing the scarce resources that
are involved in a PMO. When planning, conflicts, constraints, alternatives, or
mitigation practices are activated to provide the optimal capacity of resources
for all the components in the program.
Q PMO risk register. Creation of the risk register and updates to it are com-
pleted as risk information is discovered as the result of component deliver-
ables or interdependencies.
Q Benefits analysis. Identifies benefits and how the PMO will achieve them.
It also looks at how the benefits strategically align with the organization’s
goals.
146 Chapter Two

Q Cashflow analysis. Determines when and how money comes into (revenues)
and out of (expenses) the PMO: the “flow of cash.” PMOs tend to be cost cen-
ters. However, it should be determined how the PMO will save the organiza-
tion money in the long run.
Q Stakeholder register. Who are your key stakeholders, and what are their needs?
Q Program management information systems. Provide the tool to house data in
a central storage system.
Q Communications requirements analysis. In this analysis, the communication
needs of the stakeholders are determined. Who should communicate what
information to whom? What are the expectations of the stakeholders with
regard to information they are seeking from the program?
Q Communication methods. Depending on the complexity and urgency of the
information, different methods of communication can be used. More complex
information may require a more formal mode of delivery to fully explain it.

At the conclusion of building a PMO action plan, an action plan document is

produced and a presentation is created to be shown to executive management.
The action plan document would include the purpose and goal of the PMO, the roles
and responsibilities of the members, the level, and type of support and services
that the PMO would provide initially, and in the future, and how the PMO will
be rolled out to the organization.

Gain support
The action plan needs support to be activated! The process of gaining support
for the PMO is an iterative process and begins when the PMO concept is cre-
ated, and it continues as long as the PMO exists. Once a fully developed plan
is completed, it is then circulated among key stakeholders for their approval.
Refinement to the plan may be needed at this point. Prior to receiving final
approval for the PMO, some tools and techniques that can be used.
Q Comparative advantage analysis. This is used to compare alternatives to
the proposed solution. What-if analysis could also be done at this time to
determine if the program benefits could be accomplished in other ways.
Q Design reviews. The PMO structure and functions are reviewed by peers
and subject matter experts to make sure that the PMO complies with the
appropriate standards and best practices of the organization.

At the conclusion of this phase, the PMO is given final approval to begin with
their implementation plan.

Implement the plan

Using the approved PMO action plan, the PMO is rolled out to the organization
in achievable stages. The analogy of crawl, walk, run comes into play. If you
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 147

want to be successful, it is best to begin with a seed, a single process or support

structure, and then let it take root. When the PMO becomes assimilated into
the organization, the need for services will grow and bloom. Going for the “big
bang” to introduce a PMO could lead to a lot of frustration and a struggle for
long-term success.
As the plan is implemented, it should follow the communication plan within
the overall action plan that describes the methods in which the PMO will be
introduced to the organization. A training plan should be presented to train
users and stakeholders on the PMO. Throughout the rollout, lessons learned
are captured to improve upon the roll out of additional services.

Report status
Reporting on the status is an iterative process and begins when the PMO con-
cept is created and continues throughout its life. The appropriate communica-
tion method is presented to the correct stakeholder in a timely fashion. A PMO
needs to stay front and center in an organization to best serve its needs. When
the PMO takes a back seat, momentum will be lost, and the importance of its
services will be diminished and possibly eliminated from the organization. It is
critical that the PMO actively present its value to the business.
In addition to status reports on PMO activities, other information that should
be presented to the business includes:
Q Performance measurements. This information clearly outlines the value the
PMO brings to the organization.
Q If the PMO provides training, what training was covered? How many
students were trained? How many training hours were logged? What was
the cost for internal training versus external training?
Q Customer satisfaction survey results. Surveys should be sent to customers of
the PMO and used as a benchmark to show improvement results.
Q Service metrics. These display turnaround time for issues. How quickly does
the PMO respond to requests or problems?

It is important for a PMO to be able to present to the business on a regular

basis the value that they bring to the organization.

Continuous improvement process

The PMO is tasked with continually building, developing, and refining the
services and support that it provides. The environment in which a PMO exists
is always changing and evolving, and the PMO must keep up with new devel-
opments. The original implementation plan is reviewed, and the next steps in
implementing are reviewed and followed, if appropriate. It is important that
the organization’s needs be identified early and analyzed for changes and repri-
oritized as needed. A PMO is a service department. It needs to be flexible and
able to change and adapt to the needs of the business.
148 Chapter Two

Value of a PMO
The PMO exists to provide value to the organization. The value of a PMO to an
organization is in the areas of knowledge management, standardization, and
in-house expertise in program delivery. The PMO is the central warehouse of
program and project information. It creates tools, techniques, and templates to
provide standardization of information and practices. As the in-house experts,
the PMO provides training and guidance to program and project teams. Given
that a large percentage of projects and programs fail due to poor program
and project management practices, the PMO could prevent failures. They
also provide improved reporting by consolidating, analyzing, and prioritiz-
ing program and project information. The information is then used to make
better decisions and determine the alignment of programs and projects with
the strategy of the company. Enhanced communication and collaboration is
a residual benefit. The consolidated information could also provide a consoli-
dated risk management strategy. The PMO can focus on workload balance
and resource allocation.
The value of the PMO should be calculated in both tangible and intangible
ways. Tangible ways include the cost savings inherent in not having to reinvent
the wheel for every new program or project, or for supporting internal training.
Intangible examples include the improved success of programs that have been
supported by the PMO using the tools and templates provided by it. Global
PMOs provide support for the impact of cultures and customs that might affect
a program. The world is ever-changing, and it is up to the global PMO (GPMO)
to stay a step ahead. The GPMO needs to have an optimum communication
structure that takes into consideration time, language, and different commu-
nication and comprehension requirements.
PMOs can be tasked with:
Q Creating and maintaining master program schedules
Q Supporting resource decision management and delegation
Q Maintaining issue tracking and reporting
Q Developing best practices for the organization
Q Establishing and enforcing standards and practices
Q Producing metrics for the PMO and the projects and program that are sup-
ported under its umbrella
Q Generating a consolidated dashboard of project and program information;
this allows for an apples-to-apples comparison of projects and programs
Q Supporting the portfolio process by providing streamlined information and
helping with decisions that need to be carried out
Q Training the staff and program stakeholders on processes and procedures
Q Supporting internal and external policies and procedures (ethical standards,
Sarbanes Oxley [SOX], etc.)
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 149

Structure of the PMO

The structure of a PMO is based on the specific needs of the organization.
Therefore, you will not find carbon copies of PMOs. The size and focus is deter-
mined by the needs of the organization and the maturity of the PMO. The PMO
can be structured in a centralized or decentralized fashion. The PMO team and
framework could be housed with the “home office” building, or the PMO could
have a presence in the “home office” and also be dispersed to each location in
which a program or project is being executed. To determine the best structure
of the PMO, a number of factors need to be evaluated.
Q What are the support needs of the program?
Q What are the consulting or mentoring services desired?
Q What are the necessary coaching and training requirements?
Q What is the available funding for a PMO and costs that will be incurred?
Q How is program information gathered, analyzed, disseminated, and stored?

Roles and responsibilities of the PMO team

Many people play a part in a PMO. However, the PMO structure will determine
the roles and responsibilities of the PMO team. In Fig. 2-70, you see some key
positions in a PMO. Depending on the maturity of the program process for a
business, these positions may or may not exist.

Organizational Structure

Roles Functional Matrix Projectized

Program Director Nonexistent Part-time to Full-time position

full-time position
Program Manager Nonexistent Part-time to Full-time position
full-time position

Project Manager Nonexistent or Part-time to Full-time position

part-time work full-time position

PMO Nonexistent Part-time to Full-time position

Administrators full-time position

PMO Team Members Nonexistent Part-time to Full-time position

full-time position

PMO Sponsor Nonexistent Part-time to Full-time position

full-time position

Figure 2-70 Organizational structure and the roles and responsibilities of the PMO.
150 Chapter Two

The program director is responsible for the day-to-day activities of the PMO.
This person manages the staff and liaisons with executive management.
Generally, a program manager is responsible for the oversight for one program
at a time. The work to manage a single program is extensive and is a full-time
job. The program manager would interface primarily with the project managers
and the program director.
The project manager within a program may be responsible for managing more
than one project within the program, or other projects outside the program. A
PMO has an administrative support team to manage the logistics of the PMO
activities. The PMO often has team members who report to the program direc-
tor and are responsible for developing training programs and tools, techniques,
and processes for managing programs and projects. They are also responsible
for gathering, analyzing, formatting, and distributing communication from the
programs and projects under the PMO.
A PMO sponsor encourages and supports the PMO. The sponsor will also help
remove barriers to the PMO’s success. The PMO program director often reports
to the PMO sponsor.

Maturity model of a PMO

As there is a maturity model for project management, there is also one for a
PMO. At one end, a PMO would not exist or have no structure to tie the func-
tions together. From there, the PMO begins to solidify and provides basic pro-
cesses to an organization. This can be considered the first step in a marathon.
Next, a PMO begins to offer increased support and offers additional services to
the business. The next level provides full PMO practices for all programs and
projects. Finally, the PMO reaches the continuous improvement environment,
where it fine-tunes the services that it provides to support the business.
A mature GPMO can provide services to an organization to mitigate chal-
lenges that it could face in a global environment. A GPMO would have an effec-
tive understanding of international challenges to best support the programs.
The GPMO socializes lessons learned to provide the most effective tools, tech-
niques, and processes to the frontline of the program world. It supports the
localized use of tools and oversees the consistent use of best practices around
the globe.

Summary
This chapter covered program management according to PMI, program support
systems, and PMO. The standards are a guidelines for organizations to use.
The support systems allow for PMO efficacy. The benefits of a GPMO provide
increased efficiency in programs and projects. A GPMO provides a centralized
database of project and program information. This information is gathered by
the GPMO, analyzed, and disseminated appropriately around the world. The
 The Standard for Program Management According to PMI 151

GPMO evaluates risks globally and prioritizes the use of resources. It provides
training on the best project and program processes, as well as on cultural, regu-
latory, and global issues. Collaboration across borders exists in a GPMO world.
The GPMO interfaces with the business and fully understands the strategy
and direction in which it is headed. It works closely with the portfolio team to
ensure alignment with the corporate plans.
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter

3
Global Portfolio
Management Strategies

“Drive thy business or it will drive thee.”

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
U.S. author, diplomat, inventor,
physicist, politician, and printer
(1706–1790)

Introduction
In Chapter 2, we described the PMI Standard for Program Management. We saw
that program management is quite different from project management, in that
programs focus on broad benefits and business outcomes, are longer-term with
regard to timelines, and serve as a management and resource framework for several
coordinated project components. In effect, programs can be seen as categories or
groupings of business initiatives, focusing a company’s resources in target markets
globally and generating a number of project deliverables for implementation.

The Global Portfolio

The global portfolio is the potential pool of programs and projects designed to
improve the business and/or its products and services globally. Final approval
and funding in the budget process then authorizes the programs and projects
to be implemented. This chapter explores that portfolio development process
and how companies move from planning the “right” programs for a given global
target, to funding the program, to implementing its component projects.

Programs as Unifying and Organizational Themes

Developing a global portfolio can get complicated very quickly without some
way of categorizing projects across the world. Starting with a global universe
for the generation and evaluation of multiple projects, the process can result in a

153
154 Chapter Three

wide variety of project ideas and initiatives without any unifying theme or prin-
ciple and no way to compare projects. To resolve this situation, a global company
needs some way of organizing and categorizing global projects in the portfolio
development process. Here is where the concept of program is useful. Programs
can be used to frame and align and candidate global projects that have common
goals. For instance a program package can be geographic, e.g. the Middle East
global program and associated projects in that area, or the European global
program. Or a program can be used functionally to organize technology projects
into categories of technical projects for comparison, e.g. information systems,
utility development and construction, green building maintenance, and training.
Managers can be assigned to a given program area during portfolio development
to generate and evaluate projects within their program area and to help compare
and analyze them within their program and against other programs.
The Tylenol poisoning case in the autumn of 1982 in the Chicago area illustrates
what can happen to a global product and how risk events can generate program
responses. Tylenol was the leading pain-killer medicine in the United States and a
major international product. The poisonings that occurred involved someone lacing
Extra-Strength Tylenol with a deadly amount of potassium cyanide. It was discov-
ered that the tampering took place once the product reached the shelves. Seven
people died from this tampering, and the perpetrator was never apprehended.
Since there was no precedence for a crisis of this nature, Johnson & Johnson,
the makers of Tylenol, had to think fast to prevent any more deaths and to protect
its brand long-term, both in the United States and abroad. The company decided
to conduct an immediate product recall, first for the entire United States. This
recall totaled 31 million bottles of Tylenol at a loss of more than $100 million
(Lazare, 2002).∗ At that time, Tylenol controlled 37 percent of the market, with
revenue of about $1.2 million (Mitchell, 1989).† After the poisonings, Tylenol’s
market was reduced to 7 percent (Mitchell, 1989). Johnson & Johnson was praised
by the media for its handling of this tragedy. The company then reintroduced
Tylenol products with triple-seal tamper-resistant packaging and with heavy
price promotions. Because of this swift action, after a few years, Tylenol was able
to regain much of its previous market share.
Why is the Tylenol case so important? It is significant because of the butterfly
effect. The butterfly effect is the concept of sensitivity dependence on initial
conditions in chaos theory. It looks at small variations of an initial state, which
produce a large variation. Think of a butterfly flapping its wings, which only
creates tiny changes in the atmosphere. One butterfly could have a far-reaching
ripple effect on succeeding events. For example, in Australia, a butterfly
begins to flap its wings preparing to take off. This motion may have a rippling

∗Lazare, Lewis, Chicago Sun-Times: Tylenol crisis triggered brilliant PR response. Accessed on
Dec. 4, 2002.
†Mitchell, Mark L., Economic Association International, 1989: The impact of external parties on
brand name capital: the 1982 Tylenol poisonings and subsequent cases.
 Global Portfolio Management Strategies 155

effect in the atmosphere that causes a tornado in the state of Kansas in the
United States.
The Tylenol case can be considered a global butterfly. Though it may not have
been the intention, the actions of one criminal, the flapping of the wings of this
case, caused a major rippling effect in the pharmaceutical, food, and consumer
product industries. These industries were now required to develop tamper-
resistant packaging, and they had to invest project resources to quickly develop
a cost-effective way to create such packaging. These packaging projects were
most likely not considered prior to this event, nor were their funds and resources
reserved for this work. Not only did this crisis affect commercial industries, but
it also affected government. It became a federal crime in the United States to
tamper with products.
Having an effective project portfolio process in place could be the difference
between success and many costly and fruitless efforts of project trial and error. In
organizations that use project portfolio management effectively, they can success-
fully realign their projects, people, and partners with their new corporate objectives.
As a result, changes in corporate strategy and financial priorities can be quickly
implemented—preventing the waste of valuable time, dollars, and resources.
To address the Tylenol case, the company chose to develop a major new pro-
gram area—safety compliance. The portfolio-to-program-to-project process
looks like this: The portfolio generated candidate programs, long-term plans
to address a particular global market or support need. A good example of a
program generated by the Tylenol case would be the company’s major effort to
safeguard all company products worldwide and to comply with regulatory and
legal requirements in given countries as they surface through major, targeted
resource investment. The program goal might be to achieve zero risk in product
safety worldwide through innovative technology solutions by 2015. Projects
generated in this general program area could include:

1. A project to design packaging with flexible features to address particular

requirements
2. A project to develop techniques to build controls into the distribution of prod-
ucts online to avoid risks in a store environment
3. A project to develop a web-based reporting system on product safety viola-
tions in various countries
4. A project to train and inform product handlers at every level globally on
product’s best practices in product safety

A World Without a Program and Project Portfolio

and Program Management System
A company without a portfolio process and without a program and project
management system will not be successful globally. Development of a pro-
gram in the portfolio process requires that a global company look at the big
156 Chapter Three

picture. Without a portfolio process, a company is likely to flounder against

global competition. Long-term goals and objectives are not defined through
programs with international impacts and benefits. Planning is not focused on
the company’s global investment strategy, and the workforce and individual
program and project teams are not informed on where the company is going
and how it will get there in particular, worldwide markets.
Project teams may find it difficult to find the right people to handle deliver-
ables for the project. There might also be delays caused by not having the right
resources at the right time. There might be a lot of turnover in the project team
due to burnout. Or, there is not one person or group making sure that work is
not duplicated in the different departments. There is no overall oversight into
the investment strategy. Because of the lack of a project management system,
it is likely that no one is making sure that resources are being assigned to the
higher-priority projects because there is no context for projects and no way to
know which projects are important. In fact, projects are all considered at the
same level and at the same level of priority, which is high. On the other hand,
project statuses may be changing, often moving from high priority to extremely
high priority and then back.
Teams “spin their wheels,” putting in a great deal of effort to get projects
completed successfully. But because the teams are not organized, no one on
the project team is at the senior level and no one on the team necessarily com-
municates with senior management on a regular basis. Once the project team
receives approval for the project concept, the team sets off and creates the
project plan with the deliverables that they found necessary for the operation
for their customers at the ground level.
There is intense competition with internal project teams for limited resources,
like testing or training areas. Usually, the project manager with the best rela-
tionship with the resource will win first dibs on the resource, which might not
align with corporate strategic plans for the resources. Projects may eventually
come to completion without meeting the business’s strategic need.
The bottom line here is that a company without a portfolio process and with-
out a project management system to back it up does not see the value in build-
ing a portfolio aligned with business objectives, generating program goals and
actionable projects to meet short-term and long-term global goals.

Portfolio Development
There is an analogy between an individual’s financial portfolio and a business’s
program and project portfolio. Let’s explore the nature of an individual invest-
ment portfolio. The goal in a financial portfolio is to have the appropriate
assemblage of investments. A diversification strategy is used to limit risk in
a portfolio. By spreading investments into several different assets, certain
types of risks can be mitigated. A financial portfolio may contain stocks,
bonds, and real estate, among other investments. Even within one type of
 Global Portfolio Management Strategies 157

investment, there can be diversification. As an example, with stocks, you

can invest domestically, internationally, in large or small companies, and in
numerous combinations. When you have a financial investment portfolio, you
would typically conduct periodic analysis to determine the value and success
of your investment decisions. Are the decisions still aligned with the goals of
the portfolio? Have market conditions changed, requiring a rebalancing of the
collection of assets?
Financial portfolio management involves deciding what investments to make
and maintain in the portfolio, given the goals of the portfolio owner and the
changing economic environment. The investment strategy is not limited to just
what to invest in, but also how much, when to purchase, and what to divest.
These decisions are weighted by how much opportunity you have to invest
versus the availability of these investments and, of course, the risks associated
with the investment. The asset selection process involves analyzing perfor-
mance measurements, such as expected return on the investment, against the
risk associated with the return and comparing that to other combinations of
opportunities. The goals of the portfolio are also a major consideration. Some
investors may be risk-adverse, while others can be risk-neutral or risk seekers.
The risk level of the portfolio can be measured using benchmarks, tools, and
techniques. Project portfolio management has many of the same attributes as
a financial portfolio, and as we will discuss throughout this chapter, project
portfolios are often confronted by as many hurdles as financial portfolios.
In building the portfolio, a company faces uncertainty and takes on major risks
because of the long-term nature of expensive global programs and the difficulty of
anticipating complex forces affecting programs in foreign countries. Investing
in the wrong technology project could waste a great deal of time, money, and
resources and potentially ruin a business. Furthermore, the global environ-
ment, competition, and technology changes are success factors that require the
company to make educated decisions rapidly. Rapid decision-making is more
important now than in any other decade because of rapid time-to-market cycles
for new products.
In this chapter, we are going to dive into the concept of portfolios and how they
are a critical business necessity. Portfolios oversee the company’s investment in
programs and projects. We will go into detail concerning programs and projects
in the next chapters. We will also look at why portfolios are a critical business
function for global strategies.

What Is Portfolio Management?

Harvey A. Levine once characterized project portfolio management as:
A set of business practices that brings the world of projects into tight integration
with other business operations. It brings projects into harmony with the strategies,
resources, and executive oversight of the enterprise and provides the structure and
processes for project portfolio governance.
158 Chapter Three

What is missing in this classic definition is the concept of a program, a

relatively new concept in the traditional project management community.
The term program suggests an organizational framework for individual but
related projects, each contributing to a particular program goal. Programs
provide an organizational, support, and resource context for integrating
individual projects and transforming them into broad program benefits over
time. Programs provide the classic “big picture,” capturing all the business
resources—both programs and supporting and administrative activities,
such as procurement and human resources—required to achieve a broad
business goal. Programs serve to link individual projects to particular global
business objectives.
A portfolio aligns business objectives with project investments. At the same
time, a portfolio determines how the project investments should be best man-
aged. Is it best for the project investment to be managed as a single project or
under a program umbrella? The program umbrella would include dependent or
congruent projects and business processes to reach the organizational results as
determined by the portfolio. Global projects are usually managed by a program
manager within a program framework because they are typically more complex
and generate more risks. That program manager functions at a relatively high
level in the business, between top management and individual project manag-
ers, and can mobilize a wide variety of resources to support effective program
delivery on a worldwide scale.
When we look at the concept of a project portfolio, it is essential to under-
stand what a well-run portfolio process brings to a company. The portfolio
process is the glue that binds business operations to investment strategy. This
process takes the strategy we discussed in Chapter 1 and evolves the strategy
to make it a reality. This process can be thought of as two sides of the same
coin. The decisions made in your portfolio help define the future state of your
business, where the decision you make for your business helps define your
project portfolio.
In essence, a project portfolio is similar to an investment portfolio, where your
investments are grouped together to meet your goals. Your business objectives
help guide your portfolio decision process. While the selection of investments
is part of a portfolio, another critical element is managing scarce resources. A
resource can be a person, place, or thing that is in need of a corporate project
or program investment. There are many types of resources. You can look at
resources as the people needed to work on the project and the location where
the project needs to be staged, as well as the tools needed to run the projects
and raw materials needed to build a product. Resources are also the funds to
allocate materials and pay for labor. Depending on what industry you are in,
you would produce a different list of resources.
Most resource lists would include staff, computers, and location, but then
there are divergent paths for industry-specific tools. Regardless of the resource
list, priorities must be set within the portfolio to delegate resources to projects
and programs that best meet the needs of the business. No matter how many
 Global Portfolio Management Strategies 159

resources there are, there never seems to be enough to meet all the needs and
desires of the project investment load. Therefore, critical decisions need to be
made to ensure the best mix of projects and programs to maximize value for
the company.
The project portfolio is your link from your corporate strategy to your invest-
ment in projects and programs. To best manage a portfolio, you need to have
a fully functional project portfolio management structure. Simply put, project
portfolio management is the oversight, monitor, and control of the projects or
programs grouped together in the portfolio. The administration of a portfolio
also includes ensuring that the correct mix of investments is initiated, grouped,
funded, and managed.

Why Are Portfolios Needed?

Not all companies have defined processes for capturing, analyzing, and evalu-
ating project proposals. Often, projects are initiated by senior executives, who
have their own agendas for improving their division of the business. There
are also overly optimistic leaders who believe that every project is needed and
needed immediately. The optimism causes a chain reaction, and capacity issues
ensue. Low-priority or even unnecessary projects consume resources that could
be used by projects that would produce a higher yield. Ineffective capacity and
resource allocations become a formula for misfortune.
Companies are seeking investments that return value. Portfolios help you
gain control over your investments. In a portfolio process, the team is charged
with aligning business strategy with company investments. Part of this pro-
cess involves balancing riskier investments with more moderate ones. Another
critical component of the portfolio process is to monitor and control projects
that are currently underway and make sure that they remain on the right
track. At times, projects need to be accelerated, realigned, stalled, or even
terminated.
Having a process is one part of the equation; the other part is execution. You
could have the best process in the world, but if you fall short on the execution,
you will never make it to the goal line. Companies that execute their portfolio
processes well receive amazing results. They are able to maximize the value of
their investments. They focus on higher-priority projects and programs while
minimizing the overall risk to the company. They are able to reduce redundancy
and kill projects that do not add value to the business. Overall, these companies
produce a process that focuses on the greater good of the business, not individual
departments.
There is not one single formula to achieving success with portfolio manage-
ment. Many models and methodologies can be chosen within the vast array of
companies, vendors, and software packages that offer portfolio management
solutions. Even with all the possibilities, however, there are obstacles to imple-
menting them well. There are ways to build a solid foundation using portfolios
that will get you on the right track.
160 Chapter Three

Developing a Portfolio Process

If the company does not currently have a portfolio process, or is looking to
improve on its current one, it is important to lead this effort like a project and
create the objective of the project plan as “developing and/or improving the
portfolio process.” A key person should be involved, like a project manager, who
leads the effort, as well as key stakeholders from all aspects of the business. The
objective for this team would be to design, develop, and implement the project
portfolio management process for the organization. Many considerations have
to be taken into account.
You would want to start at the top and get a clear picture of the company’s
mission, vision, goals, objectives, and direction. Is the company focused on
growth or on maintaining its core business?
There needs to be support and commitment from the executives of the com-
pany. Build buy-in from the departments—work with key stakeholders from
this group to further develop the portfolio. The objectives and direction are then
divided into manageable groups or categories within the portfolio. Then, projects
in-progress or proposed are analyzed. How do these projects match up with the
portfolio categories? The projects need to be validated against the organization’s
objectives. Do these projects meet the company’s strategic objectives? If so, they
are placed in the appropriate category. If not, further analysis needs to be done
to determine whether to maintain this project or kill it. A closer look into each
category is needed to prioritize the projects with the buckets (“prioritization” is
discussed later in this chapter). Determine the portfolio steering group. Usually,
this group is supported by your project management office (PMO) and has the
following responsibilities:
Q A project master schedule is created to manage the process.
Q A database of all projects is maintained.
Q Determine the right mix of projects.
Q Compare financial needs with availability.
Q A watermark for resources might be created.
Q Assign resources to the portfolio for project and program work.
Q Report on variances to the planned program or project work.

Oversee the projects and programs within the portfolio with established proj-
ect management process developed by the PMO. Information is rolled up from
projects and programs to a portfolio dashboard high-level view of the status.
Metrics are built on how projects will be evaluated, and a common framework
is created to operate within the business.
Regularly do a health check of the portfolio to make sure that it is still aligned
with the business objects. If business objectives change, the portfolio is realigned
as needed by maintaining current projects, adding new projects/programs, and
 Global Portfolio Management Strategies 161

suspending or canceling projects/programs that no longer meet the business’

objectives.
A corporate culture needs to be developed to support the portfolio process in
its development. This would include buying in to how decisions are going to be
made, how projects and programs are going to be categorized and prioritized,
and understanding that if a project doesn’t fit within these parameters, it will
be eliminated from the portfolio and lose all resources. Part of this culture
involves adding responsibilities to key stakeholders to participate in a steering
or governance group.
The governance group is responsible for approving new projects, participating
in portfolio projects, clarifying and validating company’s strategic objectives,
creating and maintaining priorities, communicating portfolio objectives, assign-
ing resources to projects and programs, recognizing areas for improvement, and
helping to implement improvements.
The portfolio process is a dynamic one, where new projects are identified,
analyzed, prioritized, and possibly selected for inclusion to the portfolio.
Current projects may be reviewed within the context of any change in stra-
tegic objectives, environment, market, technology, or proposed projects to
determine if they should continue to be a viable participant in the portfolio.
Projects may be accelerated, decelerated, put on hold, priorities changed,
or killed. Resources are evaluated and allocated according to the priorities
created by the portfolio. It is critical for the long-term success of a company
to build a methodology for managing projects within a portfolio. The meth-
odology needs to be straightforward and simple to maintain. It also needs to
be powered with the appropriate processes to make the right decisions for
the company. It is best to have a single location for proposed projects to be
entered into the system. The proposed project concepts should have enough
information with them to allow for decisions to be made by the governance
process to delegate resources for further investigation. When the governance
members receive a request, they will evaluate the proposal and analyze it
against the priorities it has set in place. At this point, a number of outcomes
can occur.
The proposed project/program concept:
Q Is approved and added to the portfolio and given the resources needed to run
the project or program.
Q May need further clarification. The governance committee may assign addi-
tional resource to the proposal team so that they can add details to their
proposal.
Q Is put on hold for the time being and may be reevaluated again at a later
date when resources are available, or when the priority of the concept is later
reevaluated and given a higher rating.
Q Is killed because it doesn’t align with the company’s strategic objectives.
162 Chapter Three

Then all projects are prioritized for funding decisions. Which projects can
the business finance this year, and can broad programs encompassing several
projects be fully funded? The funding decision is typically made in the company
budgeting process.
If the project is approved and funded, the project team should begin to use
the templates and standards created by the company’s PMO. The informa-
tion created by the project team is periodically rolled up to the portfolio
and delivered to the governance committee for review. The review helps the
portfolio management team monitor and control projects and programs. The
governance committee ensures that the assumptions made in the approved
project proposal are still valid. It looks for any changes to company priorities.
Risks are evaluated to see how well the project is weathering the storms it
faces and how it affects the company. The governance committee also looks at
key metrics to make sure that the project is in alignment with the company’s
priorities. Finally, the entire process is occasionally reevaluated to create a
continuous improvement environment to make sure that the projects and
programs are in line with the business objectives and meeting them in a timely
fashion.

Portfolio Process
When you implement a portfolio process, it is important to follow some guide-
lines to ensure a smooth transition.

Phased-in process
Just as it would be difficult to eat an entire pie at once, it would also be difficult
to implement an entire process at once. There are pitfalls in implementing
unfamiliar and complex processes in an organization. A phased-in approach
offers the advantage of providing incremental improvements with a lower
degree of risk.
The portion of the process that should be implemented first should be deter-
mined by business requirements. Some companies may start with how they
approve new projects; others may look at building prioritization standards to
measure current projects and help mitigate capacity and resource limitation
issues. Other areas could be phased in as lessons are learned and the need of
the portfolio process matures.

Standards
When starting any new process, it is essential to have formal policies, proce-
dures, templates, and tools for everyone to use. These standards help people
adhere to the process. It also provides a way to monitor and control the process
by presenting information in a way to allow for an apples-to-apples comparison.
 Global Portfolio Management Strategies 163

To successfully implement the standards of the process, it is essential to have

a communication plan, training program, and documentation.

Continuous improvement
As each phase of the process is implemented, the business is able to achieve
small victories with low cost and risk. This incremental approach allows for
the business to learn from the last process and improve the next one. When
the entire portfolio process is implemented, there needs to be a constant
feedback loop to change and enhance the process as the business needs grow
and develop.
The work does not stop after a portfolio process is created. A portfolio becomes
a corporate functional area just like any other area in the company, such as
finance or marketing. The portfolio must be maintained and improved upon
to survive. It must be given resources to manage the process to maintain high
levels of service to the business.

Portfolio process management

There are six key steps in creating and managing your portfolio. Each step is
critical to the success of the portfolio.

1. Inventory
2. Analyze
3. Prioritize
4. Optimize
5. Mobilize
6. Improve and enhance

Inventory. The inventory is a comprehensive list of all programs and projects

at any stage of the project life cycle. Assessing the inventory is the first task
in gaining control over your projects and programs. This can be a painstaking
process, but it’s worth the effort. An inventory is the foundation for aligning
projects and programs with business objectives, getting control of resource
allocations, and managing your business investment.
Each project and program should have enough descriptive information so
that it can be analyzed and compared. There should be a project inventory
template that is filled out by the project manager, project team, program
manager, or key stakeholder. TA system should be established whereby the
project or program can be categorized. An identification number could be
assigned to projects and programs to help prevent issues with project or
program names changing over time or project/program names being confused
164 Chapter Three

with other similarly named projects/programs. The identification number

can be sequential or be embedded with information. Some information that
could be included in the identification number are the year the project or
program was established, the department number that correlates to the
project or program, and the category of business the project or program is
for, among other indicators. The information that may be captured in the
template can include:
Q Project/program identification number
Q Project/program name
Q Business case for initiating the project/program
Q Brief description of the project’s/program’s scope
Q Strategic business objectives that the project/program meets
Q Key deliverables
Q Estimated duration
Q Estimated cost
Q Resources needed
Q Risk assessment
Q If the information is from a program, it should also include the details con-
cerning the projects under its supervision

This template information could be compiled on a database or assembled on

a spreadsheet for analysis and comparison. The assembled inventory will have
all the project’s/program’s attributes, priorities, budgets, and risks in a single
place. The outcome of this process creates an up-to-date collection of information
for each project so it is visible to the portfolio. As projects or programs change
status, the inventory information needs to be updated to maintain an accurate
listing of information.

Analyze. In the identification process, the inventory of projects and programs

are assembled. The next step in the process is to analyze the information. When
you analyze, you examine projects, in part to gain a better understanding of
them. You evaluate all aspects of the projects and programs and scrutinize,
evaluate, question, explore, and probe. Many questions are explored during
this phase, for example:
Q Is the project/program still meeting the objectives that it was established to
meet?
Q Have the risks exceeded the planned rewards?
Q Is the project/program still aligned with the business strategy?
Q Are costs getting out of control?
 Global Portfolio Management Strategies 165

Q Has the project/program added too many features and created a gold-plated
project/program that minimizes the margins of planned value?
Q Is the resource level allocated to this project/program effective?
Q Is this project/program dependent on other projects/programs? Or are other
projects/progroms dependent on this project/program?
Q Are there project/program conflicts?
Q Are there redundant projects/programs offering similar capabilities?

Projects and programs are mapped to objectives and verified that they still
fall into the same categories or groups to which they were originally assigned.
The findings of the analysis may be presented in reports, charts, and/or graphs.
Here is where the portfolio team examines all the projects and weeds out prob-
lematic projects/programs that have low business value. The projects/programs
that are determined to be viable and have a strong business case move on to
the next step in the process.

Prioritize. When you prioritize, you rank projects/programs according to

importance or urgency for the business. Priorities may shift from year to year.
The analyzed project/program information is compared to established criteria
to prioritize the projects and programs. They are then reviewed to develop
a balanced list of projects/programs. Balance is found if projects/programs
maintain the appropriate level of risk and reward versus cost and resource use
for the business.
Projects/programs may be given high, moderate, or low priority. Projects/
programs ranked high will receive more support than lower-ranking projects/
programs. The beauty of portfolio management is that it allows you the ability
to fund the projects/programs that provide you with the most business value.
Projects can be grouped in a number of ways. For example, the groupings
could be financial.

Group 1: Projects under $50,000

Group 2: Projects $50,000–$250,000
Group 3: Projects $250,000–$500,000
Group 4: Projects $500,000–$1,000,000
Group 5: Projects $1,000,000+

For each of these groups, you can have a different set of criteria or evaluations
to determine if the project makes good business sense. The portfolio manage-
ment team is tasked with distributing funds and resources appropriately to
projects. Using grouping and criteria appropriately and effectively will allow
for the best mix of projects to be selected.
There are many ways to categorize initiatives besides financial. Some of the
ways you can categorize projects/programs are based on:
166 Chapter Three

Q Risk to the business

Q Possible success rate/reward
Q Technology
Q Internal competency
Q Business value/need

You could also look at the categories strategically and have them align with
your business objectives.

Strategic Buckets

Representative of the Types of Projects

Initiative in This Area

Plant/Office Space—Physical Building Improvements to the physical workspace

New ergonomic furniture
HVAC improvements
Power improvements, including back-up generators
Move to a new office space or expansion space
Sustaining—Replacement and Maintenance and utility projects
Renewal Equipment replacements needed to maintain
current business functionality
Replace outdated software/hardware systems
Enhancing/Growth Upgrades to current business functionality to
improve efficiency and precision of the operation
Upgrades to back-office support and manufacturing
software
Customer-requested upgrades to services and
product offerings
Strategic/Innovative Investment in new product lines
Research and development to create a new product
or service
Develop new markets
Build a global presence

Each category could have different criteria for prioritization and different
amounts of funds and resources that the company is willing to allocate to it. Using
strategic buckets listed in the table, you can divide funding in the following way:

30% Plant/Office Space—Physical Building

30% Sustaining—Replacement and Renewal
25% Enhancing/Growth
15% Strategic/Innovative

The allocations to these strategic buckets can fluctuate as the needs of the
business or changes in the market environment occur. The portfolio team and
process has to be agile to maneuver the transformations that might occur.
 Global Portfolio Management Strategies 167

The criteria for evaluation could be weighted according to priority, which

would give you a weighted score. Following the scoring, the projects are then
ranked. A watermark can be drawn on the rankings at a certain business
value. For example, the watermark could be $10 million. When the project
total reaches that point, the projects above that line are approved and continued.
The projects below that point will be placed on hold, moved to next year’s project
list, or killed.
The prioritization process is the primary reason portfolio management is so
effective. Here, leaders from all parts of the company come together. When this
team is together, communication improves. This gives them a better under-
standing of how the projects will affect them and let them have a say in what
gets executed.

Criterion. A criterion is an accepted standard used to make a decision or

judgment about a project. A criterion for a project can be a measure, a standard,
or a condition. You can measure the project against other projects in the portfolio
to see how it measures up to them. There can be set standards that state the
level of quality or excellence that needs to be attained by the project or program.
There can also be conditions that must be met or exist for something else to
happen to make the project or program valid. A project might be dependent on
another project that isn’t complete, so there is little reason to start the project
at this time.
Criteria are created jointly with representatives from all the business units
that make up the portfolio team. They are based on internal goals and/or pre-
defined threshold metrics. The criteria for projects can be looked at in a number
of different ways. Some examples include:

Q Strategic value
Q Ease of implementation
Q Market need/value
Q Financial benefit
Q Return on investment (ROI)
Q Internal rate on return (IRR)
Q Cost
Q Resource impact/capacity

Figure 3-1 shows projects being ranked against the criteria. It is important to
qualify the rankings so that your team has an understanding of how to rank the
projects against the criteria. You can always add and change criteria as needed
to meet business objectives. Also, weights can be added to the criteria to show
the level of importance.
168 Chapter Three

Another priority model could look like this:

Strategy/Objective Proposal Criteria Proposal Scoring Anchors

Optimize the use of Does it reduce costs and/or 4 = reduces cost and cycle time
resources cycle time? 2 = reduces cost or cycle time
Business need What is the immediacy of need? 5 = urgent
3 = pressing need
1 = not urgent
Increased effectiveness Does it enable/improve the ability 5 = customer and company
and accessibility of the customer and/or company 3 = either one
to do what they need to do? 1 = neither one
Seamless and interoperable Does it easily integrate with 5 = supports standards and
technology our standards and/or products? is relatively easy to implement
3 = generally supports standards
and can be implemented
1 = barely supports standards
and requires major
modifications to implement
Reaches/supports our How broad? How varied? 5 = extends beyond the
customer base How many customers? customer base
4 = can apply to all current
customers
3 = supports many current
customers
2 = supports a few current
customers
1 = supports one customer
Appropriate technical risk Is this moving us toward 5 = evidence of benefit and
evidenced best practices? transferability
3 = evidence of benefit but no
evidence of transferability
1 = No evidence of benefit

Optimize. After prioritization is complete, further assessment still needs to

be done. In prioritization, you looked at individual projects and programs and
how they weighed against given criteria. The next critical step is to appraise
the portfolio as a whole.
When the portfolio team looks to optimize the portfolio to make it more effec-
tive and efficient, they need to take a step back from the components and visual-
ize the portfolio holistically. Here, we look at the system as a whole rather than
simply each project separately.
Q What does the entire portfolio provide?
Q Does the portfolio balance our resources as far as capacity versus demand?
Q Does the portfolio balance our current needs with our future needs?
Q Does it provide maximum value to the business?
Q Are critical resources allocated correctly?
 Global Portfolio Management Strategies 169

Strategic Financial
Complexity Internal Priority
value for benefit
Project of Cost resource of the Notes
the for the
project impact project
company organization

Average-impact project, but

Replacement of key system
needed to improve current
(Project 1.1) 3 3 4 2 4 3.2
operational processes
New development project
High-impact project, but with
(Project 2.1) 5 1 5 2 4 3.4
much risk surrounding it
Maintenance project
Low-impact project, but needed
(Project 3.1) 1 5 1 5 2 2.8
to support key functionality

Legend

Strategic value 5 = very important Cost 5 = low cost to the project

1 = low importance 1 = high cost to the project

Complexity of project 5 = very easy Resource impact 5 = low impact

1 = very complex (people, 1 = high impact
technology,
equipment, etc.)

Financial benefit for the 5 = potential for great financial

organization benefits for the organization
1 = little or no financial benefits

The higher the score, the higher the project’s priority

Figure 3-1 Project ranking model.

Q Are projects and resources aligned with the company’s objectives?

Q Are there any redundancies?
Q Are there projects or programs that we should accelerate, place on hold,
maintain, or cancel?

It is crucial when you optimize that you test out or model alternative project
portfolios to make sure that you have the best mix of projects and programs and
that they provide the company with the highest return on investment. When
you model a portfolio, you can simulate the mix of approved and must-do proj-
ects and select the ones that optimally fit the budget and resource limitations.
Here, you can also test out the unselected or out-of-capacity projects and put
them back in the mix to see how they could better serve the portfolio. In your
simulation or model, you should ensure that must-do projects are approved and
that resources are allocated appropriately for them. The outcome of this process
is to have an optimal project portfolio.

Mobilize. When the inventory, analysis, prioritization, and optimization phases

are complete, it is then time to set in motion the decisions made for the portfolio.
When you mobilize, you prepare your resources for action. The portfolio is
unveiled to the troops. A communication plan should be established regarding
how this information is rolled out to the workforce. Changes to the portfolio
can be published, with explanations on how the projects and programs align
170 Chapter Three

with the company’s strategic objectives. Resources are then deployed to the
appropriate projects or programs at the planned level.
Projects or programs placed on hold have their resources redeployed. Cancelled
projects or programs have contracts terminated and resources migrated to other
assignments.
All projects and programs have their schedules and budgets revised with
any updates or changes planned for in the portfolio. New projects are put into
motion.
Portfolios have to be monitored and controlled. Here is where the appro-
priate individuals alert the portfolio team if critical schedule, financial, or
resource thresholds are exceeded, or if project or program conflicts arise.
Performance reports on approved or in-progress projects or programs are
rolled up to the portfolio team for review and analysis. Metrics are analyzed
to ensure that the project/program mix in the portfolio is meeting established
criteria. This then feeds back into the inventory of projects and programs with
updated information.

Improve and enhance. Periodically, the entire process (inventory, analyze,

prioritize, optimize, mobilize) needs to be reviewed for possible improvements.
Enhancements can always be made to any process. These enhancements can
be incremental or evolutionary, depending on the needs of the system. The
process system review should include all key stakeholders. This gives you
an opportunity to demonstrate the value of the portfolio process and ensure
commitment from sponsors and stakeholders. The portfolio needs to be actively
managed to be successful.

Project portfolio benefits

An organization that successfully uses a project portfolio system will see many
benefits. Let us face facts. You cannot change what you do not know. The port-
folio provides a process for capturing project and program information into a
usable format for management decisions. Having a dashboard to review the
strengths and challenges of the projects and programs helps executives make
better decisions. It allows for a rolled-up view of all projects and programs, with
the ability to dive into any one section for further analysis. You can compare
variances and build a benchmark for projects and program success. You could
evaluate the value earned by the portfolio elements. With this big-picture view,
you can analyze the risk in the portfolio and diversify it. Having a project port-
folio process that is established and that everyone buys in to can help eliminate
internal political players pushing their agendas for resource approvals, and it
provides a basis for the system to focus only on what is best for the business.
You can analyze the return on investment and manage resource allocations.
Projects and programs that are not meeting expectations and that are no
longer aligned with business objectives can be divested. Are any of your proj-
ects becoming bridges to nowhere? You could make this kind of assessment by
 Global Portfolio Management Strategies 171

looking at the bigger picture of the project or program in relation to the overall
portfolio and business direction.
A business gains the ability to:
Q Have oversight on project/program schedule and budget variance
Q Measure metrics on return on investment
Q Increase resource utilization and reduce headcount
Q Understand project and program risk factors and adjust the portfolio as needed
Q Cancel projects and reallocate resources

The project portfolio management process is, in a sense, in balance with

business objectives. It will provide the ability to select projects based on data,
metrics, costs, budgets, and other objective criteria. If a business continues
to plan at the individual initiative level, the tactical and reactive nature will
remain. An effective portfolio allows for flexibility to adjust with changing objec-
tives and environmental factors, and allows for the mitigation of risk. With a
well-executed portfolio, you can prevent the company from putting all its eggs in
one basket. You can diversify risk and balance investments that meet corporate
objectives. You don’t want to spend your entire portfolio on one area. Feeding
your cash cow benefits you today, but doesn’t provide for tomorrow. On the other
hand, being overly aggressive and focusing only on new product development
could hurt your core business.
A well-run portfolio can provide the following value items for a business:
Q Alignment with business strategy by focusing on doing the right work.
Approving the right projects to meet your business objectives. If the objec-
tives change, you can realign the project mix.
Q Standard workflows help with consistency in information and understand-
ing in the process, as well as buy-in/support for the process. Helps get things
through the process faster. Helps with rolling up information with consistent
terminology and metric usage.
Q Leverage resources (people, money, assets): Manage them across the business
and use the right resources correctly.
Q Global teams can be more productive. They share and reuse information,
work products, and templates so you can do the work in the correct way.
Building upon previous knowledge, the business grows and matures, and
doesn’t have to reinvent the wheel with each new project.
Q Enhance visibility and control organizational transparency so that you can
identify and solve problems early. Focus on value versus features and func-
tions. Set up formal checkpoints in the system (Cooper calls these “gates”). At
these checkpoints, an evaluation is done to make sure the project or program
is still on track. Is it still meeting the project deliverables that it is suppose
to meet? Are risks in check?
172 Chapter Three

How Portfolios, Programs, and

Project Management Relate
In order to be successful in the projects and programs that your business
invests in, there needs to be a best practice to manage it. This practice includes
the fundamentals of integrating top-down and bottom-up processes. The more
mature the process is, the more successful the company will be in achieving
the vision it has for its future. At first, this process may feel like you are build-
ing a complex tapestry of multicolored threads woven intricately together and
feel too overwhelming to consider, or to even know where to start. However,
if you focus first on the core principles and then build from there, you will be
able to achieve your goals. Three main elements can help you make business
objectives a reality: project portfolios, programs, and projects. A company that
can effectively administer these elements can be quite successful in meeting
their objectives.

Portfolio Portfolio focuses on meeting strategic objectives.

The portfolio is a collection of projects or programs that are
grouped together to facilitate achieving the company’s strategic
business objectives. The projects or programs of the portfolio
may not necessarily be interdependent or directly related,
but they are grouped together to achieve business objectives.
Through this process, portfolios manage the company’s valuable
resources.
Program Program work is focused on results.
A program is group of related projects managed in a
coordinated way to obtain benefits and control not available with
managing them individually. Programs include an element of
ongoing work, and may include elements or related work outside
the scope of discrete projects in the program.
Project Projects focus on successfully producing deliverables.
A project is a temporary activity taken on to create a unique
product, service, or result.

A common saying is that project management is doing projects right and port-
folio management is choosing the right projects to do. Program management is
doing the right projects right!
Project portfolio management is different from both programs and proj-
ects in that it is a continuous process. Both projects and programs have a
life cycle, with a beginning, middle, and end. Once a portfolio management
process is established, it becomes another functional area in your company,
similar to human resources, marketing, finance, and operations. These func-
tional groups are established and continue until the company ends. You
might wonder what portfolio management needs to do on a continuous basis.
 Global Portfolio Management Strategies 173

Well, portfolio management involves the continual process of selecting and

managing the optimum set of initiatives to deliver maximum business value
to the business. This sounds straightforward, but it takes effort in practice.
You can look at portfolio management as the middleware between strategic
planning (discussed in Chapter 1) and project delivery. Portfolios provide a
cohesive view to track and align the priorities as set by the portfolio pro-
cess. This process helps the business get its arms around the investment
in projects that they are making. They get a clear picture on where their
investments are and can periodically reevaluate decisions.

Global project portfolios

Some companies, by their very nature, are global companies; others are nur-
tured into going global to allow the business to expand into new marketplaces.
For example, a computer or technology-based company can go global with mini-
mal effort, but furniture companies have greater barriers to hurdle to become
global. Furniture companies have concerns with the high cost of shipping, tar-
iffs, and local tastes. Having a well-formulated project portfolio process for
your company can make all the difference. It can allow you into new markets
and minimize the risk and provide for better decision-making. It is critical that
the company have a strong handle on how they are investing their money and
using their resources. There are often inherent integration issues with regard
to politics, economics, regulations, and language. These issues can be complex;
thus, it is critical to have control over the business, which is most successfully
done within a portfolio.

Programs in a portfolio world

Programs are critical elements in a portfolio. A program is created by the port-
folio team when the complexity of the work is significant and added oversight
is required. The program management efforts add a higher level of integration
management to ensure that project investments are delivering the results that
the company is striving to receive. The program effort provides a link between
the portfolio objectives and project deliverables to secure business results.

Goals of a project portfolio

The objective of a portfolio is to allow the organization to be focused, responsive,
and agile. The ability to pick the right projects and make the right investments
is critical for a business’ success. Every portfolio has three main goals:
Q Strategic alignment and direction
Q Portfolio value maximization
Q Balance risk versus rewards
174 Chapter Three

Each goal is a critical element in achieving portfolio success, and goals

can be achieved through a number of methods. Methods should be used in
conjunction with each other and not in isolation. Each method produces
valuable information, but also exhibits limitations, which should be taken
in the context of other tools to help reach a goal.

Goal 1—strategic alignment and direction. Strategic alignment and direction

focuses on the oversight of projects and programs in the portfolio, making sure
that they align with the business’ strategy. The direction includes communicating
the strategic goals of the portfolio to the company and setting project priorities
based on the company’s needs and visions.
Value maximization focuses on creating the right mix of projects to maximize the
value of the portfolio at a given resource allocation. There is a focus on breaking
down the spending so that the higher-priority projects have the resources assigned
to them first. The breakdown of spending across projects is tied to the priorities of
the strategy. The portfolio focuses on its investments and tracks the performance. It
also oversees or provides governance over the decisions made. It focuses on control-
ling and containing costs and efficiently leveraging resources when possible. It also
looks to balance project and program efforts them from strategic to tactical.
Building strategy in a portfolio focuses on aligning investments with busi-
ness strategy. Here, a company might have strategic buckets and priorities with
those buckets. There are two basic methods of incorporating strategy into a port-
folio. There is the bottom-up method, which focuses on selection tools, and then
there is the top-down method, which categorizes items into strategic buckets. It
is essential to understand where your products and services are relative to the
market to be able to make decisions regarding your portfolio.
While the buckets may be similar for companies, the spending priorities will
be different among competitors and in different industries. The strategy must
be measured in terms of the company’s goal, which is articulated as part of your
strategy. Strategy and resource allocation must be intimately connected (like
putting your money where your mouth is)—your strategy becomes real when
you start spending money. If you don’t allocate resources to your strategy, is it
nothing but words on a paper.
You want to activate projects that are aligned with the business strategy and
that contribute to achieving the goals and objectives set out in the strategy
resource allocation across business areas, markets, and project and program
types to truly reflect the desired strategic direction of the business. The mission,
vision, and strategy of the business must be put into operation in terms of where
the business spends money and which development projects and programs it
undertakes. If the strategy is to grow, then the projects and programs the com-
pany selects will lead to growth rather than simply defending the status quo.
This can be done with top-down approach, where you have a vision, goals,
and strategies and then you develop a product roadmap and strategic buckets.
This approach starts with a business strategy and attempts to translate it into
the right set of projects and their timing.
 Global Portfolio Management Strategies 175

The bottom-up approach allows for proposals or ideas to bubble up from any-
where in the organization. These projects must be screened, and the good ones
allowed to rise to the surface and be funded.

Goal 2—portfolio value maximization. A number of methods can help maximize

the value of a portfolio. Basically, you should look at a project as an investment
decision. In this approach, you look at various financial models to help make the
decision: net present value (NPV), expected commercial value (ECV), payback
period, break-even analysis, return on investment, discounted cash flow (DCF),
and internal rate of return (IRR), as well as financial ratios such as productivity
index. However, financial tools have their weaknesses, mostly due to a lack of
reliable information to support the financial assumptions.
Other tools can be used to measure the benefits of a project or program, such
as checklists and scoring models. These tools rely primarily on subjective inputs.
You can also use maps, like bubble diagrams, which plot reward against the
probability of success. We have to understand that no single process gives the
“right answer.” Hybrid approaches permit a more tailored approach to portfolio
selection.
The goal is to allocate resources so as to maximize the value of the portfolio’s
return on investment. We will look at each of the following areas individually:
Q Net present value
Q Expected commercial value
Q Balance score card
Q Productivity index ratio
Q Scoring models

Net present value. Net present value (NPV) looks at the value of the investment.
It focuses on taking the present value of a time series of cash flows. The present
value is calculated by estimating the future payment (or series of future
payments or revenues from a project) and calculating the present worth of
those future payments using a discount to reflect the time. As the saying goes,
a dollar today is worth less than a dollar in the future, if that dollar is invested
at a given interest rate. I can invest that dollar I have now, and in 10 years it
might be worth two dollars. So a two-dollar revenue in 10 years is only worth
one dollar today. A two-dollar revenue in five years might only be worth 80 cents
today, depending on the interest rate. To correct for all the out-year revenues
of a project, they are all discounted to present value. This is a common method
for using the time value of money to appraise a long-term project. It looks
at shortfalls in cashflow in present terms. The project with the higher NPV
should be undertaken. However, other factors have to be reviewed before a final
decision should be made, including the risk projects and programs present. The
problem with NPV is that it relies only on financial analysis and the validity
of the data.
176 Chapter Three

If... It means... Then...

NPV > 0 The investment would The project may be accepted

add value to the firm
NPV < 0 The investment would The project may be rejected
subtract value from (There are some projects that are required to be
the firm preformed to maintain the operation that have little or
no financial value to the business)
NPV = 0 The investment would We should be indifferent in the decision whether to
neither gain nor lose accept or reject the project. This project adds no
value for the firm monetary value. The decision should be based on other
criteria, e.g., strategic positioning or other factors not
explicitly included in the calculation.

With every financial decision, there is an opportunity cost or an economic

opportunity loss. An opportunity cost is the value of a project that you omitted
from your portfolio of projects and programs. The opportunity cost analysis is an
important part of a company’s decision-making process. There is a choice being
made between desirable yet mutually exclusive results. Opportunity costs are
not limited to just financial, but also to any resources that would be assigned
to a project or program. Resources that can have an opportunity cost include
time, facility space, raw materials, and people.
NPV prioritization. Once you determine the NPV for all your projects, you need
to rank them from highest to lowest. You then drop any projects with negative
NPV. This creates a kind of project priority list. You allocate resources to projects
starting with the highest NPV. This continues until all the resources are exhausted.
There are concerns with using NPV; however, that should be understood. First, this
method assumes that financial projections are accurate. It doesn’t incorporate risk
or resource constraints. It also assumes all or nothing, whereas in some projects or
programs you can take an incremental approach. NPV is only one tool, and only
using a combination of tools do you yield true portfolio value maximization.
Though NPV has its shortfalls, it does have a number of attractive features.
For example, it gets the project team to focus on long-term project deliverables
and program results. It also looks at ROI and payback period, and can use those
as benchmarks to determine the success of the project or program if selected.
Balanced score card. A balanced score card approach determines if the portfolio
is aligned with the objectives of the company. The focus is on finances, operations,
marketing, and risk. The scorecard is a dashboard, or a comprehensive view
of the portfolio, and provides the portfolio team with insight on how they are
performing in each objective.
Expected commercial value (ECV). The expected commercial value method seeks
to maximize the commercial value of the portfolio, subject to certain budget
constraints, but also introduces the notion of risks and probabilities. You can
look at the ECV and determine if you want to continue with the project. Some
refer to the decision as the “go” or “kill” decision. At this point, a project can
continue on its path, be placed on hold, or be killed.
 Global Portfolio Management Strategies 177

There is a downside to this method. It is dependent on extensive financial and

quantitative data and does not consider whether the portfolio has the right bal-
ance between high- and low-risk projects, or across the right markets, technolo-
gies, or strategic buckets. Finally, it only considers a single financial criterion
for maximization.
ECV seeks to maximize the expected value or expected commercial worth of
the portfolio within budget constraints.
Attractive features:
Q Recognition that the go/kill decision process is an incremental one
Q All monetary amounts are discounted to today, which appropriately penalizes
projects that are years away from launch
Q Deals with the issue of constrained resources

Major weaknesses:
Q Dependent on extensive financial and other quantitative data
Q Ignores whether the portfolio has the right balance between high- and low-
risk projects, or across markets and technologies

Productivity index. The productivity index takes the limitations of NPV and
recognizes that resources are limited. There may be projects that have wonderful
NPV that you just can’t pass up. However, high NPV could also mean that
they consume a great number of resources, or even have needs beyond the
capabilities of your current resource model. The goal is to get the largest return
for the smallest investment. The productivity index is created by dividing NPV
by the resource amount and then re-ranking the projects you have.

Scoring model. The scoring model, sometimes called the weighted scoring
model of project selection, was discussed earlier in this chapter.

Goal 3—ways to achieve balance. Often, portfolios are weighed down with too
many small project tweaks, modifications, updates, and fixes to sustain the
growth of the company. A lack of vision when balancing a project portfolio is
a risk to the company. The need for diversity, however, is going to vary widely
from company to company. Balance the vision and needs of the company with
the availability of resources. Visual charts are the most popular way to display
balance in portfolios.

Risk-reward bubble diagrams. One type of visual chart is the risk-reward bubble
diagram. One axis measures the reward to the company; the other is a probability
of success. Too heavy an emphasis on financial analysis can do serious damage,
particularly in the early stages of a project. The size of each bubble shows the
annual resources spent on each project (dollars per year; it could also be people
or work-months allocated to the project). This can show risk versus reward,
with circles or bubbles representing individual projects or clusters of projects.
178 Chapter Three

High likelihood for success

Project 3.1

Pearls Bread and butter

Project 1.1
NPV NPV
>0 0>

Oysters White elephants

Low likelihood for success

Project 2.1

Size of the circle is Color of the circle

proportional to the represents risk level.
resources required to Black = low risk
complete the project Dark gray = moderate risk
Light gray = high risk
Figure 3-2 Bubble diagram.

Their size usually connotes some important third metric, such as resource
requirements. Figure 3-2 provides a sample diagram.
The four quadrants are:

1. Pearls (upper left). These are the potential star products, projects with a high
likelihood of success that are expected to yield very high rewards. Most firms
wish they had more of these.
2. Oysters. These are the longshot or highly speculative projects with high-
expected payoff, but with low likelihood of technical success. They are the
projects or programs where technical breakthroughs will pave the way for
solid payoffs.
3. Bread and butter. These are small, simple projects with a high likelihood of
success, but low reward. They include extensions, modifications, and updat-
ing projects. Most companies have too many of these.
4. White elephants. These are the low-success and low-reward projects. Every
business has a few white elephants, which are difficult-to-kill projects
or programs that began life as good prospects but over time became less
attractive.
 Global Portfolio Management Strategies 179

Further information can be added to the diagram to provide clarification on

the project status. The size of the circle can represent the amount of resources
needed to complete the project. The color of the circle can represent the risk
level of the project. The projects listed in Fig. 3-2 are from the chart shown in
Fig. 3-1 earlier in the chapter.
Other factors can be measured in these diagrams, such as technical feasibil-
ity or market segments. Pie charts can be used to show spending allocation
across project types or a breakdown of resources by product lines and markets.
Diagrams can be in the form of trees that break down different dimensions.
Successful portfolio management incorporates a well-defined and communicated
process, as well as tools that add structure and efficiency.
Portfolio management tools can add structure to the portfolio process by
encouraging the use of templates and methodologies and providing more effi-
cient tracking and analysis. Individual point solutions (e.g., time management,
resource management, skills inventory, etc.) do not provide insight into project
feasibility and can keep bad projects from being discontinued. There can be an
overload with too many maps, and they don’t all have all the answers. These
maps are designed to provide information and to help visualize balance. They
are not the sole means by which a decision should be made.
Portfolios incorporate both projects and programs to achieve strategic
objectives. Projects are tactical and provide deliverables to the organization.
Programs can be used to frame and align and candidate global projects that
have common goals.
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 Chapter

4
Global Program
Management Strategies

Introduction
Chapter 3 explored the portfolio management process and described how com-
panies generate, evaluate, choose, and fund programs and projects. We saw that
alignment with business strategy is an important part of that process in order
to assure that the programs generated and chosen help to achieve the business’s
strategies and plans. The portfolio process assures that the right programs and
projects are initiated.
In this chapter we will address how “going global” changes a business’s
program and project management strategies, using two case studies. We will
explore how different countries, ethnicities, cultures, values, and languages
can affect how program managers handle their projects, and how political and
regulatory differences can present real risks to global program managers.
Global program managers and their companies face striking changes in the
face of global economic growth and development, but the fundamentals of global
project management remain the same: align business and program strategies to
adapt to changing economic, social, and political factors, and tailor program and
service delivery to local conditions and local customers and values in targeted
markets. Furthermore, the design, planning, and management of a program
in tomorrow’s global economy must take into account the changes going on in
the financial and market worlds. Severe risks are associated with national
economies going through major contraction and restructuring, with govern-
ments intervening in business investment and finances. How does a program
manager approach this kind of global challenge, and how does classic program
and project management change as a result? What opportunities are opened up
in this kind of this new global dynamic?
In this shifting global milieu, programs that succeed will use one of the fol-
lowing strategies:

181
182 Chapter Four

Strategy 1. Design programs that can generate early impacts on generating

jobs and local development. In other words, how can your program help local econo-
mies to succeed—as a program benefit—and meet core program goals as well?
Strategy 2. Frame program benefit goals that align with political, economic,
and business growth realities—e.g., how can a program manager align program
goals with local objectives?
Strategy 3. Target programs and resources on technology goals that align with
applicable foreign government objectives and recovery programs—e.g. how can
local interests in technology development be integrated with program delivery?
Strategy 4. Target technologies that stimulate local development, manufac-
turing, and education goals—e.g. how can programs be designed to produce
short-term technology benefits that have social and economic benefits?
Strategy 5. Frame programs as recovery initiatives—e.g. align programs with
local attempts to recover from economic downturns.
Strategy 6. Stick to the knitting; deliver core products and services, develop
new products that enhance current successful products, and develop user train-
ing competencies.

Western Technologies: A Typical Global Corporation

and a Framework for Linking Program Management
to Business Strategy
Many companies now operate in a global context, simply because they can and
must do so to grow and prosper. As an example, a major global producer of man-
ufacturing and automated control systems, let’s call it Western Technologies,
Inc., might manage its presence in 150 or more countries. Western’s strategy is
to adapt its products and services to the standards and policies of each country.
Western tries to root itself in the key target localities so that its people become
part of the fabric of the local markets and can understand and interpret cus-
tomer needs. Western’s talent is distributed based on shared skill sets to serve
local needs and to adopt best practices. It stresses its contribution to reducing
costs, creating jobs, and serving local community and national goals. Western
shapes its programs to mobilize all of its resources in a given country or region;
in other words, Western thinks of its programs as vehicles for core business
delivery. Its program managers are its account executives.
In the portfolio process, Western linked its strategy objectives and programs
and projects as follows:

Strategy 1. Design programs that can generate early impacts on generating

jobs and local development.
Program 1. Market new manufacturing companies in developing countries with
new technologies that serve local needs; program goal is to successfully market
10 new production/manufacturing systems in Africa and Asia by 2012.
 Global Program Management Strategies 183

Q Project 1. Partner with Kenya manufacturing council to develop manufac-

turing demonstration project.
Q Project 2. Partner with four other African nations to develop a
demonstration.
Q Project 3. Develop sales video and supporting materials for marketing pro-
duction demonstrations.
Program 2. Encourage training of customers and development of local talent
and workforce proficiency in measuring and improving manufacturing and oper-
ational efficiency, creating the need for more jobs in manufacturing, consistent
with local political and economic realities.
Q Project 1. Develop training materials and video.
Q Project 2. Deliver training to developing-country clients.
Q Project 3. Install new production system in one African nation.
Q Project 4. Produce video showing successful installation of new production
system.
Strategy 1/Program Benefit. Successfully improve local economic conditions
in targeted countries and regions while marketing new technology for produc-
tion/manufacturing. Establish local competencies in manufacturing develop-
ment as program outcome.
Strategy 2. Frame program benefit goals that align with political, economic,
and business growth realities.
Program 1. Change Western’s culture and value system to encourage inno-
vation in production system applications in Africa.
Q Project 1. Survey the current culture for indicators of agency culture
and readiness for the program.
Q Project 2. Use survey results to develop an organizational development
package to equip Western to manage the new program.
Q Project 3. Design and deliver the new training project.
Program 2. Align Western’s programs with targeted regions and their local
economies.
Q Project 1. Investigate targeted regions and develop a national economic
profile.
Q Project 2. Develop a training project for Western employees.
Strategy 2/Program Benefit. Establish long-term partnerships with local
political jurisdictions through technology-transfer programs and ensure
long-term marketing opportunity in those regions.

Strategy 3. Target programs with economic and technology goals that align
with applicable foreign government objectives and recovery programs around
green technology.
184 Chapter Four

Program 1. Develop a series of new products and services in targeted areas for
green technology initiatives.
Q Project 1. Survey market for green technology in target area.
Q Project 2. Develop new products for marketing green technology.
Program 2. Develop a longer-term approach to focusing green techno-
logy on current buildings to house new manufacturing and automation
systems.
Q Project 1. Develop new strategy and product line for equipping current build-
ings with green technology in ventilation systems.
Q Project 2. Develop new competence level in Western for the maintenance of
green technology.
Strategy 3/Program Benefit. Develop green technology programs to pro-
duce immediate benefits while developing longer-term marketing opportuni-
ties for manufacturing clients.
Strategy 4. Target technologies that stimulate local development, manufac-
turing, and marketing competencies.
Program 1. Develop partnerships with local workforce training and
developmental nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in targeted regions
to provide green technology materials and instructors for new production
systems.
Q Project 1. Develop a joint training project with Kenya NGOs.
Q Project 2. Deliver training to all Kenya NGOs by 2012.
Program 2. Design and frame new product concepts to monitor and link
to local company information networks.
Q Project 1. Develop new production assembly line methodology for auto-
mobile manufacturing using green technologies.
Q Project 2. Implement new assembly line methodology in five new plants
by 2013.
Strategy 4/Program Benefit. Build local and regional production/
manufacturing capacity in foreign nations while developing a market for
new products and services.
Strategy 5. Frame programs as recovery initiatives.
Program 1. Develop technology improvements in association with local
NGOs and political jurisdictions to generate jobs and economic recovery,
as well as local self-sufficiency.
Q Project 1. Identify the root causes of economic downturn in local
target regions and how manufacturing capacity can address those
causes.
Q Project 2. Develop a technology-transfer project that specifically
addresses local workforce and unemployment conditions.
 Global Program Management Strategies 185

Program 2. Design new product development projects that meet technol-

ogy needs in local jurisdictions and align with local political goals.
Q Project 1. Develop a new product development project focused on green
technology production systems.
Q Project 2. Implement a new product development project locally.
Strategy 5/Program Benefit. Align with local political goals and develop
partnerships with government entities and leading corporations in order
to establish the basis for long-term marketing.
Strategy 6. Develop strategic business process enhancement projects around
current product lines to reduce costs of development and marketing.
Program 1. Develop a core competency in strategic manufacturing program
management as a business process and have program managers adapt this
competency to local conditions.
Q Project 1. Develop a business process training program for Western’s global
program managers.
Q Project 2. Implement a training program and certify managers to run global
programs.
Program 2. Partner with other companies and consortiums of companies in
related fields doing business globally, e.g., manufacturing start-ups, infor-
mation technology, automated production, Six Sigma implementation, and
benchmark industry leaders in manufacturing management to benefit local
target regions.
Q Project 1. Capture Western’s core competencies in a business process train-
ing manual.
Q Project 2. Transform the manual into an online and virtual training and
development program for local entrepreneurs in targeted countries.
Strategy 6/Program Benefit. Help local companies and governments in
targeted regions develop alignment between public goals and private enter-
prise development in manufacturing, further green goals and objectives, and
set up the market for long-term sales.

How does Western manage this process?

Western’s programs are integrated with its core products and services and focused
on broad program benefits, e.g., programs are initiatives to focus and tailor
current products and projects to local market conditions and are tailored to local
needs. A Western program is characterized by the alignment of its competencies and
offerings to foreign conditions, needs, and opportunities, defined by Western-
trained professionals who live and work in those countries. Western is keenly
aware of cultural and social differences and how they play into successful global
program management.
186 Chapter Four

Cultural integration. Alignment with local cultures is important for Western. Using
recent research on cultural differences between China and western countries as
a framework, Western trains its global managers to align programs with local
values. Here is an example. It is well known that Chinese enterprises work within
a set of values based on teamwork, and project and program management are
quite different from in the West. Here is a matrix of these differences from a
research study reported in the Project Management Journal, September 2007, by
university professors Xiaojin Wang and Lanfeng Liu, entitled “Cultural Barriers to
the Use of Western Project Management in Chinese Enterprises: Some Empirical
Evidence from Yunnan Province” (p. 64):

Western PM Values and Beliefs Chinese PM Values and Beliefs

Integration management Doctrine of the mean (find common ground)

Encouraging disagreements to be surfaced Requiring people to be less confrontational
and less direct
Requiring people to be direct and open Using compromising and smoothing
strategies
Regarding confrontation strategy as the best Strong avoidance of uncertainty
way of solving conflicts
Horizontal management Strong hierarchy
Small power distance Large power distance
Cross-functional communication and Superior-subordinate vertical work
cooperation relationships
Influencing and coordinating abilities is Line authority and control important
important
Team considerations Family consciousness
Short-term orientation of relationships Long-term orientation of relationships
Work contributions oriented to evaluation Guanxi (personal relationships) evaluation of
of people people
Project team of high diversity Family members are homogeneous
Everyone plays important roles Only elite play important roles
Task orientation Boss orientation
Completing the task Making the boss happy
Viewing people based on their work Viewing people based on their hierarchical
performance position

Western encourages its local account and product managers, as well as service
consultants and sales personnel, to understand these kinds of cultural differ-
ences in every country in which they operate and to adapt program initiatives,
teamwork, and marketing to local values. Western encourages its people to get
to the work and task issues quickly and to focus local clients on technical solu-
tions rather than on developing long-standing teams and partnerships where
such teamwork may be inconsistent with prevailing Chinese standards.

Western’s approach to program management

Western’s global programs are managed using what we would call a loose-
tight strategy—it’s loose in that it allows maximum discretion in local
 Global Program Management Strategies 187

decisions to allow its program managers on site to make decisions in the con-
text of local conditions—e.g., “if in Rome, do what the Romans do”—but is
tight on company values and strategic objectives for continuous improvement,
profitability, simplifying processes, and product and service quality. Its work
in product development is keyed to broad political, social, and economic trends;
thus, its focus on supporting energy efficiency and keying on local, current
system-specific improvements in light of the global downturn in new building
construction. Western’s approach illustrates the importance of a strong, cen-
trally driven product and service mix, combined with a distributed management
system that reflects local conditions and dynamics, and tailors its products to
site-specific needs.

Simplifying program delivery. Western works to simplify program delivery in

countries where the process can become overwhelmed with issues and data.
The aim is to simplify and focus all of Western’s products and services, and
to encourage collaboration across company functions and product lines. Its
program portfolio is integrated and its program documents and schedules
are transparent, laid out as a baseline on a network for its management and
customers to see. Local sourcing and manufacturing is a key to integrating the
company into the fabric of the target market. Western emphasizes that it is
one global company, and simplifies its support functions—HR, marketing and
sales, and financing—to strengthen its supply chain, with stronger emphasis
on building longer-term supplier linkages and supporting program and account
managers.
Western designs and implements its programs through its strategic planning
function and through direct reports and line functions. Programs are not run
by separate, offline project teams; everyone is in the program. In other words,
program management is integrated into the fabric of the company’s day-to-day
operations in a given country. In effect, Western exemplifies the concept that
program management has become a core line activity in global operations rather
than simply an R&D or narrow operational function.

Supplying OEMs. Western has targeted original equipment manufacturers

(OEMs) with its programs, providing supplier services that are:
Q Coordinated across multiple business units, regardless of language and cul-
tural issues, e.g., Western has its global act together through integrated
program teams
Q Collaborative in arranging global sales agreements involving several coun-
tries
Q Oriented to establishing long-term partnerships in global purchasing, logis-
tics, and processes
Q Offering a single interface to coordinate account activities worldwide
188 Chapter Four

Q Customized to local needs

Q Informed on how to design a manufacturing system that is in compliance
with international and local standards
Q Planned so that program risks are identified early and addressed in planning
and implementation
Q Focused on training clients and customers in negotiation skills and other
team-based competencies such as performance monitoring

The Eastern Case: Another Global Project Company

Eastern is a manufacturer of aluminum worldwide. This case covers Eastern’s
approach to developing programs that meet both its own goals and broader
program goals addressing global issues. In sum, here is how Eastern handled
each one of them.

1. Design programs that can generate early impacts on generating jobs.

Q All of its contingencies involving IT systems were sought out locally in
target countries so that local companies could compete for the business.
Q Eastern localized its program teams to be closer to target markets for alu-
minum, thus generating a need for supporting businesses, e.g., facilities,
communication, and logistics.
2. Frame program benefit goals that align with economic and business
growth.
Q Eastern developed partnerships with several companies worldwide that
shared Eastern’s interest in bringing the price of aluminum back up to
market levels, thus creating a consortium to spur more profitability in all
aluminum-producing companies worldwide.
Q Eastern promoted its new production system initiatives worldwide as
global recovering programs that aligned with several western countries’
goals of reducing energy consumption and encouraging increases in gross
national product.
3. Target programs on economic and technology goals that align with applicable
foreign government objectives and recovery programs.
Q Eastern aligned its robotic production team with several foreign govern-
ments interested in developing their local R&D capacity, thus helping to
stimulate local innovation and business development.
Q Eastern aligned its raw material development programs to benefit coun-
tries that had both raw material reserves and national interest in using
raw materials to improve energy efficiency and create new jobs around
energy independence.
 Global Program Management Strategies 189

4. Target technologies that stimulate local development, manufacturing, and

marketing competencies.
Q Eastern worked with selected national governments to set up marketing
teams with local industries to allow an interchange of marketing strategies
and information systems with locals.
Q Eastern worked with local safety experts and academic institutions in
target countries to develop joint projects to improve aluminum manufac-
turing safety and efficiency.
5. Frame programs as recovery initiatives.
Q Eastern actually defined its power-saving program as a global recovery
initiative that would benefit several national economies.
Q Eastern worked with several international union organizations to educate
and inform leadership in ways to improve worker efficiency and productiv-
ity while upgrading old aluminum production facilities.
6. Stick to the knitting
Q Eastern stuck to its core competency, the manufacturing of aluminum, but
focused on new products to align with new global dynamics.
Q Eastern worked on continuous improvement in its major risk area, e.g.,
cost of power.

As a project manager, you have the added responsibility to work within the
parameters of the program. It is a good practice to work closely with the pro-
gram manager. In a global environment, you may be located in a different coun-
try, speak another language as your first language, and have different customs
and beliefs than the program manager; however, it is important to essentially
eliminate the “space” between the two of you. The elimination of space can also
be thought of as managing up. You may never be able to physically remove the
distance, or even the time barriers, that keep you from the program manager;
however, you can lower these hurdles by being flexible, taking the time to fully
understand what is required by you for the program, and communicating in a
timely manner with the program manager.

Background
Programs are complex, relatively long-term, and focused on broad outcomes when
compared to projects, which tend to focus on a single product and/or output. It
follows that programs that involve many projects and support activities are orga-
nizational; they tend to be embedded into the organization, and many become
program units in themselves. Programs evolve out of business strategies.
This chapter uses the case approach to address how a real company, termed
the Eastern Company for purposes of protecting its propriety, handles program
development in its business planning and operations processes. Eastern is a
190 Chapter Four

global manufacturer and distributor of aluminum products. Global program

management at Eastern involves a staged process of moving from broad stra-
tegic planning, to program and project development, to evaluations and assess-
ment, to change and agility. The reason Eastern is a good case is that while it is
both a production and marketing company, it is also a global company subject
to all the risks and opportunities faced in today’s world.
The Eastern company faces major competition and challenges from a tight-
ening global aluminum market and from foreign manufacturers, who regularly
“dump” aluminum into western markets at very low prices. Thus, there is a
continuous risk in the business from forces beyond the company’s control. To
address the risks inherent in its future, Eastern prepared a risk-based strategic
plan and program.
Eastern manufactures aluminum products from raw materials acquired
worldwide, which makes it a truly global company. Its products are produced
and distributed in several countries, subject to many different forces and condi-
tions, and it has presence all over the world.

Risk-based strategy and program development

Eastern completed a strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT)
analysis and identified eight risks and eight strategic goals, as well as program
areas to address them.
Risk 1. Required electric power will not be available at an affordable price.
Since Eastern’s manufacturing plants use large amounts of electricity to con-
vert raw materials into aluminum products, the availability of cheap electric
power is essential to its success.
Strategy 1. Secure economically priced power to reduce the risk of power
shortage.
Program 1A. Develop alternative, plant-specific electric power generation.
Program 1B. Develop a global database and reporting system for electricity
pricing information.
Program 1C. Design a new aluminum production system with minimal elec-
tric demand.
Risk 2. Cost increase in aluminum manufacturing will increase faster than
margin. Raw material costs are rising globally at a faster rate than revenues,
thus cutting into margins for the company worldwide.
Strategy 2. Secure other resources at reasonable costs to offset the risk of cost
escalation.
Program 2A. Develop a global supply chain program to reduce resource
costs.
Program 2B. Design a global database and reporting system on resource
availability and costs.
 Global Program Management Strategies 191

Risk 3. Customers will not be satisfied with Eastern’s products.

Strategy 3. Cultivate customer awareness and promote customer satisfaction
to avoid customer satisfaction risk.
Program 3A. Develop worldwide market research program aimed at OEM
customers.
Program 3B. Develop new product development scheme driven by global
market research.
Risk 4. Eastern’s working environment will prove to be unsafe, and the
company will experience substantial loss of workforce and financing as a
result.
Strategy 4. Create a safe working environment to control the risk of worker
injury and associated costs.
Program 4A. Develop a safety training and research program for
employees.
Risk 5. The Eastern workforce will not grow with the technology available for
continuous improvement.
Strategy 5. Build a responsible and knowledgeable workforce to avoid the risk
of workforce instability.
Program 5A. Develop a comprehensive training and development pro-
gram and continually improve it using blended learning tools, e.g., onsite
and online.
Program 5B. Develop an employee recognition program based on
performance.
Risk 6. Eastern will not act to improve manufacturing technology in time to
keep ahead of competitors.
Strategy 6. Improve technology and plant equipment to produce products more
efficiently to control productivity risk.
Program 6A. Develop comprehensive robotic production concept.
Program 6B. Develop new plant performance information system.
Risk 7. Pollution from Eastern facilities will lead to noncompliance with gov-
ernment environmental requirements.
Strategy 7. Improve Eastern’s impact on the environment to avoid the cost
of pollution and noncompliance.
Program 7A. Identify gaps between requirements to meet environmen-
tal controls and actual performance by plant worldwide.
Risk 8. Increasing waste in the manufacturing process and workforce will lead
to uncontrolled costs.
Strategy 8. Reduce waste and non-value-added costs to control the risk of
wasted effort.
192 Chapter Four

Program 8A. Implement a Six Sigma program in each plant worldwide.

Program 8B. Conduct a global benchmarking study to identify best
practices.
Eastern recognized the need to take direct action to sustain its ability to suc-
cessfully compete on a continual basis in the global aluminum marketplace.
The assumption was that despite that fact that Eastern employees, in general,
were dedicated to providing the highest-quality products and services to the cus-
tomer at a competitive price, and to providing a positive return for the owners’
investment, they were heavily unionized. The company was committed to the
principle that “we will not be able to step up to those challenges unless our
employees—and the union—can see where we are going and why, and have the
opportunity to ‘buy in.’” It is through this strategic plan and its communication
that management saw that they could accomplish alignment and reduction of
their considerable risk exposure.
The strategic plan was being communicated continuously throughout the
plant through special meetings and focus groups to ensure that all employees
understood it and could relate it to their work. Employees were encouraged to
document actions they or their teams were taking to accomplish or support par-
ticular initiatives. This process would continue as the plan was updated annu-
ally; and policies, procedures, and the organizational structure were realigned
to accomplish the plan. This strategic plan was developed by the directors of
Eastern, with support from area managers.

Commitment and partnership. Eastern management and United Steelworkers

of America stated directly that they were committed to this mission for the
organization. It was clearly recognized that by working together to accomplish
this mission, the interests of all participants would be served. All management
and employees were to benefit from long-term job security, job enrichment,
and the monetary rewards that result from a successful business that is able
to manage its risks. Eastern’s stakeholders and owners would benefit from the
product recognition and profitability gained by producing superior goods and
services. Eastern’s customers would benefit from the high quality and service
levels delivered to them. Finally, the community would enjoy a stable revenue
base from the success of Eastern and from the skills and services individual
employees offered.

Stakeholder relations. The company stated that Eastern’s stakeholders

were people, organizations, or groups of people who have a vested interest
in the success of the company. The major stakeholders were identified as
follows:
Q Employees, who seek continued employment and income, quality of work life,
and opportunities to learn and develop (their perceived risk was related to
job security and lack of growth and development) and marketability
 Global Program Management Strategies 193

Q Customers, who seek quality products at low cost and reliable delivery. Their
perceived risk was related to product price, quality, and timing, but mostly
price. Cost was a major issue as competitors dumped quality aluminum at
lower prices.
Q Owners, who seek return on investment and continued viability. Their risk
was grounded in stock value.
Q Regulators, who seek compliance with laws and regulations. Their risk was in
noncompliance with regulations and the cost of enforcement and litigation.
Q The community, who seeks contributions through taxes and services, with
minimal environmental impact. Their risk exposure was in losing the indus-
try tax base but having to pay pollution and environmental control costs.
Q Suppliers, who seek to meet Eastern’s requirements and continue business
with the company. Their perceived risk lies in their inability to meet Eastern’s
contract requirements and having to share more of the risk in contracted
work than they can handle.

To illustrate the documentation of a risk-based strategy, the following docu-

ment contains an executive summary, situation analysis, and a detailed descrip-
tion of eight key strategies. The situation analysis provides a framework for the
strategies, including mission and goals, management direction, SWOT analysis,
and linkage to the parent company strategic plan. The eight strategies are sup-
ported by specific initiatives and a system to measure their achievement.
This strategic plan for Eastern Aluminum Company covered a five-year
period, from 1996 to 2000, and will help guide the company and its employees
into the twenty-first century. As the general long-term pathway to growth and
profitability, the plan presents the company’s approach to achieving Eastern’s
central strategic goal: to compete successfully on a continuing basis in the world
aluminum marketplace. The plan served a wide variety of purposes, including
support for ownership decisions; support for budgeting and resource allocation;
guidance for management and employee planning, training, and education;
and support for long-term capital investment planning. A major element of the
strategic planning process that produced this document is the communication
of the plan and its underlying vision, assumptions, and values to employees.

Eight strategies and key measurements

Within the overall framework of the basic strategic goal to compete successfully
in the world aluminum marketplace, and consistent with the parent company’s
strategic objectives, eight key strategies were at the heart of this strategic
plan:

1. Secure economically priced power. Eastern would find ways to lower its power
costs through a variety of strategies, including building stronger partner-
ships with power companies and state and local governments, and through
exploration of independent options for generating less expensive power.
194 Chapter Four

2. Secure other resources at reasonable costs. As the cost of materials rises,

Eastern planned to find low-cost sources for raw materials, as well as explore
approaches for using lower-graded materials. Eastern would take the initia-
tive to ensure effective partnerships are built with quality suppliers.
3. Cultivate customer awareness and promote customer satisfaction. Eastern would
work to educate employees about customers and their requirements and to pro-
mote closer ties with customers. Greater appreciation of customers would give
employees more incentive for addressing future customer requirements and con-
necting their daily work more clearly with the “value chain” to the customer.
4. Create a safe working environment. Eastern was working to improve its
safety record through enforcement of safety and health rules and regula-
tions. Employees would be better educated and trained to understand the
safety implications of their work. Safety compliance would be considered a
major performance standard for all employees.
5. Build a responsible and knowledgeable workforce. Facing a major workforce
turnover in the next five years, Eastern placed special emphasis on strategies
to build a more responsible and skilled workforce, to improve the partnership
with the United Steel Workers, to improve performance and productivity, to
lower labor costs, and to find better ways to work together through team-
work. They recognized that if this strategy—grounded in the commitment
to building a team-based organization—is not accomplished, Eastern could
not thrive and grow, even if the other strategies were accomplished.
6. Improve technology and plant equipment to produce products more efficiently.
Eastern prides itself on its leadership in technology and technical innovation,
and plans to continue this industry leadership. The company was managing
several capital improvement projects to make major breakthroughs in pro-
ductivity and quality. Eastern felt it was demonstrating to its customers and
its employees through these improvements that major investments are being
made in the plant to meet the challenges of the future global marketplace.
7. Improve Eastern’s impact on the environment. Through strict compliance with
federal, state, and local environmental standards, Eastern would continue to
respond to and anticipate environmental impacts and address them. Special
emphasis was being made to meet new clean-air requirements.
8. Reduce waste and non-value-added costs. Eastern continued to pursue quality
and process improvement initiatives to eliminate unnecessary costs due to acci-
dents, rework and scrap, outdated positions and job requirements, and equip-
ment damage. Employees would continue to be trained and educated in process
improvement and reengineering to streamline the way work is accomplished.

Overview
Eastern had already been turned around from a high-cost swing plant, with a con-
frontational labor atmosphere, to a much more competitive operation, practicing
 Global Program Management Strategies 195

effective and efficient management and supervision, worker empowerment,

and self-directed team concepts. However, there was a new urgency to ensure that
all employees understood that the plant would grow only “by permission” from
future customers, and only if it continuously improved its productivity, quality,
and internal cohesion and teamwork across departments. The following sections
discuss how Eastern was positioned to compete in the future.

Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats

The following discussion covers Eastern’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,
and threats.

Strengths. Eastern had made a concentrated effort to retain its competitive

position in the marketplace through technology. Its major strength is its ability
to produce quality products continuously, focus on technology and capital
improvement, and keep wages and salaries relatively high for its employees
while controlling costs. Capital improvements and improved management and
team practices have made it possible to achieve record premium production in
the recent past. Eastern continued to demonstrate its leadership in technological
improvements and plant capital investment.
Eastern had experienced the longest run at full capacity in its history, remain-
ing one of the few North American smelters not curtailed due to the recent
metal surplus caused by the flow of aluminum into the world market from the
Commonwealth of Independent States. Eastern continued to show resilience
and responsiveness in the face of changing market conditions.
Eastern was working hard to empower its workforce and improve their knowl-
edge, skills, and responsiveness. They sought to align their incentive and reward
programs, partnership practices with hourly employees, performance appraisal
systems, and quality and process improvement initiatives with key long-term
strategies. Eastern faced the future turnover of the workforce with a strong
commitment to use the opportunities that changes bring to build a leaner, more
integrated, and more productive plant team.
At the heart of its strength was Eastern’s traditional core competency to
choose, operate, and improve process technology effectively; to produce a variety
of difficult-to-produce premium products; and to understand and meet customer
needs. Whatever initiatives Eastern undertook, it knew it had to continuously
improve these drivers of success.

Weaknesses. Eastern’s products (primary, slab, billet, tee, and foundry pig) were
priced by the worldwide commodities market. The high quality and excellent
service of these products would ensure a positive customer relationship, but
Eastern could not control the selling price of the finished product.
Eastern knew that it was a high-cost plant compared to other producers,
primarily because of the age of the facility and technology, and because of
high wages, salaries, and fringe benefit levels. Because Eastern had little
or no control over the market price, the cost of producing aluminum became
196 Chapter Four

a key determining factor in remaining globally competitive. In fact, 75 per-

cent of all aluminum in the world was being produced at a cost lower than
Eastern.
Eastern faced major challenges in turning over its workforce and creating
a more energetic and knowledgeable workforce team; past practices had not
always inspired employees to align themselves with the plant’s best interests
and commit themselves to continuous improvement through teams.
Eastern needed to improve its ability to learn and document its successes—in
short, to become a “learning” organization. Past practices had not always taken
advantage of what the organization has already learned through the years.

Opportunities. Demand for aluminum was continuing to rise; supplies of

aluminum had increased each year, with primary aluminum products now sold
on a worldwide basis.
Eastern had the opportunity to position itself at the midpoint on the world
cost scale, the point at which 50 percent of world production costs would be
higher than Eastern’s. In achieving this position, Eastern could take advantage
of its high-quality products and services and its improving productivity.
A reduction of 4 cents per pound by 1999 would have placed Eastern in that
competitive position, keeping in mind that other aluminum plants are also
attempting to reduce their costs.
Eastern’s major opportunity was to improve its process efficiency and produc-
tivity through a combination of technology and capital improvement, building
a more efficient workforce, and reducing labor costs. The 4 cent/pound cost
reduction could be achieved by:

1. Conversion of potlines (production lines) to a new “point feed” technology,

already underway
2. Reduction of man-hours per ton by 15 percent from 1996 to 2000
3. Reduction of non-value-added costs wherever possible through process
improvements, total quality management, ISO 9000 certification, and other
quality initiatives

Eastern has a major opportunity to improve its human resource practices and
programs as the plant transitions its workforce in the coming five years, both
through better training and development of supervisory and hourly employees,
and through better, more effective, assessment and hiring practices.

Threats and risks. If Eastern did not continually reduce costs, their position
would worsen because:

1. New plants with lower costs would open

2. Existing competitive plants would reduce cost and improve their cost position
3. Other plants with higher costs would close, worsening Eastern’s position
 Global Program Management Strategies 197

The most critical of these risks was the possibility that power costs would
continue to rise beyond Eastern’s capacity to absorb them. This scenario repre-
sented the most significant threat to Eastern’s continued growth and had to be
avoided. In addition to power costs, the long-term cost of coal could be another
important threat to Eastern’s growth, as well as unanticipated environmental
regulations, particularly from the federal Clean Air Act.
In addition, although Eastern had made major progress in building a more team-
based culture, the process could not be slowed by resistance to change and failure to
be clear about new roles and functions. Therefore, one source of threat and risk was
clearly from within: the threat of slow deterioration of the momentum of teamwork
and process improvement already underway. Such a step backwards could always
happen as a result of neglect and a lack of trust and respect in the organization.

Eastern’s strategic plan

Eastern’s strategic plan was an integrated set of strategies, initiatives, and
measures supporting an overall goal of competitiveness. Figure 4-1 presents a
graphic depiction of the company’s eight key strategies. Each strategy was seen
as serving the central goal of world competitiveness, but each strategy was also
inextricably tied to the others, indicating a strong interdependency of all plan
elements. If any one strategy and risk reduction plan was not accomplished,
overall achievement of the goal suffers.
The plan describes plant strategies, initiatives, and measures of success. Initiatives
are programs and projects now underway or planned to help accomplish a particular
strategy. Measures are indicators of progress, and will be used to monitor achieve-
ment of the eight key strategies.

Strategy 1
Strategy 8 Strategy 2
Secure economically
Reduce waste and priced power
Secure other resources
non-value-added at reasonable costs
costs

Strategy 7 Strategy 3
Global Cultivate customer
Improve Eastern’s impact competitiveness awareness and promote
on the environment
customer satisfaction

Strategy 6 Strategy 4
Improve technology and Strategy 5 Create a safe working
plant equipment to produce
environment
products more efficiently Build a responsible and
knowledgeable workforce

Figure 4-1 Eight key strategies.

198 Chapter Four

Underlying elements of the risk-based strategic plan

Five major elements formed the basis for this risk-based strategic plan: mission,
commitment and partnership, driving forces, core competencies, and stake-
holder relations. They are discussed in the following sections.

Mission. Eastern’s mission was to be the most cost-effective producer of the

highest-quality primary aluminum products, shipped on time to its customers,
with optimum utilization of resources. They placed special emphasis on
employees and their role in defining the company’s mission, and on good
community relations. Eastern recognized that accomplishing their mission
involved a never-ending journey of continuous improvement.

Commitment and partnership. Eastern management and United Steelworkers

of America indicated that they were committed to this mission for the
organization. It was clearly recognized that by working together to
accomplish this mission, the interests of all participants were best served.
All management and employees would benefit from long-term job security,
job enrichment, and the monetary rewards that resulted from a successful
business. Eastern’s stakeholders and owners would benefit from the product
recognition and profitability gained by producing superior goods and services.
Eastern’s customers would benefit from the high quality and service levels
delivered to them. Finally, the community would enjoy a stable revenue
base from the success of Eastern and from the skills and services individual
employees can offer.

Driving force: production capability. An underlying element in this strategic

plan was the single most important driver of company’s success: its capability
to convert resources effectively into products through highly organized and
managed production processes. Their value added for the future will continue
to be their capacity to produce products continuously.

Core competencies and risk contingencies. Three core competencies separated

Eastern from its competitors:

1. Its capacity to effectively choose, operate, and improve process technology:

The company’s ability to keep up with changes in technology was rooted in its
ability to anticipate technology risk stemming from out-of-date technology.
2. Its capacity to produce a variety of difficult premium products: Eastern’s
ability to change its production systems quickly was rooted in its ability to
anticipate the risks of change in product requirements and plan for them.
3. Its capacity to understand and service customer needs: The company’s capacity
to understand its customers and especially to anticipate and manage customer
services helps reduce the risk of failed customer service expectations.

Eastern would strive to maintain and build on these core competencies.

 Global Program Management Strategies 199

Measures of effectiveness
Eastern identified eight key strategies to carry out its central strategic goal
of global competitiveness. Each strategy was carried out through several ini-
tiatives and was monitored by the measures shown. They are presented and
discussed in the following sections.

Strategy 1. Secure economically priced power.

The cost of power was a major factor in Eastern’s strategic plan. In its part-
nership with the community, power companies, and state and local government,
Eastern would develop support for its efforts to continue to compete in the world
aluminum marketplace. Eastern planned to negotiate lower power costs and to
explore independent options for generating less expensive power.

Initiatives Measures Risks

Address power pricing Reduced power costs by That relationships with stake-
issues by: 2-4 mills per kilowatt hour holder agencies would deteriorate
Maintaining relationships (approximately $6-12 million/ That power wheeling sources
with The public service year) (independent sources of power
commission, people’s Favorable public response and created by deregulation) would
council, local and state concern for Eastern’s power- not provide lower prices
government pricing issues That self generation of power
Investigate power would fail either from technology
wheeling sources and problems or cost
benefits That the community would not
Develop alternative support Eastern
power sources, That power modulation—the
including self- practice of energy providers to
generation reduce power—could not be
Increase community anticipated
support for reducing
Eastern’s power costs
Eliminate power
modulation

Power costs became the key factor in maintaining competitiveness because of

impending major increases in costs from new sources. Eastern management was
working closely with utilities, government officials, the community, and other
power sources to ensure that it could achieve independence in power genera-
tion should that be necessary. Power wheeling sources and benefits were being
pursued, as well as self-generation options.
While this issue is beyond the scope of any one employee, special attention
was being given to communicating the power cost issue to all employees so that
they could understand the urgency of the situation and help Eastern achieve
power independence.
200 Chapter Four

Strategy 2. Secure other resources at reasonable costs.

The cost of materials continued to rise, and had the potential to erase savings
created by increased productivity and reduced power costs. Eastern planned
to find low-cost sources for raw materials, as well as explore approaches for
using lower-graded materials. The company would continue to manage human
resource costs through employee attrition and retirement.

Initiatives Measures Risks

Obtain raw materials, Maintain or decrease That raw materials would not be
such as petroleum coke, current raw material costs available on a just-in-time basis
pitches, alumina, and
hardeners
Secure high-quality
supplies from the most
economical sources
Manage human Reduce man-hours per ton That human resource costs would
resource (labor) costs by 15% by the year 2000 inflate and attrition goals would not
through attrition and Contribute to overall be achieved
retirement efficiency and productivity
Explore innovative Maintain or decrease That lower-graded materials would
approaches to using current raw material costs not be acquired
lower-graded
materials, such as
calciner fines and
lower grades of
petroleum coke

Key raw materials (alumina, aluminum fluoride, petroleum coke, and liquid
pitch) were purchased for all parent company smelters by the same parent
office. These costs were rising to a point such that Eastern’s overall cost effec-
tiveness was threatened.
This issue challenged the company’s capacity to find and use lower-graded
materials, such as calciner fines and lower grades of petroleum coke. Eastern
would continue to acquire both raw materials and supplies from the most efficient
sources, while assuring quality. This involved forming partnerships with suppliers
to limit the number of such sources, which would accomplish two objectives:
holding down costs and minimizing purchasing and warehousing requirements.
As a major cost element, labor costs had to be controlled while productivity
was enhanced through capital improvements and better management, team,
and individual performance. Reduction of man-hours per ton by 15 percent by
the year 2000 was a major measure of success in reducing risk exposure.

Strategy 3. Cultivate customer awareness and promote customer satisfaction.

Eastern continued to provide consistent and high-quality products and services
to end users and customers. The company would work to ensure that all employ-
ees were aware of customers and their needs. Emphasis on the customer would
encourage the development of new products and services, and help Eastern
 Global Program Management Strategies 201

establish a larger market niche. Eastern would look to external stakeholders to

verify gains made in customer awareness and customer satisfaction.

Initiatives Measures Risks

Enhance employee Third-party assessment of That employees were not
awareness about employees’ customer awareness able to connect their success
customer and final Recognition through accreditation with company success in
product satisfaction and quality audits (American end product quality
Association for Laboratory
Accreditation, etc.)

Selectively diversify Capacity to change products That its product mix could
products and services to Number of customer assists not be diversified
support market expansion through the Metal Quality Group

Support parent company Alumax Inventory Management That the parent company
strategy market services System (AIMS) data strategy was not consistent
to make customers aware Customer team visit comments with Eastern’s strategic
of Eastern’s capabilities Customer satisfaction data plan and core competence

Focus on individual International Standards That Eastern’s process

customer demands Organization (ISO) 9000 improvement efforts were
in metallurgy, registration not successful because
product chemistry, ISO (International Standards of personnel and union
packaging, and delivery Organization) accreditation disincentives
requirements through Monitor customer claims and
process improvement contacts about technology
services and products
Develop a long-term
Review customer satisfaction
cast house plan and
survey results
monitoring systems
Improved product turnaround
indicators

Set up cross-functional Internal customer satisfaction That cross-functional teams

teams to increase surveys would not work because of
awareness of internal Extent to which internal customer internal conflicts and role
customers requirements are met definitions

Eastern had to establish a market niche in high-quality premium products

to remain a viable company and to successfully compete. To meet this demand,
Eastern had to work closely with its ownership to identify future customer needs.
Eastern would continue to work with parent company marketing teams in the
areas of initial order processing, customer team visits, and customer surveys.
Eastern would also make it easier for customers to deal with the plant. Increased
use of bar code systems and electronic data interchange was planned, establishing
a “seamless” electronic relationship with prospective customers. More attention
would be paid to promoting laboratory and metallography capabilities.
The continuing move to quality worldwide was having its impact on the company.
More customer inquiries, e.g., from the automotive industry, were expected regard-
ing quality standards. This development prompted efforts to maintain registration
and refine documentation to both ISO 9000 and American Association of Laboratory
202 Chapter Four

Accreditation, and for attaining QS 9000 and 14000 certification as well. Increased
cycle time was becoming a major customer expectation, generating internal plans
to develop systems to measure order entry, production scheduling, and shipping
performance.
Finally, because many employees did not have a direct relationship with cus-
tomers and customer needs, the company was undertaking a program to enhance
employee appreciation of customer needs. This program included use of a third-
party organization to monitor employees’ understanding of these issues.
Strategy 4. Create a safe working environment.
Eastern had significantly reduced accidents in recent years, and needed the sup-
port of employees and management to continue these safety efforts. In addition to
developing and implementing state-of-the-art safety procedures and guidelines, the
company needed to enforce safety and health rules and regulations consistently.

Initiatives Measures Risks

Eliminate safety and health Decrease accident incident rate That safety initiatives
hazards by: Stay within accident and would not be accepted
Upgrading engineering safety scorecard budget and implemented by
standards, safety features, Improve safety severity ratio employees and managers
and ergonomics consistently index That safety guidelines and
Promoting employee awareness Rate of completion of items regulations would shift
Updating joint safety and on safety list and audits substantially
health committee guidelines Improvements in efficiency
Enforcing rules and and job performance
regulations Improved plant safety
Increasing team and performance record
employee accountability for Increased safety gainsharing
safety and health payout

Eastern recognized its responsibility and accountability for the safety and health
of each employee and for the preservation of property and equipment. The company
would continue to incorporate safeguards and procedures into the design and opera-
tion of all facilities, which would minimize risks of personal injury and loss of prop-
erty and equipment. Management was responsible and accountable for the safety
and safe work conduct of all employees. Employees were equally responsible and
accountable for safe practices, as well as for assisting in the ongoing safety program
by reporting unsafe practices, procedures, or conditions when they were observed.
As indicated in the initiatives under this strategy, Eastern was giving special prior-
ity to upgrading engineering standards to reflect safety requirements and criteria. In
some cases, this could have meant added cost and time constraints on planned capital
projects, an expense well worth the investment in a safer working environment.
Strategy 5. Build a responsible and knowledgeable workforce.
By increasing the skills and abilities of individuals, teams, and supervisors
and empowering them, Eastern would be able to increase productivity, reduce
operating costs, solve personnel problems, and increase teamwork across the
entire plant. Initiatives in support of this priority included training and
developmental opportunities in support of self-directed work teams.
 Global Program Management Strategies 203

Initiatives Measures Risks

Develop or continue: Better communication and That self-directed teams
Empowered, self-directed work coordination within team would not work in the
team development (decision- members and between unionized work setting
making and responsibility) supervisors and teams That employees would not
New performance appraisal Innovative, timely, and act on incentives to train
system for salaried employees sound employee and team and develop new skills
Development planning decision-making That the strategic
Knowledge and skills training Better use of tools, communication plan is
for bargaining unit employees equipment, and raw not effective in improving
Supervisory development materials employee support of
program Employees will be company goals
Strategic plan communication prepared to assume new
process responsibilities as a result
Conversion to parent salary of developmental exposure
structure Enhanced partnership
New bargaining unit job agreement
classification (stemming from Increase in ideas and
the labor contract) solutions from employees
HR strategic plan Reduce man-hours per ton
Offer developmental Successful development That the plant could not
opportunities to sustain employee planning implement mentoring
education and growth through: Track progress through and training initiatives
Mentoring training records because of the company
Inside training Enhanced employee culture
Outside technical managerial performance
training
Opportunities to manage

Strategy 5 held the key to successful achieving the other strategies—the

building of a workforce and organization that (1) was aligned with the strategic
direction of Eastern; (2) was structured, capable, and motivated to improve per-
formance; and (3) worked together across departments to provide a “seamless”
process of production and quality.
In building a flatter, more streamlined workforce, the company’s strategy in
the past had been to press for a reduced workforce and more teams and team-
work. As a result, many teams had been generated and trained to take respon-
sibility to solve problems and make the decisions necessary to keep their process
operating at peak efficiency. Supervisory and hourly positions were reduced,
and roles and functions were changed.
Now in the spirit of building the total Eastern organization, the company’s
strategic emphasis would go beyond reduced workforce and generation of teams.
The strategy would be focused on organizational effectiveness: building the
whole organization through a stronger linkage and alignment between man-
agement, supervisors, and bargaining unit employees. The opportunity before
company management was to build new supervisory roles and functions into a
new team-based organization, requiring the development of leadership skills,
better business and productivity management and monitoring skills, and more
support for technical supervision and cross-department process improvement.
204 Chapter Four

Support services, such as human resources management, were to help lead

the effort. Organizational barriers to effective supervision would be identified
and eliminated. Organizational and training initiatives were underway to help
supervisors function as the guiding force for day-to-day operations.
Development tools would include business and productivity management,
process improvement, facilitating and mentoring opportunities, inside train-
ing, outside development (technical and managerial), and management
opportunities within the organization. To focus on incentives, Eastern would
review its performance appraisal and gainsharing structure to ensure that
they were aligned with this strategic plan, and would make improvements
when called for.
To ensure effective communication, quarterly plant communication meetings
would continue, and more information would be provided to employees online,
especially in the area of human resources.

Strategy 6. Improve technology and plant equipment to produce products more

efficiently.
The company was managing several capital improvement projects to upgrade
the condition of equipment and work processes at the plant. The company
needed to continue these improvements while employing sound capital project
management skills. Eastern would work to speed up completion of these capital
projects and to keep them within budget and quality requirements.

Initiatives Measures Risks

Complete capital program and Completion of capital That capital budgets
budgets each year improvements, including: would not be completed
Conduct major maintenance Conversion of potlines to That maintenance
projects and overhauls point feed technology projects would not be
Substation life extension completed for a variety
Cast house continuous of reasons
homogenizing furnace
Rod shop anode cleaner
Ladle shop ladle cleaner
Bake oven rebuild
Potline capacity expansion
Rebuilt remelt furnace
Developed stack filter
systems for metal treatment
Facilities expansion
Completed stamper
upgrades for billet and slab
Conduct research to ensure that Completion of R&D projects That necessary research
Eastern adapts or incorporates within budget on emerging technologies
improved or emerging is not conducted
technologies
Develop a stronger capital project Improved capacity to That the CPARs system
management system (CPARs) complete projects on time is not made operational
through training and other within budget and schedule
developmental assignments
 Global Program Management Strategies 205

As evidenced in this partial list of capital improvements, Eastern was heavily

engaged in upgrading its technological and equipment base in order to main-
tain its leadership and core competency. The company was a front-runner in
keeping pace with required capital improvements to aging plant infrastructure.
Improvements are underway in the production lines, carbon plant, cast house,
substation, and laboratory, and in general plant functions, such as emission and
noise control and information system management.
The focus for this strategic plan was the completion of capital projects within
budget, schedule, and technical requirements. This meant developing a stron-
ger capital project management system and employing more effective project
management practices.
Strategy 7. Improve Eastern’s impact on the environment.
The company would continue to monitor its impact on the local environment.
These efforts would be directed toward reducing environmental degradation
and pollution.
Initiatives Measures Risks
Comply with federal, state, and Eliminate incidents of That new regulations
local environmental regulations by: noncompliance would be enacted that
Providing proactive assistance to Monitor response time Eastern could not
regulators for identifying and fixing respond to
Educating employees about violations
regulatory requirements
Promptly reporting noncompliance
and correcting any violations
Filing Title V air permit applications
Participate in voluntary activities Eliminate environmental, That voluntary efforts
on environment, safety, and health safety, or health complaints would not improve
issues, such as EPA Greenlights, about the plant or its community relations
reducing greenhouse gases and operations
noise nuisance reduction
Encourage environmentally sound Partnerships with state and That local growth
industrial and agricultural growth local agencies objectives and
dynamics would change
substantially
Continue farm production Farm production and That the company’s efforts
maintenance of safe at farm production around
environmental practices the fringe of the plant
would be unsuccessful

This strategy addressed the company’s environmental and community relations

practices. Eastern would continue to stay ahead of environmental requirements
through two basic approaches: (1) being proactive in assisting regulators at all
levels in developing sound and cost-effective regulations that both implement envi-
ronmental legislation and meet the needs of community and the business; and
(2) planning and implementing capital improvements and operating measures to
comply with environmental requirements, attempting at the same time to ensure
that such improvements also contribute to overall plant productivity.
206 Chapter Four

Costs of compliance would increase as well in the administrative areas of record-

keeping, reporting, training, planning, and monitoring; and in the acquisition of
necessary monitoring equipment, creating the need to streamline these systems.
Eastern would continue to develop the capacity to prevent pollution through tech-
nology improvements and through a multimedia approach that addresses losses
of material to air, storm water runoff, and solid or liquid waste streams.

Strategy 8. Reduce waste and non-value-added costs.

Eastern continued to experience waste and non-value-added costs, such as
safety and property costs related to accidents, rework and scrap, and equipment
damage. Process improvement and problem-solving teams would continue to
focus on reducing these costs.

Initiatives Measures Risks

Involve quality teams in Amount of rework and scrap by That the company’s
identifying and resolving department on a monthly basis quality teams would not
quality problems in key Stay within approved budget be successful in resolving
production processes guidelines for rework and scrap quality issues
costs
Minimize equipment damage Review monthly maintenance That equipment damage
by educating employees, to ensure departmental rates would continue
monitoring equipment use, accountability for responsible
and enforcing rules for equipment use
properly using equipment Stay within approved budget
guidelines for equipment
expenses
Eliminate duplication of effort Benchmark other processes That administrative
in administrative processes Monitor process costs redundancy and increase
Process improvement/ costs of operation would
reengineering continue
Encourage employee use of
best-practice techniques
Improve inventory Reduce inventory by at least 5% That inventory
management of supplies management initiatives
and equipment (includes would not be successful
maintenance, production, because of internal plant
and raw material in-process) or supplier performance
limitations
Minimize waste generation Waste product reductions That increasing rates of
and increase recycling waste production would
continue

This strategy, reducing waste, was in concert with Strategy 5: to build a knowl-
edgeable and productive workforce. Both strategies were required to improve
overall productivity. Strategy 8 was key to improving the overall productivity
of Eastern by eliminating waste and unnecessary work, for example, by reduc-
ing the cost of poor quality through process improvement and ISO and QS 9000
and 14000 documentation.
 Global Program Management Strategies 207

The company’s quality and process improvement efforts started on the produc-
tion floor, where quality was built in through consistent practices and extensive
use of statistical process control methods. Eastern was committed to being qual-
ity-driven, not cost-driven; thus, the quickest route to elimination of waste and
non-value-added costs was “doing it right the first time.” They looked to this strat-
egy to be a major factor in lowering operating expenses by 4 cents per pound.
The quality teams would continue to identify and resolve quality problems
in key production processes; a new focus would be placed on administrative
and support processes to ensure that they were under review in the context of
process improvement as well.

Communicating strategy and risk

The company prepared a communication program to promote the company
strategy and to explain the risks inherent in the business and the local plant
setting. The following presents the structure of that plan.

Key Strategic Goal: Improve Eastern’s capability to compete on a continuing

basis in the world aluminum marketplace.
Explanation of strategies. See Fig. 4-2 for a graphic of the agency eight part strategy.

Strategy 1. Secure economically priced power.

The cost of power is a major factor in Eastern’s strategic plan. In its partner-
ship with the community, power companies, and state and local governments,
Eastern will develop support for its efforts to continue to compete in the world
aluminum marketplace. The company plans to negotiate lower power costs
and to explore independent options for generating less expensive power.

Strategy 1
Strategy 8 Strategy 2
Secure economically
Reduce waste and priced power
Secure other resources
nonvalue-added at reasonable costs
costs

Strategy 7 Strategy 3
Global Cultivate customer
Improve Eastern’s impact competitiveness awareness and promote
on the environment
customer satisfaction

Strategy 6 Strategy 4
Improve technology and Strategy 5 Create a safe working
plant equipment to produce
environment
products more efficiently Build a responsible and
knowledgeable workforce

Figure 4-2 Eight-part strategy.

208 Chapter Four

Strategy 2. Secure other resources at reasonable costs.

The cost of materials continues to rise, and has the potential to erase savings
created by increased productivity and reduced power costs. The company
plans to find low-cost sources for raw materials and to explore approaches for
using lower-graded materials. Eastern will also continue to manage human
resource costs through attrition and retirement.
Strategy 3. Cultivate customer awareness and promote customer satisfaction.
Eastern continues to provide consistent and high-quality products and services
to end users and customers. Eastern will work to ensure that all employees are
aware of customers and their needs. Emphasis on the customer may encourage
the development of new products and services, and help the company establish
a market niche. The company will look to external stakeholders to verify gains
made in employee customer awareness and customer satisfaction.
Strategy 4. Create a safe working environment.
Eastern has significantly reduced accidents in recent years, and needs the sup-
port of employees and management to continue these safety efforts. In addition to
developing and implementing state-of-the-art safety procedures and guidelines,
Eastern needs to enforce safety and health rules and regulations consistently.
Strategy 5. Build a responsible and knowledgeable workforce.
By increasing the skills and abilities of individuals, teams, and supervisors
and empowering them, Eastern will be able to increase productivity, reduce
operating costs, solve problems, and increase teamwork across the entire
plant. Initiatives in support of this priority include training and developmen-
tal opportunities in support of self-directed work teams.
Strategy 6. Improve technology and plant equipment to produce products
more efficiently and economically.
Eastern is managing several capital improvement projects to upgrade the
condition of equipment and work processes at the plant. Eastern needs to
continue these improvements while also employing sound capital project man-
agement skills. The company will work to speed up completion of these capital
projects and to keep them within budget and quality requirements.
Strategy 7. Improve Eastern’s impact on the environment.
Through voluntary efforts and in compliance with state environmental stan-
dards, the company will continue to monitor its impact on the local environment.
These efforts by the improvement and problem-solving teams will continue to
focus on reducing these costs and impact on the environment.
Strategy 8. Reduce waste and non-value-added costs.
Eastern continues to experience waste and non-value-added costs, such as
safety and health costs related to accidents, rework and scrap, and equipment
damage. This process is directed toward reducing environmental degradation
and pollution.
 Global Program Management Strategies 209

Program development
Once strategic objectives have been generated, the process of creating broad
programs begins. Program areas, broad organization-wide initiatives to carry
out strategic objectives, are typically created in planning discussions among top
management and ownership. Eastern began the process of identifying broad
programs in a series of planning and organization meetings. Initial descriptions
of program areas and appropriate projects, with anticipated global impacts, are
discussed in the following sections.

Strategy 1. Secure economically priced power.

Programs Projects and Potential Global Impacts

Program A: Secure alternative power Projects:
sources through a series of long-term A1: Investigate power-wheeling benefits through
research projects, partnerships, and the use of Internet sources (explore
information gathering independent power sources rather than
regulated sources); for all foreign plants,
investigate local regulatory and power
conditions, and prepare an analysis based on
the local situation
A2: Develop partnership agreements with
the public service commission, local and
state government
A3: Develop partnership with Dutch
wind-generated power source company,
contact Dutch wind generation company
and arrange for negotiations to build wind
generator to explore feasibility
A4: Design and conduct an alternative power
scenario with videos; prepare videos in
several languages and reflect local cultural
and political situations to enhance the
local plant management’s capacity to find
alternative power sources
Program B: Develop a global database and Projects:
information collection system on worldwide B1: Identify a contractor to develop a database
power source developments on platform; design contract scope to identify
how databases can be tailored to local
conditions in various foreign plant situations
B2: Design a database and platform to reflect
local needs
B3: Train key analysts and users with
packages in several languages
Program C: Design new aluminum Projects:
production process to minimize power C1: Outline new production concept and
source requirements operating system to reduce power needs
C2: Test new production concept
C3: Run simulations
C4: Build prototype
210 Chapter Four

Strategy 2. Secure other resources at reasonable costs.

Programs Projects and Global Impacts

Program A: Develop global supply chain Projects:
program to reduce resource costs A1: Restructure raw material procurement
process to obtain lower-cost raw materials,
such as petroleum coke, pitch, alumina, and
hardeners, through long-term supply chain
suppliers; find best suppliers globally
A2: Conduct international research program
to explore innovative approaches to using
alternative-graded materials, such as calciner
fines and lower grades of petroleum coke
Program B: Develop alternative resource Projects:
sources B1: Conduct investigation of alternative
resources, e.g., optional coke products to
replace petroleum coke, and get federal
funding through alternative fuels program
Program C: Reduce human resource (labor) Projects:
costs through efficiency measures, attrition, C1: Design and implement a Six Sigma
and retirement program at each plant in all foreign
locations to reduce man-hours per ton
(MPT) by 15% by the year 2020
C2: HR program to integrate job descriptions
to meet job needs created by attrition and
retirement; negotiate with union

Strategy 3. Cultivate customer awareness and promote customer satisfaction.

Programs Projects and Global Impacts

Program A: Develop global market research Projects:
program aimed at identifying new OEM A1: Conduct profile study on current
customers customers
A2: Identify potential OEM clients
Program B: Develop new product Projects:
development organization and process to B1: Create a new organizational unit in every
meet future product needs identified in plant in all global locations to create new
market research product concepts from customer studies
B2: Develop partnerships with foreign
engineering and manufacturing
associations to locate potential contributors
to company’s need for new products
Program C: Educate workforce globally about Projects:
need to collaborate with customers to C1: Enhance employees’ awareness about
explore new product needs customer and end-product satisfaction through
a customer education and visit program
Program D: Achieve all necessary Projects:
international certifications for customer D1: Achieve ISO 9002 registration and QS
satisfaction 9000 accreditation
 Global Program Management Strategies 211

Strategy 4. Create a safe working environment.

Programs Projects and Global Impacts

Program A: Develop a safety training and Projects:
research program for employees A1: Upgrade engineering standards, safety
features, and ergonomics
A2: Update joint safety and health committee
guidelines
A3: Increase team and employee accountability
for safety and health
A4: Improve efficiency, safety, and job
performance by reducing waste in plants
Program B: Revise incentives for safe Projects:
performance B1: Increase gainsharing payouts for accident
prevention performance and leadership
B2: Publish successful safety actions in
employee newsletter

Strategy 5. Build a responsible and knowledgeable workforce.

Programs Projects and Global Impacts

Program 5A: Develop a comprehensive Projects:
training and development program in A1: Develop and implement online and
continuous improvement using blended onsite continuous improvement programs
learning tools, e.g., onsite and online to create empowered, self-directed work
team development (decision-making and
responsibility)
A2: New performance appraisal system for
salaried employees
Development planning
A3: Supervisory development program
Program 5B: Develop incentives and an Projects:
employee recognition program based on B1: Assess options for incentives for
performance improved knowledge-based performance
program
B2: Select and implement incentive
program
B3: Assess projects
B4: Offer developmental opportunities to
sustain employee education and growth
through:
Mentoring
Inside training
Outside technical managerial training
Opportunities to manage

Strategy 6. Improve technology and plant equipment to produce products

more efficiently and economically.
212 Chapter Four

Programs Projects and Global Impacts

Program 6A: Develop a Projects:
comprehensive robotic production A1: Develop robotic productions system concept
system and design
A2: Develop prototype
A3: Select and implement a replacement for the current
system
Consider:
Substation life extension
Continuous homogenizing furnace
Conversion of production line to point feed technology
Cast house
Rod shop anode cleaner
Bake oven rebuild
Production line capacity expansion
Rebuilt remelt furnace
Developed stack filter systems for metal treatment
Facilities expansion
Completed stamper upgrades for billet and slab
Program 6B: Develop a new plant Projects:
performance information system B1: Conduct a research program to ensure that
Eastern adapts or incorporates improved or emerging
performance measurement technologies
B2: Test and implement the system
Program 6C: Develop a stronger Projects:
capital project management C1: Develop a project management handbook and
system (CPARs) through training training program to improve workforce capacity to
and other developmental complete projects on time within budget and schedule
assignments C2: Develop a program management handbook for all
multiproject managers
C3: Develop and install a program management shadow
system for prospective program and project managers

Strategy 7. Improve Eastern’s impact on the environment.

Programs Projects and Global Impacts
Program 7A: Identify and close Projects:
gaps between environmental A1: Develop measurement and reporting system on
requirements and actual environmental compliance
performance worldwide
Program 7B: Begin major Projects:
monitoring and development B1: Prepare composite company-wide report on global
program to exceed compliance
environmental requirements B2: Identify all worldwide environmental requirements, by
worldwide plant location, and compile global monitoring system
B3: Comply with federal, state, and local environmental
regulations by:
Providing proactive assistance to regulators
Educating employees about regulatory requirements
Promptly reporting noncompliance and correcting any
violations
Filing a Title V air permit application
Participating in voluntary activities on environment, safety,
and health issues, such as EPA Greenlights, reducing
greenhouse gases and PFCs, and noise nuisance reduction
 Global Program Management Strategies 213

Strategy 8. Reduce waste and non-value-added costs.

Programs Projects and Global Impacts

Program 8A: Implement a Six Sigma Projects:
program in each plant worldwide A1: Design Six Sigma projects around local plant
needs worldwide
A2: Measure performance in cycle times and cost
reductions, plant by plant
A3: Develop contingency and improvement projects
based on outcomes
Program 8B: Conduct a global Projects:
benchmarking study to identify best B1: Create a benchmarking project to identify best
practices waste reduction and Six Sigma practices and to
identify best recognition programs worldwide
B2: Create a process improvement program
and development of process models involving
improvement teams for each type of production
system
Program 8C: Target equipment Projects:
damage and cost issues worldwide C1: Project to minimize equipment damage by
and address them educating employees, monitoring equipment use,
and enforcing rules for properly using equipment
C2: Project to improve inventory management of
supplies and equipment (includes maintenance,
production, and raw material in-process)
C3: Project to minimize waste generation and
increase recycling at all plants globally

The Alignment of Programs with Strategic Objectives

The process of creating and aligning programs with company strategies involves
constant management attention as global factors and conditions change. For
instance, in the 2008 global economic downturn, Eastern developed a special pro-
gram under Strategy 8 to reduce waste and non-value-added costs by downsizing
plant capacities to new, lower demand worldwide. This meant placing a program
manager in charge of developing and implementing a series of projects that spe-
cifically targeted cost reductions made necessary by a reduced worldwide demand
for aluminum products. Portfolios of projects under that program were developed
through brainstorming and planning activities guided by that program manager.
Projects were analyzed and prioritized using net present value, assessment of
strategic alignment using weighted scoring models and risk assessment. Funding
depended on available funds in each budget cycle, and program managers were
expected to make their business cases for program and project funding annually.

Programs Are Organizational Commitments

While projects are temporary initiatives with short-term products and outcomes,
programs are longer-term company commitments that are typically reflected in
appropriately named organizational units. In other words, programs are embedded
214 Chapter Four

in the company structure, with business officers in charge of program units that
reflect program objectives. For instance, again in Strategy 8, the company estab-
lished a Six Sigma program office in the corporate office to manage the multiple
projects oriented on achieving Six Sigma goals.
This chapter earlier stated five program strategies for economic recovery; here
is how Eastern handled each one of them.

1. Design programs that can generate jobs.

Q All of its contingencies involving IT systems were acquired locally in target
countries so that local companies could compete for the business.
Q Eastern localized its program teams to be closer to target markets for alu-
minum, thus generating a need for supporting businesses, e.g., facilities,
communication, logistics.
2. Frame program benefit goals that align with economic and business growth.
Q Eastern developed partnerships with several companies worldwide that
shared Eastern’s interest in bringing the price of aluminum back up to
market levels, thus creating a consortium to spur more profitability in all
aluminum-producing companies worldwide.
Q Eastern promoted its new production system initiatives worldwide to align
with several western countries’ goals of reducing energy consumption and
encouraging increases in gross national product.
3. Target programs on economic and technology goals that align with applicable
foreign government objectives and recovery programs.
Q Eastern aligned its robotic production team with several foreign govern-
ments interested in developing their local R&D capacity, thus helping to
stimulate local innovation and business development.
Q Eastern aligned its raw material development programs to benefit coun-
tries that had both raw material reserves and a national interest in using
raw materials to improve energy efficiency and create new jobs around
energy independence.
4. Target technologies that stimulate local development, manufacturing, and
marketing competencies.
Q Eastern worked with selected national governments to set up marketing
teams with local industries to allow an exchange of marketing strategies
and information systems with locals.
Q Eastern worked with local safety experts and academic institutions in
target countries to develop joint projects to improve aluminum manufac-
turing safety and efficiency.
5. Frame programs as recovery initiatives.
Q Eastern actually defined its power-saving program as a global recovery
initiative that would benefit several national economies.
 Global Program Management Strategies 215

Q Eastern worked with several international union organizations to educate

and inform leadership in ways to improve worker efficiency and productiv-
ity while upgrading old aluminum production facilities.

Postscript
Eastern’s strategic plan was designed as a guidepost for the future, a way to
realize the vision of becoming more responsive to changes going on globally,
more supportive to customers and employees, and more cost-effective in manu-
facturing processes. However, it was not a “cookbook” for success. The company
recognized that management and employees would continue to have to make
informed judgments each day to make the plan work, and they would have to
learn better from their successes and mistakes.
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 Chapter

5
Global Program
Risk Management

Introduction
In Chapter 4, we addressed the strategic perspective on global program man-
agement and provided case examples of how companies align strategies with
programs and projects. We found that it was possible to tie broad project benefits
to strategies and to identify and integrate individual projects to implement
those programs. In this sense, a program becomes a bridge between very broad
business strategies and very narrow project deliverables, as well as an organi-
zational framework to generate, evaluate, select, fund, and manage multiple
projects from a high level in the business through global program managers.

Program Risk
In this chapter, we address risk as a program issue. We discuss some critical
program risks and we also cover the PMI PMBOK standard on project risk
because the standard applies directly to program risk, but at a higher level.
Risk is uncertainty and represents the potential failure of a program. For a
project, risk represents what can go wrong in meeting quality, schedule, and cost
goals. But for a global program, the implications of risk are far more significant
because they extend over many years and are generated by worldwide factors
largely out of the control of the program manager. Because the global context
of business presents unique challenges to program managers—e.g., unforeseen
political and/or economic disruptions—managing program risk is the key to
successful program management. This chapter addresses global program risk
as a distinctly different kind of risk than that faced in traditional, short-term
projects. Uncertainty seems to magnify when played out in a foreign environ-
ment because of structural and more subtle process forces that are often at play
in foreign localities.

217
218 Chapter Five

Beyond traditional project management risk, global program management

is characterized by unique risks that must be anticipated and managed in a
global context. They are:

1. Unstable political and/or jurisdictional issues. These issues include the

potential for changes in local political or nongovernmental organizational
(NGO) dynamics that can affect a global program. For instance, an inter-
national cable or satellite station installation is funded partially by NGO
funding, but then the NGO is displaced by the state NGO licensing body.
Sponsor funding is thus reduced in the middle of the program, jeopardizing
its completion.
2. Incompatibility of technical systems, codes, standards, etc. This risk issue is
often associated with high-technology programs and projects. For instance,
an avionics company building a highly technical aircraft cockpit instrumen-
tation suite for aircraft built in another country must design the instrument
to current International Standards Organization (ISO) safety requirements,
but if a local jurisdiction or region chooses to establish its own, more strin-
gent, requirements during program development, project deliverables must
be changed midstream.
3. Language-generated communication impacts on virtual team performance.
This kind of risk stems from the inevitable complications of communicating
in multiple languages, with loss of meaning and intent in interpretation
and attendant delays in action. The agility and responsiveness of program
managers can be severely hampered by communication issues when transla-
tors are required for every personal transaction.
4. Unstable local sponsor or client. Local sponsors or stakeholders of global
programs can create disruptions that can undermine and inhibit program
management success. This is because clients and customers who are not
nationals of the home country in which the project originated will respond
to local pressures and issues rather than program needs when faced with
difficult trade-offs.
5. Differences in sense of urgency and work ethic. Local program management in
foreign countries is subject to different values and ethics regarding work and
productivity. While schedule, quality, and scope requirements are more or less
addressed consistently in one country, people respond differently to schedule
expectations in different cultures. A good example is the difference between
the European and American concepts of the eight-hour day. While Americans
see eight hours as comprising a full, continuous workday, with a one-hour or
half-hour lunch, Europeans see eight hours as a three-hour morning and a
five-hour afternoon and evening separated by a two-hour lunch. While this
can enhance program success, it typically represents a dilemma to a program
manager when it comes to estimating and monitoring daily work.
6. Differences in contractual and financial arrangements. While western pro-
gram managers are comfortable with written contracts, many eastern
 Global Program Risk Management 219

managers do business on a handshake. When difficulties arise and potential

contract provisions are violated, global program managers are likely to find
it difficult to resolve contract disputes by reference to contract provisions
alone. In many countries, program managers are expected to pay special
payments to those in positions of authority, e.g., bribes. These costs, if neces-
sary, must be booked and reported.
7. Unstable supplier chain issues. Developing a supply chain system to support
global program management involves partnerships and contracts with many
suppliers in foreign countries. These suppliers may commit to standards
of quality and timeliness specified in a project contract, but may be more
unreliable than domestic suppliers, even though they may be less costly.
8. Logistical and transportation problems. Simple delivery and logistics issues
involving labor, supplies, or equipment may be complicated because of global
factors. These factors could include lack of safety and security controls, lack
of local reliability incentives, and changing logistical priorities and expecta-
tions created by local conditions such as weather, local civilian unrest, and
governmental intervention.
9. Lack of integration of projects in program structure. Programs are made up of
interdependent projects and support systems. For instance, a major telecommuni-
cations program involving many countries will include hardware and platforms,
software, training, and maintenance issues. If these individual projects are not
integrated, the program may well end up unsuccessful even though each of the
projects may have met their quality, schedule, and performance requirements.
10. The effects of global financial crisis. Finally, global economic issues, such as
the worldwide recession of 2008, can have a debilitating impact on program
success. For instance, a critical supplier can go out of business because
of lack of financing or an unanticipated downturn in local demand. Or a
local government in a centrally planned economy intervenes to take over a
supplier company or provides state-generated funding and strings that are
inconsistent with program assumptions or conditions.

Risk Management
Global program management requires a high level of business analysis and
risk management. Programs create risk and opportunity worldwide, thus the
quality of business analysis for program risk becomes an important early
consideration for program managers. In a global environment, you have the
added complexity of a three dimensional risk matrix. You have the usual
X- and Y-axes with risk potential, and impact, but then you have the global
dimension. There is the added complexity of risk in the dimensions of distance,
communication, local and global environmental conditions, world economic
issues, currency fluctuations, political unrest in certain areas, and access to
needed resources.
220 Chapter Five

Risk cause-and-effect model

for projects and programs

Organization
Global factors
4 3
Project/program • Culture • Customer needs
1 5
Time • Language • Environmental
• Currency exchange conditions
• Political, socio • Government/
9
economic regulatory
Quality
• Foreign technology/ • Materials
Cost Scope platform issues • Global economy
2 6 7
• Foreign labor issues • Global and local
8 regulatory competitors

Figure 5-1 Risk cause-and-effect model for projects and programs.

In Fig. 5-1, the complexity of risk is illustrated. The larger circle represents the
organization where the project or program resides. The smaller circle represents
the project/program that is located within the company. The triple constraints
with the program or project are inside the project/program circle. The box repre-
sents external global factors that could contribute to risk management needs.
Each arrow in the diagram represents a different type of risk category that
needs to be identified, analyzed, prioritized, and managed appropriately with
a suitable response plan.
Q Arrow 1: risk factor(s) from the project/program that affect the organization
Q Arrow 2: risk factor(s) from the organization that affect the project/
program
Q Arrow 3: external risk factor(s) that affect the organization, which leads to
arrow 4
Q Arrow 4: external risk factor(s) that affect the organization and thus affect
the project/program
Q Arrow 5: external risk factor(s) that directly affect the project/program and
not the organization
Q Arrow 6: project/program causes risk to the organization, which then leads
to arrow 7
Q Arrow 7: the change to the organization from a project/program risk, which
then causes risk to external factor(s)
Q Arrow 8: project/program causes risks with external factor(s)
Q Arrow 9: risk factor(s) that can occur within the project/program only
 Global Program Risk Management 221

There are many examples on the types of risks that you could find with each
of these arrows. For instance,

Q Arrow 1: risk factor(s) from the project/program that affect the organization
Q Underestimating resource requirements needed for the program
Q Arrow 2: risk factor(s) from the organization that affect the project/program
Q Micromanagement from top executives, or loss of support from top
executives
Q Arrow 3: external risk factor(s) that affect the organization, which leads to
arrow 4
Q Cultural differences between different partner companies, which affect
how negotiations or contracts are managed
Q Arrow 4: external risk factor(s) that affect the organization and thus affect
the project/program
Q Contract performance terms and conditions variances
Q Arrow 5: external risk factor(s) that directly affect the project/program and
not the organization
Q Foreign Technology Capacity
Q Arrow 6: project/program causes risk to the organization, which then leads
to arrow 7
Q Poor team performance or fraudulent practices, reflecting on the
organization
Q Arrow 7: the change to the organization from a project/program risk, which
then causes risk to external factor(s)
Q Inability to negotiate successful contracts
Q Arrow 8: project/program causes risks with external factor(s)
Q Inadequate product safety testing in light of local regulatory requirements
Q Arrow 9: risk factor(s) that can occur within the project/program only
Q Inadequate use of earned value in monitoring the project

This risk cause-and-effect model is a very valuable tool in identifying risks

that affects a global program. This information is also beneficial for a PMO
that needs to support a program and provide guidance and direction in risk
management planning:

Sample program risk matrix

The following is an example of a risk matrix built on the global risks discussed
previously:
222 Chapter Five

Program Risk Impacts Probability Severity Contingency Action

Unstable Undermine program High in politically Can be a Be prepared to
political and/or delivery itself unstable regions showstopper brief new sponsors
jurisdictional Fundamentally change or players locally
issues program assumptions on program issues
and to justify the
program in view
of alternative
expectations
Compatibility Schedule and quality Low, unless Medium, Close working
of technical problems in program program is in a since changes relationship and
systems, codes, output or product new technology in technical involvement in
standards, etc. performance arena where standards, etc. all international
standards are not would typically standard-setting
yet developed not be applicable organizations
for several years, that might affect
hopefully after program success
program is
completed
Language- Delays from High, given High, given
generated communication extensive the importance
communications problems; affects communication of consistent
affect program management on program issues understanding
virtual team and outcomes due to across countries of reports and
performance lack of candid and and cultures verbal statements
and customer effective discussion in of significance for
expectations program design and the program
implementation
Unstable or Unsatisfied customers; High because of Could be a Place local safety
inconsistent lack of customer typically unstable showstopper if and/or quality
local quality, acceptance of program and inconsistent program output representative on
safety, and/or product and outcomes; quality and safety violates local program team,
regulatory product or output standards in many regulations and integrate
requirements violates local regulations global locations compliance with
local requirements
Unstable Can be a showstopper if Low, if program Could be a Have alternative
local sponsor change in sponsor or client manager monitors showstopper scenario and
or client; changes key program client and can program
potential for scope anticipate changes presentations
unanticipated in client structure for potential
change in key new client
program clients representative
Differences in Schedule delays; High, since Low, mostly in Use critical chain
sense of changes focus from on- different cultures scheduling delays concept, e.g., focus
urgency and time delivery to quality exhibit different on project and task
work ethic delivery values regarding starting times, not
timeliness and finish dates
work ethic
Differences in Get templates from local High, since Low, if program Develop alternative
contractual jurisdictions to analyze contractual manager monitors contractual
and financial potential problems in arrangements local contract templates and be
arrangements contracting processes and are different processes ready for different
procedures throughout the interpretations of
world contract provisions

(Continued)
 Global Program Risk Management 223

Unstable Schedule and cost High, because Medium, mostly in Write long-term
supplier chain impacts; potential suppliers are schedule impacts supplier contracts
issues quality issues in subject to from required and develop
product components, unanticipated supplier contract partnerships that
configuration forces, e.g., renegotiations can endure global
management systems economic, impacts
financial, social
Logistical and Schedule impacts from Low, since logistical Low, delays in Develop alternative
transportation delays in local supply, and transportation project schedules transportation
problems equipment, and resource problems can and logistical
deliveries be resolved in a arrangements,
timely way and write
contingency
contracts to be
triggered by
failure of key
contractors
Lack of Project schedule, cost, and High, since complex High, since if Create a project
integration quality impacts because program and projects are not interface council
of projects of lack of articulation project interfaces coordinated, the to oversee
in program and sequencing of can be obscured by results can be articulation of
structure projects within the narrow focus on showstoppers project milestones
context of overall project tasks
program
Global financial Can terminate key High, since current High Have alternative
crisis impacts projects if local partners global financial scenarios ready to
have to change their and economic change pace and
priorities because of lack recessions, such as scope of program
of financing or customer the one in 2008 if necessary
demand

Programs suffer the consequences of accumulated risks in their projects.

Sometimes, these project risks are more severe combined than they are when
seen in the context of one project only. For instance, let’s say that a program
to equip a Middle Eastern region with cable for a wide variety of communi-
cation technologies has two main projects: a cable production project and a
cable installation project. Problems in production and installation created
by local governmental standards can disrupt the whole concept on which the
program is designed. While the delays in each project can be addressed and
fixed, the whole program is in jeopardy when both risk events occur.
This disruption is created when the local sponsor or client loses confidence in
the business’s capacity to perform. If the first project, the development of the
cable product, were to have gone well and served to build client confidence in
the program, some delays in installation might have been tolerated. And if the
product development project were to have experienced issues but the program
manager was able to accelerate the installation and create client confidence,
again the client might have accepted the program. But if both projects go wrong,
the program manager is faced with a difficult dilemma. In a domestic program,
one that is being implemented in the home country, the process of resolving
224 Chapter Five

these kinds of issues is simpler—there are no language or culture problems, no

foreign regulatory or governmental involvement. But in a global program, the
client/sponsor of the program is likely to be difficult to deal with, especially if
there are international issues between the target country and the home pro-
gram country.
Development of contingency plans is made difficult as well, since contingency
plans involving project installation may involve negotiations with local authori-
ties that were not planned. For instance, if the cable installation requires more
land acquisition or leasing than originally anticipated, the global program man-
ager is likely to find himself or herself in the local offices of the land manage-
ment department of the local governmental jurisdiction. In the home country,
these discussions would be relatively routine, but in a foreign country with dif-
ferent legal and regulatory requirements and different land-use traditions, the
acquisition or leasing of new land for cable installation could be a showstopper
for the program.

Program Risk Management According to PMI

The PMI PMBOK guide on risk management applies to programs as well as
to projects. The PMBOK defines risk management as the “systematic pro-
cess of identifying, analyzing, and responding to project risk.” The concept
aims at maximizing the probability and consequences of positive events and
minimizing the probability and consequences of adverse events to project
objectives.
It is important to see the PMBOK as a guide, not a manual. While the fol-
lowing discussion is guided by the PMBOK, the reader will quickly see that
each section is framed by a reality check, the author’s personal and profes-
sional view of best practices in the real world of faster, better, and cheaper.
The discussion presupposes a separate risk management planning process,
which serves as an ideal. In practice, risk planning occurs as an integral part
of project planning.

Issues involved with program risk

The current PMBOK has raised several issues with regard to risk.

Process. We are learning that while a process focus is important, it misses the
opportunity to integrate risk into current business and program planning and
management actions. Process focus is useful for ensuring quality and discipline,
but it has limitations in practical work settings.

Separate process. The propensity to break down the project planning and
control process into components misses the actual dynamic in real organizations
at the program level. Risk has not proven to be useful as a separate process, but
rather, is effective only if integrated into portfolio and program management
processes, beginning at the highest level of the business.
 Global Program Risk Management 225

Single project. Risk is no longer looked at as a single project issue; most risk is
associated with broader issues, such as global program management and the
business itself, and other projects in the company portfolio.

Quantitative. Overemphasis on quantitative tools and mathematical models

suggests risk management is a science rather than an art. Most program risk
management actions are full of judgment and margins of error, which make
quantitative tools ineffective and intimidating.

Focus on methods, not people. The risk process is essentially a thought process,
a way or style of management that is ingrained in the way people work and
solve project problems.
The overemphasis on methods and the undervaluing of the human element
limits the application of the current PMBOK as it pertains to risk.

Assumes inputs. The assumption in any process focus is that the inputs will be
there; however, in many cases, the necessary inputs are not there because the
whole concept of a separate risk management process is flawed when looked at
in practical terms.

Unrelated to cost. Risk and cost are inextricably intertwined; when risk events
occur globally they require expensive contingency or mitigation actions that
are not often included in the baseline budget (this is why all actions designed
to mitigate a risk should be included in the baseline schedule as a reserve item
in case they need to be implemented).

Unrelated to quality. Risk and quality are also inextricably connected, since risk
affects quality. Many risks are associated with feasibility, not schedule, and some
projects may not be capable of meeting customer standards and specifications
in the first place.

Ignores business risk. Project risk is first identified and managed at the
business-wide level through strategic and business planning, leading to the
generation of program areas and projects.

Separate contingency planning. The current PMBOK describes contingency

planning as a separate process, but in fact, to be effective, contingency actions
need to be incorporated into baseline schedules and budgets. The project manager
must ensure that the schedule has buffers and contingency tasks built in to it.

Ignores risk as opportunity. The other side of risk is opportunity—the ability

to control risks creates opportunity because the competition cannot. Thus, any
project aimed at capturing a market share is designed to create opportunity,
and risk management is the strategic approach.

The following table provides an overview of the current PMBOK risk

processes:
226 Chapter Five

TABLE 5.1 PMBOK Risk Management Processes

5.1 Risk Management 5.2 Risk Identification 5.3 Qualitative Risk Analysis
Planning
Inputs Inputs Inputs
Project charter Risk management plan Risk management plan
Organization’s risk Project planning outputs Identified risks
management policies
Defined roles and Risk categories Project status
responsibilities
Stakeholder risk tolerances Historical information Project type
Template for the Data precision
organization’s risk
management plan
Work breakdown structure Scales of probability and
impacts
Assumptions
Tools and Techniques Tools and Techniques Tools and Techniques
Planned meetings Documentation reviews Risk probability and impact
Information-gathering Probability/impact risk rating
techniques matrix
Checklists Project assumptions
Assumptions analysis Data precision ranking
Diagramming techniques
Outputs Outputs Outputs
Risk management plan Risks Overall risk ranking
Triggers List of prioritized tasks
Inputs to other processes List of risks for additional
analysis and management
Trends in qualitative risk
analysis results
5.4 Quantitative Risk 5.5 Risk Response Planning 5.6 Risk Monitoring and
Analysis Control
Inputs Inputs Inputs
Risk management plan Risk management plan Risk management plan
Identified risks List of prioritized tasks Risk response plan
List of prioritized risks Risk ranking of the project Project communication
List of risks for additional Prioritized list of quantified Additional risk identification
analysis and management risks and analysis
Historical information Probabilistic analysis of the Scope changes
project
Expert judgment Probability of achieving the
cost and time objectives
(Continued)
 Global Program Risk Management 227

TABLE 5.1 PMBOK Risk Management Processes (Continued)

Other planning outputs List of potential responses
Risk thresholds
Risk thresholds
Common risk causes
Trends in quantitative and
qualitative analysis results
Tools and Techniques Tools and Techniques Tools and Techniques
Interviewing Avoidance Project risk response audits
Sensitivity analysis Transference Periodic project risk reviews
Decision analysis Mitigation Earned value analysis
Simulation Acceptance Technical performance
measurement
Additional risk response planning
Outputs Outputs Outputs
Prioritized list of quantified risks Risk response plan Workaround plans
Probabilistic analysis of the Residual risks Corrective action
project
Probability of achieving the cost Secondary risks Project change requests
and time objectives
Trends in quantitative risk Contractual risks Updates to the risk response
analysis results plan
Contingency reserve Risk database
amounts needed
Inputs to other processes Updates to risk identification
checklists
Inputs to a revised program
plan

5.1 Risk Management Planning. Deciding how to approach and plan the
risk management activities for a project
5.2. Risk Identification. Determining which risks might affect the project
and documenting their characteristics
5.3 Qualitative Risk Analysis. Performing a qualitative analysis of risks and
conditions to prioritize their effects on project objectives
5.4 Quantitative Risk Analysis. Measuring the probability and consequences
of risks and estimating their implications for project objectives
5.5 Risk Response Planning. Developing procedures and techniques to
enhance opportunities and reduce threats to the project’s objectives
5.6 Risk Monitoring and Control. Monitoring residual risks, identifying
new risks, executing risk reduction plans, and evaluating their effectiveness
throughout the project life cycle
228 Chapter Five

These processes interact with each other and with the processes in the other
PMBOK knowledge areas. The way they interact is the key to integrating risk
management with the basic project planning and control processes. The follow-
ing sections discuss the salient points of integration.

Risk Management Planning

Risk management planning for a particular project is inextricably connected to
how the organization prepares for dealing with risk and uncertainty in its business
development and strategic planning, in its information technology investments
and management of network communications, and in its organizational structure.
No project manager faces risk alone—it is a company-wide issue, and it is quite
likely that there is data and information on project risk in the company files.
A company prepares for risk in projects by assessing the overall risk in strate-
gic planning. Then, in its development of a program of projects, or portfolio, the
company assigns risk to a general program or product line as part of its decision
to proceed. Templates for risk identification and assessment are available, and a
project management office is sometimes available to support risk management
by providing information templates, project review data and agendas, research
findings, and historic information on various risk subjects.
To address risk effectively, there needs to be an information technology
capacity in the company to assure that risk documentation and tracking can
be achieved within the network and software assets available. This means a
way to organize risk data, for team members to communicate risk information
quickly, and for project managers to present risk data in acceptable formats.
Finally, if the company is not organized to address projects in some kind of
project structure, project risk will get the same kind of attention other project
issues such as cost and schedule get—very little. In a matrix structure, for
instance, risk is addressed in the functional department in terms of processes
and equipment through testing and monitoring technical processes. At the same
time, the project manager is attuned to risk when schedules are delayed because
of events or developments grounded in it.
All of this does not need to complicate the up-front risk process. Risk is still
a relatively straightforward concept of planning and controlling for things that
could go wrong. That risk management planning is tied to business planning and
strategy does not need to suggest that this linkage complicates the achievement of a
good risk management process. In fact, it makes project risk management easier
in the sense that business planning itself provides a precursor of project risk. If
I am in the avionics business, and I design and produce avionics equipment for
business jets, and my overall business plan identifies major threats to profitability
and success—e.g., the global availability of cheap LCD monitors, or the pending
change in air traffic regulations affecting avionics—then my individual projects
begin with a major challenge in those two areas. As a project manager in that
scenario, I enter the project arena with a built-in, up-front view that I must keep
my eye on both these factors and plan and schedule contingency and risk mitiga-
tion actions as part of my project plan.
 Global Program Risk Management 229

The PMBOK process view emphasizes the inputs and outputs of the risk
process. This is a useful perspective on risk, even though it does not really deal
with the integration of risk management into the project planning and control
process. The PMBOK is based on the highest level of “maturity” in an organiza-
tion, a scale that is embodied in the PMI maturity model. Thus, the PMBOK
process is idealized in a mature organization, and rarely found in all of its daz-
zling performance dimensions in a normal business environment.

Inputs to risk management planning

Project charter. The project charter is an ideal project planning document that
includes the business need and product description. In reality, this document is
often neglected because the content for the business need is still in conceptual
stages. And at this point, the deliverable is often undefined and unspecified;
thus, the product description is not at the same level of detail as a configuration
management document. The deliverable is defined in performance terms at the
scale possible given the understanding of what is being designed and built. The
purpose of the project charter can be realized in other ways, e.g., a customer
requirements document and a scope of work document.

Organization’s risk management policies. If the business has a set of risk

management policies and procedures, they would be used in risk planning.
However, many businesses do not have such policies, nor will they; rather, they
apply risk tools as an implicit part of the project planning process. Approaching
this process input with a healthy skepticism, one can see the value of writing
down policies and procedures, but in today’s fast-moving companies, this is
rarely done. The point is that a nimble mid-sized business of today that has
articulated its approach to risk would expect each employee, and certainly
its management, to embody that approach in the basic project management
process, without a bureaucratic statement of top-down policy.

Defined roles and responsibilities. One would hope that the basic roles and
functions of the project manager and functional manager are documented, but
again, this is often left undefined in order to allow a natural process of negotiating
and working out roles between functional quality and project delivery interests.

Stakeholder risk tolerances. The PMBOK is not very helpful in illustrating this
input. Stakeholder risk tolerances are evidenced in modern business as “world
views” of certain important people in the process—e.g., sponsors, customers,
investors, top management, regulators, etc. The tolerances for stakeholders can
be reflected in a spectrum of philosophies from risk seeking, to risk neutral, to
even risk adverse.
A risk tolerance for an electronic instrument might be framed as a technical
tolerance (mean time between failures), a performance tolerance (must perform
in below-zero temperatures), or a drop-dead limit (investors will not proceed
230 Chapter Five

with this project if, by this time next year, there is no first article production
unit) because of the anticipated rapid change in market conditions. Tolerances
are often grounded in expectations; thus, it is important for a project manager
to see such tolerances and evaluate their intensity early in the project.

Work breakdown structure. Certainly, a work breakdown structure is necessary

as a basis for identifying risk, but the WBS must be comprehensive and show
all tasks before the risk identification process can really be effective. If the WBS
misses some important work that is highly subject to failure, it is not a good
input to risk management planning.

Issues not addressed in PMBOK

Some risk issues are not addressed explicitly in the PMBOK, but you should be
aware of them to have a full understanding of risk.

Building a risk-based organizational culture. Building an organization that protects

itself from project-level risk and uncertainty through good organizational planning
and management requires strong leadership. As a project manager, you have to
first feel that you are expected by management to anticipate and deal with risk
and that you will be supported in taking the time and investing the cost to build
a good risk planning and control process. Risk management starts at the top
leadership level with a clearly articulated vision and mission that incorporates
an uncompromising commitment to quality and excellence. In doing so, the
leadership commits also to a risk management process to reduce the probability
of failure and to promote total quality in product design and production.

Program and portfolio management. The management of risk in a multiproject

environment, and the role of risk in selecting and maintaining a portfolio of
balanced projects, is not really addressed in the PMBOK. Yet the selection of
the right projects for the project pipeline inherently involves risk management.
Projects with high risks must be identified before they enter the approved list,
simply because a portfolio of high-risk projects endangers the long-term growth
and profitability of the enterprise.

Interface management. Good risk management is dependent on the availability

of effective support and interface services to project managers. Risk cannot be
seen simply as a project management issue; it is an accounting and cost issue,
a procurement issue, and an information technology issue. Cost data must be
available to project managers to assess cost impacts; contract officers must
be attuned to risk and risk-sharing issues when managing contractors and
supply vendors; information technology administrators must see the need for
web-based, easily available, risk matrix templates and calculations software.

Risk and cost integration. For some reason, the relationship between cost and
risk is lost in the daily routine of project managers, yet it is in cost and “expected
value” that future impacts of risk decisions can be made. Contingency plans add
 Global Program Risk Management 231

to project cost estimates, and when clear decisions must be made and crossroad
trade-offs to be decided on, a support system must be available.

Tools and techniques for risk management planning

Planning meetings are important and can be fruitful, but they can also be a com-
plete waste of time unless they are focused and deliver results. Setting agendas,
facilitating meetings, and writing good follow-up notes are all useful tools.
The PMBOK treatment of risk management planning does not cover some of
the most important risk management planning tools, namely:

1. Business plan. A grasp of the business plan helps a prospective project man-
ager get an early start in project risk management planning. Such a plan,
or a business strategic plan, will provide strategic information, e.g., SWOT
(strength, weakness, opportunity, and threat) data and information.
2. WBS. The WBS is an early indication of the potential risks in any project,
and planning for project risk requires at least an outline of the WBS to see
the basic components of work involved. Risk management planning requires
the project manager to anticipate how risks will be handled by looking at the
WBS, or by building one.
3. Information and network systems. A major risk management planning tool
is the company network and information-sharing system, as well as data
already available from similar past projects.

Outputs from risk management planning

The risk management plan outlines the approach to how risks will be handled in
the project. Frankly, many companies do not need a separate risk management
plan, but they should integrate risk information into the project scope, WBS (defi-
nitions), schedule, and budget. For example, a rule of thumb for an organization
could be: if the project under consideration has more than 300 tasks and is bud-
geted at more than $5 million, a separate risk management plan is called for.
The plan includes:

1. Methodolog. It is not clear from the PMBOK what the “methodology” of the
plan is, but it appears that the concept says you should have a methodology.
For instance, an electronic instrument production firm should use safety and
reliability tools—e.g., mean time between failures—to test its prototypes to
avoid the risk of performance variation and failure.
2. Roles and responsibilities. Here, the plan addresses who is responsible for
what in a functional and project management context. This is where the role
of a program management office is described.
3. Budgeting. This exercise estimates the cost of risk management. Frankly, it
would be more important to spend time analyzing the cost of the risk event.
The cost of risk management is a program management cost category, as in
quality assurance and project review.
232 Chapter Five

4. Timing. This addresses when various risk management actions will be taken
in the project schedule, such as risk analyses, preparation of contingency
plans, and response plans.
5. Scoring and interpretation. This portion of the risk management plan
addresses tools such as the weighted scoring model (aligns projects for selec-
tion with business strategy, places priority weights on various strategic objec-
tives, and scores each project against the strategic objectives), cashflow, rate
of return, and net present value.
6. Thresholds. Thresholds address the criteria, or rules of thumb, for acting on
risks or to reduce them—e.g., deploy preventative contingency and response
plans for risks that could delay a project by more than 10 percent of the total
project duration, unless the risk is reduced in the first quarter of the project.
7. Reporting formats. This provides guidance for the project manager on the
formats of project reports for stakeholders—e.g., e-mail, Microsoft Project
team reporting, or hard-copy spreadsheets.
8. Tracking. This provides guidance on what risks will be tracked and how—e.g.,
the acquisition of microchips for an electronic instrument will be tracked with
the contractor on the basis of earned value.

Risk Identification
Risk identification should be part of the project planning process, not separate
from it. Risks are identified in the development of the WBS, in estimating dura-
tion and resource needs, and in linking tasks.

Inputs to risk identification

To the extent that a risk management plan is produced, it is an important input
to identifying risks. But since most companies will start the process of handling
risk with the WBS and the task list, the identification of risk usually starts
in earnest in the review and final production phases of the generic WBS. It is
here that the project manager reviews every task for its potential for failure.
Identifying risk involves a lot of discussions with team members and stakehold-
ers. For instance, if a technical task in the WBS, say, achieving a given mean
time between failures in a product component, “sticks out” initially because of
the challenges of completing it, then it is the subject of much discussion and
contingency planning early in the project.

Project planning outputs

Project charter. If there is a charter, it should be helpful in identifying risks

and confirming the judgment of the project manager on where the project’s
vulnerabilities are.

WBS. The WBS is the basic source of risk identification activity, since it
embodies all the work of the project—or should. The WBS should be four levels
deep to give enough detail to the project profile to see project risks.
 Global Program Risk Management 233

Product description. The product description will be embodied in a configuration

management document or in some document/drawing/specification that defines
the product from a performance and component perspective. This will occur in the
design phase at some point when the deliverable has been fully fleshed out.

Schedule and cost estimates. The schedule and project budget (part of the schedule
in Microsoft Project) will be a good source to confirm risks, but first, the project
manager must prepare a risk matrix as described earlier. The risk matrix identifies
the task, the task risk description, and the impact (schedule, cost, etc.).

Resource plan. While there is typically no formal resource plan, there will
be a sense of the personnel, equipment, capital, space, and technology needs
of the project. Ideally, this resource plan is in one place—e.g., in Microsoft
Project and/or in a planning document of some sort. But at this point, if all the
resources needed for the project are not clear, it is not critical. What is needed
here is a clear idea of the “bottleneck” resources, those resource issues that
could represent a barrier to achieving the project. These bottleneck resources
might be a critical software engineer who is already spread too thinly in current
projects, a piece of testing equipment that is critical to meeting quality control
thresholds, or a workspace or station that is being shared with other projects.
Here, also, is the beginning of the application of the theory of constraints.
Simply put, the theory states that the focus of attention in planning and control
should not be on the whole project and all its tasks, but rather, on the one or
two major resource constraints. The project manager protects against the risks
inherent in these resources by tapping time and cost from the original estimates
and withholding them for allocation when they are needed.

Assumption and constraint lists. The assumption list is a convenient way of

indicating what assumptions are controlling—e.g., the assumption that a sole
source contract with a foreign supplier for a key product component will last
through the project life cycle. In practice, these assumptions are well known by
the project team and stakeholders, but it pays to document them and revisit them
in project review sessions, and to treat them as risks with contingency plans.

Risk categories

Technical. Technical risks have to do with product, process, or “technique”

issues involved with designing and producing the deliverable.

Project management risks. Project management risks address the things

that can go wrong with the project planning and control process, and with
expected support services from the information technology source and a project
management office, if the organization has one.

Organizational risks. These are the “soft” issues that a project faces. They
have to do with organizational behavior and dynamics—e.g., conflicts, scarce
resources, personnel performance problems, or company-wide crises, such as lack
234 Chapter Five

of financing or a downturn in share value. A key organizational risk is the lack

of top management support, which will be evidenced by neglect of the project in
the company “head shed.”

External risks. External risks are the business and global risks inherent in any
business—e.g., economic downturns, trade difficulties affecting the deliverable,
and the impacts of communication in multinational companies.

Historical information. Historical information includes past project documents,

lessons-learned reports, and industry information available on the competition,
on demand and market issues, and on the company’s performance on similar
past projects.

Project files. Project files are typically available from the company’s file system,
but in practice, project managers rarely look back at these, even though it would
make sense to do so.

Published information. This includes manuals, articles, and technical publications

on the deliverable.

Tools and techniques for risk identification

Documentation reviews. The key document in risk identification is the WBS.

Other documents would include past project reviews and similar product
performance information.

Information-gathering techniques. These would include web-based information,

electronic files with product information, and Internet research.

Brainstorming. Brainstorming is simply having meetings with key people who

know something about the project and generating ideas and options without
judging them. Brainstorming generates ideas and does not filter them.

Delphi technique. Delphi is brainstorming with key experts, who go through a

systematic process of providing their views, reviewing each other’s ideas, and
coming up with a scenario based on the integration of their views.

Interviewing. Interviewing key stakeholders, past project managers, and task

managers helps to uncover “subtle” information that has not been documented.

Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Here, we look back at the

business planning processes for strategic analyses, especially including threats
and opportunities.

Checklists. Checklists are typically prepared by documentation specialists for

various project and product documents. They often key into potential failure
points in past projects and thus are useful in identifying risks.
 Global Program Risk Management 235

Assumptions analysis. The key source of assumptions is rarely captured in one

document, but the concept of focusing on assumptions is important. A project
management office is typically in charge of documenting assumptions.

Diagramming techniques. Flow charts and diagrams, such as decision trees, are
useful in identifying the various options and decisions, including expected value.

Cause and effect. “Root causes” of risks can be identified through fishbone
diagrams and other such meeting techniques.

Influence diagrams. Diagrams that indicate cause and effect, as well as the
influence of key factors, can help in identifying risks.

Outputs from risk identification

Risks. The output of risk identification is a better sense of risks over time. In
truth, the clarity of risks increases as the project life cycle progresses.

Triggers. Triggers include those indicators or signals of risk events that become
clearer in the risk identification process. For instance, in a contract negotiation
in the outsourcing process, a contractor refuses to sign the contract because of a
schedule requirement that stipulates a key supply or piece of equipment must
be delivered before a key project milestone.

Qualitative Risk Analysis

The PMBOK separates the risk analysis process into two parts: qualitative
and quantitative. In practice, companies rarely split the two. The point of risk
analysis is to hone in on potentially high-risk tasks and get a more detailed
picture of their impacts.

Inputs to qualitative risk analysis

Risk management plan. The risk management plan contains an analysis of
probable risks, the impact of the identified risks to the project or program, as
well as response strategies to help the project or program avoid being disrupted
should an identified risk event occur. Risk management plans are a living
document and should be periodically updated.

Identified risks. A completed risk matrix is required before risk analysis proceeds.

Project status. The particular timing of a risk analysis is important because

the risk impacts, particularly in terms of schedule and budget, will change,
depending on when they are analyzed. The later in the project cycle, the clearer
the impacts will be.

Project type. It is important to dimension the risk here; a project producing an

electronic instrument for a sophisticated aeronautic application, for example,
will look different from a project to construct a standard building.
236 Chapter Five

Data precision. The accuracy and precision of data is important; if you know
that a given reliability test has a proven failure rate, then the results must be
tempered accordingly.

Scales of probability. Probability is a subjective judgment, unless the product is

tested many times to develop a statistical mean. In most projects, the probability
of a risk occurring is the result of thinking through how many times this kind of
risk has occurred in past similar projects, combined with the “gut” judgment
of the project manager and key stakeholders.

Assumptions. Again, the assumptions are rarely listed, but they are apparent
in the analysis process.

Tools and techniques for qualitative risk analysis

Risk probability and impact. Using the risk matrix, the project manager has already
identified risks and will assign probabilities to all high-impact risks. For most risks,
these probabilities are subjective and simply communicate a sense of confidence that
the project manager has about the risk in question. Generally, probabilities should
be stated in three forms: 25 percent, 50 percent, or 75 percent, suggesting little
change of the risk occurring, substantial chance, or high chance, respectively.

Probability/impact risk rating matrix. The rating or risk matrix now is fine-tuned
in the analysis process, with more data and more attention.

Project assumptions testing. Testing assumptions involves taking the time to

review key assumptions and confirming that the assumption is right and that
the probability assigned is in the right ballpark.

Data precision ranking. For most projects, this step is not useful. If the product
is highly complex and must meet detailed performance specifications, then the
data precision ranking indicates how precise the test data is compared to a
common standard.

Outputs from qualitative risk analysis

Overall risk ranking for the project. Once the qualitative process is finished, two
rankings are produced: how the project’s overall risk is ranked compared to others
(this may be completed when comparing and selecting a portfolio of projects) and how
individual risks rank within the project, usually limiting the list to five or fewer.
Again, this process is related closely to the theory of constraints. A project typi-
cally faces only a few major bottlenecks or risks, and it is the job of the project man-
ager to accurately uncover those few critical risks during qualitative analysis.

List of prioritized risks. The list of prioritized risks is incorporated in a project

report to stakeholders along with supportive information, including the risk
matrix and contingency plans.
 Global Program Risk Management 237

List of risks for additional analysis and management. A residual list includes other
risks that could turn out to be more important than they appear.

Trends in qualitative risk analysis results. Some review of the credibility of the
process will uncover past analyses and how their results played out in real terms.

Quantitative Risk Analysis

Inputs to quantitative analysis

All of the inputs to qualitative analysis are relevant here, plus expert judg-
ment. Expert judgment comes from technical experts who have knowledge at
the technical level on the risk in question. For instance, here is where a project
manager brings in a safety and reliability expert contractor to advise on vari-
ability thresholds in testing prototype parts.

Tools and techniques for quantitative risk analysis

Interviewing. Again, interviews with key experts on defined task risks are useful.

Sensitivity analysis. Sensitivity analysis determines how much project outcomes—

e.g., schedule, budget, quality—are sensitive to particular risks. For instance, it
may turn out that although a risk is only medium probability and impact, it could
alter the final deliverable in a measurable way in terms of quality control.

Decision tree analysis. Decision tree analysis aims to uncover the expected value
of taking one path or another when a project “crossroad” decision must be made.
For instance a decision on whether to purchase land needed for a program “now
or later” in anticipation of winning the contract brings with it a set of expected
values for going one way or the other. If you buy the land now and don’t win the
contract you may lose when you try to sell the land; if you buy later, if you win
the contract, you pay more for the appreciated value of the land.

Simulation. Simulations are mathematical representations of scenarios

involving key project risks. This might include an equation that specifies what
happens to an information technology scheme when its capacity is challenged
by demand, e.g., shutdowns, performance failures, etc.

Outputs from quantitative risk analysis

Prioritized list of quantitative risks. The quantitative analysis usually places more
content on the already produced list of risks from qualitative analysis. New data
is presented on high risks from the analysis.

Probabilistic analysis of the project. Here, the probabilities are worked to a finer level
of detail based on more analysis. A probability set at 25 percent in the qualitative
phase might be fine-turned here to, say, 38 percent with more input from intensive
analysis of past projects and simulations, and perhaps some experiments.
238 Chapter Five

Probability of achieving the cost and time objective. A final probability is

determined for meeting the project schedule and budget goals.

Risk Response Planning

Appropriately, the PMBOK places high priority on a response plan that miti-
gates risk. That response plan is grounded in the contingency plans already
developed when preparing the risk matrix. The key point about response plan-
ning is to outline corrective action and to incorporate those actions into the
baseline schedule so that they will not later be considered add-ons or changes
to the project. They might later be identified with the “pessimistic” estimates
of durations in the PERT analysis in Microsoft Project.

Inputs to risk response planning

Risk thresholds. Risk thresholds help identify acceptable ranges within which
risks can occur without deploying contingencies—e.g., if this work is not done
in the estimated time, we will give the team three more weeks before we act,
since the task is not on the critical path. These thresholds come from customers,
stakeholders, and technical experts.

Risk owners. Risk owners are those stakeholders who are accountable for acting
on risks, or at least reporting on risk activity. If there is no designated risk
owner, a risk could be unattended long after it is identified because of the
tendency to avoid controversy and accountability for risks that cannot easily
be controlled.

Common risk causes. Common to all industries is a set of common risk causes,
e.g., government regulatory change, bad marketing information, faulty safety
and reliability equipment, lack of proven competencies in particular personnel
categories, etc.

Tools and techniques for risk response planning

Avoidance. One approach to a risk is to avoid it and hope that it goes away.
Sometimes it does.

Transference. Transference involves turning a risk over to a risk owner, e.g., assigning
a contractor the job of responding to and providing incentives for risk reduction.

Mitigation. This is a corrective action option, leading to the deployment of a

contingency plan.

Acceptance. Sometimes it pays to accept a risk and deal with it directly rather
than transferring it, avoiding it, or mitigating it. “Living with” the risk means
plugging in schedule and budget reserves, based on the assumption that the
risk cannot be controlled, and working around it.
 Global Program Risk Management 239

Outputs from risk response planning

Risk response plan. Although a formal, written risk response plan is not always
feasible or wise because of the cost and effort involved, it is the learning and
thinking process that follows from good risk response planning that gives it
value. Once through the process of defining risks and planning for them and
folding the results into planning documents, such as the schedule and budget,
a project manager “owns” those risk responses and has incorporated them into
the plan. The lack of a separate, documented risk response plan is not a good
indication that risks have not been considered; it is more important that risks
be incorporated into the project schedule and estimates made from “expected,
optimistic, and pessimistic views,” which are driven from risk analysis.

Residual risks. Residual risks are risks that continue to exist after corrective
action. Sometimes, residual risks are created by taking a corrective action that
was not anticipated in the original project planning process.

Secondary risks. These are lower-level risks that have less impact but which
can grow in importance if neglected.

Contractual agreements. The type of contract used in outsourcing work involves

some explicit assumptions about risk transference. For instance, a fixed-price
contract is superior to a cost-reimbursable contract in transferring risk to a
contractor to control a given risk in performing contracted project work.

Contingency reserve amounts needed. Sometimes, a project must be protected

with a reserve fund or insurance program so that the company is not financially
exposed due to a given risk even though it is mitigated.

Risk Monitoring and Control

The PMBOK places emphasis on monitoring risks and controlling them, but this
process is again an integral part of the project review and control process.

Inputs to risk monitoring and control

In addition to the common inputs addressed previously, the new inputs to moni-
toring are communication and scope change.

Project communication. Communication means exchanging information on

anticipated risks so that people who have a stake in the project can assist in
mitigation and adjust their expectations for the project. Communication always
helps to reduce the uncertainty and “surprise” factor in dealing with customers,
clients, and stakeholders.

Scope changes. As the project is progressing and work is getting done, new
information may be uncovered in the risk management process that requires a
change in the scope, schedule, budget, or quality standards. Thus, scope change
is a logical outcome of monitoring and seeing risks that affect the project.
240 Chapter Five

Tools and techniques for risk monitoring and control

Project risk response audits. A project risk audit looks at how effectively project
management processes in general were handled and how well project risks were
monitored and mitigated.

Periodic risk reviews. Risk review occurs in the normal project review process,
not as a separate process. A standard project review agenda always includes a
section on risks.

Earned value analysis. Looking at schedule and cost variance always indicates the
possibility that risks are at work, since the project is not performing as planned.
Corrective action when uncovering major earned value variances over 10 percent,
for example, would include review of risk contingencies and impacts.

Technical performance measurement. Technical issues could be at work in a

project that is slipping or meeting insurmountable obstacles.

Outputs from risk monitoring and control

Workaround plans. The so-called workaround plan is a manifestation of the risk

mitigation process. The workaround is a contingency that should be identified in
preparing the risk matrix. It sometimes takes advantage of innovative, creative
options to overcome a project risk, and is often the result of “out-of-the-box”
thinking that can be generated in a brainstorming session.

Corrective action. Corrective action is the action taken when the project is not
performing to plan, whether due to problems in schedule, cost, or quality.

Project change requests. Often in monitoring, the need to fundamentally change

a project scope or key deliverable occurs, thus triggering a change request.

Updates to the risk response plan. Updates to the risk response plan result from
lessons learned in the monitoring process.

Risk database. The risk database is a documentation of risk information that

will be useful in corrective action and future projects.

Updates to risk identification checklists. Updates to risk identification checklists

help keep tabs on best practices in risk mitigation as they are generated.

When risk is poorly managed there is potential failure to the project, program,
and possibly the viability of the organization. Risk is incorporated in the budget,
schedule, and specifications, which when successfully combined become the
deliverables for a project. When you focus on the global program level, the impli-
cations of risk are far more significant because they are intertwined with the
company’s strategy to produce results. When risk is well managed, the desired
deliverables and results can be achieved.
 Chapter

6
The Global Program Manager

“Program Manager: US civilian research

and development foundation seeks a program
manager fluent in Azeri to implement and
provide support to The Azerbaijan National
Science Foundation program...”
The Washington Post, November 29,
2008

Introduction
In the last chapter we explored program risk management and the risks associ-
ated with doing program business abroad. Earlier chapters explored the global
setting for program management, the PMI Standard for Program Management,
the process of building a program portfolio, and the process of aligning programs
with strategic plans. Now we turn our attention to the people issue: what is a
program manager and how does the business grow global program managers?

The Global Program Manager

We address several models and themes for defining the program manager in
this chapter. No one model will fit all situations so the reader is admonished to
be patient with the discussion and to take from this chapter those key concepts
and tools that seem to make the most sense in the reader’s work setting.
The successful global program manager is a broadly experienced and techni-
cally competent manager of people with the capacity to articulate a program
vision and anticipate and respond to global program support needs and chal-
lenges. The global program manager is a leader who can hire, inspire, and
motivate project managers and team members. But as the job announcement
that opened this chapter suggests, sometimes, global program managers must
have special qualifications and expertise—in this case, a working fluency in
Azeri. The candidate chosen for this job will have to see globally, in the sense of
reading program impacts and benefits across the world and mobilizing resources

241
242 Chapter Six

from anywhere in the world. This manager has a broad organizational perspec-
tive, acting as an agent or business officer, aware of the organization and target
industry or sector as a whole. Furthermore, the program manager must have
at least working proficiency in networks and mass collaboration systems now
available on the Internet.
The successful program manager typically starts as a project manager or
technical task leader, progressing to program manager in the middle or later
stages of his or her career. In the evolution to program manager, new skills and
competencies are learned to make the transition from leading a single project to
leading a longer-range, multiproject program. While there are many gray areas
in the transition from project to program, it is clear that new competencies and
skills are “called up” in the move, as the focus moves to long-term program
outcomes and benefits and the world becomes the playing field.

The Global Program Manager “Job Description”

Since the competency and skill requirements of a global program manager
depend on the job at hand—that is, the expectations of the employing company
or agency—let’s explore a generic job description for a global program manager.

General responsibilities
The global program manager is responsible for the planning and delivery of pro-
gram goals, objectives, and benefits. This accountability extends to the broad,
intended benefits and outcomes of the program, as well as its direct outputs,
products, and services. The role implies coordination with multiple projects and
with the broad spectrum of agency or company support functions and business
plans. The program manager is responsible for the overall integrity and coher-
ence of the program, and reports to the program sponsor or owner, who may be
within the organization or a client or customer, or both.

Specific responsibilities

Setting program goals and objectives to implement sponsor and business

portfolio plans for global applications
Planning and designing the project portfolio development, participating in the
selection and funding of projects and overall program support worldwide
Proactively monitoring the overall program progress, resolving issues and
initiating corrective action as appropriate
Defining the program governance, management process, and administrative
arrangements to assure consistency and equity across nations and markets
Establishing and implementing a quality assurance and quality control pro-
gram to assure program outputs meet the expectations of customers and
international industry, safety, and regulatory standards
 The Global Program Manager 243

Implementing a program risk management plan addressing global risks and

benefits
Coordinating with agency or company infrastructure and functional services
worldwide
Interfacing with agency or company technical and functional assets to assure
consistency with industry and company standards
Creating the team of project managers and creating an innovative and dis-
ciplined team process of communication and collaboration globally
Delivering program goals and program milestones on time and within budget,
with a focus on cost control and earned value—e.g., cost and schedule
variances
Acquiring program resources and assets to enable fulfillment of the program
objectives
Managing third-party and contractual partners in the program, including
local support partners globally
Managing program and project interfaces at key program review, or “go or
no-go” points and milestones
Maintaining a consistent program reporting system for program sponsors,
clients, and stakeholders

Skills and attributes

Experience in the program domain and as a project manager

Leadership skills, the ability to establish a program vision and goal, and to
lead program managers to work together to achieve them
Technical skills, the capacity to understand complex systems in the program
domain and to see broad system performance issues and opportunities
Program management system skills, particularly, the capacity to create
and enhance consistent management software platforms and approaches
to project planning, task breakdown, scheduling, budgeting, monitoring,
and implementation
Resources acquisition and cost control skills, the capacity to acquire resources
to design budgets and cost estimates, and to control costs within the context
of earned value
Communication skills, exemplary communication skills and proficiency with
Internet and webinar tools for global interface
Business acumen, the understanding of business plans and strategies, and
how programs affect business growth, risk, and opportunity
Diplomatic and collaborative skills to work comfortably and effectively in a
multicultural environment
244 Chapter Six

Global Program Management: What Does It

Really Involve?

Implement business strategy: make the

business case for the program and assure alignment
A global program manager is the advocate for the program, making the business
case for the program and its alignment with the business or agency strategic
plan. This function requires constant vigilance to assure that program plan-
ning and activity is reconciled with where the business itself is going—where
the business plan points to growth. The program is seen as an investment of
resources and people to further the development of the business or agency. The
global program manager role implies an understanding that complex programs
can get out of hand, that the dynamics of program management always present
risks, and that the program achieves a life of its own.

Create a program workforce, team, and

support system for results
The essence of any program is its people, including the direct program work-
force, the program team, and its supporting cast. The job involves the selection
of key project managers and key task leaders, ensuring that technology exper-
tise is placed where and when it is needed, establishing performance expecta-
tions and goals, working with outsourced staff, and leading and inspiring smart
work, team collaboration, and innovation. Many program people will be in other
countries; thus, bringing the team together will require constant communica-
tion with the virtual program team. This function involves constant contact
with the human resources function in the business or agency and making sure
the program receives adequate attention and priority in recruitment and hiring
services.

Acquire program resources and funding

Supporting and funding the program involves working with top company or
agency leadership and management to give priority to the program, especially
up front. This means participating in budgeting and funding decisions, making
the case for the program and its resource needs, and having a good grasp of
program resource requirements and cost estimates. Since most programs are
not fully funded initially, the global program manager must stay attuned to the
annual planning and budgeting process to ensure that the program stays visible
and aligned with the business.

Interface with program stakeholders and sponsors

Global program managers are in constant contact with key program sponsors
and stakeholders. This role involves the effective use of mobile communication
technology and the Internet to engage—sometimes daily—top business sponsors
 The Global Program Manager 245

and leaders, key customer and stakeholders. Although the global program man-
ager can typically stay in touch with a variety of key program people through
technology, a fair amount of travel is necessary because online chatter cannot
substitute for “eyeballing” the situation—e.g., being there.

Ensure effective planning, scheduling, budgeting,

monitoring, and review
The program manager is responsible for ensuring a consistent and effective
project management methodology in all the program teams. This means ensur-
ing that the business itself has the underlying supporting networks and soft
programs so that projects are defined, chartered, documented, scheduled, and
monitored using earned value and other project performance measures. If the
parent business or agency does not have a “projectized” support system, the
program manager must create one for the program.

Build a supporting global program network

The global program manager role involves an understanding of the necessary
support system for global program success, including the global presence of
key personnel, outsourcing capacity, local intelligence sources to monitor local
socioeconomic conditions and trends (e.g., regulations, safety and security), and
a system of program delivery. Program delivery may require local distribution
channels, which may present challenges simply because of different cultural
and language issues.

Balance program discipline with innovation and creativity

While a program is typically set firmly in assumptions about program objec-
tives, outputs, outcomes, and benefits, an agile program team has the capacity
to create new ideas and concepts that can fundamentally change the shape
and texture of the program midstream. The global program manager must set
limits on creativity to make sure new ideas are aligned with where the program
is going. This is accomplished by disciplining task definition and scheduling,
but regularly conducting program reviews at key milestones to confirm task
structure and to explore ways to deliver program results faster, cheaper, and
better.

Program Managers versus Single Project Managers

Program management is different from single project management. The man-
agement of single projects requires several analytic and leadership skills in
addition to proficiency with project management software. Project managers
must be capable of working with a customer to develop the scope of work for
the project and to prepare a work breakdown structure that captures the deliv-
erables in an organizational chart or outline. The project manager must be
familiar with the technical field and changes in technology. This person must
246 Chapter Six

be able to put a team together, assigning team members to activity and task
areas in the work breakdown structure, and lead the team through the project
life cycle. The manager must have the capacity to use project management
software to prepare GANTT charts, assign resources, estimate costs, produce
reports, and make presentations on the project.
There is an active debate in the field on the extent to which the project man-
ager must be familiar with the technology of the project and technical aspects
of design, development, testing, and product delivery. Some say the manager
need only have a cursory sense of the deliverable and the technology involved,
relying on team members and subject matter experts for technical assistance.
Others say the manager must know enough “not to be snowed” by the customer,
team members, or suppliers and subcontractors. They indicate that the man-
ager will have to interpret technical progress reports of team members and be
able to communicate with technical counterparts in the customer organiza-
tion. In any case, it is clear that the project manager must have a good grasp
of the deliverable and be comfortable in the field, if not an expert. If the field
is changing rapidly, it is especially important for the project manager to grasp
the implications of change for the current project.
Single project managers must be wholly focused on the day-to-day dynamics
of the project because the project environment is always changing and shifting
unexpectedly. The horizon is short in project management. This requires that
the project manager manage through the 80-hour rule—that is, the focus in
each weekly review is the current status of projects, indicated in earned value
analysis, and anticipating the next 80 hours of work. This way, the team is
reminded of the next two weeks’ work, challenges that can be anticipated and
key milestones in that 80-hour period. The single project manager is typically
wrapped up in the project at hand.
Project managers must have several key skills: the ability to lead a team and
resolve team problems; the ability to communicate and report effectively to a
wide variety of customers and stakeholders on technical and project issues; the
ability to manage a number of technical assignments all at once; the capacity to
deploy project management tools, such as GANTT charts and schedules; a full
understanding of the project life cycle; and a proficiency in project management
software. In addition, the project manager must have judgment skills to make
trade-offs between cost, schedule, and quality during the progress of the project
and to make difficult decisions quickly to keep a project moving.
Finally, project managers are expected to be advocates of their projects and
to make effective arguments for resources and priorities based on their project
needs and their project’s “critical path.” They are not necessarily expected
to see the big picture or to make decisions on sharing resources with other
project managers. They are expected to be narrowly focused on making their
project goals, objectives, and deliverables, regardless of what is happening
in the company. If they start compromising their focus in the context of the
needs of other projects, they do a disservice to their customers and to their
project team.
 The Global Program Manager 247

The Transition to Program Manager

Program management is a different kettle of fish altogether. Program manage-
ment is the process of managing a “portfolio” of projects, some of which are going
on at the same time and some of which are linked in a sequence of process or
output enhancements over a longer period and are global in scope. The program
manager’s span of control is wider and broader than the project manager’s is.
Program managers can be responsible for a long line of products and prod-
uct enhancements in one program area over time—say, over a 10-year period—
transitioning from one project to another based on customer and market feed-
back. Program managers also can be responsible for many projects and project
managers across programs or product areas, thus complicating the management
process. These people often are responsible for broad corporate product lines
and markets across wide technical boundaries.
Program managers typically hire and supervise other project managers. They
are responsible for developing the company’s project management workforce,
building and advancing project managers into higher levels of responsibility.
They coach project managers. Program managers serve as the interface between
projects and broader company strategies and business plans; thus, they are
called on to communicate broad purposes to individual project managers and to
report individual project results to corporate executives in high-level program
reviews.
The complex, technical, and multiproject environment that program manag-
ers face requires different skills in managing information. The program man-
ager cannot get lost in the details of one project or one project schedule or
report, but must have an “enterprise-wide” perspective. Information on many
projects must be managed so that the program manager can see the big picture
and make the necessary trade-offs between projects, if necessary, to resolve
resource and priority problems. Program managers must be able to step away
from project details, see the broader implications, and make decisions on the
basis of corporate-wide considerations and impacts.
Program managers mix in the milieu of vice presidents and CEOs—both
their corporations’ and those of the customer. They tend to coordinate at high
levels, where decisions affect broad business performance, business-to-business
relationships, workforce planning and management, regulatory issues, finan-
cial performance, stockholders, partnerships, and major supplier and contract
issues. These factors often bring program managers into play with issues that
single-project managers may not fully understand, especially if these factors
get in the way of achieving narrow project goals. This is the essence of program
management: balancing individual projects with broader performance issues
and implications across projects.
The focus of most program managers is likely to be change and change man-
agement. This view says that the program manager has the broad perspective
to be able to manage broad company initiatives—e.g., many projects aimed at
changing the company in fundamental ways—across a wide variety of company
activities and divisions globally.
248 Chapter Six

Global Reference of Program Management

The global reference here is the capacity of the global program manager to see
opportunities and challenges throughout the world and to act on them adroitly
through proven and innovative program management and procurement meth-
ods and approaches. The focus here is on global resource and personnel acquisi-
tion, outsourcing for services and goods throughout the world, tapping Internet
system capacities for information and communication linkages, and the capacity
to relate overall program costs and risks to long-term program outcomes and
economic and social benefits.

Program Reference
As the program becomes more and more complex, the program manager must
be able to promote consistent program and project management tools and tech-
niques across all projects and supporting activities. Since programs involve
business systems and supporting activities, from planning and product design
to production, marketing, and distribution, the program framework is often
industry- and sector-wide, and extends to the global economy itself.

Explanation of Concept
The concept here is that program managers must demonstrate a high level of
leadership and managerial competency that transcends projects and tasks.
Program managers are officers of the business, leaders in their industry and
technology, attuned to where the industry is going globally and how the busi-
ness is to grow and thrive.

Program Manager Competencies

Competencies combine the personal attributes and business functions men-
tioned previously. To arrive at global program management competencies, one
has to look at the requirements of the role and the skills necessary to perform
that role, and then integrate roles and skills into the competency.
Here are the six basic competencies that characterize the successful global
program manager.

Technically savvy. The capacity to understand current and emerging technology

and systems in the context of the target program and market, and see and act
on opportunities in a worldwide context.
The myth that any good manager or leader can take over any program and
run it without experience in the industry is just that—a myth. Experience
suggests that a broad understanding of the program sector and environment
is necessary to plan and manage a complex program. This is because techni-
cal issues in most programs often escalate to program managers, who have to
exercise judgment, or at least evaluate technical judgments from others. This
 The Global Program Manager 249

competency includes the capacity to ask the right questions at the right time;
that is the program manager’s role.

The capacity to work in global systems of networking,

Think globally, act locally.
technology, and program activity, but to be able to act quickly and effectively
with local resources wherever appropriate. Any location that is relevant to
program operations is local to the global program manager.
A program manager must believe in global economics and be comfortable
working in the uncertainty of global socioeconomic dynamics. This is because
our new “flat” world eliminates the competitive barriers between countries.
Electronic networks virtually replicate local conditions wherever they are in
the world. Free trade reduces the barriers to finding the most cost-effective
solutions to program issues.
For instance, the global program manager in charge of producing and laying
cable across the Atlantic Ocean and linking it to other telecommunications
systems in other regions and countries must have broad knowledge of the
global environment in which his or her program will operate. This includes the
capacity to put systems together to serve and stimulate broad, global customer
demand. But that same manager must be able to mobilize a strike team quickly
to evaluate a problem wherever it occurs.

Focused leadership. The capacity to articulate a broad vision for the program,
to make it relevant to the program team and to stakeholders, and to inspire
and motivate team members through the world to work together to achieve
program goals.
This competency includes the capacity to understand the dynamic of teams
and groups of people, to make the business case, to persuade people to act, to
see the politics of a program and understand “whose ox is going to be gored”
in a given decision context, and to anticipate market and global impacts. This
competency gives the team comfort and hope when things do not go well.

Organized. The capacity to see a program in the context of a business or agency,

and as a set of individual project initiatives, and to encourage a consistent and
disciplined approach to planning, scheduling, delivering, and monitoring across
projects.
The program manager must know how program management system tools
and techniques are applied to ensure that multiple projects within the context
of the program are planned, scheduled, financed, and monitored using proven
program management tools. This capacity includes understanding the limita-
tions of soft and hard program planning tools and the ability to revolve resource
and scheduling issues quickly, and to see failure points before they occur.

Business acumen. The capacity to understand the business enterprise framework

for the program, to see risks and opportunity, and to act appropriately for the
business as a whole.
250 Chapter Six

Any program is a major investment of business resources and thus represents

both a business risk and a business opportunity. Therefore, the program man-
ager must have a working knowledge of the parent business, understand its
capacity and limitations, understand the market it serves, and know how the
program evolved from the business financial and strategic objectives.

The ability to teach. The capacity and interest in teaching, training, and empowering
programs and program team people to perform. Global program managers will
spend much of their time in a teaching and training mode, interpreting the world
for the uninitiated, and developing project managers and team members to work
in an integrated and coordinated way in a multicultural environment.
The teaching competency includes being able to articulate issues, inspire
interest in subjects relevant to the program, ask the right questions, work in a
classroom and online environment, provide assessment of lessons learned, and
model a lifelong learning approach to business.

Training the Global Program Manager

The training of a global program manager involves direct classroom and online
training, and exposure to program management and technology experiences
in many global markets. This requires training in the appropriate technical
domains of the program to equip the manager with a grasp of the technical and
global setting of the program.
Specific training and experience includes exposure and direct training in the
following areas.

Language, diversity, and codes and symbols of the

global culture
Global program managers may, in any single working day, talk with people in
10 different countries, with 15 different languages, and multiple differences in
basic work habits and values. This working milieu requires agility and adapta-
tion to situations and issues around the world, often requiring more effort and
time than doing business domestically. Understanding different cultures and
symbols and codes is important in getting work done; thus, both exposure to
multiple cultures and systems of doing business, as well as training in language
and local customs is in order for a global manager.
Diversity takes on a whole new meaning in the work of a global program man-
ager; thus, competency in working with a diverse workforce is the key to success.
This often requires tolerance and patience with foreign colleagues, whose value
systems and priorities may be different from those experienced domestically.

Single and multiple project management systems

Global managers must know how individual projects are planned, scheduled, and
delivered in order to run a system of multiple projects that is part of program
 The Global Program Manager 251

delivery. This means an appreciation for program management software and

for consistent tools and techniques of work breakdown structures, scheduling,
budgeting and cost control, quality control, and team meetings.
The global program manager must create a program management system and
a project culture that consistently channels information where it is needed.

Global program portfolio planning, delivery

systems, and issues
Training should include an introduction to the company’s or agency’s program
portfolio system—e.g., how strategic objectives are translated into programs.
This would include exposure to how the business or agency makes priority and
funding decisions.

Technology developments relevant to the program

A telecommunications program manager working in a given region in the
world must have a clear idea of how technology can be mobilized to achieve
program goals. This means training and exposure to technology systems in
targeted regions throughout the world. For instance, it makes no sense to
count on mobile phone texting as a project reporting mechanism if the target
market and region does not have a supporting and regulatory system for
mobile communications.

Business support functions and operations

This training includes administrative and management system updates—e.g.,
how company’s information platforms and networking systems work; how to
take advantage of e-procurement capacity; and how to exercise human resource
planning, real estate, and other business support functions and offices.

Managing Virtual Teams and the Technology

A virtual team is a team that does not work together physically; they are
linked through telecommunications and other technologies from remote loca-
tions. Global managers should be comfortable working with such virtual
teams, with key project managers and subject matter experts located in many
different places in the world. Communicating and moving data to these loca-
tions requires the frequent use of web conferencing and e-mail tools, as well
as specialized platforms and company networks for the exchange of data.
Project General, the Microsoft Project software program for the exchange of
project schedules and data, would be natural part of the team’s interaction
and reporting systems.
We offer one caution on virtual teams. Online exchanges and communi-
cation take on special meaning and are far more effective after a team has
met in the same room, built a sense of the team as a social system, and has
252 Chapter Six

a good sense of the personalities and attitudes of each other. Be careful not
to depend on virtual technology communication systems when the people
involved do not know each other. This risk is accentuated in a global team,
where symbols and cultural standards can be worked out early in the team’s
work.
When it is impossible for teams to meet face to face, the program manager
needs to conduct an initial online discussion that explores each member of
the team, their biographies, and team roles. The objective would be to build a
sense of each other’s strengths and backgrounds before trying to work together
without an initial meeting.

Negotiating Skills
Roger Fisher and William Ury authored a famous book on negotiation (Getting
to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In, Penguin Publishing, 1991) in
which they stressed four approaches to negotiation: separating the people from
the problem; focusing on interests, not positions; inventing options for mutual
gain; and insisting on using objective criteria. While these techniques may
help in negotiations in a complex program, let’s set the stage for the unique
negotiations required in global program management. Let’s drill deeper into
the context for negotiation.
Global program managers negotiate in a number of situations in which they
or their representatives are interacting with foreign nationals or governments—
e.g., contract and outsourcing arrangements; regulatory, safety, product, and
security standards; scheduling; cost estimating and budgeting; resource acqui-
sition; and quality. Each requires a particular approach, as discussed in the
following sections.

Contracts
Contractual negotiations in many countries are not as formal or predictable
as those found in American contract negotiations. Sometimes, program con-
tracts and local arrangements are made with a handshake or with a verbal
promise instead of a written contract. Unlike the advice of Fisher and Ury to
focus on issues rather than people, the global manager may have to focus on
personalities and positions to effect contract arrangements in a personal way.
Sometimes, money crosses hands in an arrangement that Americans might call
bribery. Sometimes, foreign governments doing business with an international
engineering or systems team will fragment responsibility in the program team
so that no one country representative on the team can dominate it. The home
country will play the prime contractor role in the program team and coordinate
the program players from other countries to ensure local control. Therefore,
negotiations within the team often involve not only the home program sponsor,
but many of the team players as well, because all the players have to adjust to
local conditions.
 The Global Program Manager 253

The global program manager must be aware of these variations in order to nego-
tiate program support and facilities. For instance, a cable telecommunications
supplier developing a major international cable system in the Middle East might
encounter the following negotiation challenges:

1. Negotiating roles and functions for the program team as part of a larger, more
international, team of telecommunications professionals and technicians, the
global program manager must fit his or her team into local roles and settings.
This may mean giving up controls and leverage in cable installation, such
as cable access, liabilities, and maintenance costs. Entering the negotiations
with this in mind, a global manager must be aware of the key priorities of
the program (e.g., no competitor access) that are not negotiable and those
that can be compromised in making arrangements with a local jurisdiction
or prime company (e.g., maintenance costs and systems). Local easement
and land use often present major issues to a telecommunications program,
including local access to required rights of way for cable systems and hubs.
2. Cable installation or maintenance contracts may be written with 50 different
jurisdictions, each with a different format and set of terms and conditions.
Thus, standardizing and formatting contracts in a global program are often
impossible. Additional time and effort may be necessary to effect contracts
that take only minutes in domestic programs.
3. Relationships with partners and competitors take a different turn in interna-
tional situations, requiring tailored negotiation approaches. For instance, a
cable company may have to negotiate with local competitors to market cable
services, sometimes even entering into compacts or partnership contracts.
Global program managers must often negotiate these arrangements sen-
sitively so that program and business assets are protected while doors are
opened to program development in the local setting.
4. Governments in the Middle East may have different or no safety regulations
to govern local cable installation, yet local foreigners on the program payroll
can sue the program company in the United States under certain circum-
stances. Thus, the lack of local safety rules does not eliminate the need for
safety management practice.

Using International Culture Codes

Clotaire Rapaille authored a book entitled The Culture Code: An Ingenious
Way to Understand Why People Around the World Live and Buy as They Do
(Broadway Books, 2007). In his book, he identifies the concept of culture codes,
or indicators of how people behave and respond based on their cultures and
national origins. Cultures create conditions for communication and agreement,
but these conditions are not always apparent. Americans have several codes,
but one such code is the concept of a dream. Rapaille explains this as a deep
cultural learning about Americans fulfilling their American dreams (e.g., “you
254 Chapter Six

can be anything you want to be”). He describes other indicators of nationalistic

or culture orientation that signal various responses and consumer behaviors
in given markets.
Global program managers can take advantage of culture codes if they study
and use them in management, negotiation, and follow-up program activities
with foreign companies and nationals. For instance, in the Middle East, the
concept of time is not a major issue in getting things done in a major infrastruc-
ture program, but the concepts of interpersonal honor and trust are extremely
important as culture codes. Therefore, a program manager who micromanages a
program schedule is likely to fail in making milestones, but a program manager
who can earn the personal and professional respect of the sponsor or program
owner will be more likely to succeed.

Global Schedule Conflicts and Negotiations: A Global

Website Design Case
Different values and standards for time and delivery in various worldwide
locations often require different postures in negotiation and conflict resolution.
The following case is an example of a program monitoring and control situation
involving one of its products: a website. The key issue is potential conflict and
negotiation around a foreign contractor’s performance during the design and
delivery of the product. The case is set up with a brief description of the website
design project. It involves the program manager’s decision on whether to pay
an invoice from the foreign contractor when the project manager and contractor
involved differ on the work performed to date, costs incurred, and the invoice
amount. The issue becomes how the remaining work in the project should be
accomplished: by renegotiating and rescheduling the current work, or by termi-
nating the contract and starting over with a new contract, or even completing
the work in-house. The situation is complicated by the foreign location of the
work and the interaction of American and foreign nationals and companies.

Background
This is a story about a foreign training firm that has generated a new project as
part of a global information program. The program is to produce a website for
virtual training programs for entry-level workers from different cultures and
language bases. The project team involves a project manager, training specialist,
website administrator, and documentation specialist. The project requires the ser-
vices of a contract manager, working closely with the project manager to procure
both website design and development, and later to renegotiate the contract.

Project schedule
The following is a picture of the GANTT chart for discussion purposes.
 The Global Program Manager 255

ID Task Name Duration Start Finish Predecessors Resource Names

1 Website Project 473 days Mon 11/26/07 Wed 9/16/09
2 Procurement 15 days Mon 11/26/07 Fri 12/14/07
3 Procurement Solicitation 5 days Mon 11/26/07 Fri 11/30/07 Procurement Office
4 Requirements 4 days Mon 12/3/07 Thu 12/6/07 3 Procurement Office
5 Solicitation Documents 3 days Fri 12/7/07 Tue 12/11/07 4 Procurement Office
6 Award 3 days Wed 12/12/07 Fri 12/14/07 5 Procurement Office
7 Contract Work: Produce Website 458 days Mon 12/17/07 Wed 9/16/09
8 Requirements 66 days Mon 12/17/07 Mon 3/17/08 6 Eng 1
9 Design 50 days Tue 3/18/08 Mon 5/26/08 8 Eng 2
10 Develop 332 days Tue 5/27/08 Wed 9/2/09 Contractor 1
11 Prototype 40 days Tue 5/27/08 Mon 7/21/08 9
12 Configure 10 days Tue 7/22/08 Mon 8/4/08 11 Contractor 1
13 Document Design 30 days Tue 8/5/08 Mon 9/15/08 12 Contractor 1
14 User Acceptance Testing 200 days Thu 11/27/08 Wed 9/2/09 13 Contractor 1
15 Choose User Group 100 days Thu 11/27/08 Wed 4/15/09 13 Contractor 1
16 Conduct Test Sessions 100 days Thu 4/16/09 Wed 9/2/09 15 Contractor 1
17 Final Performance Test 10 days Thu 9/3/09 Wed 9/16/09 16 Contractor 2
18 Deliver 0 days Wed 9/16/09 Wed 9/16/09 17 Test Tech
19 Project Closeout 4 days Thu 9/17/09 Tue 9/22/09 18

Program manager’s decision

The case presents a global program manager’s dilemma, since the team program
manager in charge of this program for website design has escalated a conflict
around an invoice from the local website contractor for a progress payment.
The case also raises the question of what kind of contract is most effective in
enabling project monitoring: a fixed-price contract or a cost-based contract.
The program manager must investigate contractor progress using not only
program reviews and interviews with the program manager, but also tradi-
tional investigative techniques (e.g., interviews, document gathering), as well
as earned value tools. The definitions involved in earned value help to separate
cost from schedule, since progress in one area does not automatically mean
progress in the other. The global program manager understands that cost and
schedule are typically traded off with each other and with quality, but those
trade-offs are different in each local country and culture.
Key definitions used in the case:

BCWS = Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled

BCWP = Budgeted Cost of Work Performed
ACWP = Actual Cost of Work Performed

Assumptions
The project manager has received an invoice for $200,000 from the local contrac-
tor for the contract period up through 4/15/09 (see the project schedule). At that
point, the project manager already knows that the BCWS is $250,000, which
is what should have been spent if the contractor was on schedule at that point
based on the contract schedule. But in review of the contractor’s performance,
256 Chapter Six

the project manager finds that the task to be completed by 4/15/09, “Choose
User Group,” is not finished. Furthermore, it turns out that the contractor has
actually completed the work only through the “Prototype” task. The contrac-
tor cannot show deliverables for any task past “Prototype.” Thus, the project
manager calculates that the actual work performed has “earned” only what that
amount of work was calculated to cost $175,000. Furthermore, the project man-
ager asks the contractor what the actual costs were to date, and he indicates
the actual cost (ACWP) is $200,000.
The project manager has a dilemma here, since the contractor has admitted
through the invoice that he is behind schedule at 4/15/09, but has completed
more work than reported and delivered to the program manager. The questions
include how much to pay the contractor and what to do to ensure completion of the
remaining work. What complicates this case is that the contractor is a foreign firm
in a county where scheduled reporting, constant feedback, and quick communica-
tions are not consistent with the local industry practices and the local culture.

Earned value calculations

Here are your calculations:

BCWS = $250,000
BCWP = $175,000
ACWP = $200,000

While the program manager uses earned value to calculate progress in the
program, thus requiring regular updates and reviews on schedule and cost
variations, local sponsors and contractors are not used to this kind of oversight.
Thus, the fact that the local contractor has not produced against the schedule
milestones does not hinder him from submitting an invoice for progress payment
on the program.
Thus, the program manager has to negotiate with the local contractor, lacking
typically available information on milestones completed, to get information that
will allow a determination on whether the work will be late and over budget.
The following might be a line of questions raised with the local website
contractor:

1. You have invoiced $200,000; you want to be paid that amount for the work
to date. Can you tell us why you are invoicing for more of the work than you
have delivered to date?
2. If the program decides to negotiate an agreement with the contractor at this
point in the work, what principles should govern the negotiation, given local
constraints and potential conflicts?
3. What do you think should have been done at the point of review, based on the
work scheduled and measured by the estimated budget for that work—e.g., if
the contractor estimated the budget right (BCWS) and the work is on schedule,
 The Global Program Manager 257

they should have spent (and earned) what was budgeted for that point in the
work (BCWP). In this case, the BCWS at the end of the third quarter is $250,000,
based on the original schedule. But if the work is not on schedule, they have
“earned” only a portion of the total amount they should have spent if the work
were on schedule—e.g., the BCWP ($175,000) is less than the BCWS ($250,000)
by $75,000. They are behind schedule by $75,000 worth of work. And to compli-
cate things, if the contractor spent more (ACWP = $200,000) to be where they
are than they should have based on their BCWP ($175,000), their actual costs
(ACWP = $200,000) exceed their BCWP ($175,000) by $25,000; thus, they are
going to overrun their budget, and their cost variance is negative.
4. The contract schedule provides milestones to give us an idea of where the
website design and delivery is; can you give us some evidence that you have
met the required milestones?
5. If you prefer not to use earned value, can you give us an estimate of remain-
ing work, time, and cost?
6. To complete the work due at this point, if it is not completed to date, can you
crash the project and push more work to make up time?
7. Should we extend the due date and, if so, by how much?
8. Should more funding be made available to the contractor to complete?
9. Having signed a cost-reimbursement contract for the work because local regu-
lations prohibit fixed-price contracting, the program manager might ask, “Can
you give us a listing of items you will invoice in this work up to completion?”

Negotiating from Interests

How does the concept of negotiating from interest rather than position relate to this
case? In this situation, the program manager could negotiate the payment of the
invoice, or part of the invoice, based on the position of the company—no payment
for costs associated with uncompleted work, even though the contractor is eligible
under the cost-reimbursement contract. However, this approach is likely to fail,
given the strong local focus on trust and respect instead of on-time and cost. Rather,
the program manager should focus on a common interest, which would be to get
the program completed within budget. Time is of less interest than completion of
quality work within cost. Thus, if the program manager goes into the negotiation
of how to pay on the invoice and arrives at an agreement that no further charges
will be invoiced for the work through the currently due milestone date, he or she
can pay the whole invoice, despite the lack of evidence that work is completed.

Scheduling: What Is the Program Manager Competency?

Scheduling is more than simply aligning tasks and estimating durations. It involves
committing resources and people to specific windows of opportunity to provide value
to the program. Program managers must develop capacity in their programs to get
commitment from the program and project teams in the scheduling process. In a
258 Chapter Six

global context, this scheduling process is more difficult, since in a virtual team, with
communication, culture, and language issues, scheduling becomes almost impossible.
This is why global managers focus more on people, tasks, and interdependencies
rather than on strict, traditional scheduling based on task completions. If estimated
durations are characterized in a traditional program by overestimating tasks to
protect the task performer, the problem is compounded in a global program.
This means more focus on critical chain scheduling, working with starting times
and not task durations; more emphasis on task dependencies and enabling more
flexibility in how and when tasks are completed makes more sense in a global
program. This places more responsibility on the program sponsor to determine
the importance of time in delivery of program outcomes and benefits, especially
when programs are not delivering according to the sponsor expectations.

Cost estimating and earned value

Cost is of major concern in global programs when local investment is involved;
therefore, it makes more sense to get foreign local investment in programs in
order to “buy” more engagement and local sponsorships of program outcomes. A
program financed solely by American funding is likely to get less support than
one in which there is local investment and commitment.
The use of earned value to calculate cost and schedule variances depends on
local use of the earned value concept, which separates progress in keeping to
schedules from progress in keeping to cost estimates.

Resourcing
Acquiring resources and people—e.g., resourcing a program—in a global pro-
gram involves key resource activities at almost every level and milestone in the
program. The following table shows key milestones in a new product develop-
ment program, along with associated key resource acquisition decisions:

Global Program
Milestones, Functions,
and Tasks Description Resource Acquisition Issue
Establish new product The process of identifying Look at broad view of program
program objectives the broad goals, outputs, resource needs at high level;
outcomes, and benefits look at labor intensity, skilled
to be produced by the and professional worker needs,
program technology depth, and global
resource markets
Identify program Structure suggests how Program structure will suggest
structure and domain the program will be broken ratio of domestic and
down into projects and international hires; location
support tasks, and how of resource acquisition and
resources and people outsourcing potential
will be distributed, how
products will be produced,
and how the program team
will work together
 The Global Program Manager 259

Global Program
Milestones, Functions,
and Tasks Description Resource Acquisition Issue
Estimate program budget “Ballpark,” high-level budget Identifies program outputs and
estimate identifies human components and resource needs
resource, capital, assets, for each component or stage of
space and facilities, and work
travel costs
Identify program team Team-needs assessment Team triggers human resource
identifies roles, functions, process of announcing positions
and optional hires or and filling them
appointments to team
Identify program support Support needs (e.g., facilities, Estimate costs and sources
needs equipment, information for facilities, equipment, and
systems) are identified; information system; confirm buy
determine buy-or-make or make decisions
decisions
Identify logistics needs Logistics requires trade Logistics needs estimated,
off between buy or make, including equipment transfers,
domestic or international freight and delivery costs, etc.
resource acquisition
Identify new technology Specialized technology (e.g., Cost out technology needs and
needs cables, computer request bids to identify potential
configurations, materials) costs
is identified
Build new product project Special attention on finding Human resources begins search for
leader pool project managers for key key project managers
projects
Define funding options Identify sources of funding Make decision on how program will
from parent company, from be funded, and identify ballpark
program sponsor and other funding needs
stakeholders, and finance
companies
Create supply chain and Create chain of key global Get cost estimates from supply chain
contract types suppliers to provide just-in- partners and key vendors globally
time material for program to help identify program costs
Review resources Perform review of all resource Use resource reviews to confirm
needs and update to confirm resource needs
and trigger procurement
and acquisition process
Define program charter Program charter must Charter makes clear need to
identify responsibility control resource acquisition
of program team to process to avoid big mistakes
conserve resources and
find cost-effective resource
acquisition approaches
Prepare product design Program outputs require Fine-tune cost estimates of
and architecture design and definition; big-ticket items and review
produces detailed resource options and alternative sources
and component information
Identify platform issues If program requires a key Identify way to share risks for
platform, search early for acquiring and running program
buy or make and for longer- platform (e.g., website, tailored
term maintenance partner network systems)

(Continued)
260 Chapter Six

Global Program
Milestones, Functions,
and Tasks Description Resource Acquisition Issue
Design and produce Prototype of program Find cost-effective sources for
prototype outputs requires acquisition prototypes so longer-term needs
of engineering components can be handled by same supplier
Design to cost Establish component Control acquisition of resources for
resource cost targets for design to ensure that unnecessary
program outputs cost escalation does not get built
into design process
Test prototype Identify test process and Determine buy or make decision on
resource needs test process
Configuration Define key program outputs Use configuration management
management and products and how system to stabilize program
they are made to support outputs for acquisition of
inventory, manufacturing, components and subsystems
and production processes
Assure quality assurance Use quality assurance to Ensure components are quality-
and control avoid costly components assured to avoid procurement of
bad materials
Identify regulatory, safety, Political and public policy and Make sure program resources
and public policy issues regulatory issues, legal issues, acquired in foreign markets are
and opportunities morality and ethics questions protected with safety and security
addressed, education regulations
Platform decisions Permanence, aggressiveness,
type of demand sought,
competitive advantage,
product line replacement,
scope of market entry
Packaging Roles of packaging and Cost of packaging is part of
options and impacts resource cost estimates
Competitive analysis Analysis of program Do competitive analysis to see
competitors will identify how competitors resource their
differentiators, resources programs
that might be saved in
getting ahead of competition
Product and service Identify resource needs for Add maintenance to life cycle
support plan product and service costing of resources
support and maintenance
Launch management Communications plan, Identify marketing resource needs
alliances, strategy (e.g., advertisements,
connections, sales, logistics, commercials, promotions)
control events, product
failure scenarios

Quality
The global program manager must be versed in total quality, Six Sigma, and
other quality programs to ensure that:

1. Program is customer-based—that is, signals on quality and customer require-

ments come from the customer or client
2. Program team is empowered and trained, especially those in leadership
positions
 The Global Program Manager 261

3. Program process is reviewed, internally controlled, and improved upon; the

process of program planning, budgeting, scheduling, staffing, and reporting
is reviewed for waste and unnecessary steps
4. Program team is zero-defect, Six-Sigma “energized,” and trained to do it right
the first time

Managing Conflict and Risk Globally

Conflict can be managed using traditional approaches—e.g., withdrawal, con-
frontation, collaboration, and compromise—but handling conflict in a global
team setting can be more challenging. This is because conflict in an interna-
tional setting takes on more complex dimensions due to language and cultural
constraints. Before you know it, a simple program-related conflict can become
an international “federal case.”
The easy answer to conflict resolution is to prevent conflict altogether through
constant communication that raises anticipated issues and problems, and
resolves them before conflict develops. This is even more important because in
a global program, conflicts may break out over unanticipated and unpredictable
issues and become dysfunctional before the program manager even knows about
them. A good example would be a conflict created by unanticipated tension from
a foreign government objecting to outsourcing program work or equipment to
a company in an unfriendly or competing nation.
Another answer is to turn conflicts into debates on alternative ways to manage
the program, since many conflicts begin over issues of how the program is being
designed and/or run. This means being sensitive to developing opposition within
the team to the ways things are being done and working to generate alterna-
tives. Sometimes, this approach uncovers innovative and creative ways to get
work done.
Program and project risks can be compounded in global operations, especially
in certain markets. Companies and their program managers can pay a large
price for mistakes in foreign countries. Forbes (June 2, 2008) reported that in
Kazakhstan, ExxonMobil was fined $5 billion to compensate for project delays
as part of a program consortium. This kind of penalty can result from real
schedule issues or simply the result of bad relations with the parent nation—in
this case, the United States. The approach to avoiding these kinds of penal-
ties and fines is to anticipate them in contract negotiations and to monitor
changes in local regulations or diplomatic relationships while a program is
being implemented.

Global time management and the issue of time zones

Since global programs typically operate in countries in different time zones,
program communications and information exchanges need to be managed in
particular “windows” for each global market. This often requires both direct
communications at odd times and the use of asynchronous discussions online,
262 Chapter Six

providing a platform for communication and discussing program issues when

convenient in a continuing chat room setting.
The leadership function is often confused with the management function.
Management has to do with planning, acquiring, assigning, and controlling
resources and people. It is more focused on the use of resources efficiently and
effectively. Leaders, on the other hand, can also be managers, but leaders typi-
cally focus on establishing purpose and meaning to the work, providing a vision
of the future program outcomes and benefits, and making key decisions that
shape the texture and process of the program. Leaders inspire people to perform
in extraordinary ways, providing them with motivation and direction to make
a difference. Tranformational leadership has to do with leading change and
transforming a group or organization to move in a different direction to adjust
to outside market or environmental forces.
Leadership styles include charismatic/value-based, team-oriented, partici-
pative, humane-oriented, autonomous, and self-protective. A recent study has
identified these different leadership styles with different cultures. The results
are instructive for global managers tailoring leadership styles to various global
markets and venues (Table 6-1).
Looking at the table, a global manager doing business in Egypt and Sweden
faces different challenges in leadership styles. This requires managers to employ
different leadership styles based on the client base. For instance, while working
in Egypt, which exhibits a highly self-protective leadership style (avoiding losing
face, protecting personal reputation and image), program management must be
sensitive to leadership behaviors that may threaten key local personnel—work
must not be made risky or generate interpersonal conflict. However, in Sweden,
leadership styles favor charismatic and participative, “open” styles that generate
discussions and debate and inspire personal performance and creativity.

TABLE 6-1 How Different Cultures Look at Leadership

Country Global Charismatic/ Team- Humane- Self-

Studied Market Value-Based Oriented Participative Oriented Autonomous Protective

Russia Eastern M M L M H H
Europe
Argentina Latin H H M M L H
America
France Europe H M M L L M
China Asia M H L H M H
Sweden Europe H M H L M L
USA Anglo H M H H M L
India Asia H H L H M H
Germany Europe H L H M H L
Egypt Middle L L L M M H
East

Key: H = High, M = Medium, L = Low (how each country ranks seven leadership styles based on culture_
Source: Mansour Javidan, Peter Dorfman, Mary Sully de Lugue, and Robert House, “In the Eye of the Beholder:
Cross-Cultural Lessons in Leadership from Project Globe,” Academy of Management Perspectives, Volume 20.7
(2006) pp. 67-90.
 The Global Program Manager 263

Strategic leadership
Since alignment is so important in program management, leaders must guide
programs toward strategic purposes in the longer term. They must align pro-
grams with business plans and strategic objectives, and they must be able to
see opportunities to grow business activities in a strategic direction. A strategic
direction is a direction that can be supported by the company’s or agency’s capac-
ity to perform and is part of the business plan for long-term growth.
The way leadership connects strategy and program is by ensuring that pro-
grams and projects are linked with strategic objectives. Therefore, one key
function of leadership is to see that business plans are translated into strategic
objectives and that program portfolios and budgets line up with those strategic
objectives. This is a process function—e.g., the generation of a process so that
the business or agency annually revisits strategic objectives and programs gen-
erated to implement them.
The global significance of this process is to make sure global strategies and
business planning input are included in the process if the business plans to
go global. Strategies include analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,
and threats on a global scale, requiring a good deal of research and information
gathering about target markets and customers.

Ethics and morals in a global context

Moral conduct is typically associated with religious standards, whereas ethical
conduct is typically related to honesty and other standards of integrity. There are
three categories of ethical and moral dilemmas in global program management: (1)
the problem of being honest and straightforward in reporting and communicating
on the status of a program; (2) participating in shady practices (e.g., bribery) that
might not break US or local laws but which transcend the typical ethical standards
under which programs are operated in this country; and (3) the more severe
problem of knowingly violating local laws or regulations in program operations.

Honest, quantitative reporting. Program managers should use standard

methodologies to report progress, especially in a global program, where the
risks of miscommunication are high. This means using quantitative measures
of progress (e.g., earned value and cost and schedule variances) and other
tools that are largely objective and consistently applied in every aspect of the
program. While these measures are used, program managers must be attuned
to different interpretations of progress in foreign countries and remote markets.
Schedule variance may mean less in the Middle East, where relationships and
trustworthiness among the program team and local control of decisions are most
important and where time is of less importance, than it does in Western Europe,
where timeliness and prompt schedule delivery are important.

Shady financial practice. Shady financial practices often involve using money
or collateral to persuade local sponsors, partners, or foreign nationals to make
decisions that favor program success or to win a contract. The way to avoid this
264 Chapter Six

is to develop an internal control system that monitors all financial transactions

within the program and documents all local program payments religiously. This
does not mean that program managers are not sometimes placed in the position
of paying off local politicians or businesses, but those payoffs must be consistent
with local practices. The situation is to be avoided if possible.

Breaking the law. Program managers can avoid violations of local law and
regulations by training all personnel on those local laws and holding them
accountable for following them. Chevron recently paid a $310 million fine
in Kazakhstan for improperly storing sulfur from program operations in its
Tengiz oilfield. Local regulations were apparently not clear on sulfur storage
requirements, but despite the uncertainty, it was up to the Chevron program
manager on location to ensure that the storage was legal before authorizing
it. Global program managers pay a price if they are not attuned to the wide
variations in ethical and legal standards around the world.

Administrative issues; nuts and bolts of the global program

manager position
Sound administration of global programs involves organizing and administer-
ing the details and office systems required to support the program worldwide. A
global program manager should have a high degree of tolerance for details and
day-to-day processes and procedures to support good program delivery. These
administrative functions can be broken down into nine categories:

1. Human resource management/personnel. This function involves a close rela-

tionship with personnel, both at home and abroad, to enable quick turn-
around on personnel hiring, job and position management, relocation, and
staff outplacement. Because much of the personnel management will be in
foreign locations, it is important to have human resource contacts in key
program areas where local labor conditions (wage scales, etc.) are clear.
2. Time management. The management of time involves timesheets or some
kind of time accounting system that is program-coded. This means that all
program and project personnel complete timesheets (preferably online and
integrated with program scheduling software such as Microsoft Program)
that are coded to key program and program work breakdown task codes.
This allows the program manager to monitor and capture actual costs and
calculate cost variance in the reporting system.
3. Cost management. The management and control of cost involves good esti-
mates of program material, equipment, and personnel costs, and a system of
internal control and monitoring that authorizes and oversees expenditures
within preset ranges. Actual costs are reconciled against estimated costs
for purposes of earned value reporting and cost accounting. In many cases,
because actual cost reporting from accounting systems may be too slow to
be of value in a fast-moving program, global program managers may have
 The Global Program Manager 265

to provide informal commitment registers at the project level in order to roll

up timely reports on a moment’s notice.
4. Procurement management. Acquisition forms should be provided, either
online or as a hard copy, for all program material, equipment, and supply
actions. These forms should be program-coded to allow allocation of actual
costs to various program and project categories in the work breakdown struc-
ture. Supply chain systems and arrangements to do business with specified
suppliers create standard, predicable costs over time; thus, it is important
that procurement offices be attuned to program-specific supply chain partner-
ships.
5. Office process management. Office process management means that the pro-
gram manager’s office, the immediate staff associated with the program man-
ager, is highly organized and orderly. Calendars for the program manager
are updated and made available to team members and stakeholders.
6. Consistent work habits. Program managers working in a global setting must
be predictably available to a wide variety of key people throughout the world
on a daily basis. This means that they must be predictable in their personal
availability through cell phones, etc. at all times of the day, or set clear
guidelines on when they are available. Because communication throughout
the team and with key clients and customers is so key in today’s quick design-
to-market economy, delays in important communications can cost a program
manager critical time.
7. Configuration management. Although configuration management is usually con-
fined to engineering products, documenting product component dimensions, sup-
pliers, identification numbers, etc., the concept can be useful in any program.
The purpose of configuration management is to preserve a product and its
composition or structure throughout planning and design so the final product
can be produced in volume to meet market demand. In a global setting, the
production of a program output or project output is likely to be outsourced
and produced in a foreign country, requiring a reliable source of information
on how a particular product is acquired.
8. Meeting and computer conference management. In a virtual setting, meetings
will be handled through the Web, requiring preparation and solid support
from a web-based contractor. Because these systems often do not always
perform as promised, especially when they are worldwide, global program
managers should do dry runs of such meetings to make sure systems are up
and running. Nothing does in a virtual, web-based meeting like the failure of
basic systems to perform. Agendas are distributed before each meeting, and
follow-up notes and outcomes provided to all participants electronically.
9. Local network management. Global program managers will maintain pro-
gram and project schedules, as well as budget, quality, and status information
on a company network. This network must be administered effectively so that
key people have access to updates as soon as they are entered. For instance,
266 Chapter Six

if a project is going to be late and resultant schedule changes will affect

other projects, project managers ought to be able to depend on the network
to provide almost instantaneous updates to key program people globally.

Getting reports from project managers and rolling

them up for executives
Unlike project managers, who typically have hands-on contact with the work,
program managers typically do business based on reports from project managers.
Information is secondhand in the sense that there must be a good deal of trust and
reliability in reports up the line. This is especially true when program managers
compile reports into executive summaries and data for top-level decisions. In the
process, if original information is bad, it becomes worse as it moves up the line.
It is said that bad news travels down in an organization while good news travels
up. This means that reports from projects are likely to be enhancedwith good news,
simply because there is a reluctance to report failures or problems. As the saying
goes, bad news is not like fine wine, it doesn’t age well. To offset this tendency,
global program managers will structure reporting formats to begin the report with
issues and problems, requiring project managers to anticipate problems and report
them early. This means that the program manager must make it clear that failures
and problems in projects are not going to come back to those reporting them.

Communications
Communications are important in any program, but in a global program, they
are almost critical. This is because there is so much room for miscommunication
across languages and cultures. Therefore, global program managers must be
good communicators and provide processes and tools for communications in a
worldwide context that offsets the barriers of different languages and attendant
meanings. This may require more use of graphics and symbols with interna-
tional meaning, such as the international symbol for litter disposal, , which
might be used to indicate that certain information must be deleted from a docu-
ment. Since verbal communication is sometimes the most vulnerable to error
and miscommunication, verbal exchanges of program importance and program
commitments are recorded and documented, and followed up with confirmations
and notes, if appropriate in the local program setting.

Assembling the right team in a virtual context

The right team is the team that has the required competence to do the job and
the right instincts to work in a virtual environment, where day-to-day guidance
and hands-on contact is not available. These attributes are part of the initial
hiring process to ensure that program staffs are attuned to global virtual work
processes. The virtual management process involves a high degree of trust and
delegation. Program team members are empowered to perform and to make
decisions in the context of program success. This means establishing a front-
end culture of integrity, reliability, enabling, and honesty among program and
 The Global Program Manager 267

project team members who work comfortably and effectively in a virtual context.
It also requires a mobile, web-based communication system that facilitates
open and frequent communications and data exchange on program issues at a
moment’s notice around the world.

Reviewing/feedback to project managers/coaching

Global program management involves mentoring, developing, and coaching
project managers. This is made difficult in virtual settings because of the lim-
ited time the team actually spends with each other. Thus, performance review
and feedback is typically accomplished through online exchanges (e.g. e-mail),
and training and development for managers is conducted through online teach-
ing and training formats. Feedback can be provided in a number of formats,
but the key is how project manager accountability is monitored and reported.
Accountability can be categorized in a global program as follows:

1. Management of the project team. Does the manager support the team, train
and develop them, provide feedback on performance, encourage diversity and
innovation, and motivate the team?
2. Timeliness and efficiency in team operations and delivery. Does the manager
act promptly and efficiently to assign and complete tasks, schedule work, and
control costs?
3. Relationships with stakeholders and understanding of local settings. Does the
manager build strong coalitions and relationships with local stakeholders,
and does the manager have a good grasp of the local work setting, local lan-
guage and culture, and local conditions that might affect program success?
4. Self-development. Does the manager pursue self-development and training
activities that enhance work in a global setting?
5. Technical development and expertise. Does the manager keep up in the field,
especially with fast-moving technological changes and breakthroughs that
might affect program performance?
6. Reporting and communication. Does the manager report accurately and hon-
estly on local program conditions?

Motivating people in a global program

Motivation of the program team, especially project managers in or doing busi-
ness in remote settings, involves a combination of strong management skills and
leadership attributes. Motivation is the process of enhancing the performance of
others by giving meaning and purpose to the work at hand. Program managers
motivate through incentives and recognition and by providing purpose to the
program. Herzberg’s motivation theories are useful here—that there are dissatis-
fiers, like money, that provide the basis for unhappiness if not adequate but that
do not provide true motivation, and satisfiers, like recognition, training, purpose,
268 Chapter Six

status, and empowerment, that provide the basis for real motivation and work
satisfaction. Global program managers must be attuned to both kinds of motiva-
tors, especially those dissatisfiers that are effective in a global setting, such as
bad living conditions, and satisfiers such as international travel and status.

Business savvy
Understanding the business strategy is key to global program success because
programs are investments to grow the business in a certain direction. The busi-
ness strategy provides an avenue for guiding programs and aligning them with
where the business is going, or using them to develop and deliver a new busi-
ness strategy. This requires an appreciation of the global economy, the value
of open trade, the essentials of the private enterprise and capitalist system,
and the different views around the world on these subjects. For instance, while
Americans tend to think in terms of private enterprise and limited government
intervention in commercial activity, capitalism is virtually unheard of in other
parts of the world. Therefore, the manager must be sensitive to different views
of long-held assumptions about how business is done.

Office politics
Global program managers contend with both local and remote office politics,
and must be attuned to both. Office politics involves understanding informal
systems of power and territory that affect the harmony and teamwork in day-
to-day office operations. This means understanding when to defer to superiors
and office colleagues on issues of importance to them.

Scheduling and resource planning for outsourcing

Scheduling and resource planning for outsourcing should be accomplished col-
laboratively between the program manager, the purchasing or procurement office
staff, and the project manager and team. It is the program manager’s responsibility
to develop and maintain a good working relationship with the purchasing/acquisi-
tion department, since that staff does not typically report to the program manager.
Procurement is seen generally as a business function and performs against goals
that might not always be consistent with the interests of a particular program.
General communication, sharing of schedule and resource information, checkpoints,
approvals, and feedback will be managed through a company network to the extent
feasible, with meetings and hardcopy schedules arranged as necessary.
The basic scheduling procedures are as follows:

Activity 1. In consultation with the customer, the program manager defines

customer requirements, product functionality, and key deliverable milestones
in a project statement of work, and makes an initial make-or-buy decision
on particular tasks.
Activity 2. The program manager has project managers develop top-level
work breakdown structures using a standard template and flags outsourcing
issues for comments from procurement.
 The Global Program Manager 269

Activity 3. The program manager works with project managers to prepare

a top-level schedule showing basic task structure, durations, start and finish
dates, linkages, and predecessors; links the schedule to a central resource
pool; and flags contractor roles.
Activity 4. The program manager and department heads establish a project
team after a review of resource constraints and consultation with appropriate
staff on availability.
Activity 5. Department heads consult with the project team and prepare
detailed, subtask schedules for their areas of responsibility, assign team
resources to tasks, and send updated schedules with resources assigned to
the program manager.
Activity 6. The program manager integrates subtasks into the detailed
schedule, flags team, and asks for sign-off.
Activity 7. The program manager has project managers enter hourly, fixed,
and equipment costs and produces a project budget, flagging estimated con-
tractor and outsourcing costs.
Activity 8. The program manager gets sign-off from the business’s vice presi-
dent to proceed to schedule baseline and contracting activity.
Activity 9. The program manager saves the project baseline, flags team and
procurement.
Activity 10. The program manager kicks off the program with project manag-
ers, hands out hardcopy schedules and individual task assignments.
Activity 11. With support from the program management office, the program
manager has project managers collect and enter actual performance data
from contractors on: (a) percent completion, (b) actual hours spent on tasks,
(c) actual start and finish dates, (d) actual durations, (e) remaining durations,
and (f) actual weekly costs.
Activity 12. The program manager prepares reports on earned value for
each program and supporting contractors, estimate to complete (ETC), and
estimate at completion (EAC) to departments and to the general manager
on a monthly basis (or the team reviews reports themselves from the
network).
Activity 13. The program manager submits schedule updates with all tasks
updated and conflicts resolved to departments and the general manager on a
weekly basis (or the team accesses updates from the network).
Activity 14. The program manager submits narrative, hardcopy program
summaries, including issues, risks, and corrective actions to the general man-
ager on a weekly basis.
Activity 15. The program management office analyzes resource usage from
a central resource pool file and identifies conflicts, issues, and problems for
current and future programs.
270 Chapter Six

Scrubbing the schedule

The process of scrubbing the schedule involves four steps:

1. The program manager drafts an initial schedule, with a work breakdown

structure to the second or third level, and resource assignments for all tasks.
Resource assignments can be proposed by the program manager in the initial
schedule, or developed by the department manager and submitted to the
program manager for embedding into the schedule.
2. The program manager links the schedule into the central resource pool to
identify resource issues.
3. The program manager distributes the schedule, including contractor schedules,
to all department managers.
4. The program manager conducts a meeting with department managers to
work out task definitions, linkages, and resource assignments, as well as
the final baseline schedule, which the program manager saves as a baseline
upon kick-off of the program.

Baselining the schedule

Establishing the baseline schedule is a significant action in the program man-
agement process, signifying the official kick-off of the work and indicating a
strong commitment to the schedule and resource plan, including all outsourced
tasks. The baseline is the point of departure for monitoring and tracking pro-
cess. When a program is baselined—that is, saved as a baseline schedule in the
project software program and posted on the network—the project schedule is
complete. Here are some rules of thumb for baselining:

1. The purpose is to get to a baseline schedule that captures all the work to be
done. The baseline schedule does not change unless the basic scope changes.
The baseline schedule represents the end point of the planning process. Once
agreement is reached, the program manager confirms the baseline by saving
it and making it available on the network as the baseline. There is no uncer-
tainty regarding what the baseline is and how to access it.
2. The baseline schedule is the agreed-upon, scrubbed schedule for the program,
linked to the resource pool. The baseline shows all interdependencies, link-
ages, and resource requirements; includes all tasks necessary to get the work
done; and shows impacts on parallel programs and resources. All procure-
ments and test equipment are covered in the schedule.
3. The baseline schedule is resource-leveled—the schedule can be implemented
with current, available resources. Assigned staff are aware of the commit-
ments and have “signed on” to complete their tasks to meet the schedule
milestones.
4. Getting to the schedule baseline involves collaboration between the pro-
gram manager and all departments and staff involved in planning and
 The Global Program Manager 271

implementing the schedule. A baseline meeting is held to arrive at a final

agreement on schedule and resources committed before the baseline is
saved to the network. The program manager facilitates the meeting, and all
department managers attend and come prepared to commit their resources
to the final, agreed-upon baseline schedule.
5. The final review of the schedule at the baseline meeting involves reviewing
all stages and tasks, linkages, and resources assigned, line by line.
6. The baseline schedule is monitored weekly, with actual percent complete
data and changes in start and finish dates entered weekly and reported on
at program review.

Managing schedules on the network

The basic objectives of the network management of program schedules are to
(1) enable the program management department to control schedule updates
and schedule versions, including contractor activity, and (2) provide department
managers, contractors, and staff with a way to provide input to the scheduling
process and have easy access to up-to-date schedule information.

Schedule access. Contractors will have limited access to schedule files.

The program management office will have “write” access to the schedules.
Department managers, systems engineers, contractors, and other engineering
and manufacturing staff will have “read” access to program schedules.

Schedule updates. The program management office is responsible for

maintaining and updating program schedules on the network. Once the
program manager and department managers agree on a proposed schedule
and/or update, the schedule will be linked to a total workforce resource file,
and resource conflicts will be identified and resolved. The program manager
will then save the schedule as a baseline schedule. The baseline schedule will
be the only version of that schedule housed on the network and will serve as
the source of “planned versus actual” tracking information.
In preparation for the weekly program review and weekly report, the program
manager will update the schedule in consultation with department managers,
contractors, and the program team. To update the schedule, the program man-
ager will update percent complete for all tasks and update all start and finish
dates as appropriate. All updates will be made to the version of the schedule
on the network.
Department and functional managers will be responsible for maintaining
their own department schedules and resource pool files, and assisting program
managers in updating program schedules. Program managers and department
managers will share schedules through e-mail or hard copy until updates are
agreed upon.
272 Chapter Six

Resource planning for outsourced activity

Good program and project management requires that there be a central resource
pool to identify impacts of changes in contractor and project schedules and to
assess the overall efficient utilization of the in-house and outsourced workforce.
The resource pool information on the network is shared with management staff
and all team members to allow each team member to evaluate the work assigned
to him or her and to provide guidance on task definition, durations, start and
finish dates, and interdependencies.
Resource conflicts with contractors are identified through the resource pool,
typically indicated in project software as hourly totals in red. Project managers
are responsible for identifying and anticipating contractor conflicts and root
causes, and involving the team in resolving issues. Corrective actions are taken
by the program manager, including resource leveling—the process of enabling
the software to reschedule project tasks to resolve resource conflicts identified
in the resource pool.
The process of collaboration between program managers and functional man-
agers is encouraged through a matrix-type organizational structure in which
the functional managers are responsible for quality and technical capacity of the
department, while program managers are responsible for mobilizing teams from
the functional departments to produce deliverables within budget and schedule
constraints that meet customer expectations and specifications. Procurement
and purchasing staff are considered part of each project team.

Preparing staffing policy and plans

The objective of this policy is to initiate a planning process to prepare and imple-
ment staffing plans based on forecasted product development workload require-
ments. Staffing plans are produced through a process of forecasting staffing needs,
developing staffing standards, projecting workload requirements, and building
staffing levels and mixes to meet program and workload requirements.
It is the responsibility of department managers, in consultation with the
director of product development and program managers, to review staffing and
resource requirements for their departments quarterly and to develop a staff-
ing plan to meet department program requirements. Based on these plans,
department managers are jointly responsible for acquiring the necessary staff
resources and building their capacity to meet projected needs.
The planning process involves six steps:

1. Determine department staffing levels and assignments

2. Develop staffing/workload standards
3. Forecast future requirements
4. Develop department staffing requirements
5. Develop department staffing pattern
6. Prepare staffing plan
 The Global Program Manager 273

Determine department staffing levels and assignments. This step describes and
documents current department staffing levels and staffing mixes, and relates
current staffing levels to current assignments. The purpose of this step is to
describe the current department workforce, functions, and assignments.

Develop department staffing/workload standards. Staffing standards help compare

staffing levels with performance goals. This step involves developing staffing
standards that relate staffing levels and mixes of technical expertise to specific
workloads or performance goals. Standards compare staffing with particular
product development workloads, schedules, activities, documents, and other
outputs. This allows the department manager to forecast what kind of staffing
increases are necessary to meet future needs for timely product development.
Functional areas, workload factors, and standards should be tailored to the
department’s functions, but should relate performance—e.g., meeting a functional
requirement within a given schedule requirement—to staffing levels.

The following format is recommended:

Task
Staffing Level Functional Area Workload Factor Duration Standard
Three software Software Concurrently 45 days Meet certification
certification certification prepare all software documentation
engineers documentation certification requirements
documentation in 45 days for
requirements for three programs
three program phases concurrently, with
three engineers

Forecast future department staff requirements. This step identifies future

program and project requirements for the department—e.g., what workload
the department is likely to be required to do in the future—and forecasts
the appropriate staffing level and mix to meet those requirements. Future
requirement information will be obtained from program planning forecasts and
other information on future program demands, as well as analysis of current
assignments and durations.

Develop department staffing pattern. This step involves developing a department

staffing pattern that defines the level and mix of staff required to meet current
and future needs, and places them into a department organization chart. The
staffing pattern identifies core positions—e.g., positions that are essential to
carrying out the department’s role and function—as well as support and junior/
training positions as required.

Develop staffing acquisition plan. This step produces a plan to acquire the levels
and mix of staff necessary to meet future department staffing needs. This step
will determine various sources of the expertise needed, various employment
274 Chapter Six

arrangements (e.g., employee, contractor, etc.), and outline a hiring and/or

internal career development approach.

Prepare staffing plan. A department staffing plan will be developed that will
include the results of the previous five steps. It will include current staffing
levels, mixes, and assignments; staffing/workload standards; a forecast of future
program requirements; future department staffing requirements; a department
staffing pattern; and a staffing implementation plan.

Resource planning: rules of thumb

Resource planning implies that program managers have adequate workforce
data and make accurate assignments of resources to program tasks. The fol-
lowing rules of thumb apply:

1. Workforce and manpower planning require that managers plan out job assign-
ments and needs over a 60- to 90-day horizon, assuring that their current
and projected workforce is fully occupied with direct, scheduled work and/or
support assignments such as training and development. This requires that
managers in charge of supervising staff take this responsibility seriously.
2. Manpower planning is not the same as scheduling work. Labor planning
requires that staff have job definitions and assignments, which go beyond
scheduled work—dealing with other department assignments, training, etc.
3. The scheduling process can be a good workforce-planning tool if all work is
scheduled and all assignments are updated.
4. Program managers cannot be expected to manage the whole workforce
assignment process. We are expecting the program managers to fully plan
out the assignments to staff; but their job is to get product out the door, not
to fully encumber staff. The departments are responsible for managing their
workforce and project out their assignments, keeping them busy and occupied
with a variety of work and development.
5. Performance metrics determine whether a corporation has the capacity to
meet its product development goals. In other words, the reason we are work-
ing to improve our scheduling and manpower planning is to increase our
capacity to produce quality products on time and within budget. How will we
make the business case for better scheduling and manpower planning?
6. The matrix environment requires a balanced team approach to scheduling
and resource planning. Responsibilities need to be made clear between func-
tional departments and program managers. This clarifying process starts
with the commitment to do it.

Preparing program budgets

Program budgets will be built from individual work breakdown levels and inte-
grated with baseline schedules. Once resource requirements are determined,
 The Global Program Manager 275

standard labor rates, component costs, and fixed costs associated with the pro-
gram are entered into the scheduling software. Once the schedule is baselined,
actual labor costs are entered as “actuals” to determine cost and schedule vari-
ance at program review.

Roles in the Program Management Process

The program manager is ultimately responsible for designing and delivering the
program benefits, outcomes, and products. The program manager controls the
“what and when” of the program, leading the program management process
and organizing and facilitating each project team. He or she produces time-
phased schedules for each program, anticipates future programs and other
major engineering activities, tracks progress and anticipates future impacts,
assures linkages with related programs and projects, and produces resource-
leveled schedules to avoid resource conflicts.
The program manager controls and schedules work and resources, working
with department managers and project teams to accomplish product develop-
ment and program management goals. All products be managed through the
program management process, carried on cooperatively by program managers
and department managers. Program managers are authorized to establish and
manage project teams to accomplish these goals. Department managers are
responsible for supporting program managers in the staffing of project teams
and in the development of technical capacity in their departments. Program
managers are accountable for achieving cost, schedule, and performance
requirements.
The program manager is responsible for customer interface, planning, sched-
uling, tracking, and coordination of a program, and is responsible for maintain-
ing program documentation and updates as design and plans change. To sum
up, the program manager:
Q Establishes a program plan that meets all of the objectives identified for the
program
Q Creates a detailed program schedule, in conjunction with team members and
department managers, that meets all program objectives
Q Provides direction to all team members and any/all departments for the
purpose of meeting program objectives
Q Tracks progress of a project or series of projects
Q Reports progress against the plan and schedule to management
Q Identifies and resolves problems associated with the program/project
Q Identifies and mitigates developmental risks

In collaboration with the department and functional managers, the program

manager (PM) is responsible for the overall management and coordination of the
program/project during each of the stages of development. In order to accomplish
276 Chapter Six

this, the program manager is required to conduct periodic program review meet-
ings with the program team (including design, certification, manufacturing, and
procurement personnel) to ensure a unified and informed effort. The PM is respon-
sible for ensuring that corporate management approves any changes in require-
ments. As program requirements change, the program manager ensures that the
program plan and schedule and other applicable management documents are kept
current and distributed.
From initiation of program planning through completion, and transition to
production, distribution, and marketing, the program manager ensures that all
program requirements are identified, implemented, and verified. All changes are
tracked and incorporated; and all management documents are produced and main-
tained throughout all stages of the product development and production. Along with
the departments, the manager is responsible for determining the impacts of any
design changes to products that are in either the product development or production
stage. Along with the director of product development and corporate management,
the program manager decides what changes are to be made.
In the event of issues and resource conflicts that arise in the program manage-
ment process and cannot be resolved by the program manager and department
managers, they are responsible for raising them to the level of the director of
product development for problem resolution and decision.
The program manager has the primary responsibility of creating a program
plan and scheduling tasks and milestones associated with successful achievement
of all program objectives for a given program. The program plan will be created
with support from the program team members and department managers. The
PM is required to keep the program plan current, track progress, and incorporate
changes as required. The program plan must include, at a minimum:

1. Program goals, benefits, and outcomes

2. Overview of customer requirements and program scope
3. Identification of major schedule tasks and milestones
4. Basis of program (new development, modify existing product, etc.) and strat-
egy to meet objectives (e.g., qualification by similarity–the product is like
one already tested–or perform qualification testing)
5. Identification of test equipment and components needed for the program
6. Identification of any special tests required for the program
7. Procurement requirements for development efforts
8. Manufacturing requirements for development efforts
9. Outsourced test facilities needed
10. Outside integration
11. Estimate of required materials for test assets, test equipment, outside facili-
ties, travel, and any other pertinent costs
12. Risk assessment and risk mitigation plans
 The Global Program Manager 277

The PM has the primary responsibility of creating and maintaining a detailed

program schedule that meets all program objectives. The schedule must contain,
at a minimum:

1. Tasks and milestones that correspond to all major program objectives con-
tained in the program plan
2. All activities and tasks required to execute a given program, including sys-
tems design, detailed design, certification, test equipment, reliability, safety,
design reviews, manufacturing, procurement, test assets, etc.
3. Tasks detailed to the lowest practical level; activities and tasks should gener-
ally be identifiable to a single resource
4. Resources assigned to activities and tasks, and leveled to reflect a realistic
workload
5. Identification of labor requirements for the program

The program management department is responsible for reviewing the

resource impacts of all program schedules and anticipating resource conflicts
and problems. This is accomplished by assessing each proposed program sched-
ule in terms of its impact on current resource commitments and negotiating
resolution where necessary.

Departmental and Functional Manager Roles

Department managers for administrative support, systems engineering,
mechanical design, electrical design, software certification, and other areas hold
the resource and process keys to success of the program management process.
They are essentially responsible for the division’s capacity to perform its basic
functions and the quality of technical processes. Here are some key functions
of these managers:

Organize department. The department’s organizational framework must be

made clear: how staff relate to each other and what the key functions, jobs,
and reporting relationships are. Assignments are made directly and perfor-
mance is monitored.
Develop technological capacity to perform. The department’s technical capac-
ity to perform is a function of its people and their ability to keep up in their
fields. Technical training is an integral part of the department’s job.
Develop and execute budget. A department budget is used to guide and sched-
ule implementation of the business plan. This includes labor and equipment
acquisition.
Motivate and evaluate performance and develop career tracks. Department
managers are responsible for motivating staff and evaluating their perfor-
mance and taking corrective action.
278 Chapter Six

Forecast future workforce need and prepare staffing plan. Matching future
demand on the department with current workforce capacity, department man-
agers maintain a rolling workforce plan so that they can make the business
case for new resources in the budget process. Staffing plans are developed for
the department as a framework for hiring.
Work with program managers in scheduling work and manpower. In a matrix
organization, department managers work with program managers in bring-
ing program schedules to baseline, determining resource requirements, and
supporting delivery of program products.

Risk Management Plan

The risk management plan will include a risk analysis, a risk mitigation plan, and
an outline of all inherent program assumptions. Risks include technical and admin-
istrative factors, and are defined in a risk list, along with likelihood of occurrence,
relative risk, weights against various project objectives, and current status.
Risks to be addressed include regulatory risks (e.g., will not certify for proce-
dural reasons), technical risks, timing and scheduling risks, cost risks, resource
risks, and computer and system-related issues.

Program review and monitoring

Program managers should hold weekly program review meetings to discuss
broad program issues; detailed technical, resource, and schedule problems; proj-
ect team performance; and risks. Project managers are responsible for preparing
for these reviews and anticipating key agenda items. Department managers
attend program review meetings as appropriate.
The program manager is required to track the progress of the program on
an on-going basis and updating the program schedule on a weekly basis. The
program plan is to be updated as changes in plans warrant. Program managers
are required to hold periodic reviews with the program team in preparation for
reporting and to support task assignments and feedback, either as a single meet-
ing with all functions represented or as a series of meetings with major functional
areas represented at each meeting. The program managers are required to report
progress to management at a minimum of biweekly intervals.
Problems that significantly affect cost, schedule, or product performance must
be identified, investigated, and reported to management so that decisions can be
made on a fully informed and timely basis. As part of the program tracking and
reporting, it is the program manager’s responsibility to identify those problem
areas and to assume responsibility for resolving them.

Program team roles

Each team member is responsible for understanding the individual tasks to
which they have been assigned and for providing general support to overall
team performance.
 The Global Program Manager 279

Program administrator and the program management office. Either as part

of a formal project management office or as a staff function, the program
administrator provides support to program managers and departments with
general support, including scheduling, reporting, and workforce activities. The
program administrator analyzes all program schedules and resource utilization
to identify and resolve conflicts, and reports on new program resource needs
and impacts. In addition, the administrator:

1. Supports the general manager, program managers, and project managers in

planning, structuring, scheduling, resourcing, and monitoring programs and
projects to meet cost, schedule, performance, and quality objectives
2. Develops a resource planning process to anticipate and meet future project
resource needs
3. Builds commitment in the organization to use standard project management
tools and techniques to schedule and implement projects and tasks
4. Provides training and information support to project teams in the use of
project management systems and software
5. Supports the development of the matrix organization, promoting coordination
between functional and project/task managers
6. Assists in developing performance metrics for assessing program and project
performance

Specific project administrator tasks

1. Define a consistent approach to project plans, scopes of work, work break-

down structures, schedules, budgets, and other elements of the product devel-
opment process.
2. Build capacity to anticipate and flag project issues and help resolve them,
and to report effectively on corrective actions and progress
3. Produce project schedules, budgets, and special analyses as requested by the
general manager and program managers
4. Build project team capacity to estimate, schedule, plan, and monitor through
information and training support
5. Develop a longer-term project resource planning process and resource
database to identify and acquire necessary resources to implement future
projects
6. Develop tools to support each team member in documenting and accomplish-
ing assigned tasks, to ensure that everyone knows what has to be done when,
who has to do what, and what each job priority and sequence is
7. Assist the finance department in developing performance metrics
8. Assist in documenting and reporting on project progress
280 Chapter Six

Program review and monitoring and the senior

management role
Program review is not an ad hoc system of probing into a particular project
whenever problems occur; the review process requires a basic and high-level
program management approach, training and empowering project managers to
make the right decisions and consistently reviewing milestones and anticipating
issues. There is a clear differentiation between the role of the project manager
and the role of the program or senior business manager.
Such a program management system uses a consistent approach and set
of tools and techniques for planning and implementing task-oriented system
development projects or professional services efforts, with definable start
and end points and distinct deliverables. Deliverables can include prod-
ucts as well as services. When implemented across the company, a proj-
ect management system provides a corporate-wide way of thinking and a
set of professional tools and techniques for identifying and meeting cus-
tomer requirements in a predictable way. Formats for planning, informa-
tion exchange, project review, and decisions are governed by distinct project
phases; reporting requirements; and schedule, cost, and quality controls.
Project managers are trained and developed in a consistent way, both in
technical project techniques and team leadership, and manage their projects
using standard tools. Project teams are established as formal groups, with
charters in writing and performance guidelines and criteria for evaluat-
ing team members. A project management manual is used to communicate
policies, procedures, and support systems, and the system is continuously
improved using business process reengineering tools. A common language
governs communication about projects, both across the company and verti-
cally through the hierarchy. Senior management is an integral part of the
project management system, serving to create the conditions for success and
using project information for business development.
Organizations face six key issues in their upgrade of the project review
processes:
Q Find a balance in project information needs. How can senior management
arrive at an effective balance between increasingly excessive project task
structures for complex projects and broad, corporate information for senior
managers?
Q Conduct effective project reviews. How can senior management obtain action-
able information from project managers during project reviews without inhib-
iting the project management process?
Q Develop consistent application of project management tools and techniques.
How can senior management develop a disciplined project management
system that project managers follow without creating expensive, time-
consuming, and detailed reporting systems?
 The Global Program Manager 281

Q Build a project manager pool. How can senior management identify core
competencies and build a reliable project manager cadre?
Q Coordinate projects across functions. How can senior management ensure
that projects are cross-functional and avoid insulated, company “silos?”
Q Use project management tools and techniques to develop professional services.
How can senior management use project management practices to expand
its professional services and outsourcing business?

Senior Management Roles: Creating the Conditions

for Project Success
In a firm committed to improving program success, senior managers are
responsible for establishing and supporting a project management and
professional services system that accomplishes corporate goals. However,
projects are also a vehicle for building customer relationships and part-
nerships. The development of a professional services business relies on
building relationships through successful projects. Project managers can
identify new business development opportunities during the process if
they are attuned to where the company is going and senior managers take
interest in “actionable information.” Actionable information is information
that is produced during a project, product, or service development process
that helps senior management accomplish their key strategic and business
development goals.
According to authors Englund and Graham (Robert J. Graham and Randall
L. Englund, Creating An Environment for Successful Projects: The Quest to
Manage Program Project Management, Jossey-Bass, 1997), senior management
is responsible for creating an environment for successful projects through the
following 10 roles:

1. Leading the transition to a fully project-based organization

2. Aligning projects with the company’s strategic business plan
3. Understanding the impact of senior managers on the success of projects
4. Developing a core project team process
5. Ensuring an effective project management organizational structure with
clear lines of authority and responsibility
6. Developing a project management information and project review system
that produces “actionable information”
7. Developing a plan for identifying project manager core competencies and a
selection and development process
8. Developing a learning organization, stemming from project management
documentation and processes
282 Chapter Six

9. Developing initiatives to improve the project management system

10. Developing senior management’s ability to manage project managers

Later , these 10 roles will be addressed in further detail.

The challenge lies in the area of potential “project overkill,” avoiding the
laying on of inordinate reporting and detailed planning requirements and soft-
ware that drive project managers into a far more detailed picture of their project
tasks than even they need to manage. Furthermore, the risk is that detailed
reporting requirements will detract from a project manager’s ability to “rise
above” detailed tasks and subtasks to produce broad, actionable, business devel-
opment information for senior management’s attention.
The timing for the development of a consistent project management and
review system is best suited when the following conditions exist:
Q The company is already embarked on improving its project planning and
status reporting process and project documentation as part of a broad quality
program.
Q The company is heavily committed to education and training as a way to
equip its people for global competition.
Q The company is moving in the direction of more standardization of products
and processes, thus the consistency with a disciplined project management
system.
Q The company is going through change and transition, and recognizes that
employees at all levels need to know how to link their project work with the
company’s changing strategic direction.
Q Change itself will be facilitated by internal, change-oriented projects, man-
aged like product and service projects.
Q The transition to a professional services format for customer relations will
require a focus on front-end definition of project deliverables, outcomes, and
results.
Q The company’s customers themselves are going through major structural
change; thus, the company needs to help customers organize new marketing,
product development, and project management processes.

What Are the Typical Project Management

Windows for Program Review?
Whether product- or service-oriented, program management processes should
involve distinct, predictable windows for review. A standard approach to phas-
ing allows all project and senior managers to understand project progress in
terms of progress through common phases, providing predicable “gateways” for
communicating actionable information.
 The Global Program Manager 283

While there are always variations on the theme, the four basic project man-
agement phases include:

1. Concept
2. Project definition
3. Design and implementation
4. Project close-out and follow-up

The following table shows the major activities in each phase of a typical
project for review:

Phase 3 Phase 4
Phase 1 Phase 2 Design and Close-out and
Concept Project Definition Implementation Follow-up
Identify and Project definition Design concept Financial
clarify customer Establish project team Engineering studies performance
requirements Detailed scope of work Prototype and test Project
Planning and project Professional services plan Installation plan documentation
Selection Project plan Delivery of services Lessons learned
Generate new Define work breakdown Earned value Obtain customer
project concepts: structure feedback
product and Develop task list with Close out books
professional interdependencies Follow-up on
services Develop critical path potentials
Screen and rank- Develop responsibility
order of project matrix
concepts Enter baseline data
Broad scoping Develop risk analysis
Establish and
maintain potential
project list

The senior manager role is different from the program manager role.

Introduction to phase 1
While senior managers must play a role in all project phases, the senior manage-
ment role in the concept and strategic planning phase is critical. This is the point
at which senior management can encourage project managers to think through
the kinds of project/product/professional services mix appropriate to each cus-
tomer and target market. Here, senior management sees that early project and
professional services concepts are grounded in legitimate customer needs. The
role here emphasizes that projects will be selected on the basis of needs, pay-offs,
and the company’s strategy to develop a broad professional services practice.
Senior management keeps the project pipeline full through a process of encour-
aging new services and product concepts and designs to be developed to meet
customer needs. A customer-oriented project firm will stress the development of
284 Chapter Six

a long-term planning process to ensure that the projects with the highest pay-off
are undertaken.

Identify and clarify requirements. This step requires senior management to focus
on aligning projects so that they are consistent with corporate strategy and are
grounded in customer requirements. This can be accomplished by requiring that
proposed projects define customer requirements clearly up front in the planning
process. Concepts should include both product development and professional
services.

Generate new program concepts. A company that encourages continuous

improvement, out-of-the-box thinking, and a strategic focus will generate new
project and service concepts to generate the project selection process. Senior
managers need to encourage a certain amount of “free spirit” thinking to create
the conditions for innovative, forward-thinking project formulation. They can
accomplish this by establishing incentives and recognition programs for new
project concepts that align with company strategy. Senior management is
responsible for “inspiring” and generating breakthrough concepts by developing
incentives, removing barriers, and encouraging project developers to challenge
the current way of doing business toward a mix of product and professional
services.

Approvals. Approval of projects is a key senior management function, again

ensuring that projects are aligned with strategy. The process of rank ordering
and selection should include formal presentations, preparation of proposals and
justification material, and consistent criteria. These criteria will include pay-offs,
revenue and business development potential, and contribution to the field.
Senior management must be careful to apply consistent guidelines to rank-
ing and selecting project concepts to avoid the appearance of “pet” projects and
to ensure that there are processes and incentives for proposing and justifying
new project and product ideas. Ranking should be accomplished using corporate
criteria, which are made clear company-wide.

Broad scoping. Program managers should be encouraged to develop the capacity

to broadly scope product and services projects in one- or two-page narrative
formats that allow senior managers to make preliminary decisions to commit
company resources. This is called “broad scoping” the project.

Establish and maintain potential project list. Potential projects are kept alive
through a listing of potential projects, which is updated frequently. Senior
management is responsible for choosing projects for implementation.

Introduction to phase 2
This phase further defines the program and project, once approved, and “fine-
tunes” the concept, schedule, budget, and team. Here is where the company
 The Global Program Manager 285

integrates the project into its project “pipeline” and schedules the work and
resources required in detail. Typically, the budget process serves to facilitate
project selection, but senior managers need to develop a way to transition from
budget decisions to an “approved” listing of projects to be undertaken that is
communicated widely.
Senior management’s role here is to ensure that product development and
professional services projects are defined and costed out clearly in terms of work
breakdown, deliverable specifications, schedule, budget, and quality require-
ments. A consistent approach to project definition, scheduling, and baseline
data entry will ensure that projects can be evaluated and reviewed effectively
and that senior managers can concentrate on gleaning actionable information
from projects rather than second-guessing project managers in their day-to-
day project activities. Senior managers must be careful not to lay on reporting
requirements that drive project managers into too much detail, at the same
time expecting them to see the big picture as well.

Program definition and project scope statements. The project scope statement is
a brief description of the product deliverable or cost-reduction improvement.
The statement includes the following information:
Q Background customer information
Q Description of work: What is to be done?
Q Unique requirements
Q Product and professional services information
Q Special considerations and issues

Establish a formal program team. Teams should be formally established,

authorized, and chartered in writing by senior management. The project
manager is responsible for proposing the composition of the project team. The
team will consist of the appropriate technical staff and representatives, as
approved by senior management. Establishment of a team indicates company
commitment to the project.

Conduct kick-off meeting. The program manager runs the kick-off meeting
to communicate the requirements of the project and to discuss assignments,
commitments, resource questions, and other issues relevant to completing the
work.

Work breakdown and task list. For complex projects, a summary work outline or
breakdown structure and a detailed task list unique to the project are developed.
The work breakdown structure is a top-down outline of the steps in the project
process. The task list, built from the work breakdown structure, indicates task
name, duration, start and end dates, and interdependencies, or predecessors.
No project should be detailed in the WBS to more than five levels down.
286 Chapter Six

Responsibility matrix. The program manager and the team create a responsibility
matrix, or organization chart for the project, once all tasks are identified. This
matrix is a formal assignment structure, which indicates workflows and unit
responsibility for each task.

Develop a broad program schedule. A broad program schedule is developed in

consultation with appropriate stakeholders in the work, using the task list and
project management software if available. The schedule is graphically displayed as
a GANTT chart or a PERT arrow diagram. The critical path of the project is shown
to indicate the combination of tasks, which, if delayed, would delay the overall
project. A project baseline is established, as is a project schedule and budget, which
is the point of departure for proceeding into work performance and monitoring.

Develop bottom-up project budgets. A project budget is prepared indicating

the total cost of doing the work and ensuring the assigned profit margin. The
budget is entered into the database system. Project budgets are built from the
bottom-up by costing out tasks and rolling them up, “loading” direct costs with
appropriate indirect overhead, general, and administrative costs.

Develop risk analysis. During this phase, a risk analysis is prepared to anticipate
the risk involved in the project and to prepare contingency plans. Risk analysis
focuses on feasibility, technology, costs, quality problems, instability in customer
requirements, and forecasting information that might affect the project.
Senior management must be attuned closely to risks in a project because proj-
ect teams tend to become advocates of work initiated and sometimes lack the
perspective to see increasing risks that threaten program and project success.

Introduction to phase 3
Phase 3 is the design and implementation of the program outcomes and
deliverable(s), including products and professional services. It includes execu-
tion of the project scope and schedule, and the utilization and consumption
of project resources. Phase 3 involves monitoring actual performance against
planned estimates for schedule and cost.

Design. Design involves a detailed fleshing out of the outcomes desired and
product and services design. It includes a full description of the performance
specifications for all products and systems, as well as a description of the kinds
of professional services that will meet customer requirements.
In prototyping and testing, designs are “dummied up” and tested with custom-
ers, and final testing is accomplished.
The installation plan is the detailed description of how a system is going to
be installed in the customer’s operating environment.
The senior management role in this phase is to be sure that the project man-
ager is providing accurate performance data and information during design
 The Global Program Manager 287

and testing of the product, and that the customer is satisfied that the design
is appropriate.

Implementation. Projects are implemented according to the schedule, sequencing

tasks and monitoring progress at convenient gateways in the schedule. Senior
managers should focus on critical issues during this process, including:
Q Accomplishments (what has been accomplished, especially unexpected gains)
Q Earned value—e.g., variations from schedule and cost estimates (see tools
and techniques in the next section)
Q Customer feedback (what the actual client of the product or service is saying)
Q Performance feedback (team’s data from testing and implementation in terms
of performance to customer requirements)
Q Quality issues (product defects, service inadequacies, process problems)
Q Other actionable information (see the section on project reviews for action-
able information)

Introduction to phase 4
Phase 4 should be seen as an opportunity to deliver the product and service
and continue the relationship with the customer. It should not be seen simply
as “project close-out.” Thus, the key issue in phase 4 is finding follow-up busi-
ness development potential from the project deliverable, documenting lessons
learned, and moving to the next level of customer partnership.

Financial performance. The project’s financial performance is reviewed at this

point, ensuring that revenue and profit margin goals are going to be realized.
Corrective action includes reestimating cost to complete and finding cost-cutting
measures if appropriate.

Project document project. Software is documented and a project history is

prepared according to a template, including:
Q Project planning documents, scope, etc.
Q Full files from each project phase
Q Financial data
Q Scheduling data
Q Quality data
Q Team performance information

Lessons learned. The project manager is responsible for documenting lessons

learned in a special database of information updated by the project management
team. Documented information includes:
288 Chapter Six

Q Unique lessons from this project

Q Avoidable mistakes and failures
Q Communication problems
Q Organizational issues
Q Technology information

Obtain customer feedback. A customer survey form is presented to the user or

customer of the project. Senior management ensures that customer feedback
is obtained and routed to the appropriate senior and project managers for
appropriate quality control and management action.

Explore follow-up potential. Here is where the program manager and team are
expected to explore follow-up opportunities with the customer. Senior managers
should lead this process, focusing project managers on marketing targets and
helping to build partnerships with customers to further professional services
opportunities.
From the senior manager’s perspective, the key project planning management
tools include the work breakdown structure, task list, GANTT chart, calendar
plan, task usage chart, and earned value analysis. Senior managers should
ensure that project managers are trained in and can use these tools to manage
their projects and report on them.
Because Microsoft Project 98 is a useful and popular project management
software program, illustrations of these tools in this manual are taken from
that software. What follows is a brief discussion of each tool and the senior man-
agement perspective on them. Care should be taken, however, with any proj-
ect management software to avoid too much task detail and structure simply
because the software allows it.
A sample of each of these tools is shown following this discussion.

1. Work breakdown structure (WBS). The WBS involves top-down planning of the
project, beginning with the product or services requirement. It decomposes the
project into greater and greater levels of detail. Roll-up of the WBS completes
the project, so its purpose is to plan down to four or five levels of detail in an
“organization chart” of the project. Remember to keep your project managers
focusing on the integration of tasks horizontally and using the WBS to identify
the “big chunks” of work at the top of the WBS early in the project that need
to be completed and integrated before the project is successful.
2. Task list. The task list shows the tasks required for the project, with dura-
tions, start and finish dates, predecessors, and resource names. The task list
is the basis for preparing the GANTT chart and is the basis for scheduling
and resource allocation.
3. GANTT chart. The GANTT chart is a bar chart showing each task, its depen-
dencies, and its durations (both planning and actual) against an actual calendar
 The Global Program Manager 289

to permit scheduling and resource planning. This chart is a convenient way of

showing senior managers, and the customer, the whole project and its key mile-
stones, gateways, and interdependencies.
4. Calendar plan. An actual weekly calendar showing program and project task
activity
5. Earned value analysis. Earned value analysis is used to identify when the
overall project is using resources at a greater or less than planned rate and
when the project is ahead of or behind schedule. Because it is dangerous to
look separately at the schedule or budget for an indication of how things are
going, earned value combines the two. Earned value is important to senior
managers because use of the concept provides a simple indicator of both
schedule and cost variance using one measure: dollar value. From earned
value indicators, senior managers can ask questions and assure themselves
that the project manager knows how the project is going.

Some definitions:
Q Budgeted cost for work scheduled (BCWS). This is the estimated cost of the
project and each task.
Q Budgeted cost for work performed (BCWP). The cost contained in the project
budget for completed work, plus a proportional share of the budgeted cost of
work partially completed. This is the actual earned value—it answers the
question, “Of the work you have completed, how did its cost compare with your
plans?” In effect, it is asking whether the project “earned” the budget devoted
to the work completed or whether the work is actually behind schedule.
Q Budgeted cost of work performed (BCWP). This is the actual expenditure to
date.

The senior manager is interested in:

Cost variance (CV = BCWP – ACWP)

Schedule variance (SV = BCWP – BCWS)
Estimate at completion [EAC = (ACWP/BCWP) × total budget]

As an example, if a project is showing BCWP = $200K, BCWS = $400K, and

ACWP = $400K, the project is badly behind because the value of work performed
(BCWP) is far below what it should be (BCWS) at this point in the project, but
the project has spent project funds (ACWP) as if the work were on schedule.

Narrative report and presentation. Each project manager should be expected to

report on accomplishments, issues, actionable information, and corrective plans
in a consistent format across the company. Project reviews, however, do not have
to consume large blocks of time, and most review information can flow without
the need for meetings.
290 Chapter Six

Sample tools
The purpose of this section is to place special emphasis on focusing on the right
information—termed actionable information—for project reviews. Actionable
information is information that creates opportunities for senior management to
develop technology and marketing concepts and accomplish corporate business
development goals and objectives. Project reviews and reporting systems should
focus on actionable information as follows:
Q Status of project, issues, and plans
Q Overall progress compared to plan
Q Accomplishments
Q Issues
Q Plans for corrective action
Q Customer feedback
Q Marketing information
Q Developing customer requirements
Q Business process outsourcing potentials
Q New product and market information
Q Successful presentation approaches
Q Key contacts at high levels in the customer organization
Q Lessons learned in project management
Q Organizational support issues
Q Standard templates
Q Tracking software successes
Q Project management process improvements
Q Financial and costing controls
Q Successes in identifying customer requirements
Q Successful communication and reporting strategies
Q Change order management
Q Breakthrough manufacturing or product development technology
Q Software innovations
Q New equipment performance information
Q Industrialization opportunities
Q Transferability
Q Information on competitive challenges
Q Intelligence on competitive developments
 The Global Program Manager 291

Q Lessons learned by customers from competitors or stakeholders

Q Financial and productivity data
Q Project performance
Q Successful approaches to leading the project team
Q Team performance feedback from customer and from team members
Q Team core competency information, e.g., feedback from team composition and
skill needs

Information on Competitive Challenges

Q Intelligence on competitive developments in financial and insurance profes-

sional services
Q Lessons learned by customers from competitors or stakeholders
Q Financial and productivity data

Project team performance

Q Successful approaches to generating excellent team performance

Q Feedback on team interaction with the customer
Q Insights on core competencies needed for project leadership and team mem-
bership
Q Successful organizational approaches

Opportunities for Customer Partnering

Q Shared interests with customer for alliances

Q Business process outsourcing opportunities
Q Opportunities for developing professional service relationships
Q Joint project team opportunities

Earned Value

Q Tracking data showing major schedule problems and cost variances

Q Cost to complete
Q Plans for corrective action

Senior management is responsible for obtaining actionable information from

project reviews and avoiding costly project review sessions, which sometimes
second-guess project decisions without adequate information.
292 Chapter Six

Summing Up: 10 Key Roles of the Program Manager

Recounting the 10 key roles of program management addressed previously, here
are more details on specific senior program management actions to be taken:

1. Leading the transition to a fully project-based organization

Q Establishing a sense of urgency on project management success connected
to company performance and individual compensation
Q Creating networks of project sponsors and support staff
Q Communicating the changed vision, including the emphasis on professional
services projects
Q Empowering project managers to perform
Q Connecting project management to strategic initiatives, e.g., professional
services business development
2. Aligning program and portfolio projects with the company’s strategic busi-
ness plan
Q Getting involved early in project generation, planning, and approval, and
reflect the movement toward professional services
Q Making sure project managers understand the business plan
Q Raising issues early on misaligned projects
3. Understanding the impact of senior managers on the success of projects
Q Getting feedback from project managers on the effectiveness of project
reviews and other senior manager involvement
Q Communicating with other senior managers on impacts
Q Listening to project managers
4. Developing a core project team process
Q Encouraging teams and teamwork
Q Officially chartering teams in writing
Q Providing team incentives
5. Assuring an effective project management structure
Q Delegating authority in writing
Q Clarifying reporting relationships
Q Giving authority with responsibility
Q Building capacity to manage
Q Focusing on big picture
Q Avoiding conflicting messages on project detail and reporting needs
6. Developing project management information system
Q Communicating project review information needs
 The Global Program Manager 293

Q Benchmarking good project review approaches

Q Providing software and training
Q Investing in project management information systems
Q Controlling level of detail in project planning
7. Developing core competencies
Q Identifying what makes a good project manager
Q Developing project manager profiles
Q Publishing core competencies
Q Integrating into hiring
8. Developing a learning organization
Q Deciding on documentation needs
Q Creating a sense of urgency on lessons learned
Q Identifying costs of repeated mistakes
Q Assigning responsibility
9. Developing project management improvement initiatives
Q Looking for opportunities to improve the process
Q Asking project managers and customers for ideas
Q Giving priority to internal improvements
10. Developing capacity to manage project managers
Q Communicating with project managers on their issues
Q Focusing on leadership capacities and core competencies
Q Preparing individual development plans

What Does the Program Manager Expect from

Project Managers?
The project manager is responsible for knowing the project management system
and appropriate roles and functions. This person is responsible for the establish-
ment and performance of the project team and provides support and leadership.
The project manager is accountable for meeting schedule, quality, and cost
goals of the project and satisfying customer requirements. This person estab-
lishes teams; works with other engineers, managers, and support personnel to
schedule and budget projects; serves as a contact point for both the client and
internal team members; and monitors project performance.
The project manager is expected to resolve problems and communicate with
senior management on resource or performance issues and to be aware of and
respond to the actionable information needs of senior management. He or she is
expected to plan and run project meetings efficiently and to assure good project
documentation.
294 Chapter Six

What about project team members?

The team member is responsible for completing tasks assigned within the proj-
ect work breakdown structure, accepting responsibility for assigned tasks and
completing them on time and within budget, attending meetings of the team,
and working cooperatively on project tasks with other team members. Team
members are liaisons between the project team and their functional depart-
ments. They must work collaboratively with each other for the project to be
successful.

Program Manager Review Agenda

Program managers review program and project status through program review
meetings and reporting processes.
Here is an example of a typical agenda for such a meeting.

1. Overview of program, schedule, and major accomplishments and activities

2. Current performance to plan
 Q Changes
 Q Variances
Q Percent complete
Q Estimate to complete
Q Plan updates
Q Recommendations for corrective action
3. Issues and concerns
 Q Scope
Q Quality
Q Resources
Q Risks
Q Technology
Q Staff and team
Q Costs
 Q Organization
4. New program opportunities
 Q Plans for the coming week
5. Program review survey

It might be useful for businesses contemplating improvements in program

review to benchmark the process with other leaders in the field. Here are some
of the questions that might be asked in such survey.
 The Global Program Manager 295

Sample Program Review Questionnaire

1. In your experience, executive or top (program) management reviews of project

status:
Q Are very useful to you as a PM and should continue
Q Are not very useful to you as a PM
Q Are disruptive to you as a PM
Q Don’t happen
Comments?
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2. Rank in order of importance the following agenda items for a project review
by top management: 1=high; 2=middle; 3=low:
Q Schedule status
Q Cost status
Q Quality status
Q Problems and issues
Q Accomplishments
Q Technology lessons
Q Marketing opportunities
Q Team performance issues
3. As a project manager, list the key project review agenda items you think top
management should be using:
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4. If you are an executive or top manager overseeing project managers, list the
review agenda items you think are appropriate:
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5. When should top management project reviews be held?
Q Every week
Q Every month
Q Every quarter
296 Chapter Six

Q At the end of key tasks

Q Other
6. Who should participate in top management project reviews?
Q Customer
Q Project team
Q Project manager
Q Top management
Q Other
7. Are top management review agenda items distributed before the meeting?
Q Yes
Q No
8. Other comments. Do you have more comments on executive or top manage-
ment roles in project review?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Program Management Information System

A program management information system provides project information to all
team members and stakeholders on a network, which ensures easy access and com-
munication. Program managers and department managers will have access to all
schedule data on the network. Microsoft Project is preferred for developing sched-
ules, saving baselines, and providing monitoring information because it is compat-
ible with other Microsoft programs, including Word, Excel, and PowerPoint.

Procedures for Schedule Tracking and Reporting

To set the stage for effective tracking, goals to support program review must be
set. Here is a suggested list of such goals:

1. Time-phased schedules for all ongoing programs (available on the network).

Program managers working to scrub schedules where possible.
2. Resource-leveled schedules for ongoing and new programs to avoid overbur-
dening resources (we are not resource leveling as yet because our resource
pool is not yet accurate; working with departments to reach a point where
we can act with confidence on an “overallocation”).
3. Predictions of changes and how they will affect future milestones (the pro-
gram managers are doing this daily, but not systematically; linkages across
projects not there as yet).
4. Staff are given clear assignments from current schedules so they know what
they are expected to do and when (when the resource pool is cleaned up, each
staff member will get a weekly task list from their department manager).
5. Departments use resource information as s manpower planning tool.
 The Global Program Manager 297

6. All schedules are linked together to resolve conflicts and to predict effects of
changes in one program on another program in terms of costs, manpower,
scheduling, etc. (the program managers pick up these conflicts and work
them now, but not through a system; they are not looking at costs and man-
power impacts as yet).
7. Common schedule and task format; common work breakdown structure,
with dictionary.
8. Budget and track actual labor costs (you have indicated that tracking hours
would be sufficient). I am trying to work out a way to capture both, but with
emphasis on hours.
9. Integrate test equipment into the scheduling process (no progress as yet).
10. Earned value, BCWP, ACWP, etc. (can’t do until we start entering costs into
schedules and save as baselines).
11. Internal program plan documents for each program, including overview,
scope, schedule, budget, etc.
12. Reports:
Q Weekly updated schedules with conflicts resolved (you have updates
weekly, but real conflicts will not be apparent until resource pool is
cleaned up)
Q Weekly program summaries and risks
Q Monthly manpower reports, by group, with rolling 12-month forecasts
(again, when we get a cleaned-up version of the resource pool report, we
can report manpower needs)
Q Monthly earned value reports (need to decide how to get there)

Program tracking information

Program managers manage the tracking system, including:

1. Tracking starts when a schedule is saved as a baseline and linked to a

central resource pool.
2. Criteria for tracking system:
a. Simple
b. Flexible
c. Regular
d. Tracks the right things
e. Focus on exceptions and variances from plan
3. Tracking updates project and/or selected tasks as follows:
a. Actual finish (when tasks start and finish on schedule, Microsoft
Project will automatically update schedule)
b. Percent complete
298 Chapter Six

c. Actual duration
d. Remaining duration
e. Costs (if applicable)
f. Updates to be entered weekly
4. Tracking determines whether a new baseline is required, if developments in
the project indicate that a major summary task should be added or overall
structure changed. For example, a new baseline may also be required if a
change in scope is directed by top management.
5. Procedures for tracking:
a. Tracking and reporting will be integrated into weekly report system
b. Department contacts designated to gather tracking information for
their department, or individuals doing the work provide tracking
information
c. Measures tracked:
i. Percent complete
ii. Changes in start or finish dates
iii. Resource assignments
iv. Minor new tasks
v. Major summary task changes
d. Options for gathering data:
i. Program management office requests progress information weekly by
e-mail from department contacts to program management office. The
people actually responsible for doing the work should provide progress.
This information will be obtained as part of the weekly team meetings.
ii. Departments have read-write access to folders on the network and
update schedule weekly, entering their own updates. (This would
probably not work well; relying on department managers for program
management information is liable to create problems since they are
not as close to the work as the program manager is.)
6. Access versus reports
a. Program plans and schedules in planning stage are on program
management office admin directory, updated as the program managers
and departments build to the baseline.
b. Once baseline is saved, file is saved.
c. Weekly updates are made to the schedule, with tracking GANTT showing
variances.
d. Current schedules are on program management office admin directory,
with departments.
e. Program managers will keep all historic versions of schedules in a
separate folder labeled “obsolete.”
7. Program management office concept: Program planner and program manag-
ers seen as one office, working as a team: division of labor between program
managers and program planner in tracking and reporting:
 The Global Program Manager 299

a. Program manager
i. Get update information in weekly team meetings
ii. Change schedules (or ask program planner to change schedules)
iii. Assessment and interpretation of updates
iv. Identify conflicts; facilitate resolution
v. Corrective action and report to general manager as necessary
vi. Restructuring schedule, if necessary
b. Program planner
i. Flag current and new tasks for the week (should not replace program
manager’s critical responsibility to track tasks)
ii. Hand out resource assignments
iii. Identify conflicts; facilitate resolution (Jeff feels this is critical function
of program planner)
iv. Request update information
v. Print out following reports for general manager, program management
office, and department managers:
1. Weekly hardcopy updates of all schedules
2. Summaries of variance between planned and actual by schedule
(text and graphics)
3. Problem areas with a plan for correcting the problems
4. Risk management report
5. Twelve-month lead time resource assignment reports, summary
plus department functions (software engineers, electrical engineers,
test technicians)
6. Labor utilization and earned value (where possible–longer-term
goal)
7. ETC (estimated time and budget to complete–longer-term goal)
8. EAC (estimate budget at completion–longer-term goal)
8. Meetings
a. Weekly team meetings
b. Weekly program management office meetings (Ray, Jeff, Steve, Bruce)
9. Coordination with purchasing, manufacturing, and APC
a. Separate reports to flag purchasing, manufacturing, and APC on
requirements and expectations (parts, LCDs)
10. Finance reporting
Finance is going to send us monthly reports on hours charged against job num-
bers, but is looking for guidance on whether and when we go to subaccounts. They
can also rack up all costs monthly against job numbers if we want to see it.

Program Review Meetings and Reports

Program team meetings and reviews occur weekly with agendas set by the
program manager.
300 Chapter Six

Reports, meetings, and documentation

Periodic reports to the general manager:
Q Weekly schedule updates with all tasks updated and conflicts resolved
Q Weekly summaries (text and graphics) of progress in each program area, with
issues, risks, and corrective actions
Q Monthly earned value (schedule and cost variance) reports for each program
phase, including estimate to completion (ETC) and estimate at completion
(EAC) indicators
Q Monthly workforce reports on manpower resource utilization, including a
12-month forecast broken down into individual functions, e.g., software engi-
neers, electrical engineers, test technicians, etc.
Q Weekly corporate report
Q Weekly program planning meetings

Issues in program management improvement

Continuous improvement in program management practices requires that
organizations:

1. Be consistent across programs

2. Scrub schedules the same way
3. Treat baseline, current, and actual the same way
4. Monitor and report on progress the same way
5. Treat the whole program management improvement effort as a team project

Design and follow consistent planning procedures

1. Create draft schedule

2. Assign resources
3. Link to resource pool
4. Scrub draft schedule
5. Level resources
6. Enter costs
7. Save baseline
8. Put in network folder

Monitor baseline #1

1. Save baseline #1 to PC
2. Gather data weekly on actuals, percent complete, change in start and finish, etc.
 The Global Program Manager 301

3. Report (against baseline #1) on earned value, slipped tasks, costs, etc.
4. Report on resource impacts
5. Revise schedule as necessary
6. If minor changes, save new current version
7. Revise schedule if major changes
8. If there are major changes in schedule, save new baseline (interim)

Monitor against baseline or current

1. Save interim new baseline or current to PC

2. Gather data against new baseline or current
3. Report data on new baseline or current

Report consistently

1. Integrate into weekly report

2. Common format
3. Reliable reports
4. Add costs

Network Information Exchange

Find an acceptable way to provide the network team with baseline and current
versions, actual performance information, and resource tasking in a predict-
able way.

Program managers and workforce planning

Long-term workforce planning begins with some understanding of what your
current program and project workforce can do—e.g., its capacity to put out the
work, especially in a global setting. Standards are developed that relate capacity
to performance. The process involves relating workforce levels and/or staffing
mixes to standards for work and output. For instance, you might define what
a given level of software certification engineers can produce based on past his-
tory—e.g., five engineers have supported three concurrent product development
projects with turn-around on software certification documents of three weeks.
Then these standards are used to estimate what various alternative staffing
levels might produce in the way of more capacity to produce certification docu-
ments sooner or more certification documents in a given period. The issue in
this case would be to see what new staffing levels would be required to put out
twice as many software certification documents in the same three weeks.
302 Chapter Six

The more immediate workforce decisions are made on the basis of schedule
conflicts created by current scheduling impacts on the current workforce.
Whenever you show a current conflict created by current and planned sched-
ules and have to put off some program step or activity because of scarce
resources, you know that you could avoid schedule slippage by hiring new
staff. But you don’t know how much staff you need until you have done the
previous exercise.
Good workforce planning involves the staff in the planning process. Providing
team members with information on assignments helps to give them ownership
on key project issues such as task interdependence and resolving resource
conflicts. It also allows them to assist in estimating levels of hiring necessary
to raise the capacity to improve performance to various levels to meet future
demand. To provide access, program managers or the program management
office provides the central resource pool, reflecting assignments for all sched-
uled programs to team members. If staff confirm that these resource plans
accurately reflect the work actually going on, that would tell the manager
that he or she is on the right path in the scheduling process. That is, there
would be reasonably good alignment between what is being scheduled and
what people are doing. It would not tell the manager whether the scheduled
tasks were the right ones, or that the team had everything that needs to be
done captured, just that people are doing scheduled work that is aligned with
expectations. Positive staff reaction to this information would tell the manager
that staff need more information on expectations and assignments than they
are getting.

Feedback
Here is typical feedback from such a system:

1. All staff appreciated what we were trying to do in tightening the schedul-

ing process, relying more on the schedule baseline as the “official” start-
ing point, working out conflicts, and informing them of scheduled work
assignments.
2. Most found the data pretty accurate, with major exceptions.
3. Most objected to the way tasks were described, and many could not immedi-
ately put the cryptic descriptions of a task in context of a program.
4. All had widely different views of how to improve the process, but all appreci-
ated the information.
5. They confirm that we are not capturing a lot of work in the scheduling
process, work that is actually going on, including troubleshooting and
integration.
6. Not as much as I expected on conflicts.
7. As an aside, several staff appear underassigned, but extremely busy doing
unscheduled things.
 The Global Program Manager 303

A sampling of typical comments that might be expected from such a survey

includes:

1. I didn’t know I was supposed to do these tasks.

2. My current work in software integration and troubleshooting is not captured
anyplace.
3. Managers should be reviewing the assigned tasks from the master sched-
ules; it appears as though slippages are not being accounted for.
4. This information is accurate, but I know that slippage is not reflected.
5. It was nice to see only my time and schedule; the format of one person’s
hours and tasks is good because we rarely see personalized tasks.
6. Information not accurate and doesn’t capture general support in failure
reporting and corrective action system work.
7. My work is difficult to capture because it goes across programs; these assign-
ments reflect only program work, not department work; we do a lot of across
the board work not captured in schedules, e.g., support to manufacturing.
8. This was very useful; I didn’t know I was doing anything other than my
current responsibilities.
9. Work not mine; assigned to someone else; inaccurate.
10. This information contained a task I had never heard of; checked with program
manager and I guess I will be doing it, but later than shown on the schedule.
11. Some of the work hours are worst-case scenario; I cannot accurately assess how
long it will take to complete a document; they vary from program to program. I
tend to keep my eye on the project deliverable due date as a general reference
point for my work. You might show us endpoints with this information.
12. This was useful, but it may be beneficial to indicate a priority order based
on long lead time tasks, critical path items, etc. to show what we should
work on first, second, third, etc. to optimize the schedule.
13. This was useful, but I have been reassigned as of 9/1 and so this schedule
is out of date.
14. I was surprised to see all of the work projected for me, but this is the first
time I have seen it all. Need to be introduced to it.

Training and professional development

Training in program management approaches, tools, and techniques is pro-
vided to all program managers, as well as team facilitator training and project
management software training. A typical training and development program
consists of workshops on:

1. The program management organization

2. The global setting for program management
304 Chapter Six

3. Job functions and competencies

4. Program planning
5. Scheduling and resource management
6. Negotiating skills and conflict resolution
7. Staffing skills
8. Team facilitation
9. Change management

We addressed several models and themes for defining the program manager
in this chapter. No one model will fit all situations. However, a strong under-
standing of the models allows a person to select the right tools they need for
their organization and the challenges of their position to successfully deliver the
desired outcomes of a program. Program managers set the vision for the pro-
gram and articulate it to the team. Program managers focus within a continuous
improvement environment where they grow and develop their team and build
and improve upon program business processes. The successful global program
manager has depth and breadth of knowledge and experience in project, program,
portfolio, and business management.
 Chapter

7
Partnerships, Contracts,
and Procurement

Introduction
Chapter 6 covered the functions and roles of the program manager. One of
the key roles of the program manager is to negotiate and manage contractors
and work with partners in directing global programs. This chapter explores
some of the key issues involved in global program management partnering
and contracting.
The chapter addresses the issue of how program and executive managers
approach the partnering, outsourcing, and contracting of programs and projects
globally, and how their challenge is different from traditional project manage-
ment. Rather than dwell on the mechanics of contracts and procurement that
are more the concern of project managers, this chapter is aimed more at the
issues and decisions involved in partnering with organizations and companies
to leverage intended program outcomes and benefits. Programs are seen here
as targeted business operations with goals that are designed to change systems,
customer or client behaviors, or change the business, or to change social and
economic conditions in a foreign country. In this chapter we are describing func-
tions and activities associated with good global business and program manage-
ment, not necessarily “what program managers do.” We recognize that some
businesses engage in program management practice without calling it “program
management,” and others call what they do program management but do not
really carry out global program management practices. The reader is cautioned
not to assume that position and organizational titles actually portray what
businesses and people actually do; it is the activity that defines the program
management function, not the words.

305
306 Chapter Seven

Innovation and Outsourcing

We do not start our conversation on program management and partnering, con-
tracts, and procurement with a cookbook approach. These are matters that involve
the mechanics of contracting and procurement. It is not that program managers
don’t care about the micro-aspects of procurement projects—it is rather that
program managers enable their project managers to deal with these processes.
Program managers must rise to the 30,000-feet perspective that enables them to
see global strategic principles and issues. These principles and issues include:

1. Program managers should see global e-procurement as a series of systems for

partnering, collaborating, negotiating contracts, and completing procurement
processes to access talent, innovative ideas, and lastly materials. Materials
and equipment are not the keys in this process; it is creative and innovative
ideas on customer requirements, business opportunity, new technologies, and
economic trends.
2. Know what is out there. Many global companies already provide platforms
to help program managers access local and actionable information on pro-
curement and outsourcing. There are many systems out there for accessing
information—e.g., Skype and Google. Programs survive and thrive first on
ideas that come from talented professionals; if you cannot access these pro-
fessionals, you cannot take advantage of their ideas.
3. It’s getting personal. The personalization of information has created operat-
ing vehicles for collaboration—e.g., Facebook, the social networking plat-
form; Wikia, a content-sharing website that creates wiki-based communities;
Basecamp, project management collaboration software; WebEx, Cisco-driven
on-demand web collaboration software for web and video conferencing;
AdMob, mobile advertising marketplace; and LiMo, Linux for Mobile plat-
form to build mobile applications.
4. You may have to reorganize and restructure how companies access and use
partners and suppliers, moving from traditional vertical integration to initi-
ating programs to access specialized global suppliers. As we indicated in the
introduction, program management has become a core business activity that
shapes current functions of the business through targeted projects. The com-
pany may have to develop the administrative and process capacity to deliver on
those outcomes through disciplined project management and strong support.
5. These new platforms for electronic collaboration and virtual teams may
require reshaping program goals, benefits, and objectives to achieve more
ambitious outcomes. New program goals will reflect the capacity to reach
any part of the world with products and services.

Developing partnerships and supplier relationships

As we indicated in Chap. 6, contractual negotiations in many countries are not
as formal or predictable as American contract negotiations. Sometimes, program
contracts and local arrangements are made with a handshake or with a verbal
 Partnerships, Contracts, and Procurement 307

promise instead of a written contract. Unlike the advice of Fisher and Ury to
focus on issues rather than people, the global manager may have to focus on
personalities and positions to affect contract arrangements in a personal way.
Sometimes, money crosses hands in an arrangement that Americans might call
bribery. Sometimes, foreign governments doing business with an international
engineering or systems team will fragment responsibility in the program team so
that no one country representative on the team can dominate it. The home country
will play the prime contractor role in the program team and coordinate the pro-
gram players from other countries to ensure local control. Therefore, negotiations
within the team often involve not only the home program sponsor, but many of the
team players as well, because all the players need to adjust to local conditions.
The global program manager must be aware of these variations in order to
negotiate for program support and facilities. For instance, a cable telecommu-
nications supplier developing a major international cable system in the Middle
East might encounter a number of negotiating challenges:

1. Negotiating roles and functions for the program team as part of a larger, more
international team of telecommunications professionals and technicians, the
global program manager must fit his or her team into local roles and settings.
This may mean giving up controls and leverage in cable installation, such
as cable access, liabilities, and maintenance costs. Entering the negotiations
with this in mind, a global manager must be aware of the key priorities of
the program that are not negotiable (e.g., no competitor access) and those
that can be compromised in making arrangements with a local jurisdiction
or prime company (e.g., maintenance costs and systems). Local easement
and land use often present major issues to a telecommunications program,
including local access to required rights of way for cable systems and hubs.
2. Cable installation or maintenance contracts may be written by 50 different
jurisdictions, each with a different format and set of terms and conditions.
Thus, the standardization and formatting of contracts in a global program
are often impossible. Additional time and effort may be necessary to affect
contracts that take only minutes in domestic programs.
3. Relationships with partners and competitors take a different turn in interna-
tional situations, requiring tailored negotiation approaches. For instance, a
cable company may have to negotiate with local competitors to market cable
services, sometimes even entering into compacts or partnership contracts.
Global program managers must often negotiate these arrangements sen-
sitively so that program and business assets are protected while doors are
opened to program development in the local setting.
4. Government regulatory constraints. Governments in the Middle East, for
example, may have different or no safety regulations to govern local cable
installation, yet local foreigners on the program payroll can sue the program
company in the United States under certain circumstances. Thus, the lack
of local safety rules does not eliminate the need for safety management
practices.
308 Chapter Seven

Licensing and other program issues overseas

While domestic programs often face major licensing and permitting issues, pro-
grams doing business in other countries experience more complicated problems.
This is because it is difficult to keep up with changes in foreign governmental
regulatory processes. Authorities in foreign countries can also change standards
and regulations quickly to respond to program issues such as delays and quality
variances. The following case is illustrative.

The global avionics program management case

A French aircraft manufacturer, Aeronomics, needs to procure a suite of avi-
onics instruments for its business aircraft and seeks out bids from potential
instrument developers because it does not have the capacity to produce instru-
mentation. (A suite of instruments is designed for a given aircraft cockpit con-
figuration.) An American company, Basic Systems, Inc., responds to the bid offer
and wins the bid based on its program management experience, cost control, and
quality performance. The contract with Basic is for a fixed price at $50 million
for a series of instruments, despite their attempt to negotiate a cost-reimbursement
arrangement. Basic contends that the standards for avionics instruments inter-
nationally, unlike those in the United States, change so often and are open to
such a wide variety of interpretations that they cannot predict the cost of com-
pliance in design and production of a suite of instruments. Aeronomics insists
on a fixed-price contract with a clause that allows for renegotiation if standards
change. There is a large incentive fee, $2 million, if the program is completed
on time. There is a $10 million limit to Basic’s liability for the program.
Because of a number of issues, design changes, scope creep in component produc-
tion, late material from suppliers, and staff performance problems at Basic, they fall
behind in the development phase. Several projects aimed at particular instruments
(e.g., altimeters) do not meet current standards set by the civil aviation agency in
several countries in Asia where the aircraft will operate. Several instrument proj-
ects in the program are finally completed six months late, delaying Aeronomic’s
aircraft production schedules by a year. Cost overruns exceed $10 million.
Basic delivers the instruments and gets technical product approval, but files
a contract claim for an additional $5 million for excusable delays, blaming the
delays primarily on their suppliers and instability in local avionics standards.
Aeronomics hires a law firm to defend its decision to reject the claims. The law
firm indicates that they will need to review the technical and legal requirements of
the contract to determine whether Basic satisfied the requirements. The contract
states that disputes must be submitted to an international arbitration panel.
Aeronomics refuses to pay Basic on the last $3 million invoice submitted for
final work completed. Basic contends that it has completed all milestones in
the program, but Aeronomics argues that the last three milestone deliverables
have not been delivered. Basic also contends that currency rates had changed
since negotiation of the contract, at their expense.
Things get more complicated when Basic seeks help for its claim from the U.S.
government, contacting the National Institute for Standards and Technology
 Partnerships, Contracts, and Procurement 309

(formerly the National Bureau of Standards) as the U.S. representative involved with
the International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML), which is charged with
developing the standards code under the U.S Trade Act of 1979. Basic also argues its
case with the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI), which is charged by the trade legislation to
represent U.S. interests in nongovernmental international standards organizations.
Aeronomics counters by bringing in its own French avionics regulatory authority to
defend changes in avionics standards based on recent aircraft accident data.
Here are some of the issues in this case from perspective of the program
manager’s job:

1. Had the program manager for this work been chosen by senior company
management when the company chose to bid this work?
2. Did the program manager work to develop a close relationship with company
executive management responsible for this program area?
3. Did the program manager participate in the decision to bid for this inter-
national work?
4. Did the program manager participate in the negotiation of this fixed-price
contract, and was there any discussion of promoting a cost-reimbursement
contract?
5. Did the program manager have a close relationship with the company’s
acquisition/procurement officer so that the program manager was brought
into company discussions on the bid proposal?
6. Was the program manager aware of the technical challenges in designing
and producing this suite of instruments?
7. Was the program manager aware of the national and international standards
that applied to the products of this work and how they were changing?
8. Did the program manager attempt to find out about Aernomics to determine if
there was a potential cultural and technical fit with this French company?
9. How did the program manager handle delays in several projects when they
occurred; was earned value monitoring used and regular program reviews
conducted, and, if so, why were program problems and earned value red
flags not addressed?
10. Did the program manager approve the final invoice submitted to Aeronomics,
and was the program manager aware that Aeronomics would not pay it
based on lack of deliverables?
11. Did the program manager develop a good working relationship with the coun-
terpart French Aeronomics program manager, and were they in communication
through an effective reporting system throughout the program on schedule,
quality, and cost issues?
12. Was the program manager aware of the company’s attempt to bring in American
government regulators and standards institutions to the case and how govern-
mental intervention might affect the program, and even the business itself?
310 Chapter Seven

Postscript
While doing business internationally offers exciting business opportunity, it
also opens up new risks and issues for a business, especially in designing and
delivering new programs. After all, programs are creative activities focused on
change and improvement, and on new products and services. Change is the core
characteristic of program management. And while it often appears that the devil
is in the contract details in an outsourced program dispute, experience suggests
that conflicts and disputes result first from ineffective partnering relationships
and from the lack of continuing communication that results.
This issue—development of working relationships—is the domain of the pro-
gram manager, as both the official representative of the company and as the
leader of the many project managers and supporting managers involved in
a global venture. This is made more difficult when business is being done in
foreign countries and where communications are often through web-based prod-
ucts and services. And while a premium is placed on the virtual project team
in these cases, the critical success factor in a program is rooted in the lack of
a working relationship between the leadership of both the owner/sponsor and
the contracting agent.

Doing good with program management: collaborative

programs targeting international social development

Worldwide social and economic programs. C. K. Prahalad’s The Fortune at the

Bottom of the Pyramid: Eradicating Poverty Through Profits describes private-
sector initiatives that use targeted programs to improve social and economic
conditions (e.g., reduce poverty, improve public health) throughout the world.
These programs leverage their business services and products in association
with partners and collaborators in a local market where the company hopes
both to bring about fundamental social or economic change and to profit from
the effort. They make money doing good. A case in point is an Indian company,
Hindustan Lever Limited (HLL), that decided to leverage its soap brand to
eradicate family health problems in India and countries in Africa and Asia. It
is in these cases where the concept of program management is best understood
as a broad, benefits-oriented initiative involving cross-sector collaboration over
an extended period and with significant costs.

What is a program in these cases?

In cases of social program development, a program is a collaborative partner-
ship between a private enterprise, government, nongovernmental organizations
(NGOs), and academia to achieve a broad social outcome or benefit. While some
projects within such a program focus on building systems and infrastructure to
support the outcome (e.g., communications, product development, team devel-
opment), the program itself is aimed at fundamental change. Needless to say,
programs often go off course and are difficult to manage, and require a healthy
capacity to work with ambiguity and paradigmatic change.
 Partnerships, Contracts, and Procurement 311

Program strategy
The HLL program strategy was to focus on price performance, innovative and
hybrid solutions, scalable solutions, conserving resources, new product devel-
opment, process innovation, deskilling work (e.g., taking into account low skill
levels in targeted markets), customer education, anticipation of hostile environ-
ments, interface management, and concentration on the broad architecture of
the system or platform. In addition, HLL brought a capacity for accountability
through “careful evaluation of investments in projects to ensure success”—in
other words, good program management.

Benefits management
Benefits intended in this program involved fundamental change in the personal
behavior of citizens in the use of soap in their daily lives, since many public
health issues in developing countries result from poor personal hygiene. Thus,
the benefits of the program were not in the volume and profitability of soap
sales as much as in the visible and measurable improvement of public health
in a local target market.

Program governance
Program governance in this case was not strictly through a classic “program
management” office and methodology. The company saw this program as a
mainline activity to be carried out through its corporate structure. The aim of
program governance was to target business resources and evaluate results in
terms of the broad health goals of the program.

Strategic partnerships and stakeholder management

HLL’s program stakeholders included the London School of Hygiene, U.S.
Centers for Disease Control, the World Bank, trade associations, country-specific
state and municipal jurisdictions, and nongovernmental organizations. A
partnership with all of these institutions was necessary to accomplish the
program’s broad goals. What made this especially difficult was that this was
a private-sector, not government-sector, initiative, thus requiring government
entities to accept leadership from a profit-making company.

Program design
Program design was accomplished in the context of a three-legged stool for
changing consumer behavior in targeted countries and localities: (1) initiation
and information, (2) large-scale propagation, and (3) reinforcement and prepa-
ration for sustainability.
Programs were to be carried out through small teams of specialists who would
scale the work and collaborate with local communities to set the groundwork,
research the conditions, promote and sell the products, and evaluate results,
all with strong corporate support from HLL.
312 Chapter Seven

Lessons learned
Program management in the context of broad social programs is different
from narrower program management involving the design of new systems
and platforms. HLL and other companies engaged in broad programs have
learned to:

1. Foster a communication system that is two-way

2. Leverage the existing infrastructure
3. Avoid program stovepipes
4. Accept that software is not a system (e.g., an integrated system requires a
broad approach)
5. Accept that technology alone will fail without change management and
capacity building

Classic program manager role in procurement

Programs like HLL’s require both strong management focus and a supporting
cast for partnering and contracting. The program manager sets the standards
for contractor negotiations and performance for all projects within the program,
and can contract directly for support to the program from a prime or oversee-
ing contractor. However, the program manager cannot micromanage project
contracts. Establishing the performance requirements involves ensuring that
all contractors are aware of the quality and administrative requirements of the
program and can produce and report within a consistent format. Supply chain
management can be employed to provide for a planned sequence of contractor
support and to ensure consistent contractor performance.
Outsourcing to a prime contractor to support the program manager involves
development of a request for proposal that identifies companies specializing
in support to top management, assisting in the day-to-day administration and
management of projects and in monitoring performance.
In addition, the global program manager provides leadership in:

1. Make/buy decisions in a global context. The program manager approves all

project decisions to outsource work overseas to ensure that risks and implica-
tions of doing business with foreign companies are properly assessed.
2. Procurement process variances. The program manager approves any variance
from the standard procurement process (e.g., exceptions to quality and cost
analysis, etc.) to ensure a clean outsourcing process.
3. Standards and requirements across countries. The program manager approves
any variance from written standards for project components, products, and
services.
4. Contractor-based disputes with global impacts. All disputes are escalated to
the program manager if they involve global impacts and/or parties.
 Partnerships, Contracts, and Procurement 313

Procurement process and program manager roles

The program manager sets the ground rules for how contracts and procurement
in general are handled in all projects in the program. The program manager
does not micromanage such transactions, but handles issues and escalated
problems that arise out of the process. One of the major roles of the program
manager is to be sure that the company or agency procurement and acquisition
systems work for the program. The process looks like this:
Q Define project plan, including goals, customer requirements, business case,
team composition, scope of work, schedule, budget, and risk management
plan.
Q Define deliverables, including products and outcomes, in a clearly stated
manner.
Q Define the bill of materials which is typically provided through some kind of
configuration management system, defining the profiles and sources of all
product materials and components.
Q Define goods and services to be produced in-house, including the make/buy
decision.
Q Select bidders and complete requests for proposal. The program manager
may participate in identifying potential bidders, especially if the company is
participating in a supply chain system in which certain partnering contrac-
tors have already been chosen; make sure the project managers appreciate
the added benefit of input from a broad spectrum of functional experts to
ensure that the solution chosen will suit the company’s requirements.
Q Prepare bid proposals, including how bid proposals are formatted.
Q Evaluate bids and award the contract, with the program manager participating
in this process.
Q Contract management, including the kind of contract used (e.g., fixed price,
cost reimbursement), time and materials, how contractor performance
monitoring and payments will be carried out, and how earned value will be
reported consistent with in-house work.
Q Close out the contract; procedures are provided that ensure consistent pro-
cesses for closing out contracts after the books are closed and the contractor
has performed satisfactorily.

Organizational interrelationships and interfaces

These can be keys to success:
Q The program management structure includes how the program management
office (PMO) will be organized and how the program manager will report to
upper management and be situated with project managers and functional
managers.
314 Chapter Seven

Q Top or department management includes special relationships with program

sponsors in business leadership and ownership and key stakeholders.
Q If there is an engineering or design function and a matrix structure, estab-
lish strong lateral relationships with functional managers who are typically
at the same level as program management and sometimes integrated with
program management.
Q Licensing and permitting. This includes making sure that interfaces with
permitting and licensing are keyed into global aspects of the program and
the local variances are identified.
Q Marketing. Since the program manager may be responsible for not only
delivering program products, systems, and outcomes but also distribut-
ing and marketing those products, he or she must have a strong working
relationship with marketing and sales, which are typically separate in the
organization.
Q Manufacturing. Program products and outcomes usually involve production
and inventory, so it’s important to build a strong relationship with production
management and engineering.
Q Construction. If construction is involved with the program, ensure that it is
integrated into the program in terms of implementation and quality control,
where problems sometimes arise.
Q Testing. The design of new program products and outcomes will include testing;
ensure that all projects use the same international testing standards and
reflect local conditions where the product will be used or consumed and that
outcomes are monitored.
Q Operations. A strong interface with operations and services of the company is
needed, since many operational aspects are involved with program develop-
ment and delivery, and some operations may change because of the program.
Q Quality. Because project managers tend to develop their own concepts of qual-
ity, sometimes in close association with the customer but sometimes not, the
program manager has to establish a quality assurance and control program
for all projects.
Q Accounting and finance. Again, because accounting must produce cost data
in a timely way to the project managers for earned value calculations and for
associating invoices with completed work, and because accounting systems
often are not structured to respond to cost capture and reporting on a pro-
gram and project basis, the program manager is responsible for establishing
a close working relationship with accounting and finance.
Q Scheduling. Since scheduling can be accomplished in many ways, ensure that
all project managers use the same scheduling formats and software so that
stage-gate decisions and earned value determinations are consistent when
looked at by the program manager.
 Partnerships, Contracts, and Procurement 315

Q Legal. Since projects can get into legal difficulties, ensure that legal repre-
sentatives are involved early in project planning and especially in contract
negotiations. Ensure that contracts include all necessary terms and condi-
tions, including surety bonds.
Q Risk management. Ensure that every project manager prepares and uses a
risk matrix that identifies all project risks, defines them, identifies impacts
and probabilities, and prepares risk contingencies.
Q Procurement. Since purchasing, acquisition, and procurement activities
are not typically within the control of the program manager, make sure
there are good working relationships between purchasing officers and
project managers, that both are served by the other, and that procure-
ment actions do not get delayed because procurement officers are delaying
one-time buys because of company volume discounts that do not affect the
program.
Q Business case. Focusing the project managers on using a project management
memo to accompany the project plan can help the program manager make
the business case for funding projects and ensure that each project is aligned
with company business plans and strategies.
Q Ethical standards. Provide all project managers and team members with a
clear statement of the company’s ethical standards and criteria for outside
contacts, gifts, etc.

Interface with procurement

The interface of program management and procurement is the key to the suc-
cess of programs. Program work breakdown structures are to include specific
product components, parts, and test equipment requirements, and program
managers are expected to trigger the necessary procurement and purchasing
actions as soon as schedules are baselined.
Procurement is a separable activity and must be included as a scheduled task,
with linkages to other scheduled tasks. Each schedule will incorporate the tasks
necessary to procure test equipment, fixtures, cables, etc. as needed to produce
the deliverable. These activities will be integrated into project schedules, includ-
ing key hardware configurations and design master charts for target and test
equipment, as well as software configurations and design activities.

Other program manager procurement issues

in a global context
While global procurement is not fundamentally different from domestic procure-
ment, several issues in the global process present special risks:
Q Pricing approach. Pricing in a global world is difficult, since prices need to
reflect local conditions and economics. This requires a program manager to
316 Chapter Seven

have the capability to access local economic situations through the Internet
to help fix prices for foreign contracts to prevailing rates in the area.
Q Litigation. If litigation is a possibility in a foreign location, the program
manager should have access to corporate legal assistance that can work
consistently in the appropriate location.
Q Negotiations. Contract negotiations in a foreign environment often require sen-
sitivity to local cultures and values in order to avoid violating local norms.
Q Contractor capacity. To ensure that local contractors have the core compe-
tence to do the work, a local due diligence is often necessary to check out
companies, backgrounds, etc. This “vetting” process is sensitive and should
be conducted by a local, trusted third party, such as an auditor.
Q Supply chain management. Global contract management is conducive to
supply chain management, but long-term agreements with preferred con-
tractors may violate local laws or regulations.
Q E-procurement. All procurements globally can be conducted through
e-procurement using various software tools.
Q Partnering. Project partnering, “transforming contractual relationships into
a cohesive, cooperative project team with a single set of goals and procedures
for conflict resolution”—e.g., moving beyond adversarial relationships.

A case: airport designer dumped

In August 2005, Kirsten Tagam of the Atlanta Journal-Constitution reported
the following:
The general manager of Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport fired the design
team working on the future international terminal Monday, saying the firms had
failed to complete their design on time and within budget.
The design team, in turn, blamed airport officials for micromanagement and
inflated demands.
Ben DeCosta, the Atlanta airport’s manager, said the “setback” will be delayed
until 2010. Also, the airport has spent $34 million on designs it may never use.
DeCosta said the design team, led by the well-known architectural firm Leo A.
Daly, never warned airport managers that the price tag for their plans exceeded the
budget by at least $140 million. He called the plans “overdesigned” and “luxurious”
and said the team wanted to use more steel than necessary.
“They designed it to be far more muscular than it needed to be—at our expense,”
DeCosta said.
But the chief operating officer of Leo A Daly, John Whisler, said the designers
were under “intense oversight” from the airport’s many consultants and employees
in charge of the expansion project.
Whisler said the airport officials kept requesting expansions and additions—such
as a new maintenance terminal for the underground train system—but told Daly
to keep the costs “below the line,” or hidden.
“The folks who report to the airport director wanted more than they could afford,”
Whisler said.
 Partnerships, Contracts, and Procurement 317

“The price rose also because of huge increases in the market cost of steel and
concrete due to an unprecedented building boom in China,” he said.
During the past two years of design work, the airport increased the terminal’s
proposed area from 930,000 square feet to 1.2 million square feet and expanded the
number of gates from 10 to 14.
Even so, DeCosta said airport officials were repeatedly reassured by the design
team that the building would come in under budget.
But Daly said DeCosta was “fully aware” of the additions and rising costs.
Whisler said he believes the design team is a scapegoat for the airport’s growing
concerns about Delta Air Lines’ ability to help pay for the international terminal,
which is part of a massive expansion project that includes a fifth runway opening
next year. The budgeted cost of the international terminal is $688 million.
The airport expects to repay the terminal bonds with a combination of passenger
ticket charges, federal grants and commitments from Delta. But the Atlanta-based
airline is fighting to stay out of Chapter 11 bankruptcy proceedings, in which a
judge could cancel that obligation.
“I had words from Mr. DeCosta to the effect that a slow-down in the decision-
making on this terminal could be beneficial in light of the situation at Delta,”
Whisler said.
Hartsfield-Jackson has paid the team $34 million for their designs, and is sched-
uled to get the completed plans next week.
The drawings call for a huge glass wall framing the Atlanta skyline, roadways and
an entrance that would create a new “front door” to the airport. The new terminal
on Hartsfield-Jackson’s east side, adjacent to Concourse E, would eliminate the
need for people arriving on international flights to recheck their luggage and exit
at the other end of the airport.
DeCosta said he would rebid the project and hoped the new design team could use
the existing plans. But “if it turns out they can’t salvage them, they will be scrapped
and the new team will start from scratch,” he said.
DeCosta declared the design team’s contract in default in late June. Negotiations
to salvage the contract were unsuccessful.
Leo A Daly has done other airport projects, including the striking Cesar Pelli-
designed terminal at Reagan National Airport in Washington.
Daly was joined on the project by three minority-owned companies based in
Atlanta: KHAFRA Engineering Consultants, Anthony C. Baker Architects and
Planners, and Browder and LaGuizamon & Associates.

Case discussion. Public-works programs like this one are often characterized
by these kinds of disputes since the work is planned and bid in an open process
with great transparency. Since public-works projects are rarely fully funded
and are subject to scope creep and inaccurate cost estimates, each time the
contractor proposes changes in scope or costs, the process is laid out for public
scrutiny. If this case involved a global contractor at an airport outside the United
States, the process could be even more complicated. This situation would require
a local, hands-on program manager.
A good example of the lack of effective global program management in this case
is the contractor’s inability to anticipate huge increases in the global market cost
of steel and concrete due to an unprecedented building boom in China. Here is
318 Chapter Seven

a good example of the need to anticipate global economic and pricing activities
in the proposal process and for both the owner and supplier to examine price
assumptions in the original contract negotiations. However, how does a program
manager look ahead three or four years in the planning of a program of this
magnitude and estimate material costs from a foreign country like China? The
answer is in contingency planning. This is a risk management issue—estimating
the price of steel in China in four years. A contingency would have handled this in
the following way. The program cost estimate would have been made contingent
on a certain price, with options for possible best- and worst-case scenarios. A
contingency could have been provided in the original program proposal to allow
the contractor to acquire the steel from another source.

Make-or-buy decisions
How does the program manager set the tone for make-or-buy decisions to be
made, and how can the program manager take advantage of economies of scale
for outsourcing similar tasks across projects? The answer is that the program
manager sets the guidelines for make-or-buy decisions and intervenes if there
are potential economies of scale in procurement, contracting, and/or partnering
that are possible only at the program level and that no one project manager will
see. Potential criteria for make-or-buy decisions include:

1. Access to talent. Outsourcing provides human resource and/or management

competencies that the company does not have.
2. Cost savings. Outsourcing proposals demonstrate that significant costs can
be reduced because of lower wage and/or equipment costs overseas.
3. Logistics. Transportation and logistics costs make it impossible to build com-
ponents in the home country.
4. Cultural differences. Recognizing that the local culture and social conditions
require that the work be done locally.
5. Capacity and competencies of the company. The company simply does not
have and cannot easily acquire the capacity to perform this particular work
in-house.
6. Political and partnering reasons. Sometimes it simply makes sense to spend
program resources locally to support the local economy and to engender good-
will locally.

Global contract reviews. Program reviews should be conducted at least weekly

with project managers, either virtually or in one location, including the following
agenda:

1. Changes in local factors, events, regulations, etc., that could affect projects
2. Status of local program and program stakeholders in host country
 Partnerships, Contracts, and Procurement 319

Country-of-origin product instructions. All product components, containers, and

field-replaceable units produced or procured in any projects within a program
must be documented in a configuration management program that marks the
component with the country of origin and the source for the component. For all
components, the markings must be legible and permanent.
Source information that is regularly updated to ensure that the source com-
pany is accessible for producing quality inventory.

Developing suppliers with a global view. Partners in foreign nations must

demonstrate an understanding of the countries and markets that are targeted
by the program, and these suppliers must have a “worldwide view.”

Encouraging overseas manufacturing. Program managers must be sensitive to

their own foreign policy issues and ensure that their programs are consistent
with foreign policies and procedures regarding program products. This would
include technical information interchange and contributions to social and
economic activities in overseas communities.

Types of contracts used in local markets

Program managers must set clear policy on the types of contracts used in all
projects within the program. Contracts, in effect, share risks with suppliers in
different ways.
A cost-reimbursement contract places most risk on the owner or contracting
organization, since there is no limit on costs as long as they are eligible. Such
a contract implies that there is not enough information about costs and/or that
the product is not definable, as in a research and development or new product
development effort. Time and materials contracts are similar, covering eligible
material and labor costs.
A fixed-price or lump-sum contract, on the other hand, implies that the out-
come or product is definable and all components and associated costs can be
estimated. In this kind of contract, the supplier takes most of the risk since they
must assume responsibility for any unanticipated costs.

Doing business internationally

Program managers face unique problems and opportunities when doing busi-
ness internationally, especially in new product development programs. The
following sections discuss some of the issues involved.

Global analysis: public policy analysis. This is the global view of the product,
looking at the economic and social factors that will affect product success globally.
If the product concept is subject to governmental or regulatory requirements in
any country in which it will be marketed, an analysis is made here of the potential
safety, environmental, economic, or local impacts. The aim is to identify anticipated
regulatory and safety constraints, by agency and by country, if applicable.
320 Chapter Seven

This environmental scan is likely to capture other outside forces as well,

including potential current events, which could influence the success of the
product in a given market setting. For instance, a political change in a given
country may influence the potential success of a given product or service. This
process should not be seen as defensive simply to protect the company; often,
these outside standards provide new ideas on how to improve product perfor-
mance in a given customer setting.

Intellectual property analysis. If the new product has potential intellectual

property value, an analysis is performed on the risks and processes associated
with intellectual property control and potential loss. This analysis requires a
full understanding of current and projected intellectual property (IP) law and
regulatory structure, and thus, should be performed by IP specialists.
This will include a look at opportunities to take advantage of patent, license,
and copyright opportunities, and other ways to preserve and protect intellec-
tual property. A risk assessment is completed on risks associated with failure
to control intellectual property.

Market demand and other impacts. This is a rough assessment of market demand.
The concept is looked at in terms of the dimension of potential market demand and
in terms of financial performance for business growth given that demand. What
is the demand likely to be for the product, and will it generate adequate revenues
in the marketplace to cover development costs and produce profitability and
market share goals, and over what time period?
If the new product is an internal system or process improvement, the activ-
ity becomes an assessment of whether the improvement is really needed and
whether it promises to produce continuous improvement in business operations
and effectiveness.
Other impacts of the product or system on corporate or agency operations
are also reviewed. For instance, a product may replace another or affect the
performance or market share of another. These impacts need to be injected into
the decision-making process.
This is the beginning of the process of developing a case and rationale for
market launch. Most data addressed here are preliminary and do not require
in-depth market analysis, but there needs to be enough of a “case” for the
product to suggest moving on. On the other hand, if the product or system is
a breakthrough improvement, the issue is how much the product will induce
new demand—that is, how will the product change the current demand picture
simply because it will create new value for customer, user, or client?
Here is where the “voice of the customer” is sought out; here is where poten-
tial users, clients, and/or customers, as well as stakeholders, are identified and
dimensioned using focus groups, simulations, and other tools.

Product functional specifications and global impacts. How will the product work,
and what are its functional specifications? The concept phase fleshes out technical
 Partnerships, Contracts, and Procurement 321

specifications for the product in high-level terms. In this phase, the product is
defined in terms of function and performance, not necessarily in terms of design. In
other words, the focus is on how the product will serve customers’ needs in the user
setting. Specific design issues are left open for the development phase, although
models can be developed to understand the look and feel of the product.
The product’s functional specification is outlined in high-level terms.
Functional specification describes how the product will perform and what design
specifications enable it to perform at its highest level of efficiency. Not all the
data is available at this point, but enough information is gathered to allow
management to gain a picture of the product.
Table 7-1 shows an example of a high-level product functional table.
The definition of functional specifications for a new product is a tricky process
in this initial concept development phase because the tendency is to go into
too much detail on how the product will work and how it should be designed
before analyzing its potential value to the customer and its business value to
the company at a high level.
The management challenge in product functional specifications is to find a
balance between detailed and graphic representations of the product, which
are often time-consuming and expensive to produce, and an inexpensive and
workable model or prototype of the product that can be tested with customers
and users. Engineers will sometimes go too far in detailing a product before its
feasibility and customer value is established, spending valuable time defining
tolerances, risk analyses, design options, and networks of a product that may
not survive the test of customer and business value.

Global commercialization analysis. Here is where the product is looked at in terms

of how it will be commercialized. Commercialization is a concept that embodies
the successful volume production, distribution, marketing, sales, and support
system that is required to be a winner in the commercial sense. A strategy for
commercialization will require a marketing plan and a partnering agreement
with other companies in the supply chain, defining direct and indirect costs and
barriers to market success, and identifying the capacity of the company to bring
the product to customers and to support it over time.
Here is where logistics costs and opportunities are identified, including distri-
bution channels, trends in economic and social developments that might affect
logistics (e.g., availability of a labor base) and competitive forces that might
inhibit free flow of the product pull to the customer.

TABLE 7-1 Product Functional Specifications

Comparison to
Desired Performance General Functional Customer’s Industry or
Attribute Specification Priority Competitive Standard Comments

Helps cell phone users Must create place for High Current cell phone Current holders
use phone while doing cell phone in various holders do perform well
other things mobile environments over time
322 Chapter Seven

Global competitive analysis. This is the search for competitive differentiation on

a global scale (e.g., value unique to this company). Differentiation is the value of
the product and the company’s capacity to deliver and support it, as compared
to the competition. It is relational, based on the opposition. It requires some
speculation on how the competition is planning to meet the customer need and
where the competition is in the new product development process.
This analysis relates directly to the company’s strategic plan and risks,
threats, and opportunities assessment. The analysis also looks at what is liable
to happen once a product is made public—that is, how the market will react to
the product in terms of competition, barriers, and risks. Technological develop-
ments are reviewed here since new product development often spurs technology
development and the generation of new companies and even new industries.
Sometimes, this means looking for partnering opportunities early to offset
potential competitive forces; sometimes, it may make sense to sit down with
the competition to work out a partnership in a growing or new market.
Table 7-2 shows what a competitive analysis might look like.

Finding drivers of competition worldwide

What are the forces of competition, and what are the key sensitivities in the
market that open up opportunities for competition? Drivers of future competi-
tion include all the critical success factors and forces that combine to create
competition for the target product market. The value in identifying such drivers
is that they can be monitored and, in some cases, offset by effective product
development and marketing approaches. Drivers include:

Technology development. New products create technology challenges that

many companies cannot handle; thus, a major force in competition is the
relative technological strength of other companies in the industry.
Visibility of future markets. Future markets may not be visible to competitors,
depending on the effectiveness of their marketing activity.
Timing. Some competitors will not be in a position to take advantage of new
markets, even if visible because of inconsistencies and timing of their own
competitiveness.
Financing. New product development requires funding, often from venture
capitalists; thus, the availability of financing (e.g., interest rates) determines
entry for many companies.
Scale. The scale of the markets—and the costs of entry—may be too large for
many competitors to enter.

TABLE 7-2 Competitive Analysis

Potential Potential
Competition Pros and Cons Response Contingency Comments

XWZ Company Has a product in development Competitor is liable to Partner or merge

like ours, but its performance get out of this market
is suspect over time if challenged
 Partnerships, Contracts, and Procurement 323

Low Buyer’s risk High

Types of contracts

Fixed-price T&M Cost-reimbursement

FFP FP/EPA FPI CR CPIF CPAF CPFF CPPC

High Seller’s risk Low

Figure 7-1 Risk and types of contracts. FFP: firm fixed price; EP/EPA: firm fixed price with
economic price adjustment, e.g., linked with inflation; FPI: fixed price with incentive; T&M: time
and materials; CR: cost reimbursement; CPIF: cost plus incentive fee; CPAF: cost plus award fee;
CPFF: cost plus fixed fee; CPPC: cost plus percent of cost.

Program contract management and risk

Figure 7-1 shows how three basic types of contracts, firm fixed price, time and
materials, and cost reimbursement, each spread risk between the buyer and
seller in a contract relationship differently. Note that fixed price contracts usu-
ally reduce the risk to buyer (or project sponsor) while cost reimbursement
contracts reduce the risk to the seller (or project contractor). Time and material
contracts fall in between the two.
But in a global context, because of the exigencies of global markets and
changing foreign political and economic conditions, and the different and often
unpredictable values placed on contractual relationships, program managers
should depend on local team members to negotiate contracts and agreements
in the context of the targeted region or country. It is quite common for foreign
governments, jurisdictions, and sponsors to change contract requirements and
processes frequently and to place more emphasis on personal rather than legal
tools to conduct program work.

Risk and Types of Contracts

Given project risks and the need to contract project work that is at risk, develop
a strategy for using appropriate contract types to reduce and/or share risks with
project contractors.
Some of your biggest risks may come with managing contractors who are
doing some of your project work. Thus, it’s important to choose the right kind
of contract type and process to make sure the contractor shares in the risks of
completing the work. The more you can get the contractor to share risks, the
more likely the contractor will do a good job and flag risks early. We will explore
fixed-price, unit-price, and cost-reimbursable contract types and their impacts
on risk management.
When you think about it, the decision to contract out work changes the risk
“equation,” since work done in-house does not have the same “leverage” that
contracting out work provides. First, you can rarely “incentivize” (provides
324 Chapter Seven

incentives such as added compensation) in-house personnel to manage risks

successfully on a particular task, while a contract allows you to do so. Second,
contracts allow you to document shared risks—that is, to share with the contrac-
tor the costs of a particular risk occurring and affecting the project.
Various kinds of contracts have different impacts on contractor performance
because the nature of the contract sets the conditions for the work. Contract
type can affect financial objectives, contractor involvement, costs, schedule, and
quality, as well as customer satisfaction. Here are the four basic contract types
and their implications for risk:

Lump-sum contracts. Lump-sum contracts encourage the contractor to cut

corners, since there is no process for getting more funding. The risk is that
if the deliverable is not well defined, the contractor may not produce to the
project design. Lump sum puts all the risk on the contractor; therefore, the
contractor acts accordingly.
Unit-price contracts. Unit price is based on paying for each unit. This kind of
contract shares risk with the contractor, encouraging the contractor to reduce
the cost of volume production.
Target-cost contracts. Target cost is the ultimate shared risk contract, since
both parties estimate a cost and work together to achieve it, leaving the door
open for more funding if the target is not achieved.
Cost-reimbursable contracts. Cost-reimbursement contracts do not share risks
very well. The contractor can repeatedly claim more costs based on continued
work to refine the deliverable and cover past mistakes. The project manager
is left with the basic risk in a cost-reimbursable contract.

The process of negotiating a contract brings out the risks issues because it
is in the interest of both parties to avoid surprises and anticipate and mitigate
risk. Financial and costing considerations become the vehicle for sharing risks.
In the process, the contractor attempts to minimize risks by pressing for more
clarity in requirements and definition of the deliverable, and by negotiating
a contract type and price that protects the contractor from unforeseen risks.
The contracting company or agency attempts to minimize risks by transferring
them to the contractor to the extent feasible. The contract relationship helps to
clarify the implications of risk and how risks can be avoided.

Global e-procurement
The playing field for global procurement and contracting has changed radi-
cally with the Internet and the high levels of connectivity between continents
and nations. Program managers can reduce the time and cost of procurement
through these tools. Internet-based bid packages now facilitate and manage
collaborative bid systems and procedures between program managers and con-
tractors. Software products now provide program managers with structured
and uniform responses from potential bidders so they can make more informed
 Partnerships, Contracts, and Procurement 325

decisions and compare bids. Packages also help contractors throughout the
world receive clear descriptions of program needs and requirements. Tools also
include information on various pricing mechanisms in various parts of the
world. These systems now provide information and documentation on a global
company’s services and goods in a secure environment. This means that a pro-
gram manager can now easily check out companies anywhere in the world as
they plan and execute outsourcing decisions.
These systems also facilitate change requests and change management
for programs in a global context. This means that as program and project
scopes change throughout the program life cycle, both the program managers
and contractors have a consistent way to request and implement changes.
A by-product of this process is that e-procurement systems can serve as a
platform for new ideas and innovations from contractors. E-procurement can
also provide an effective platform for developing longer-term supply chain
relationships so that when program outcomes and benefits are integrated into
the business, there is good documentation on how and what suppliers helped
them get there.
This would mean, for instance, that if a major IT program and system change
is implemented over a five-year period globally, the resultant system can be
documented and maintained using configuration management information on
system components directly from Internet-based procurement sources.

Downside risks of global program e-procurement

Program managers must also see the risks associated with e-procurement—e.g.,
security and safety, intellectual property, and fraud. The Internet opens up
potential problems with data and information security because RFPs and other
contract documents sometimes contain important information that must be
secured. Intellectual property issues can result from opening sensitive company
information to the bidding process as well. The best way to handle these risks is
to incorporate them into the program risk management process, develop contin-
gency actions (e.g., purchase tailored security software to protect e-procurement
actions), and implement them in procurement actions with those risks.

Open-ended global collaboration on the Internet

Companies such as IBM, Linux Second Life, and Amazon have developed global
strategies that focus on what is called peer production. Business webs open
up opportunities to work with peer companies, even competitors, to open up a
discussion of new ideas and concepts.
These companies use their web systems to develop communities of partici-
pants that increase as new information is developed. Research and development
programs are especially suited to using this kind of platform for the generation
and evaluation of new ideas in a given industry. Collaborative networks of com-
panies now design and develop programs, projects, and products globally.
326 Chapter Seven

Dan Tapscott, in Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything

(pp. 237–238), reports that BMW, Boeing, and the Chinese motorcycle industry
have learned lessons from this open-ended approach to generating new programs
and projects—namely:

1. Focus on the critical value drivers, looking for new competencies evolving out
of the global economy that can create program opportunities.
2. Add value through orchestration, targeting an extended partner base that
takes advantage of special competencies of partners in creating programs.
3. Instill rapid, iterative design processes, speeding up new product devel-
opment by collapsing product cycles through concurrent engineering and
collaboration.
4. Harness modular architectures, meaning the process of inviting global dis-
cussions of best practices in a given industry, targeting platforms and sys-
tems that work and enhancing current programs.
5. Create a transparent ecosystem—e.g., developing partnerships in a supply
chain that grow and thrive instead of creating disputes and conflict.
6. Share the costs and risks, meaning use the right kinds of partnership agree-
ments, contracts, and collaborative processes to make sure no one partner is
carrying inordinate risk.
7. Keep a keen futures watch—e.g., make sure program managers are con-
stantly speculating and envisioning how developing business ideas (e.g.,
modularization) can create opportunities for new program and project
development.

Summary
This chapter covered the basic strategic issues involved in negotiating global
business contracts and managing global outsourcing and procurement. Various
conditions and local values are addressed to alert the global manager that
international business is not business as usual. The key message here is that
the program manager cannot count on conventional procurement and contract
tools and techniques to establish collaborative arrangements and buy materials.
Personal relationships and a full understanding of local values and contract
requirements are essential.
 Chapter

8
Federal Program Management

Introduction
The previous chapter addressed partnering, contracting, and procurement as a
part of the program management process. Now we address a specialized topic,
federal program management, because so many federal agencies employ program
management tools and techniques but often fail to control their programs.
We devote this chapter to federal program management because of the rising
concern with ensuring cost-effective administration of rising public-sector pro-
grams and resources. We start with an analysis of what is wrong with federal
program management and recommendations for needed change.

What’s Wrong with Federal Program Management?

Since programs in the public sector are typically long-term, costly initiatives,
often with broad political and social goals and associated earmarks or legislated
entitlements, they are subject to different management and administrative crite-
ria and are open to public exposure and criticism. Many of these programs have
broad, ambiguous, and conflicting objectives embedded in their parent or autho-
rizing legislation, reflecting the lack of consensus in the Congress on intent.
But they need not be managed any differently from private-sector invest-
ments if structured in a corporate framework addressing classic program man-
agement tools, including controls on cost, schedule, and quality. To operate
successfully, federal program managers must be disciplined with strong and
clear management guidelines. Also, program managers need to be protected
from dysfunctional political intervention, especially by Congress and narrowly
defined interest groups.
Federal program and project managers should be trained career professionals,
not political appointees or “accidental” managers promoted up and into their
level of incompetence because they excelled at something other than program
management.

327
328 Chapter Eight

What do these federal programs look like? They fall roughly into four groupings:

1. Formula driven
2. Direct program and product delivery
3. Regulatory and oversight
4. Service

Formula driven. These programs are typically apportioned to the states or local
government, as in the federal highway program. The federal program is actually
a collaboration process with states in setting guidelines for state-operated,
public-works programs.

Direct program. Direct programs include National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA), Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), federally
managed Department of Interior parks, and National Institutes of Health, in
which programs are planned and implemented by the federal government.

Regulatory. These federal programs include Securities and Exchange

Commission (SEC), Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), Federal
Reserve, and Federal Communications Commission (FCC), and involve the
control and coordination of private-sector activity in a given media or domain.

Services. These are recurring services, such as the U.S. Postal Service, Health
and Human Services (HHS) welfare services through states, Housing and Urban
Development (HUD) rent subsidies, and the Smithsonian Institution.

What is wrong with these federal programs is that they are not really run as
programs, with distinct improvement goals, outcomes, and benefits. Rather, they
are typically administered as continuing, open-ended services that are funded
annually in a resource-oriented environment in which federal program manag-
ers are rewarded for spending all their funding each year and acquiring more
resources, instead of for meeting specific quality and project goals on time and
within budget.

What is wrong?
Federal program managers, especially those involved with international and
global missions such as defense, research and development, housing and urban
development, space exploration, and transportation, face difficult challenges
because of open-ended mandates, partially funded budgets, unclear objectives,
ineffective procurement systems, and a lack of definitive end-points. Rather
than being managed by professional business officers in a typical corporate
setting with bottom-line considerations, they often report to uninformed and
unequipped political appointees who typically do not have the technical exper-
tise in the program area, or managerial experience and competence to direct
 Federal Program Management 329

complex agency programs. And while there are good examples of successful
federal program management—e.g., NASA and the Space Shuttle and interna-
tional space station program, Department of Transportation (DOT) interstate
highway program, and Department of Defense (DOD) logistics programs—there
are few examples of successful systems-type programs to improve federal ser-
vices or to upgrade federal administrative and information systems. These pro-
grams are often contracted out and are typically late, over budget, and usually
do not meet requirements when completed.
It is well documented that federal contracting has increased as a tool to design
and implement federal programs, partly because of the lack of in-house agency
staff and partly to encourage the privatization of federal functions.
Here are some of the key weaknesses of the process:
Q Mission-critical functions are being outsourced, compromising successful
delivery of intended benefits and outcomes.
Q Federal contracting procedures are subject to federal procurement regula-
tions that allow most program and project managers to award contracts
without competition (so-called no-bid contracts).
Q Federal contractors often manage other federal contractors because agencies
cannot.
Q Federal contracts are partially funded, not fully funded; thus, cost overruns
are common.
Q Some federal contracts integrate project plans and schedules into contract
terms.
Q Many federal contracts are cost-plus arrangements in which most of the risk
and cost is carried by the federal contracting agency and program managers.
Q Contract oversight is often undisciplined, with no standard practice across
agencies.
Q Inspector General staff audit projects and often come up with critical findings
simply to keep their jobs.
Q Fraud, waste, and abuse are relatively common in many contracts.
Q Contracts are short-term and often do not allow the development of longer-
term, trusting relationships and partnering.
Q Federal program managers often leave government and go with the contrac-
tors they have awarded, thus creating potential conflicts of interest.

As indicated, one of the major weaknesses of the process of contracting for

program functions is that many program managers compromise mission-critical
roles by outsourcing, either because they do not have the staff to manage the
contracted functions and tasks in-house, or because they do not participate in
the agency decisions to “make or buy” and cannot make a business case for
what is mission-critical and what is not. To address this function, program
330 Chapter Eight

managers should determine what program functions are mission-critical as

part of program planning. If there are not enough funds to man mission-critical
functions, the program should not proceed. Here are some examples of agency
mission-critical functions:
Q NASA should not outsource operations support and communications func-
tions with its Shuttle program.
Q DOT should not outsource air traffic control functions.
Q Interior should not outsource park ranger or park security functions.
Q HUD should not outsource subsidized housing administration.
Q Treasury should not outsource financial regulatory tasks.
Q Office of Management and Budget (OMB) should not outsource budget ana-
lyst functions.
Q Education should not outsource education reform programs.

What kind of change?

The significant change needed here is a new concept of federal program man-
agement. The change would be from open-ended, annual appropriations-driven
programs to disciplined, targeted programs as investments in improvements
with short-term products and outputs and long-term benefits and outcomes.
Programs would be run by professional (career) program managers and would
be evaluated regularly in stage-gate reviews in which the business case must be
made after each phase. This kind of transition would mean, in practice, that all
federal program activity would be framed in shorter-term, goal-oriented projects
and that federal program managers would be held accountable for achieving
limited, realistic goals.
Congressional staffs intervene in programs as a matter of course in Washington,
D.C.; a key to the success of current program managers is how well they relate
to Congressional staffers and key chairmen in their program areas. This kind
of regular intervention would need to change, and the key to change would be
to restrict communication with congressional staff on programs except at key
points of progress reporting and evaluation. Further, the White House would
set up a single point of congressional contact for all federal programs in OMB
in a professional management czar, as described in a following section.

What Is Real Program Transparency?

Real transparency would be achieved by opening up information on program
and project progress and allowing users and clients of the program to participate
in evaluation. Transparency is not simply giving public access to how money is
spent; it is opening up programs to evaluation at key milestones and providing
for user or client feedback at key, stage-gate reviews.
 Federal Program Management 331

Coordinating Federal Program Management

The federal government manages billions of programs, but has no standard
approach to program management and no “vice president for program manage-
ment.” No corporation would run its programs like the federal government does,
without top management oversight and control. A management czar is needed
as a central focus for program management reform and performance budgeting.
The position should be created in the Executive Office of the President and pre-
side over an Office of Federal Innovative Management, a small staff that would
take over the managerial functions of the current Office of Management and
Budget and guide federal agency and program management reform, delivery,
and continuous improvement. The case for a management czar can be made
simply on the basis of the need to coordinate the disparate and often conflicting
objectives and programs of the federal agencies, and to serve as a lightning rod
for best practices and business applications to public management.
The management czar should be a recognized, international authority on
public and/or private management and customer service, with experience in
both sectors. This position would serve to demonstrate to the country and to
the federal agencies the president’s commitment to change in the management
structure and performance of federal programs. The management czar would
bring to government a new emphasis on best practices, benchmarking, and
managerial training and development for federal public managers. The position
could also evolve into a focal point for improving intergovernmental manage-
ment of programs and crises, and for a closer partnership between public and
private managers engaged in similar or common programs.

A new Office of Federal Innovative Management in the

Executive Office of the President
Creating “change” in federal government performance will involve both orga-
nizational change and management change. But most of all, it will require
top-down leadership and support at the program level, where most federal
decisions are made. Policy pronouncements cannot compete with the tyranny
of small decisions.
First, it is the purpose of this chapter to make the case that this kind of fun-
damental change can come only from the president and the Executive Office of
the President through a new Office of Federal Innovative Management. Second,
it will require real and effective support of program managers throughout the
federal government; to do so effectively, the office must earn the respect of
agency officials and program managers, much like the Office of Management
and Budget has earned its role in federal budget development.

Global Reference
The global significance for an Office of Federal Innovative Management (OFIM)
is in the potential of this small staff in the Executive Office of the President of
332 Chapter Eight

the United States to assist program managers in aligning their programs with
presidential policy and coordinating the impacts and benefits of programs world-
wide. Many federal programs have impacts far beyond their immediate program
products and outcomes. For instance, if the office can ensure that federal trans-
portation programs are supporting the president’s energy-independence policy
goals, and these impacts help lower the dependence of the United States on
foreign oil, then the case can be made for such an office in global terms.

Program Reference
Program management does not occur in a vacuum, whether in the public or pri-
vate sector. Programs have major impacts; the new significance of performance
budgeting brings into play the longer-term benefits and outcomes of programs.
Programs feed on the energy of top leadership and on expressed vision in orga-
nizations and companies that create the conditions for innovation and program
success. The model of top management providing direction and support can be
realized in the federal government through a small, effective Office of Federal
Innovative Management.

Explanation of concept
The concept is to establish a small coordinating office that serves the presi-
dent by helping to coordinate programs across agencies to ensure that they are
aligned with presidential policy. In addition, the office will encourage innovative
approaches to program development and management, and be staffed by senior,
career program managers.
There are many models for the notion of stimulating innovation and change
in the private sector, but not many that have been effective in the federal
government. James Cash, Michelle Ead, and Robert Morison in the Harvard
Business Review (November 2008) wrote an article entitled “Teaming Up to
Crack Innovation.” They propose Enterprise Integration Groups that manage
the corporate portfolio of integration activities (p. 97). They serve as a “corporate
creator of expertise in process management and improvement, large project
management, and program and portfolio management.” Their capabilities in
program management include “ensuring that complex initiatives and changes
dovetail with one another through coordination of objectives, resources, and
interdependencies.”
Furthermore, the authors articulate a new, innovative role for the IT department.
This department would have a major role in integration involving “experience with
program management—the planning, coordination, and measurement of the many
projects and activities involved in a multidimensional change initiative.”
In Fast Strategy (Wharton School Publishing, 2008), Yves Doz and Mikko
Kosonen talk about strategic agility, the capacity to create direction while
remaining flexible and responsive to change. They say programs are a way of
broadening initiatives so that they cannot be “owned” by one unit of the organiza-
tion. They see programs as another vehicle for dissociating resource “ownership”
 Federal Program Management 333

from business results across company programs (p. 104). They advocate a pro-
gram planning team to prepare the business case for the programs, including
business benefits, schedule, and resources.
The business case is an important aspect of federal programs as well, since
programs create not only product and service outputs, but also impacts over
the longer term in the form of streams of economic costs and benefits. Since
agencies typically operate within narrow legislative and regulatory guidelines
and constraints, they cannot always be counted on to see the broader impacts
of federal programs. Facilitating continuous review of program impacts and
costs and benefits would be the role of the new Office of Federal Innovative
Management.

Structural Change
As we stated earlier, there are at least four models of federal activity, and each
deserves a different model for evaluating performance. They are formula driven,
direct program and product delivery, regulatory and oversight, and service.
Placing agencies with similar delivery systems in working teams or com-
mittees using these categories makes sense based on my previous experience.
Federal agencies do not coordinate well with each other without incentives. And
as you know, intervention from OMB will not be welcomed unless earned. Your
success will be measured on how many agencies come to you for assistance.
Performance should not be confined to performance budgeting, as has been
the case in the former administration; performance should be focused on cost
effectiveness, products and outcomes, customer satisfaction, and quality.
Application of traditional project management tools should be encouraged
across the board with compatible software (e.g., Microsoft Project). Agencies
lack cost control and earned value tools used widely in private enterprise; that
needs to change. We need more standardization—each federal agency should
be structured and managed from a uniform model of program management
and budgeting so that when management inevitably changes, the wheel does
not need to be reinvented.
Some tailoring is in order to reflect unique agency programs, but all programs
should be structured with program plans, risk management plans, scopes of
work, schedules, cost estimates, and earned value monitoring. Process improve-
ments can be made in federal programs, but the process approach has its limita-
tions, since its focus is on identifying waste and unnecessary work and not on
outputs and outcomes. We would focus on career senior executive managers to
hold them accountable. Change does not occur easily in federal programs simply
because agencies operate within legislation that is often ambiguous. If change in
program management is a priority, then the vision for change in programs must
come from the top. There is no organizational element in the Executive Office of
the President to foster such change and innovation—thus, the proposal to establish
one. The concept of this kind of top-down control and support of programs and
program management could be useful in the public sector, specifically in the
federal government, where impacts are often global in nature.
334 Chapter Eight

If the president is to deliver on the promise of change, he must create a way

to control and coordinate federal agencies from the top while providing them
with wide discretion for innovation and efficiency within their own boundaries.
For instance, if federal agencies were to perform together to support national
energy policy, there would need to be a fundamental change in the way federal
agencies work on a daily basis. A change in control of the federal government
structure and agency program and regulatory performance will require a new
“presence” for agency management in the Executive Office of the President. The
change and control problem is not simple. Many authors have addressed the
dilemma of public management and, specifically, federal government manage-
ment, but they do not address the policy and management structure from the
perspective of the president. But the key to change and control lies in how agen-
cies are handled from the Executive Office of the President and in Cabinet-level
leadership decisions. The resolution of the federal change and control problem
lies in how the agencies are grouped and controlled at the top.

Past approaches to management reform

First, the federal government has no central management arm; the OMB is a
policy and budget agent, but not a management agent of the president. Past
attempts to make OMB a management agency have failed because of its makeup
and culture, and because of opposition from agency heads and interest groups.
OMB’s focus is policy and budget, not consistent delivery across agencies. Second,
the iron triangle of agency/congressional committee staff/interest group contin-
ues to control agency performance in the direction of their constituents and the
Congress, not always in the direction of presidential policy and management
objectives. Third, the appointment of unqualified political executives and man-
agers in the agencies at all levels complicate the job of management delivery,
typically getting in the way of professional career management.
Fourth, the career assistant secretaries for management/administration are
typically career figureheads who do not get into line decisions and who are
mostly administrative in character. They are housekeepers at best. There is
usually no single line manager of any agency below the secretary, so agencies
are divided and conquered easily by special interests.
Fifth, agencies act without anyone knowing the impacts of their actions on
key presidential policy areas. For instance, the Department of Transportation is
likely to initiate programs and legislation that would undermine the president’s
priority for national energy independence by encouraging more single person
cars. The only program that has successfully provided for impact analysis before
action has been the environment impact statements (EIS) that have served to
adjust many federal decisions that were not supportive of presidential policy.
The EIS system actually worked. Sixth, many presidents have attempted to
control spending by impounding funds (impounding involves not spending
appropriated funding), but they have not been successful because of long and
drawn-out litigation. Any president interested in controlling agency spending
would have to exert impoundment in order to stop unnecessary and wasteful
 Federal Program Management 335

outlays, and would have to test the courts again on this issue. Chances are
the courts might treat this issue differently in an age of trillion-dollar deficits.
Thus, a key transition issue is government change and control. The president
would have to take six actions to ensure immediate control of federal actions:

1. Establish an Office of Federal Innovative Management in the White House

(Executive Office of the President) that would act as an agency and pro-
gram management office (PMO) for the president. Place the vice president in
charge, and populate the agency with career senior executives on annual per-
formance contracts, who know the agencies they are assigned to and review
agency management and performance regularly. Focus on performance bud-
geting—the planning, delivery, and evaluation of programs to compare costs
and outcomes.
2. Group the federal agencies in clusters and manage them as a unit through a
“super-policy” executive similar in function to the chief operating officer of a major
corporation. The CEOs of each cluster would report to the vice president.
3. Select Cabinet members based on their proven management and business
capacity and their support of the president’s policies (e.g., energy indepen-
dence). Do not appoint anyone to an agency position unless through a merit
system that matches the job with qualifications and experience (staff expe-
rience with congressional members would not be considered management
experience, per se). Make sure Cabinet secretaries understand the role of the
new Office of Management.
4. Quickly (in four months) develop and distribute federal policies in key areas,
foreign and domestic. For instance, issue a federal energy independence
policy that would provide an overall framework for federal agency action,
and require agencies to prepare a strategic plan to implement that policy.
Establish an energy independence impact (EII) statement program/process
to be run by the new Office of Management, and require all agencies to com-
plete EII statements that must be approved by the “super-policy” executive
for that agency’s group. These statements would be prepared for all agency
and program decisions, with potential impacts on energy independence. The
Office of Federal Management would issue guidelines for implementation of
the EII program within three months of the president taking office.
5. Prepare similar policies for education and health, and require implementa-
tion plans.
6. Rewrite ethics guidelines for federal agency officials that require them to report
all contacts with interest and constituent groups, or congressional staff.

Resurrecting a Reagan administration proposal

Here is what a presidential panel of the National Academy for Public Administration
said in 1983, during the Reagan reform movement in the federal government, on
the subject of an office of federal management:
336 Chapter Eight

The concept of creating a coordinating management arm in the Executive Office of

the President was recommended in the Reagan administration as part of several
initiatives, including the Grace Commission, to bring business practices to federal
administration and program management.
Since World War II, the pivotal role in federal management matters has been
assigned to the Office of Management and Budget and its predecessor organiza-
tion, the Bureau of the Budget. BOB/OMB has attempted to maintain a general
management capability along with its primary role as the president’s budget staff.
During several periods of its existence, the management organization has per-
formed exceptionally well. It has successfully carried out management projects of
importance to every president and has attempted to maintain a general stewardship
over management activities throughout the federal establishment.
BOB and the early OMB tried to serve as a key source of government-wide initia-
tives for keeping federal management modern and up-to-date. In recent years, how-
ever, there has been a growing concern that even while OMB continues to be capable
of occasional excellent performance, it has irretrievably lost its overall effectiveness
as government-wide leader in management matters. Students of BOB and OMB have
always recognized that its primary concern on behalf of the president has been the
federal budget process. This had been regarded as both a strength and a weakness
in terms of OMB’s management role. It is a strength because the budget gives the
OMB director a powerful voice in all government activities, with direct and continuing
access to the president and powerful leverage to deal with agency heads from a posi-
tion of strength. It has always been hoped and expected that these strengths would be
brought equally to bear on the managerial agenda from time to time, depending on the
president’s own interests and the director’s sensitivity to management problems. [It
does not] appear likely that, in the foreseeable future, the budget preoccupation will
decline; therefore, proposals and arguments for building up and revitalizing OMB’s
“management side” seem less hopeful and less realistic.
Meanwhile, the need for strong sustained management reform leadership becomes
more pressing. The Reagan Administration’s ambitious Reform ’88 Project and the
recently emerging findings of the President’s Private Sector Survey on Cost Control
serve only to emphasize the breadth of the management reforms, which are needed,
and the paucity of the resources available to take implementing action.
The Office of Federal Management would inherit from OMB such important func-
tions as the drafting of non-budget-related executive orders, management circulars,
and other means for conveying presidential direction on management subjects. It
would include the present Office of Federal Procurement Policy and would coordi-
nate responses to [Government Accountability Office] GAO audits of government-wide
applicability. It would also administer the requirements of the Paperwork Reduction
Act. It would represent the president in Congress in cooperation with the White House
congressional office on government organization and management matters, and would
coordinate preparation of administration management-related legislation.
The role described for the Office of Federal Management extends from strategy
to implementation. It is intended to be the one organization to which the president
can turn that can develop an overall, long- and short-term strategy for government
management.
However, it must also be able to convert that strategy into action, largely in the
form of specific management improvement programs and projects. Reform ’88,
the increasing volume of GAO and [Inspector General] IG reports, the reports of the
 Federal Program Management 337

President’s Private Sector Survey on Cost Control, and this National Academy of
Public Administration NAPA study once again demonstrate that there is a backlog
of unresolved management problems and a wealth of management improvement
ideas and opportunities, all begging for the kind of broad-ranging, experienced,
highly competent leadership that an Office of Federal Management could provide.
Its institutional role must be to loosen up the system, dislodge entrenched interests,
motivate the federal workforce to greater effectiveness, and recreate the capacity to
innovate. Its role should be to lead, to promote, and to assist—far less to regulate,
control, or enforce. To fulfill these functions, its role must be clearly defined as a
broad range of responsibilities of sufficient importance that the president will give
its director direct and continuing access. The NAPA Panel believes that the proposed
Office of Federal Management should assume management leadership responsi-
bilities of OMB and continue to serve as the single agency that can represent the
president on all federal management matters. There is no reason to believe that the
new Office of Federal Management would impair these other central agencies; each
would continue to be fully responsible for its policy areas as defined by the president.
Said another way, the president would look to the Office of Federal Management
for management policy objectives for the whole government.
The whole pattern of conclusions and recommendations of this report rests on
the premise that, if the federal government really wants to achieve general and
broad-based reform of its management and create an environment in which mana-
gerial excellence is demanded and expected, then it must place top priority on its
managers rather than its systems. A large number of recommendations are made
that would greatly unburden systems and make them more useful and flexible for
managers to use. But the panel recognizes that as systems are redesigned to place
greater reliance on managers, there must be a recognition that, in many cases,
managers themselves are ill-equipped and ill-prepared to fulfill these more demand-
ing roles. There must, therefore, be a parallel and equally serious effort to upgrade
managerial skills and create a new climate of motivation and reinforcement at the
highest levels of government.
The panel also recognizes that many efforts for management reform founder because
of the failure to implement action. It is not unreasonable to point out to these same
federal managers that they can become the most powerful means through which such
reforms are accomplished. Much of what is proposed can be achieved if managers are
willing to create their own initiatives and become a stronger force within government
for solving the problems about which they have so long complained.

Although the notion of a federal Office of Management was grounded in con-

trol and coordination of management change and reform efforts back in the
1980s, its purposes would now be different, given current policy and program
conditions. The difference now is the need for change and innovation, not change
and control. The federal management office is needed even more now, but now
its role is fundamentally different. Its purpose is to encourage and promote
innovation and alignment with presidential policy.

Functions of OFIM
The basic objective of OFIM is to promote interagency coordination, innova-
tion, and exchange of information on basic program management delivery and
338 Chapter Eight

evaluation, and to help agencies ensure that they are supporting presidential
policies and objectives globally. The office would achieve its purpose through the
following units, each staffed with career policy and program managers:

1. Establish and monitor a standard program management process and dis-

cipline. This standard would be published and made available online, and
would serve as the basis for a federal program management certification.
No federal programs would be run by managers who were not certified, and
agency heads would have to identify a program manager, who is responsible
for program management performance in their agencies.
2. Benchmark program information and innovation. Seek out best practices
and help agencies find innovative and proven techniques and tools to design
and deliver federal programs. Benchmarking would involve sharing informa-
tion on lessons learned and best practices in program management to avoid
“reinventing the wheel.”
3. Program and performance budgeting review. The office would conduct regu-
lar program reviews to help agencies evaluate program impacts in a global
context, with particular attention to interagency and global impacts, as well
as alignment with presidential policy. The focus is on performance budgeting
and longer-term impacts and global outcomes.
4. Program information exchange. A central website would be established and
facilitated for the exchange of program information and discussion among
federal managers in both synchronous and asynchronous modes. The website
would facilitate synchronous “threaded discussions” between program man-
agers on common issues and challenges, and live, synchronous webinars and
chats between program managers on urgent program issues.

Program planning and evaluation

Program evaluation is a lost art at the federal level because of the difficulties of
evaluating multiple program objectives and the lack of interest in assessment
of outcomes. OFIM would stimulate assessment by providing technical and
managerial support for program planning and evaluation of impacts. Operating
somewhat like the Congressional Accountability Office but generated in the
executive branch, OFIM would publish results and facilitate exchange of best
practices and lessons learned from federal programs. Particular attention would
be given to alignment with presidential policy.

Common program and project management methodology

Federal programs are managed with no clear and coordinated methodologies.
Program plans, schedules, and budgets are not coordinated and often cannot
be reviewed and evaluated using common measures. The OFIM would promote
consistent planning, scheduling, and budgeting tools and techniques, utilizing
 Federal Program Management 339

such programs as Microsoft Project to allow exchange of program and project

data across agencies.

Energy independence: a case example

and an introduction to the concept
The coordination of federal programs at the top of the federal sector will require
a broad process and program focus. This means that the OFIM will have to
achieve a working balance between coordination and support on the one hand
and control on the other. Much like a corporate office of program evaluation, the
OFIM will need to earn the respect and support of federal program managers,
who have been operating autonomously over the years.
Federal program managers do not seek out the guidance and “intervention”
from their own Cabinet offices, let alone guidance from the Executive Office
of the President, unless they see direct value in the process. Federal program
managers typically seek visibility and resources for their programs, but they
also seek out useful information and best practice assistance in running their
programs. In other words, top-level guidance for federal program managers
must be framed in legitimate processes that earn the right to participate in
program development and delivery.

Global reference
Many federal programs—e.g., the federal highway program, the federal alterna-
tive fuels research and development program, federal housing programs—are
designed and delivered with narrow goals and objectives. Legislation setting up
these programs does not always consider impacts on other federal programs, on
the American economy in general, and global impacts.

What Happens in the Real World of

Federal Program Managers?
Typically, career federal program managers have difficulty managing programs
because of vague and ambiguous goals, conflicting objectives, and political inter-
ference from congressional staffs and interest groups. They need support and
insulation from outside influences that dilute their ability to achieve program
objectives in the context of executive and presidential policy. Furthermore, agen-
cies often do not practice portfolio program management, the process of generat-
ing and selecting programs, goals, and projects, and managing them consistently
across the agency. Agencies often start programs and complex projects, which
turn sour, but they cannot stop them—they lack the staged, “gateway” process,
which ensures that bad projects are recognized and terminated, when necessary,
before they consume major resources.
James Brown, in the Handbook of Program Management: How to Facilitate
Project Success with Optimal Program Management (McGraw-Hill, 2008, p. 205),
tells a story:
340 Chapter Eight

I once spoke with an organizational leader at a government agency who was moved
to another part of the agency. He was surprised to learn that there was a lack of
solid business goals and targets in this new part of the agency, and this lack of goals
created program managers who were not guided properly. The result was that some
of the program managers had done nothing new for years, while others were all
over the map, spending resources and implementing projects that were way out of
the scope of the organizational mission.

Program reference
A program suggests complexity and interdependence, a series of coordinated
projects designed, developed, and managed in concert to achieve a broad pro-
gram goal, such as energy independence or a broad education reform objective.
This kind of aligned program management framework often involves coopera-
tion across companies, economic sectors, and even across private enterprise and
government boundaries. Program suggests partnership and consortium, with broad
purpose and private and public benefits. For purposes of illustration, this discus-
sion covers the development of a federal energy independence policy and program
framework that enables the development of a clear fuels market. This kind of fed-
eral guidance across agencies and sectors has not worked well in the past because
the federal government has not been adept in formulating programs that enable
private enterprise to work efficiently to support the public interest.
Thomas Friedman, in Hot, Flat, and Overcrowded, has suggested the need
for a coordinated federal/national program to stimulate a private-sector market
for clean fuels, all in the interest of energy independence and growth of an
American clean fuels industry. This case is about how such a program would be
developed and how it might work as a public/private program.
Good programs, whether private, public, or nonprofit, succeed because they
are framed in a solid strategic and policy framework. The development of an
energy independence program first will require the development of a federal
policy framework on energy independence that addresses the federal role and
relates that role to the generation of a market for clean fuels. The policy also
must address the intergovernmental issues—e.g., collaboration among federal,
state, and local governments. And perhaps most importantly, those industries
who want to play and succeed in the energy business must see how they can both
serve the national interest articulated in the policy framework and grow and
generate profitability for their stockholders and stakeholders. That will require
the federal government to use its leverage, program funding, regulations, poli-
cies, program management delivery decisions, and research and development
in a coordinated and coherent way.
As we have seen over the years, the coordination of federal programs to sup-
port a national energy independence policy and program cannot be left to the
agencies. Because of the tyranny of small decisions, agency management loses
control over delivery issues unless there is a comprehensive system to check the
impacts of key decisions on the vision for energy independence.
 Federal Program Management 341

Energy independence/clean fuels program strategy

and program objectives
An energy independence and clean fuels policy could have five key strategic
objectives:

Strategic Objective 1: Through the effective management of the development

and supply of alternative fuels and changes in national energy demand through
price signals for private industry, the United States will reduce dependence
on Middle Eastern oil by 50 percent by January 2014, and by 100 percent by
January 2018.
Strategic Objective 2: The federal government will strive for a balanced energy
program by 2018, including major participation of wind, natural gas, electric,
oil, nuclear and coal-generated energy sources. Agencies affecting these energy
sources would develop coordinated programs and plans to support the achieve-
ment of national energy goals.
Strategic Objective 3: The federal government will do its part not only
in proactively supporting the development of alternative fuels, but also
through an energy impact statement program that will ensure that key
federal program decisions do not undermine the achievement of energy
independence.
Strategic Objective 4: American industry is called upon to identify ways to sup-
port this national policy while maintaining and growing business profitability;
federal involvement would be through broad national strategies and goals and
technical and informational support systems.
Strategic Objective 5: The academic community is requested to support this
energy policy with directed research and curriculum development toward
energy independence, with federal support.

OFIM Program Role in Energy Independence

These strategic objectives would evolve into five key program management
objectives in the new Office of Federal Innovative Management:

Program Objective 1: Work with federal agencies to review current programs

for energy impacts and lessons learned using documented program evaluation
and impact information.
Program Objective 2: Work with appropriate federal agencies to develop an
energy independence strategy and program management approach to leverage
those programs in the direction of energy independence.
Program Objective 3: Develop a cadre of innovative federal career profes-
sionals in each agency who will develop and coordinate energy independence
policy and program management for their department administrator or sec-
retary.
342 Chapter Eight

Program Objective 4: Develop a program tracking system that follows federal

program management results and outcomes, and evaluates progress toward
achievement of the federal energy independence policy.
Program Objective 5: Collaborate with Congress to develop energy indepen-
dence legislation that facilitates effective program management to achieve
national energy independence.

OFIM Involvement in Heath Care Reform

OFIM will improve the capacity of the federal government to evaluate programs
in terms of costs and benefits. An example would be health care. The Office of
Management and Budget will undoubtedly promote the application of perfor-
mance budgeting to health insurance programs and tax policy.
Performance budgeting relates a program’s budget to its effectiveness in
achieving its objectives. The Congressional Budget Office director said in 2007
that there had been very little analysis of whether health care spending is gen-
erating corresponding gains in the health of enrollees.
The director goes on to say:
Both federal health insurance programs and tax expenditures could be subject to
performance budgeting. The executive branch and the Congress generally engage in
various forms of effectiveness reviews through their annual budgeting process, but the
performance budgeting seeks to make that consideration more systematic and more
consistent among programs… Even with a systematic and well-designed assessment
of performance, determining what specific policy steps to take as a result may be dif-
ficult. Unlike discretionary appropriations, the costs of federal health programs and
tax expenditures are not set directly by policymakers, but, instead, depend greatly on
the actions of individuals and firms. The effects of any reforms aimed at improving
performance, thus depend on the responses to policy changes. OMB is unequipped to
ensure that agencies plan and deliver programs from the standpoint of performance
budgeting; it can promote and enhance agency capacity, but it does not have the staff
or interest to serve as a management support system for agencies.

Federal Agency Portfolio Management

OFIM would work with federal agencies to develop a common approach to portfolio
development—e.g., the process of generating, selecting, proposing, funding, autho-
rizing, and managing programs. A common approach to portfolio program man-
agement would ensure a central depository and documentation of all programs,
categorized in terms of intended outcomes, both domestically and globally.

Federal Agency Program Management Systems,

Tools, and Techniques
Federal programs would be encouraged to use common and consistent tools
and techniques to allow an open exchange of program and project information
 Federal Program Management 343

across agencies, with state and local governments, industry groups, and other
stakeholders. Common program planning, budgeting, and scheduling templates
would be developed in concert with agency program managers, and websites
established for program information exchange and dialogue.

Promoting innovation in federal programs

The essential ingredient in successful new programs, products, and services is
not disciplined process and analytic tools. It is, rather, a vibrant and energetic
agency organization that enables its creative people and its partners to think
innovatively about what they are doing, know where the agency is going and
what it can do, and feel free to generate and integrate new ideas and new
concepts and processes into the system. In the best companies, new program
development is a mainstream activity.
In these companies, agency associates are not risk-averse. They know and feel
that their professional careers are enhanced by generating new ideas in their
domain, but they also know that their advancement is not solely determined
by the success of a new program or service. This frees them from the fear of
communicating bad news—if appropriate—or terminating a project because it
turns out that it makes no sense in the market. The best ideas for new products
come from both those who do the regular work of the company and from market
research and new product teams.
This targeted organizational environment is a culture of ideas, the organi-
zational tone that encourages free flow of feedback into and out of the agency
on current programs, products, services, customers, and operations from those
closest to them. This does not happen naturally or easily because new ideas are
not always welcomed in companies working hard to develop and market current
products and services, and because new ideas tend to challenge the current way
of doing business—they change processes and strongly held paradigms.

New organizational structure for new programs

We live in a global economy in which the turnaround of structural and technologi-
cal change is rapid and sometimes unpredictable. Federal agency processes are
changing even as we speak, and traditional jobs and work settings are becoming
virtual, e-driven, and mobile. This atmosphere of change creates the need to struc-
ture the agency organization so that (1) agency people can create new programs
and make executive and legislative proposals that make sense and can be funded,
and (2) the agency can design, develop, and produce new services (or redefine old
ones) better, faster, and cheaper and get them to citizens. Development life cycles
have gone from years to months to days, and federal agencies need to catch up
to market forces.
Traditional ways of organizing agencies around narrow functions (e.g., high-
ways, parks) does not seem to encourage new thinking about agency services
in a broader context, nor does it easily surface global impacts. How does the
agency organize in order to avoid being captured by narrow views of the
344 Chapter Eight

mission determined by traditional organizational structure? The business

answer is that organizing around processes appears to be helping successful
twenty-first-century businesses to generate creative thinking because it is in
process framework that companies can best see their customers in a system.
Processes can describe various systems and interactions that lead to product
success, thus encouraging people to think in terms of process domain, which
gives them a better chance of coming up with new processes and products to
serve customers.

Curbing new unaligned programs

Not all innovation is helpful in the public domain. In the public sector, creativity
and innovation in the pursuit of unauthorized programs, or programs that serve
narrow interests, can be a major diversion for federal agencies. Therefore, inno-
vation must be channeled and disciplined by policies, boundaries, and processes
to transition ideas and concepts into viable programs that support presidential
and Congressional policy.

New programs and outsourcing

Sometimes it pays to outsource creativity and front-end new program devel-
opment to capture domains that the agency cannot create itself. That is, to
the extent that outsourcing increases the probability of partners seeing new
processes and products differently, outsourcing can increase the chances of suc-
cessful programs. This conclusion must be conditioned, however, on the pre-
sumption that the relationship with outsourced partners is more than a simply
contract—that, indeed, a partner is sought out that represents a committed,
long-term associate in a given sector and therefore can be trusted to act in the
interest of the partnership and the public.

Organizational learning
We have seen that successful new public program and project rollouts occur
in agencies that learn in the process, evaluate programs in terms of outcomes
and benefits, and document their insights. The federal Head Start program
is a good example. In this case, organizational learning means that there is
a measurable process within an agency that captures insights, experiences,
lessons learned, and an understanding of their domains, and uses this learn-
ing to get a leg up on the competition. New product development and pro-
gram management effectiveness seems to improve when the agency brings
past program experience and insights to creative people so they can generate
informed changes and improvements. This results in a powerful combination
of individual and team creativity joined with agency insights into particular
development avenues.
 Federal Program Management 345

Six key strategies to create innovation in

federal program management
Professional program managers from the corporate world respect the importance
of innovation and creativity in program and project management. With clear objec-
tives and the incentive to complete programs on time and within budget, federal
program managers would generate exciting new ways to manage programs.
Six key strategies can ensure that the agency creates a culture of ideas.
Agency leadership must:

1. Remove barriers to the generation of new ideas in the agency, particularly

new ideas on how to plan, deliver, and evaluate currently authorized pro-
grams
2. Provide a system of information and feedback on current programs, products,
and services
3. Create a positive, perhaps virtual, place for new ideas to incubate
4. Generate a process of filtering, evaluating, and transitioning new ideas into
a portfolio and new program development process
5. Manage and control new program development
6. Demonstrate that new ideas can produce programs that align with agency
and presidential goals

Remove barriers to the generation of new ideas

Removing barriers to the generation of new ideas in the federal bureaucracy
involves removing the fear of failure and providing incentives and organiza-
tional platforms for good ideas on new programs and services. Agency employees,
associates, and stakeholders see opportunity in their day-to-day work settings
simply because they see what works, what does not work, and what would
work in given situations to produce new product or service opportunity. They
see opportunity and risk on one screen. These opportunities include process
improvements that could substantially improve company efficiency and effec-
tiveness, product improvements that could enhance marketing and sales, and
service improvements that could help sustain product life and longer-term cus-
tomer relationships. However, these opportunities will not surface to manage-
ment and agency leadership unless employees are encouraged to generate them
as an integral part of their jobs and without fear of rejection.

Promote return on innovation and creativity

Agency people need to know that there is a return on creative solutions that
achieve both public- and private-sector goals. They should know that assessing
the return on creativity is the objective of the program management process and
that employees will be rewarded for coming up with new concepts that create
value and intended outcomes. On the other hand, they should also know that if
346 Chapter Eight

the return is judged not to be worth the cost, the decision to terminate a program
midstream will not reflect on those who came up with the idea.

Paradigms as barriers to new programs and services

Thomas Kuhn referred to paradigms in his classic The Structure of Scientific
Revolutions. He said that paradigms are concepts or structured views of the
world that restrict scientists from seeing new data that do not agree with the
prevailing mindset. Paradigms operate to filter out information so that strongly
held concepts are not challenged, but rather are continuously confirmed despite
data and information to the contrary. New ideas challenge locked-in views of a
service in an agency, and thus often face difficult challenges because management
cannot see the potential success of an idea because it is inconsistent with their
paradigm for the agency. To avoid paradigmatic barriers, management must allow
new concepts to receive the light of day outside the normal chain of command, and
sometimes outside the operating systems of the agency. Often, the best ideas come
from operating levels of the agency and are never reviewed by the leadership.

Provide a system of information and feedback on

current programs and services
How do employees generate new ideas on agency programs and services? The
system must provide a visible and working channel for employee ideas through
e-mail, suggestion forms, project reporting, lessons-learned meetings, and hard-
copy recommendations from every level of the organization. There must be
transparency in the agency. If the system is not visible and working—and taken
seriously by management—it will quickly die under its own weight.
The process begins with empowering agency people to be themselves and to
communicate openly with each other on improvements and opportunities they
see. Furthermore, employees are invested and engaged in the agency’s success.

Create a positive place for new ideas to incubate

New program administration and service ideas must often incubate in the
organization before they can be conceptualized and defined. This incubation
process requires a place, a website or physical office or staff, that represents
the company’s incubation “laboratory.” This is where ideas are placed for initial
review and development by a staff of associates whose primary responsibility
is to incubate new ideas from the company workforce.

Generate a process of filtering, evaluating, and

transitioning new ideas into a portfolio and program
development process
Ideas are filtered, evaluated, and transitioned by a dedicated innovations staff
into potential program features and project definitions. This would include risk
assessment and risk response, using a risk matrix to categorize new concepts
and identify their risks, impacts, probabilities, severity, and contingencies.
 Federal Program Management 347

Create real agency program management

success stories
There is nothing like success, visible to all. In other words, good agencies publi-
cize new program successes as stories and reports, making sure that all agency
stakeholders see that the process of generating, developing, and marketing new
programs can work to achieve intended public policy outcomes. Working hard
to create those stories is part of the energy or “cognitive” aspect of the agency
workplace. The cognitive aspect suggests a high level of energy and engagement,
a feeling of motivation and purpose.
Organizational agility is the metaphor for agency responsiveness and energy.
Leadership creates this attribute by injecting excitement and purpose into the
agency. This process begins with ownership, leadership, and management, which
must be trusted to articulate a new program mission and integrate it into the
fabric of the agency.
Management “walks the talk” by reinforcing the value of innovation and cre-
ativity, and, most of all, by focusing the program on cost-effective results and
performance outcomes.

The Structure of a Federal Energy

Independence Program
Developing an innovative and effective energy independence program will
require a high degree of thinking “out of the box” about federal agency role and
function. And the concept of program implies a high level of complexity, both
in process and in organizational relationships; thus, creative thought must be
empowered with good analysis. At the federal level, programs involve a variety
of complicated intergovernmental and public/private relationships, particularly
when it comes to energy. Because of this, coordination and cooperation are key
elements of effective federal program management. This is especially true if the
program involves guiding the market system toward a national effort to meet
a broad goal, such as fuel independence.

A Customer-Driven Public/Private Partnership

The basic premise in the achievement of energy independence is that the citizen/
customer makes most of the key decisions that will drive future energy demand,
and American industry responds to the customer in our private enterprise
system. That system must be preserved in any federal energy program; thus, the
achievement of national energy goals requires cooperation and sometimes col-
laboration between public and private sectors, involving federal, state, and local
governments; private industry; nonprofits; and, ultimately, the customer.
The goals should be to change the mix and texture of energy demand in order
to establish the conditions for energy independence. This will involve research
and development to design options, private industry competition within the
framework of a clear national goal that takes precedence in corporate planning
348 Chapter Eight

and marketing, and an informed market and customer base that acts deliberately
to reduce individual and business energy costs and increase energy productiv-
ity. How does the federal program establish the conditions in which individual
customers make decisions to achieve energy efficiency and independence and
private enterprise responds with innovative energy systems? What kinds of
federal activities—e.g., regulatory, program delivery, and economic/fiscal (price
signals, interest decisions)—will act in concert to enable the country to preserve
its private enterprise system but essentially change the demand and supply
curves in energy?

Performance Budgeting and Energy Independence

Performance budgeting, the comparison of budgeted costs and program out-
comes and benefits, is key to future program planning in the public sector. For
instance, the evaluation of energy independence outcomes in the context of
performance budgeting involves assessing the nationwide and global impacts
of a program. The achievement of program objectives will require a process
of establishing national goals, developing consistent federal agency roles and
responses, setting up an outsourcing system, stewarding a competitive and
innovative private enterprise response to the achievement of national goals, and
a benchmarking and tracking system to ensure progress is being made.
The costs of investing in energy independence need to be looked at in the
context of broad national policy objectives that go way beyond program man-
agement. Agencies must cooperate to perform such assessments. The new
OFIM would be a “help desk” and technical support system to selected agencies
involved in performance budgeting the energy independence process.

Coordinating Agency Program Setup

The way programs are set up determines their success or failure. Program
integration management, or integrated program and project management, as
it is sometimes called, involves selecting, coordinating, and synchronizing pro-
grams in an agency, and across associated agencies, so that all the key factors
for success are optimized. Program managers can then see both the big picture
and the details of program and project work, all at the same time. The program
review process is set up so that management can make go or no-go decisions at
each key transition point from one phase to another.
Integration involves analyzing project business value at the high level; mobi-
lizing team performance and dynamics; monitoring projects to assure midstream
adjustment and project recovery; resolving technical, resource, and interper-
sonal conflicts at every level; managing program interfaces and multitasking;
identifying organizational constraints and exploiting them; keeping tabs on
accountability; and reporting on ethical and waste problems.
In an integrated project organization, program and project managers do the
following:
 Federal Program Management 349

Q See programs as capital investments made by the organization to achieve

agency strategy.
Q Analyze a portfolio of candidate projects using net present value techniques
in combination with risk assessment and other tools.
Q “Read” team dynamics as they relate to team leadership, motivation, effec-
tiveness, decision-making process, and conflict resolution.
Q Formulate and evaluate alternative completion plans to optimize program quality,
cost, and schedule. Select and apply appropriate project planning and tracking
tools, as well as project management leadership skills, to recover the program.
Q Develop the appropriate program interface event management plan to integrate
and manage the projects effectively, and resolve any complexities that result
from multitasking within the networks or on the part of the project manager.
Q Plan the development and implementation of suitable project management
systems and methodology to support multiple projects. Identify best practices
that lead to effective program management.
Q Develop and manage an integrated program schedule. This includes the ele-
ments of the schedule, types of schedules, schedule development, and the
processes of schedule management.
Q Work with the structures of schedules based on the integrated master plan
(IMP), integrated master schedule (IMS), supplier data integration, and the
overall influences of the WBS.
Q Establish requirements and a clear make/buy decision.
Q Work with networking basics, primary elements of the network, what a criti-
cal path is, the critical path method, and program networks.
Q Work with integrated product and process teams (IPTs), their outputs, and
their relationships to each other, and recognize key product and process team
tasks and their relationships in a program schedule. They can also analyze
the performance aspects of an IPT.
Q Work to transition from an integrated master plan to the integrated master
schedule.
Q Manage the integration of recurring production schedules with the non-
recurring program-level schedules.
Q Manage reporting of integrated schedule data to customers.
Q Understand when and where to use earned value management (EVM), and
how this system is used to benefit the project management effort.
Q Design and manage an assignment matrix (AM).
Q Serve as an effective cost account manager, and understand how cost account-
ing supports the cost account manager.
Q Provide a working-level definition of a project/program baseline schedule to
include the basic objectives of that schedule.
350 Chapter Eight

Q Implement the planning and budgeting process within the resource loading
activities of the schedule integration process.
Q Produce a variance analysis report and the process of arriving at the conclu-
sions cited in the report.
Q Define and integrate risk management, and elaborate on the process of risk
analysis and risk management.
Q Provide the definition for low risk, medium risk, and high risk, while being
able to integrate the likelihood of the occurrence of each with the consequences
onto the tailored risk grid, and incorporate necessary mitigating elements.

Reviewing the current state of program management literature, it could be

argued that the word “integration” is used in so many different contexts and
applications that its usefulness is in question. Engineers integrate products
and systems, managers integrate and coordinate their organizations, and plan-
ners integrate their plans. Yet despite its prolific use, the term still defines a
critical aspect of successful organizations, projects, and teams working together
toward program and project objectives. The integration of product and system
means that the components come together to produce product performance and
customer satisfaction. They come together because people make them come
together; integration just doesn’t happen—it must be proactively encouraged
by the participants in the program management process.

Integration as a Leadership Function

OFIM would participate in the integration of programs across agencies.
Organizations effectively integrate their program and new product develop-
ment project work when their leaders encourage it. Programs and systems do
not integrate unless key people at the working and project levels actually think
integration. Thinking integration is a way of looking at your work as interdepen-
dent, as a part of the whole. Information is shared in an integrated organization
simply because the key people know that shared purpose and shared informa-
tion serves the customer better, faster, and cheaper.
Leaders prepare their organizations for integration by loosening bureaucratic
barriers and encouraging cross-functional training and work settings. Information
systems encourage integration. For instance, an electronic timesheet system is tied
into networked Microsoft Project software so that project managers can see actual
costs in real time. Leaders insist on these supporting systems because they know
the value of information and sharing in building products that work.

Integration as a Wide-Ranging Quality and Process

Improvement Standard
Integration is addressed in a wide variety of quality standards for corporate
management and for program and project management, including the Project
Management Institute PMBOK, the National Baldrige Quality Award, the PMI
 Federal Program Management 351

OPM3 Maturity Model, and critical chain concepts. Along with increasing com-
plexity in systems and projects, and the challenge of putting together the efforts
of global outsourcing teams, the concept of integration becomes more and more
important to achieve “cheaper, better, faster” project cycles.
For instance, the National Baldrige Quality Award criteria are used by many
companies as benchmarks for best practices in integrating planning, operations,
and project/process management. The Baldrige criteria address integration in
terms of alignment and consistency of purpose and in measurement of outcomes.
For instance, the 2005 criteria for health services organizations reads:
This item examines your organization’s selection, management, and use of data and
information for performance measurement and analysis in support of organizational
planning and performance improvement. This performance improvement includes
efforts to improve health care results and outcomes (e.g., through the selection of
statistically meaningful indicators, risk adjustment of data, and linking outcomes to
processes and provider decisions). The item serves as a central collection and analy-
sis point in an integrated performance measurement and management system that
relies on clinical, financial, and nonfinancial data and information. The aim of mea-
surement and analysis is to guide your organization’s process management toward
the achievement of key organizational performance results and strategic objectives.
Alignment and integration are key concepts for successful implementation of your
performance measurement system. They are viewed in terms of the extent and
effectiveness of use to meet your performance assessment needs. Alignment and
integration include how measures are aligned throughout your organization, how
they are integrated to yield organization-wide data/information, and how perfor-
mance measurement requirements are deployed by your senior leaders to track
departmental, work group, and process-level performance on key measures targeted
for organization-wide significance and/or improvement. (p. 40, 2005 Baldrige Award
Health Criteria)

Translated to the program management environment, the Baldrige criteria

stress the importance of selecting projects that implement business goals and
plans, and making sure outcomes of multiprogram portfolios and business pro-
cesses, such as project planning and control, are tied together through align-
ment with the business direction.

Tools in building an integrated federal program

management system
Establishing cost reduction and performance as major program management
objectives for all federal agencies. The theme of program management systems
is the trade-off between cost, time, and value. The focus of value is performance
against program outcomes and benefits. The objective of the system is to optimize
all three factors, since one can always be enhanced at the expense of the other
two. The classic design is show in Fig. 8-1.
A program can be delivered early, but the process of crashing the program
can increase the cost and create quality and value problems. On the other hand,
individual project cost can be reduced, but this action may produce schedule
352 Chapter Eight

Time

Cost Scope

Figure 8-1 Program trade-offs.

and timeline problems, and again quality impacts. If value is to be increased

beyond the scope of work and customer requirements, then the price will be
paid in cost and time.
In building an agency system to support new program development project
integration, there are 10 areas for process improvement. These are organization-
wide or enterprise wide project management systems, program portfolio system
development, integrated resource management systems, information technol-
ogy, technical product development (including a stage-gateway review system),
interface management system, project portfolio management, project monitor-
ing and corrective action, change control, and program evaluation.

Federal government-wide program management system. Here are the attributes

of a fully mature federal program management system:
Q Integrated program management culture. Assign Senior Executive Service
career managers to program management positions and to top agency over-
sight positions in charge of long-term program benefits. The SES is the career
cadre that can lead the transformation to better program management.
Leaders develop their organizations to accomplish integration and coordi-
nation of agencies through an open exchange between the SES manager
and interagency program management systems and communication. This
system would involve the development of a federal culture of accountable
program management, run by professionals. All training and development,
and incentive systems, are built to encourage work that is accomplished
through formal programs, projects, plans, and schedules that integrate cost,
time, and quality.
Q Each agency has a program and project management council. This council
is made up of top management, functional departments and bureaus, and
program management. It manages program reviews at the end of concept
definition and full development, and makes the go or no-go decisions.
Q Generic program work breakdown structure. The purpose of the generic
WBS is to define a standard for how each kind of program is to be run. It inte-
grates the work, which is project-coded to capture costs and task performance
 Federal Program Management 353

history. The generic WBS defines each task in a data dictionary, or task defini-
tion, that covers what the task expectation is and what its deliverable is.
Q Common scheduling system. A common scheduling system across all agen-
cies places all work in a program schedule software (e.g., Microsoft Project or
Primavera, or equivalent) and assigns resource and estimate costs in order to con-
trol the work. Integration of all the work of the company is accomplished through
scheduling, which is seen as a process of committing resources to work.
Q Program resource assignment. Resources are assigned to programs and tasks
so that the workforce is integrated into the work that is authorized and
sponsored by the company. Projects are seen as investments in the agency’s
business plan. There is a major impetus in each agency to capture and control
the work being performed in a resource assignment system.
Q Function, milestone, and task linkages and interdependency. Multiple proj-
ects are consolidated into a program format, and tasks are linked to stress
the interdependency of project work. No piece of work in the agency is left
unconnected in order to ensure integration.
Q Program work authorization system. Again, in order to ensure that any agency
program work that goes on is authorized, all work is approved and directed
by the program manager. The way work is approved is through the baseline
schedule, which defines the authorized work.
Q Guidelines for program management plan. The program management plan
is defined in an agency program policy statement to guide the definition and
control of the work. Therefore, the plan must include control points (e.g.,
stage-gateway reviews) that ensure that management authorizes movement
from one phase or stage to another. Reporting and monitoring strategies,
including the use of earned value to integrate cost, schedule, and quality
performance, should be made explicit.

The plan should also address accountability, particularly in view of the recent
legislative and regulatory requirements of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act. Compliance
with internal control and accounting standards is no longer optional for project
managers. In fact, the price of disconnected and inconsistently applied efforts
throughout a project and its interfaces, and lack of financial tracking systems
that provide for audits, could be business-wide. Compliance with Sarbanes-
Oxley, therefore, is not a choice but a requirement, and the plan should state
standards for estimating costs, tracking the costs and relating them to work
performed, and the integrity of the closeout procedure and invoices to customers
for work performed.

Program/portfolio planning and development system. An agency portfolio is its

planned programs and investments that it will propose in the budget process.
Q Agency planning system and strategic objectives. The integrated agency has
a business and strategic planning process that produces a statement of
354 Chapter Eight

strategic objectives that serves as a guide for all planning and budgeting.
Such a system helps to shape the project portfolio and ensures that the com-
pany invests in projects that are integrated with the direction of the agency
and its stakeholders.
Q Decision process. Some kind of decision process supports integration because
open decisions, if prolonged, can lead to waste and ineffective work. Decision
trees are used to assess the commercial value of various decision paths
involved in defining the task structure and sequence of approved projects.
Q Performance budgeting system. Each agency must look at budget requests and
outcomes to arrive at decisions that enhance cost effectiveness and achieve-
ment of program objectives and intended outcomes. A capital rationing
system, or some way to allocate resources in line with the priority of relative
strategic objectives, is part of agency integration. Once budgets are identified
to carry out agency and business plans, projects are planned and prioritized
in the portfolio system, and then costs are estimated. Finally, projects are
fully funded according to their relative merit against business plans and
available budget.
Q Risk management system. Some kind of risk management planning system
that identifies and assesses risks and generates risk contingency plans is
necessary in an integrated program management system. The risk matrix
is the format for developing risk information that is used in scheduling and
controlling the work.
Q Program and program portfolio pipeline system. A pipeline of approved proj-
ects is maintained so that as funds and resources become available, projects
are quickly initiated. Project plans and schedules are produced for projects
in the pipeline so that when authorized, they can proceed quickly.

Resource management system. Agency resources in an integrated program

management must be managed, simply because there is value in targeting all
resources and equipment on the right program and project work. A workforce
resource pool information system can be established using Microsoft Project
that records all assignments in order keep a running view of how people and
equipment are being utilized.
A comprehensive system would include:
Q Workforce planning. A program workforce planning system integrates the
hiring and training of personnel with the needs of the program portfolio of
projects. In others words, people, equipment, and systems are brought into the
company to fill needs that are made explicit in the project resource allocation
pool that reflects both current and planned work. Measures such as person-
month needs by project are used to predict resource needs.
Q Staff planning. A staffing system allocates staff to the priority project needs in
order to fully integrate the core competence of the workforce with the priority
 Federal Program Management 355

needs of key programs. Staff are focused on assignments that are visible and
reviewed regularly.
Q Financial and accounting control is assured in a project management system
that captures all project costs, both direct and indirect, and assures internal
controls on project costs and equipment inventories.
Q Earned value: Reports on work progress and costs are used to calculate
earned value so that the company knows how each project is doing in
terms of schedule and cost.
Q Agency and industry standards: Appropriate industrial cost and work
standards are used to control the estimated duration of scheduled tasks—
e.g., using a trade association to schedule an industry-wide activity on
which there are work and industrial standards.

Program information technology system. A program information system that

documents all program work in consolidated schedules and resource pools
ensures that work is staffed, planned, and monitored in a uniform way. This
allows comparison of project progress and supports decisions on where to focus
resources.
The system would include:
Q Network system. All program and project information (e.g., schedules, resource
pools, project review and gate review data, configuration management docu-
ments) are kept on a company intranet to allow wide-ranging visibility.
Q Accessibility to key information. Accessibility to information is controlled and
focused on need-to-know criteria. However, customers are regularly informed
on program and project progress through Microsoft Project Central web-based
reporting systems that allow review of schedules without parent software.
Q Reliability planning. Reliability planning targets products with failure
mode effects assessments and functional hazard assessments, along with
risk matrix documents, to consistently design and test reliability of product
performance to customer requirements and specifications.
Q Workforce training. Workforce training is designed to meet project needs as
evidenced in work performance feedback reviews and lessons-learned exer-
cises with project teams in close-out.

Program/service development process. Integrated project management cannot

be accomplished without integrated product development processes with strong
stage-gate milestones.
A system would include:
Q Adopt Robert Cooper’s stage-gateway process. Program management is a pro-
cess of managing time, cost, and quality, but the underlying strength of any
356 Chapter Eight

project integration process is a strong, phased development process with

clear controls on entry to the next stage. “Gate reviews” are documented, and
generic work breakdown structures and data dictionaries are developed for
all product and service development activities.
Q Technology support and testing. Technical support that meets industry
standards ensures that product integration and testing are verifiable.
Designs are tested against specifications, specifications are tested against
scope of work, and scope of work is traced to customer requirements and
expectations.

Interface management. Interfaces or linkages within the organization and

outside would include:
Q Matrix organization. Interfaces between functional agencies and depart-
ments (e.g., accounting, engineering, project management, and testing)
are ensured through strong interface management. Separate departments
and functions are brought together constantly through information and
reporting systems and face-to-face review meetings at key program review
points.
Q Program review meeting formats. Review meetings are controlled by generic
meeting agendas and data and information support from a professional proj-
ect management office or staff. This way, review information is objective and
consistent.
Q Procurement interface. Because of the importance of contract and outsourced
work, contractor personnel and processes are integrated with sponsor com-
pany personnel and processes. Common scheduling and reporting systems
are designed.
Q Financial, accounting, and internal control interface. New impetus for strong
accounting and accountability reporting now requires that program and proj-
ect managers capture costs and relate them to work performed and equip-
ment purchased and in inventory. Ultimately, costs are compared to program
outcomes in the performance budgeting process.
Q HR interface. The interface with HR is important to integrate personnel and
HR policies and procedures with project work and priorities. Performance
reviews are left flexible, yet are important in assigning resources to future
projects.

Portfolio management. Portfolio management systems would include:

Q Top management visibility of programs and projects. The whole set of projects
in a multiple project system is managed consistently in an integrated project
management system. All projects are monitored using common earned value
and other measurement systems (e.g., balanced scorecard).
 Federal Program Management 357

Q Uniform program management system. A uniform approach to projects in

the portfolio is assured through a professional project management staff and
PMO support system.
Q Pipeline management
Q Generation of projects: A systematic way of generating projects through
brainstorming, budgeting processes, and business planning.
Q Evaluation of projects: A way of reviewing portfolio projects using net
present value and cash flows, weighted scoring models to score projects
against business objectives, and risk management.
Q Selection of projects: Projects are selected using a uniform set of measures.

Program monitoring and control system

Q Program management office (PMO). Agencies create program management

offices to support program managers. Monitoring is based on earned value
reporting, and quality is ensured by a task planning system that relates
percent complete to defined milestones in the baseline schedule.
Q Corrective action/risk management process. Contingencies and corrective
actions are based on remaining work and are forward-oriented. Contingencies
are embedded in schedules to ensure that should risks occur, they have
already been scheduled for and budgeted accordingly.
Q Escalation system for decisions. Conflicts and differences within project pro-
cesses are reviewed regularly by top management so that decisions are not
delayed.

Change management system. A change management system would include:

Q Change management system. Change management system is important in

new product development, since design changes are typical and frequent, and
because each change in configuration or design must be documented.
Q Change order system. All changes to a scope of work are submitted by project
team members or the sponsor/customer to ensure that changes are reviewed
and managed.
Q Change impact system. Change impact statements are prepared for all sub-
stantial changes, with risk, schedule, cost, and quality impacts specified.

Program evaluation system. A program evaluation system would include:

Q Document lessons learned. Close-out includes a lessons-learned meeting and

documentation of outcomes. The PMO is responsible for ensuring that lessons
learned are integrated into future projects.
Q Financial auditing system. A financial and program audit system is managed
to ensure accountability and internal control of all assets.
358 Chapter Eight

Transparency

Q Transparency requires a serious system to serve two interests: the interest

of the general public for high-level information about a program, and the
interests of agency program professionals and agency administrators, con-
gressional oversight staff, and outside public organizations. A one-way White
House website is not the answer to the transparency issue. Transparency
requires interactivity and cross-communication at many different levels of a
program, and the federal government has no such system in place.

Summary
This chapter addressed the root causes of failures in large, federal government
programs, including lack of clear goals, lack of uniform processes, the lack of
clear and measurable deliverables, and the lack of full funding. The chapter
includes a proposed new Office of Innovative Federal Management (OIFM) to
guide and coordinate federal program management activities in the agencies.
The proposal also outlines a program management process to generate consis-
tency and innovation in program design and implementation.
 Chapter

9
New Global Program
Development

Introduction
The previous chapters addressed the global setting for program management,
program portfolio and risk strategies, the global program manager, and the sig-
nificance of partnerships. We found that the roles and functions of the program
manager are different from those of the project manager. And we stressed the
importance of portfolio planning and program and project selection because
program managers want to run the right projects right. The previous chapter
addressed a special program issue: how the federal government manages pro-
grams and what makes federal program management so challenging.

What Have We Learned about New Global

Program Management?
Here are some conclusions from our analysis of program management:

1. Control is not always the goal in international programs.

Program and project management are essentially Western concepts, grounded
in our developed-country propensity to look at the world as rational and
orderly. But perhaps global program managers are finding that this rational,
orderly world does not always exist in other countries and cultures and that
our Western, control-oriented approach to locking in on deliverables, scopes
of work, tight work schedules, and controlling costs does not always fit.
While program and project management tools are all focused on controlling
time, cost, and quality, these aspects of a complex program are often deter-
mined by softer factors—e.g., client and stakeholder relationships and part-
nerships, the state of international relations, local politics and economics, and

359
360 Chapter Nine

local trade dynamics. And global program teams in various countries such as
China will likely be composed of members from several nations, with a Chinese
national leading the effort. This will place a high premium on working in a
multicultural team environment in which local nationals hold the leveraging
positions.
Impact on program management. Global managers sometimes have to be
comfortable with ambiguity and uncertainty in designing and managing
programs in some parts of the world, including the Middle East and South
America. This means that the traditional push toward controlling scopes of
work, schedules, budgets, and quality standards often gives way to open-
ended programs with no apparent end point.
2. A group of loosely related, short-term projects do not add up to a program in
a global setting.
Contrary to the conventional wisdom in the project management community,
programs are not made up simply of multiple projects. Programs are not built
and run bottom-up; they are top-down. In fact, programs are developed out
of business plans and need broad support from administrative and support
functions. Many projects do not make a program. A program is a complex of
targeted resources.
Impact on program management. There needs to be more emphasis on design-
ing new programs around broad strategies—e.g., capturing a given new market
for energy efficiency in developing countries—and planning for all the neces-
sary support functions—e.g., logistics, IT, HR, and e-procurement.
3. Portfolio decisions to invest in new programs will have to revisit program
benefits and revenue projections.
Programs are built not only on income projections and rate of return (ROR)
analysis, but also (and perhaps more importantly) on program benefits. This
means that businesses will have to spend more time and resources on articu-
lating and projecting program benefits over the longer term. For instance, a
program aimed at developing and marketing a new wind source energy tech-
nology in a developing country will have to analyze the dollar value of future
partnerships with local energy producers once the technology is adopted. For
instance, Google’s mission “to organize the world’s information and make it
universally accessible and useful” will have to be translated into long-term
programs and benefits (e.g., market share and technological competence) for
Google, as well as for the many users of Google-provided information.
Impact on program management. Projections of benefits for global programs,
particularly in developing countries, often involve speculating on customer
behavior in unfamiliar societies, as well as deciding how broader social and
economic benefits should be calculated.
4. Research suggests that trends in globalization are changing the dynamics of
program management.
 New Global Program Development 361

In 2009, the McKinsey Global Institute reported on a study of the under-

lying forces that shape the global business environment (Eric Beinhocker,
Ian Davis, and Lenny Mendonca, in Harvard Business Review, July-August
2009). The authors of the study looked especially for discontinuities—e.g.,
changes in factors that will require a refocus on portfolio development. They
found that the following forces could affect business and program success in
a global setting.
a. Resources feeling the strain: With productivity down worldwide, basic
resources, oil, water, and foods are in short supply.
Impact on program management. Projects oriented to resource develop-
ment and efficiency (e.g., more energy-efficient buildings) represent good
risks in program development. Schedule and cost becomes less important
in light of the need for new program development on new energy systems
and the building of local capacity to produce.
Programs that focus on new energy sources and sustainability are going
to do better than programs that ignore those markets. New packaging
and delivery markets will open up for programs equipped to increase the
greenness of the program benefits to local countries and communities.
b. Globalization under fire: Movement of goods and services, and talent,
across national boundaries is likely to slow as governments tighten con-
trols. Finances for program development will be harder to arrange as coun-
tries delink from the global financial system in response to the worldwide
recession in 2007 and beyond.
Impact on program management. Programs focused on achieving national
energy self-sufficiency are likely to be popular. Labor for new programs
will be more difficult to transfer into jobs worldwide, thus placing more
emphasis on finding talent to support programs locally.
c. Trust in business running out: Trusting partnerships with other busi-
nesses and with customers will be more difficult in the future globally
simply because the recent global recession altered the dynamics of trust
in business.
Impact on program management. Program managers will find it harder
to develop partnerships and consortiums with other businesses in the
supply chain for program support. Stockholders will be intervening more
in business decisions on program portfolios, asking questions about risks
and returns.
d. A bigger role for government: The recession and government financial
investment of public funds in private companies has changed the land-
scape for dealing with government in global programs. Now governments
will play a larger role in program and project management decisions, and
a premium will be placed on knowing the local public policies and regula-
tions relating to targeted programs.
362 Chapter Nine

Impact on program management. Program managers are going to spend

more time and resources on anticipating the actions and reactions of for-
eign governments, both national and local, to program development.
e. Management as a science called into question: The global recession of
early 2007–2009 called into question the folly of relying on financial models
that assumed economic rationality, linearity, equilibrium, and bell-curve
distribution. Banks and other financial institutions approve large project-
related investments on the basis of business planning models, including
cost-benefit and net present value, but using these tools to select a pro-
gram portfolio doesn’t always work.
Impact on program management. Program development and portfolio
selections based on rate of return, net present value, long-term revenue
forecasts, and other financial models will be more vulnerable, given the
failure of these models to predict major setbacks. This will place more
importance in knowing local decision makers and developing trusting rela-
tionships based on achieving local recovery goals with new programs.
f. Shifting consumption patterns: Old assumptions about consumer
spending and demand are changing as the world’s productivity grows
slower and slower. This means long-term business goals based on old rates
of growth are no longer valid.
Impact on program management. Programs and project managers focused on
consumer goods and demand in foreign nations will have to recalculate their
longer-term income projections to match reality. This will place a premium
on realizing small margins in program delivery and thus on cost controls.
g. Asia rising: The increasing importance of India and China and other
Asian nations in the global economy suggests that they will be the focus
for future program and project development.
Impact on program management. This means that global program and proj-
ect decision makers will have to consider the impact of all their efforts on
the Asian markets, both in terms of supply chains and customer base.
h. Industries taking new shape: New reliance on computer network-
ing and mobile computer capacity is changing the structure of business
models, with more attention being paid to enabling smaller companies to
compete globally through the Internet.
Impact on program management. Programs will be increasingly supported
by Internet tools and techniques and virtual teams, thus reducing the need
for heavy logistics costs.
i. Innovation marching on: There will be more investment in research
and development, despite the worldwide downturns, and more attention
paid to program and project development in energy-related fields.
Impact on program management. This means program managers will focus
more on rationalizing program and project portfolios and reevaluating
foreign licensing agreements.
 New Global Program Development 363

j. Price stability in question: Threats of deflation and unanticipated

changes in supply pricing suggest that businesses will have to adjust their
forecasts of margins and cost coverage.
Impact on program management. Program and project managers will rely
more on their procurement and purchasing offices to find ways to take
advantage of price decreases in key project supplies.
5. Global customers will increasingly take the shape of family businesses rather
than traditional corporate structures, particularly in Asia, South America,
and the Middle East, where nationalized businesses are actually family-
owned and -operated.
This trend suggests that program and project managers in foreign nations will
have to understand and prepare for a new structure for clients, stakeholders, and
business customers: the family-owned business. This will mean more emphasis
on trust and loyalty, and less on professional management techniques. It may
also mean less emphasis on time and cost and more on quality.
Impact on program management. Program managers are going to have to
deal with family members and bureaucrats who run state-owned companies
in program design and delivery. There will a premium on contributing narrow
functions and deliverables to a broad national purpose without interfering
in family decisions and state approvals.
Along with this trend there will be more emphasis on entrepreneurial leaders
and less on professional project managers, simply because foreign clients,
particularly in developing countries in Asia will favor more aggressive risk-
taking to maximize markets. This trend lessens the importance of traditional
contracting, scheduling, costing, and quality controls, and envisions more
risk-taking without project controls.
6. The world’s governments are increasingly calling for transparency in pro-
gram and project management.
This trend, started in the United States, provides an impetus to offset poten-
tially bad or unethical business decisions with more public access to business
information and data. But transparency can be a difficult goal, since different
stakeholders will have different data and information needs. For instance,
a partner contractor may need to see up-to-date schedule information and
earned value, while the customer may want to see cost and schedule data
targeted on remaining work. Meanwhile, a government oversight council may
want to ensure adherence to safety regulations.
Impact on program management. Program managers are facing two oppos-
ing forces: one a move toward more family business clients, the other toward
more transparency in program and project data and performance informa-
tion. Managers will have to “read” their customers in order to arrive at a
balance between techniques to inform stakeholders on program progress and
costs, but at the same time making sure that proprietary information is not
divulged to the wrong parties in a foreign country.
364 Chapter Nine

Generating Creative Program Concepts

So how does a business create new concepts for global programming? What
makes Apple effective in marketing globally when Motorola fails in the same
market with essentially the same products and services? The essential ingredi-
ent in successful new programs is not a disciplined portfolio process and analytic
tools. Rather, a vibrant and energetic organization enables its creative people
and its partners to think innovatively about what they are doing, know where
the company is going and what it can do, and feel free to generate and integrate
new ideas and new program concepts and processes.
In these companies, business associates are not risk-averse. They know and
feel that their professional careers are enhanced by generating new program
ideas in their domain, but they also know that their advancement is not solely
determined by the success of a new project. This frees them from the fear of
communicating bad news—if appropriate—or terminating a project because it
turns out that it makes no sense in the market. The best ideas for new products
come from both those who do the regular work of the company and from market
research and new product teams.
This target organizational environment is a culture of ideas, the organiza-
tional tone that encourages free flow of feedback into and out of the company
on current products, services, customers, and market operations from those
closest to them. This does not happen naturally or easily because new ideas are
not always welcome in companies working hard to develop and market current
products and services, and because new ideas tend to challenge the current way
of doing business—they change processes and strongly held paradigms.

New organizational structure for new programs

We live in a global economy in which the turnaround of structural and techno-
logical change is rapid and sometimes unpredictable. Business processes are
changing, even as we speak, and traditional jobs and work settings are becom-
ing virtual, e-driven, and mobile. This atmosphere of change creates the need
to structure the organization so that people can create new products before they
are anticipated by the customer, marketplace, or competition; and the company
can design, develop, and produce new products better, faster, and cheaper and
get them to market. Development life cycles have gone from years to months
to days.
Traditional ways of organizing around product lines, markets, or geographic
locations does not seem to encourage new thinking about products in a broader
context. How does a company organize in order to avoid being captured by
narrow views of the customer, determined by traditional organizational struc-
ture? The answer is that organizing around processes appears to be helping
successful twenty-first century businesses to generate creative thinking because
it is in process framework that companies can best see their customers in a
system. Processes can describe various systems and interactions that lead to
product success; thus, encouraging people to think in terms of process domain
 New Global Program Development 365

gives them a better chance of coming up with new processes and products to
serve customers.

New products and outsourcing

Sometimes it pays for program managers to outsource creativity and front-end
new projects and new product development to capture domains that the company
cannot create or capture itself. That is, to the extent that outsourcing increases
the probability of partners seeing new processes and products differently, out-
sourcing increases the chances of successful new product introductions. This
conclusion must be conditioned, however, on the presumption that the relation-
ship with outsourced partners is more than simply a contract—that, indeed, the
partner is a committed, long-term associate in a given market and, therefore,
can be trusted to act in the interest of the partnership.

Restructuring for global program management

Many businesses are not organized to access and interpret global information or
to work with international partners and experts in program design. Companies
who can mobilize internationally without expensive foreign infrastructure will
be at an advantage. This will require program managers to draw on the local
talent and resources of partners and stakeholders who are located in the target
nation, both to help design longer-term programs to meet local needs and to
deliver and maintain the deliverables.

Examining competencies and outcomes

Program and project managers and their business associates will have to
monitor the new dynamics of the global marketplace, both in choosing programs
and in designing and delivering them. That process will require constant self-
examination, focusing on in-house competencies and opportunities to outsource
for more efficiency and effectiveness, and on opportunities to partner with foreign
institutions of all kinds. For instance, a myriad of nongovernmental organizations
(NGOs), roughly designed like U.S. nonprofits, figure importantly in working with
program and project managers from foreign countries in multicultural, virtual
program teams.
In addition, programs will have to be evaluated using conventional program
evaluation techniques—e.g., compare actual program performance and deliv-
erables against program benefit goals and objectives, and identify forces and
process factors of success and failure.

The Broadband Case: An Application

Broadband communication systems provide sufficient capacity to carry mul-
tiple voice, data, or video channels simultaneously. Broadband enables, among
other things, users to access streaming audio (Internet radio), streaming video
366 Chapter Nine

(compressed images sent through the Internet), and streaming media (com-
bines streaming video with sound). Broadband is a necessary element in any
developing country’s plans to equip its residents and businesses with global
communication capacity.
Let’s say that a communications business targets the African market for
broadband communication in its strategic plan. In developing its implementa-
tion plans, the business would articulate and define its strategic objectives, then
drill down to a single, globally targeted program, or possibly two or three.

Strategic global objectives

The three key strategic objectives related to global programming are:

1. To generate broadband options to selected African countries that have

expressed an intent to provide such services to its population
2. To design and develop a low-cost broadband system and to find ways to pro-
vide broadband programs to rural areas at reduced costs in order to generate
a market
3. To develop local competency in the targeted countries on broadband
applications in online education, medical diagnosis and treatment, and
e-commerce

Global program development

Let’s say that the business identified its key program to be the development of
broadband for online education in African countries. Other programs given high
priority in the portfolio process include programs to deliver medical diagnosis
and treatment, and to promote e-commerce.
The online program is funded and approved for implementation. This
program would involve designing and installing broadband equipment and
consulting services, along with software applications, to support online edu-
cation in African countries. The business conducts market research in Africa
and finds that several African nations have expressed interest in broadband
and are providing subsidies for development programs. Surveys also dis-
cover that a variety of regulations in some African countries would affect
the installation of broadband, including a censoring function on education
content.

Global portfolio of projects

Next, the business would develop a portfolio of projects to support this program.
Innovative ideas are solicited in the portfolio process, and several projects are
generated and reviewed for inclusion in the approved program portfolio. These
include the following projects:
 New Global Program Development 367

Q Project 1: Identify the potential population in targeted countries for online

education, K–12, and higher education.
Q Project 2: Design equipment and software to deliver broadband to 50 selected
areas in five African countries.
Q Project 3: Develop a curriculum for K–12 and higher education and integrate
into software and course websites.

Global program manager

Next, a program manager is appointed from several candidates. The candidate
selected has experience in delivering global telecommunication programs in
South America. The business identifies this candidate as the best for the job, not
only because of her experience, but also because she has personally undertaken
a professional development program that includes learning the basic African
languages and cultures, and she completed a “lessons learned” report on her
telecommunications activity in South America.

Global program benefits

What are the benefits of this program, and how will these benefits be valued in
the portfolio and program development process? The benefits of the program
are:

1. Providing online education to low-income students who otherwise cannot

attend school because of transportation, cost, and/or logistics reasons
2. Enabling local teachers and instructors to provide education services through
online systems
3. Setting up a business model that the business can use for future broadband
development for online education, providing the business with a test case,
learning environment on what it takes to install such a system (e.g., cost,
schedule, quality issues, regulatory issues, content censorship, etc.)

Calculating rate of return

Rate of return, or new present value of programs, involves projecting out income
over a 5- to 10-year period, discounting for present value, and determining if the
program should be undertaken. The business develops a listing of development
costs, which comes to $30.5 million, including equipment, labor, contractor costs,
and overhead. Income projections (net present value) from broadband user fees
and leasing arrangements total $28 million over five years, resulting in a nega-
tive net present value of $1.5 million.
The decision, despite the negative rate of return in five years, is to proceed
with the program, given its longer-term potential for creating a broadband
market for the business and the broad benefits of the program for African
368 Chapter Nine

country development. The business’s top management determines that it is

willing to invest in the long-term program in the hope that not only will the
market develop, but also the company’s own reputation for being willing to
pursue a social and economic benefit in Africa along with the conventional
profit motive.

Global partnering and strategic alliances

The business enters into a strategic alliance with the African Union Education
Council, an association furthering African development funded by member
countries. This alliance allows the business to access information and demo-
graphic data on various target areas for broadband development. In addition,
a team of project staff is deployed to selected African countries to identify local
talent for building the program teams.

Global transparency
Local governments and NGOs in targeted areas with a stake in broadband
development are identified and structured into local broadband review boards.
The business will use these boards to inform local leadership on its intentions
and to get feedback on program and project progress.

Government relations
Each governmental jurisdiction in the selected markets will be briefed on the
program. Top business associates are deployed to each jurisdiction to work
out leasing and other arrangements, including necessary “payments” for local
endorsement.

Regulatory issues
The business conducts a thorough search of extant regulations in broadband
development in the targeted markets and develops a manual for program man-
agers to deal with local requirements on access, safety, and installation and
maintenance of equipment.

Culture and language issues

Special content and language experts are hired for each targeted area to trans-
late negotiations and team collaboration and to anticipate particular cultural
factors and forces that may shape the program.

Equipment production and delivery

Special attempts are made by the business to find local producers or suppli-
ers to add to its supply chain for design and delivery of broadband equipment
and systems. If local suppliers are not available, the business works with local
 New Global Program Development 369

governmental, NGO, and education providers to build a local industrial base

for broadband management in the area. This base is intended to serve as the
foundation for a local industry in the area that will take over the broadband
activity as a licensee.

Education content censorship

A special issue arises in program development: the censorship of education
content and curriculum. National and local governments in African countries
express their intent to review and approve all online courses for consistency
with local values and education programs. Recognizing that this requirement
is part of doing business in Africa, the business works out a process of collabo-
ration with local education institutions to use their courseware and content in
designing its broadband online education program.

Summary
We can conclude that global program management is not very different from
domestic program development in one sense; but in another sense, it is made
more challenging because of a more complex societal, cultural, and political
framework and added risks and uncertainties. Most of these issues can be
anticipated and addressed if the business is committed to global work and is
willing to do its homework. The key success factors in global program manage-
ment may be the capacity to stay agile, to be comfortable with ambiguity, to be
patient with outcomes and benefits, and to address the key role that trust and
partnerships play in program success.
This page intentionally left blank
 Appendix

A
Program Risk Management Checklist

Integrated program risk management involves a whole set of activities that

should be embedded into the program and project planning process. The following
provides a risk checklist and associated exam and training questions raised by
the checklist.

Action What? Why? When? Output? Who? Exam Question

Business Culture
Create risk Create Confirm that it Part of Policy Executive What policies
management business is important business plan; statement and program and procedures
policy intent to and back it up underlies on how the management will encourage
manage risk project business will level integrated
process handle risk project
management?
Write a policy
statement that
encourages
integration
across the
organization.
Assess Find out Survey workforce Every six Workforce HR/project What indicators
organization how aware months awareness team of awareness
awareness workforce is of risk would you
of risk and management use to survey
risk response report whether your
impacts organization is
integrating its
projects? What
measures
address
integration?

(Continued)

371
372 Appendix A

Action What? Why? When? Output? Who? Exam Question

Business Culture
Deliver Design Workforce will Every Certification All PMs, Identify the
training training implement if year with project teams, key training
program around they understand refresher and technical courses that
practice tools personnel you would
planning provide to
tools; use to encourage
introduce integrated
business risk project
management.
Reward Provide Incentives During project Compensation Project What kinds
effective risk rewards for motivate reward managers of behaviors
management good risk and team or actions
management members that further
effort and integration
effectiveness would you
reward? What
rewards would
you provide?
Business Strategy
Risk Provide SWOT analysis: Annual Risk-based Executives How would you
component for a risk threats = risks; update of business and program include risk in
of business section in translate to business plan; managers your business
plan the business product line risk strategic and integrate plan; would it
plan and exposure business plan with be a separate
communicate financial and section, or
it profitability integrated
analysis into the whole
plan, or both?
Why?
Strategic State Measurable Part of plan; Set of 10 Executives Write a
objectives objectives in strategy goals communicate long-term and program strategic
terms of risk to workforce objectives managers objective
for an
organization
of your choice,
incorporating
risk.
Project Selection
Do risk In developing Use PMBOK Each time Rank order Program How would
assessment business process; broad- project projects using managers you evaluate
of candidate portfolio of brush risk portfolio composite and candidate
projects projects, use assessment pipeline is risk, functional projects–in
risk as one updated alignment, managers terms of
criterion cost, and whether
for project revenue they are
selection assessment integrated–in
the project
selection
process?
 Program Risk Management Checklist 373

Action What? Why? When? Output? Who? Exam Question

Project Selection

Weigh risk Demonstrate Trade off Each time Analysis, data, Project What measures
against that risk risk with pipeline is documentation management would you use
revenues has been opportunity for updated office, project to evaluate
and embedded profitability and team, business projects on
alignment in business take advantage planning staff the basis of
and financial of business core whether their
analysis competence planning
included
analysis
of revenue
risks? What
about risks of
misalignment,
for example
that the project
is inconsistent
with the
organization’s
goals and
strategies?
Project Plan
Requirements State customer Risk that customer During initial Requirements Project How would you
requirements requirements do concept document manager, assess whether
in terms of not reflect risk, or phase; part of stating functional a project
customer misunderstanding project plan customer manager, and integrated
risks customer requirements customer customer
perspective and and risks requirements
expectations on into scope
project risks and project
concept?
WBS Include risk Because there is During WBS in Project How do
contingencies inherent risk in development organization manager you assess
from risk missing major of the chart form whether a
matrix in parts of the deliverable, and outlined project WBS
WBS work deliverable in the “work” in Microsoft has integrated
activity initial planning; should Project all key work
WBS ensures include initial activities, for
coverage of contingencies example that
major “chunks” identified it is a truly
of work in risk integrated
assessment WBS?
Task list Include risk Task list should After WBS is Task list in Project How do you
tasks and include all prepared, do Microsoft management assure that
contingencies anticipated task list and Project office and/ a project
in baseline contingency link; there is GANTT or project task list is
schedule actions should inherent risk chart or manager inclusive?
risk events that linkages spreadsheet
occur will be too
“hard;” allow
for “soft”
linkage

(Continued)
374 Appendix A

Action What? Why? When? Output? Who? Exam Question

Project Plan
Network Show risk Arrow diagram During Arrow Project Assessment of
Diagram in network shows critical translation diagram in management risk options
diagram and noncritical of WBS to Microsoft office requires
with three paths; risks GANTT Project template estimation
scenarios: inherent in chart, or other or project of expected,
expected, focusing on prepared software manager pessimistic
pessimistic, critical path to show and optimistic
and when resource dependencies alternatives,
optimistic constraints and paths both in terms
in noncritical of weights and
tasks may serve durations.
as bottleneck How do you
(theory of assure that
constraints) these estimates
truly reflect
all the factors
impacting on
task duration
and risk?
Calendar- Relate Histogram using During Graphics Project What is the
based network arrows and translation software or manager value of a
diagram to time to calendar of WBS to Microsoft calendar based
begin to see GANTT chart Word diagram in
schedule document transitioning
impacts and from a task
milestones list to a
GANTT chart?
Risk-based Do risk-based Microsoft During initial Microsoft Project How do you
schedule schedule project GANTT scheduling, Project management assure that
using chart showing then any schedule office or changes in
Microsoft calculated risk- time risk is file showing project task durations
Project PERT based duration identified calculated manager from PERT
analysis tool after weights and durations analysis are
and three contingency for high-risk integrated into
scenarios are prepared tasks the project
entered team, for
example, that
project team
members are
made award of
new duration
estimates that
affect them?
 Program Risk Management Checklist 375

Action What? Why? When? Output? Who? Exam Question

Risk Management Process (see PMBOK)

Risk Using input Using data and During Risk matrix Project How do you
identification from business information and business management assure that
plan, identify past experience, planning, office or the risk
and rank rank summary project and project identification
project tasks tasks in WBS portfolio manager process is
in terms of using risk selection, and integrated
risk matrix project WBS with company
scheduling business
planning
and SWOT
(strengths,
weaknesses,
opportunities,
and threats)
analysis?
Risk Assess risks Complete risk During Risk matrix, Project How do you
assessment using risk definition, business updated manager assure that
matrix impact planning, monthly the risk
format (schedule, cost, project assessment
quality, business selection, is integrated
growth); make and project with the
probability planning and project WBS,
estimate (25%, control for example
50%, 75% that all tasks
probability), have been
severity on reviewed in the
project outcome, assessment?
and contingency
Risk response Prepare Response is During project Risk Project How do you
contingency planning planning, contingency manager assure that
actions and through responses and actions the risk
include in definitive contingencies response plan
baseline contingency are designed is integrated
schedule plans and to address with other
tasks, which are specific risks project and
embedded in and recorded; business
project schedule this is where planning?
as regular tasks the team
and triggered anticipates
if risk event what might
occurs happen to
slow or delay
the project,
what can
be done to
prevent it or
address it,
and schedules
contingency
tasks into the
project

(Continued)
376 Appendix A

Action What? Why? When? Output? Who? Exam Question

Risk Management Process (see PMBOK)
Risk matrix Prepare risk The risk matrix During project Risk matrix Project How do you
matrix as is the basic planning, a following manager and assure that
basis for checklist basic risk prescribed team or task the risk
scheduling item for risk matrix file is format managers matrix data
throughout the established on each task
process; it is the and appears are integrated
guide for action with all across column
project headings for
planning risk, impact,
and project probability,
review severity, and
documents contingency?
Decision tree Do decision This is the During project Decision tree Project How is the
tree analysis way project planning, diagram with manager decision tree
to expected managers decision tree expected in assuring
value of anticipate analysis is values that all key
optional decisions they applied to calculated decision risks
decisions will have to high-risk are integrated
make based on tasks with business
risk and what risk and
alternative SWOT data?
paths and
expected values
will follow each
decision path
Integrate Risk into Project Manual
Basic project Ensure that Because risk Business Online and Project How do you
manual risk is not should not establishes hardcopy management assure that
treated be treated a system of manual, office (PMO) the manual
separately, separately basic project including calling for the
but seen from project manuals basic project integration
as part of management as part of planning of risk into
the way process; manual “projectizing” and risk project
projects are captures the management planning and
planned and how risk is organization tools and operations is
controlled integrated into templates implemented?
process
Provide Train and Much of the risk Business Software IT and project How do you
software provide analysis can be establishes library managers assure that
tools software done through a support training
analysis tools spreadsheets system materials are
in manual and decision of risk integrated
tree analysis management with other
software; application company
workforce needs software software?
to know how to and trains
use them appropriate
staff
 Program Risk Management Checklist 377

Action What? Why? When? Output? Who? Exam Question

Product/Technical Process Development

Define Ensure that Because Business WBS file Functional The generic
product/ business has project risk establishes a managers WBS is
technical defined the management generic WBS intended to
development core, product cannot be of technical capture and
process in development, successful processes; integrate with
generic WBS and technical unless both these are all company
processes technical recorded business
that it uses and product and updated practices and
to produce development/ so that all processes, e.g.
products and testing project WBS budgeting,
services (e.g., requirements and schedule accounting,
engineering, are conducted information performance
construction, to control risk, and risk data evaluation,
system and because is taken from etc.; how do
development) management the generic you assure
standardizing impacts (e.g., model and that it does?
where schedule tailored
possible and cost) are
applied to the
real industry
processes that
create customer
value
Project codes Provide Because once When generic Coding system Accounting, How do you
for coding you have WBS is set integrated project assure that
actions in identified all up, codes are with management project codes
WBS so that tasks and risk added at the timesheets assigned to
costs can be contingencies, appropriate and various levels
captured you will want level to accounting of the WBS
to capture costs capture costs system are workable
against those and integrated
codes to build a with normal
history of risk personnel
management practices and
and mitigation timesheet
costs systems?
Identify Customer Risk Tolerance
Assess Solicit Because customer When Customer risk Customer
Customer customer may have requirements analysis representative
perspective input on different and are being and functional
on business customer valuable insight written and project
and project risks and on business managers,
risk and how uncertainties and project jointly
much risk risks that have
customer is been part of
willing to the customer
assume expectations but
not reflected in
real planning

(Continued)
378 Appendix A

Action What? Why? When? Output? Who? Exam Question

Lessons Learned
Risk audit Do a project Because insights At project Risk audit Project How do you
risk audit and documents close-out report to management assure that
following that can lead project office, risk audits
selected to better risk manager audit staff, are integrated
projects to management in project and with project
evaluate the future will functional reviews
success in be lost unless managers and lessons
anticipating a risk audit learned
and team builds a sessions?
managing history of the
risk project, how risk
decisions were
made, and how
effective risk
management
was
Lessons- Prepare and Because the best At close-out Lessons- Project How do you
learned communicate lessons and learned manager assure that
meeting and short report insights are report, lessons
report on what going to be lost referencing learned
project team unless someone systems, outcomes are
members and facilitates a decisions, integrated
customers lessons-learned risk, with future
learned in session and outcomes, business
the project report but no names and program
that would planning?
reduce risks
in a similar
future project
 Appendix

B
Microsoft Applications for
Program Management

Microsoft Project 2007 is not the only project management support package, but
does offer useful tools to build and track complex, global programs of projects.

Project Consolidation to Create Programs

Since the difference between a program and a project is often simply in terms of
complexity and scale, many projects can be consolidated into a program using
the typical Microsoft GANTT chart. To do this, high-level milestones are chosen
from project schedules and identified in a limited set of program milestones to
be tracked at the program manager level in program reviews. See a Microsoft
Project manual for details.

Project Server for Program Support

Microsoft Project Server provides tools for a program manager to use the Web
to communicate, manage, and monitor programs globally. A Project Server inte-
grates a web-based interface, called Project Web Access, with Microsoft Project
Professional. A project administrator stewards the system as a database of
project information uploaded by the program manager or project manager. Data
security and access issues are handled by the administrator. Programs can be
created using tools collaboratively with Windows SharePoint. Program man-
agers can manage resource assignments by viewing and changing program or
project enterprise resource and tracking the progress. Team members, wherever
they are, can submit timesheets and report issues and risks in real time using
Windows SharePoint. Program managers use Project Centers to access high-
level project data and to communicate with team members.

379
380 Appendix B

A Word of Caution
Program managers are cautioned to careful when working with professional
network specialists in developing a web-based, global program management
system. The hardware and software configurations you select will directly affect
the overall performance of Project Server in supporting global program manage-
ment. The critical factors are to avoid underestimating the amount of traffic
on the system globally and to anticipate any issues in reporting across nations
and continents. Traffic can be estimated by anticipating all company execu-
tives, customers, team members, sponsors, stakeholders, outside regulators
and/or government agencies, and other interested parties who might participate
in reviewing and commenting on project information in the system, and then
multiplying by two.
 Appendix

C
Global Project Management
Strategies in a Program
Management World

“Being busy does not always mean real

work. The object of all work is production or
accomplishment, and to either of these ends
there must be forethought, system, planning,
intelligence, and honest purpose, as well as
perspiration. Seeming to do is not doing.”
THOMAS EDISON

Project Management
The application of project management principles has dramatically increased
in every industry. Some attribute a method of project management practice
to ancient times when pyramids were constructed using large amounts of
human resources and raw materials. There are many examples of the marvels
of premodern project management, from coliseums to the Great Wall of China.
Modern-day project management began to crystallize after World War II when
people were looking for a systematic approach to carry out work effectively.
There was a need to organize resources to obtain critical objectives within a
specific timeframe. At this point, project management was mostly employed by
engineers and those in the construction industry.
Over the years as the project management discipline solidified, you began
to hear people from diverse industries and within different disciplines inside
a company discuss projects. Today, from manufacturing to human resources
to marketing, the project mindset is deeply imbedded in our corporate
cultures. Project management is both an art and a science. The science is in
the structure that is followed, but the art is in how you apply and manage
it. Though many discuss projects, not all follow the project management
disciplines laid out by the Project Management Institute. There is a link

381
382 Appendix C

between project success and following the core strategies of the project
management structure. Understanding the principles and being able to adapt
those principles to best suit your corporate culture is one of the secrets to
project success.
Thomas Edison accomplished many great inventions. These inventions were
projects that themselves require initiating, planning, executing, controlling, and
then closing phases of a project plan. Edison’s hard work and dedication lead
to 1,093 patents for different inventions. Many of these inventions you would
recognize, like the light bulb, phonograph, and motion picture camera. These
successfully completed projects have had a huge influence on our everyday
lives.
In this appendix, we will explore the project management discipline, how
it relates to the program management world, and how successfully completed
projects can have a huge influence on the success of your business, professional,
and personal lives.

Global Reference

The program world

As a project manager working within a program, you have the added responsi-
bility to work within the parameters of the program. It is good practice to work
closely with the program manager. In a global environment, you may be located
in a different country, speak another language as your first language, and have
different customs and beliefs than the program manager. However, it is impor-
tant to essentially eliminate the “space” between the two of you. The elimination
of space can also be thought of as a management continuum. You may never
be able to physically remove the distance, or even the time barriers, that keep
you from the program manager. You can lower these hurdles by being flexible,
taking the time to fully understand what is required by you for the program,
and communicating in a timely manner with the program manager.
It is very important that the program manager has a full understanding
of your project objectives and status. It is vital to follow the guidelines that
the program manager sets out for how they want to operate the program. It
is critical that you, as the project manager, report to the program manager
the status of your project in the form that is required by your program. If you
work in a company that has a mature project management process, where you
have histories from prior projects and programs, tools and techniques that
are established, what your program’s direction will be throughout your project
will be clear. However, there are places that are not as mature, and the project
manager must rely on the program manager for guidance on how they want to
proceed.To understand better where your company fits in the project maturity
model, you need to examine whether they leverage prior experiences, or if they
share a common language and strategic vision. How does the company handle
prioritizing work and resources? How does the company improve upon their pro-
cesses? A maturity model is used to create an understanding of the company’s
 Global Project Management Strategies in a Program Management World 383

strengths and weaknesses compared to other companies. Project management

maturity is an organization’s level of ability to accomplish project requirements
with reliable methods and repeatable delivery of project management goals. To
help determine the level of maturity your company supports, you can consider
the following questions:
Q Are the business processes within the organization repeatable?
Q Is any project methodology followed?
Q Is any project data captured?
Q Are any software tools used?
Q How are projects chosen and initiated?
Q How are project roles determined?
Q How is project information communicated?
Q How are the executives in the organization kept informed on the projects?
Q Are there certified project managers in the organization?

The more affirmative answers to these questions, the further down the project
maturity path your company is located.

Explanation of Concept

Definition of a project
It is important to have a clear understanding of what constitutes a project as
opposed to other forms of work. When you think of a manufacturing plant, you
find that there is generally a conveyor belt, which advances down the line in a
sequential manner that is strictly ordered and at each station adds or alters the
product. When you reach the end of the line, you have a fully assembled product.
You also see a similar process in food processing plants where ingredients are
mixed together, formed, baked, and then packaged. The process of the assembly
line doesn’t end, but is continuous throughout the product life cycle. In other
departments, such as accounting, you have the closing of the books every month.
Normal operational business processes are not projects.
A project, on the other hand, is temporary in nature; it has a beginning,
middle, and an end. The outcome of a project creates a unique product, service,
or result. Where designing and creating a new computer is a project, manufac-
turing hundreds of them is not. Projects tend to have interrelated tasks, which
generally have progressive elaboration in their nature. In progressive elabora-
tion, you move through a project and each step builds upon the previous step
in increments. The predecessor, or previous step, provides the ability for the
next step or process to occur. If you consider building a house, you need to lay
the foundation, and then frame the house, before installing the roof. Each step
grows upon the one before it. It would be impossible to install the roof without
the other necessary predecessor construction work being completed.
384 Appendix C

There are other attitudes to projects. Projects must have a customer, whether
internal or external to the business. A project is formed to fulfill the customer’s
need. Since projects are temporary and you are creating something unique,
there is a degree of uncertainty around them too. If you do this type of work all
the time, it would not be considered a project, so there is risk in doing some-
thing that can be unfamiliar and new. Projects also use resources. Resources
can be people with the required skills for the project work, money, workspace,
technology, and raw materials, to name a few. Unfortunately, resources tend
to be in limited supply and in high demand. As a project manager, you need to
manage resources wisely.
It would be wonderful to say that all projects should have a well-defined
objective. In a perfect world, projects are clear and understood by all parties.
In the real world, when you start a project, you will spend a great deal of time
defining and clarifying the project’s scope and communicating it to the project’s
stakeholders. A project needs to have some definition when you start it, and to
become further defined as it progresses.
PMI summarizes the definition of a project as:
A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product,
service, or result.
This definition covers the major aspects of what a project is, but as you read,
there are also finer details that need to be thought of when understanding the
breadth of the meaning of projects. For the purpose of this book, we will use
the following definition:
A project is an unprecedented effort that:
Q Occurs within a finite time period
Q Possesses a unique set of interrelated tasks
Q Uses resources effectively
Q Contains a degree of uncertainty
Q Accomplishes a specific customer-driven objective

The purpose of a project

Projects are done for a specific purpose and become visible when a need is identi-
fied. The purpose of a project can materialize from a number of strategic reasons.
There could be a market reason for developing a new product. There could be a
competitor with a new feature or flavor that you have to match or exceed to main-
tain or enhance your market share. Or, through research, you discover an untapped
market and design a product or service to meet the needs of that group.
There could be an organizational need to alter normal business processes and
train staff on a new workflow to improve efficiency to increase revenues. One
of your most important customers may request changes to the current product
that you send them. These feature requests roll into your next product release
cycle. Technical advances could lead to developing new products.
 Global Project Management Strategies in a Program Management World 385

As Moore’s Law states, computers double capacity, speed, and memory every
18 to 24 months. If Moore’s Law is true, technical advances in computing alone
change how we run our businesses and our projects every 18 to 24 months, and
it is essential that businesses maintain this pace.
Finally, there are also reasons to create new projects based on legal or regula-
tory changes. It is important to understand the policies and procedures within
the countries you are managing projects and programs. For example, lead paint
was banned in the United States in the late 1970s, but is still in use today in
other countries. What if one section for your project was manufactured in a
plant outside the United States using lead paint and then the product was
brought back to the United States and sold? Or you worked with a company
that uses pesticides that are not approved in the country that the product will
be sold in? There are a number of ethical and moral questions when it comes to
managing a project. Ethics is discussed in greater detail in this appendix as it
pertains to the role of a program manager.

Deeper Understanding—Strategy of Use

Project management process

There is a process to project management. The first step is to define the purpose
of the project. It is just as important to define what will be omitted from the
project as it is to detail what will be included. You can look at this process as
defining a box, with your project being the box. It is important to state what is
inside the box and what is outside of the box.
Project management is about managing expectations. A project charter is
the first step in defining your project. The project charter should be a concise
document, just a few pages in length, yet clearly define the agreed-upon work. A
project charter is not your project plan. Further specifications about deliverables
and work are in other documents.
Your project charter should be broad enough so that it does not need to be
changed when the project changes. However, it needs to be specific enough to
authorize the existence of a project and provide a project manager with the
authority to apply organizational resources to the project activities.
The project charter format is as follows:
Q Name of the project.
Q Date and version of the document.
Q Often, the project charter is revised a number of times until it is signed and
authorized by all parties, so versioning is needed to make sure that everyone
is singing from the same song book.
Q Business case justifying the project and/or brief background of what led to
the need of creating this project (no more than a paragraph or two).
Q Project scope.
386 Appendix C

Q The scope is a statement of the work that must be performed to successfully

accomplish the project with the specified features and functions. This can
include:
Q A couple of sentences describing the proposed end product
Q Identification of major components and phases
Q Specific customer requirements concerning workflow or functionality
Q Specific exclusions to the project
Q Project objectives. The objectives need to be quantifiable so that they can be
measured at the end of the project to determine the project’s success.
 Q These should be “SMART” goals.
  Q Specific. The goal needs to be well defined and clear to anyone who has
basic knowledge of the project.
  Q Measurable. There is an old saying that says “what gets measured gets
done.” Setting a numerical target helps you measure your progress to
make sure you are heading in the right direction.
  Q Examples:
The project will be completed no later than XX/XX/XXXX date.
The project will not spend more than $100,000.
The project will increase efficiency in the processing plant by 20 percent.
  Q Achievable. The goal should be achievable, but that doesn’t necessarily
mean easy. Within reason, it should be possible to accomplish this goal.
  Q Realistic. It is possible that you can complete this goal given your level
of resources, constraints, assumptions, and risks.
  Q Time frame. There is a reasonable amount of time to complete the goal.
 Q Defining objectives.
  Q Often, there is a large list of project objectives. This list can be further
defined as primary and secondary objectives.
  Q The primary objectives must be complete in order for the project to be
considered a success.
  Q Secondary objectives are additional benefits desired, but not critical, to
the project. Secondary objectives are goals that would be beneficial and
you would like to complete.
Q Project stakeholders
Q Stakeholders are the people who are actively involved in the project or
whose interests may be affected by the completion of the project.
Q All the critical stakeholders should be listed for the project and the role
that they contribute to the project’s success.
 Global Project Management Strategies in a Program Management World 387

Q Here is a sample list of project stakeholders:

Q Program manager
Q Project manager
Q Activity manager(s). Those team members who are responsible for
managing a specific aspect or task in the project. These managers can come
from the following areas: consultants, vendors, contractors, architects,
and engineers.
Q Project sponsor. The person or group that provides resources for the project
and exerts influence when the project manager is in need of help with
organizational or other barriers.
Q Project team members. This is anyone who participates in the planning
or execution of the project or is a source of information. Generally, there
could be a number of people working on a project; however, this member
list should focus on functional managers who direct others to fulfill the
tasks.
Q Subject matter experts (SMEs). These are the people who will actively
participate in the project and be at your status meetings.
Q Customer/client. Most will say that this refers to the people or organization
for whom the project is being executed and who need to be satisfied with
the outcome. In practice, I try to only have one name listed here. It is hard
enough to make one person happy, let alone an entire department.
Q Constraints, assumptions, and risks
Q This is a bulleted list of any known project constraints, assumptions, and
risks. I generally list these items together because they tend to overlap
within the three categories.
Q Constraints are limitations that reduce and/or restrict actions available
to the project.
Q Assumptions are factors that are considered to be true, real, and certain.
Concerns and risks are any issues or events that, if they occur, will affect
the project. Part of the project plan is the risk plan, where you define how
you will manage any risk that might happen in the project; in the charter,
we just list them.
Q Schedule expectations are listed, along with any critical dates and major
milestones.
Q Budget expectations are listed, along with possible limitation guidelines.
Q Approval signatures. To make this an “official” document, it should be signed
to confirm and acknowledge approval for the continuation of the project. The
number of signatures should be minimal, but typically include project manager,
project sponsor, and customer. Other names can be included. However, the larger
the group, the more cumbersome and time-consuming this task becomes.
388 Appendix C

A copy of the charter and the other project plan documents should be stored in
a shared server so that all project team members can access the information.

Work breakdown structure

Once the work is defined, it needs to be broken down into project deliverables
called work packages. Here is where you need to be able to see the forest and the
trees at the same time. The work packages are generally displayed graphically
in an organizational chart format called a work breakdown structure (WBS).
The WBS is the foundation of the project. The entire project plan and control
is based on the WBS.
The WBS should be created with your project team. In the WBS, the top box
is your project name. Your major deliverables are located in the first row. The
entire scope of your project is listed in this first row. Below each major deliver-
able is a smaller segment of the work listed. You keep on breaking down proj-
ect deliverables until they can’t be broken down further. Basically, you break
down the major initiative to smaller deliverables and finally end up with work
packages. A rule of thumb is that the work packages are about 300 hours of
work. However, depending on the size and scope of the project, the last row may
consist of a different amount of work hours. If work is not listed in the WBS, it
is not part of the project. The great thing about a WBS is that once you create
one, you can use it as a template for future projects.
The WBS process triggers the team to think through all aspects of the project.
The WBS holds your project’s “big picture.” A good project management practice
is to bring out the WBS periodically, possibly once a month, for the core team to
review on how you are progressing on major deliverables. It is easy to focus too
closely on the finer details or the work that is happening today and lose track
of the big picture. The WBS allows you to step back and holistically see where
you are heading. As a project manager, you could print out the WBS on a plotter
and bring it to your core team meeting, and then discuss each deliverable and
cross out those that are complete and focus on larger issues with deliverables
that are not meeting expectations.

Time management
From the WBS, you further define your project by creating a project schedule
network diagram. The network diagram shows the relationships among the
scheduled activities and how the tasks will flow from beginning to end. Here
you take the major work packages and further break down the work effort into
project tasks. This process will show project work chronologically. Each task is
assigned an estimated duration to complete it. Also, the person who is respon-
sible for completing the task should be assigned at this time. It is preferred that
the person accomplishing the task help determine the estimated duration to
complete it. Once the estimates are completed for each task and all the relation-
ships among the tasks are set, the network diagram provides your best estimate
of how long the project should take to complete.
 Global Project Management Strategies in a Program Management World 389

Commonly, the network diagram information is entered into a project timeline

software system to produce a bar (GANTT) chart of the tasks. After approval,
this information creates the project’s timeline baseline. Your baseline is a start-
ing point to refer to during the project to determine if the project is on track. Any
variances from the baseline need to be reviewed to determine the cause and to
asses whether corrective action needs to be taken to return to the baseline or
if the baseline needs adjusting. Using a baseline is one of the ways to monitor
and control your project’s progress.

Risk plan
A risk is an uncertain event that has a possibility of occurring and that will have an
effect on the project. It is good practice to review your project deliverables and deter-
mine the risk for not achieving them or achieving them in a manner for which you
had not planned. For each identified risk, the project team needs to determine how
they plan on responding to it. Are you going to ignore, transfer, mitigate, or accept the
risk? You will also have to factor your company’s risk tolerance into the equation on
managing risk. Are they risk-adverse, -neutral, or -seeking? Every project will have a
different tolerance level, depending on the motives for creating the project. For more
information on risk, please see Chap. 5, Global Program Risk Management.

Cost management
After tasks for the project are determined, you begin the process of creating cost
estimates. A number of sources can go into building your cost plan:
Q Project plan documents
Q WBS
Q Network diagram
Q Timeline
Q Environmental factors
Q Historical project information
Q Organizational process
Q Risk
Q Resources
Q You can use a number of estimating tools and techniques to help with cost
estimating:
 Q Analogous estimating, where you use actual costs from earlier comparable
projects
 Q Bottom-up estimating involves creating cost estimates for each work package
or individual activity.

Once all the cost estimates are determined, you assemble your project budget.
390 Appendix C

Project team offsite

In practice, one way to accomplish building your initial project documents is
to have a project meeting offsite. This meeting is held away from the normal
office setting and blocks off half a day, a day, or a few days to accomplish this
work. The amount of time required depends upon the complexity and estimated
duration of the project.
The work that could be accomplished at the meeting is:
Q Building the project charter
Q Creating the WBS
Q Developing your network diagram
Q Constructing your initial timeline
Q Outlining the project team structure, along with roles and responsibilities

Using facilitation processes, you work with your team through the deliver-
ables that are decided upon. The offsite meeting should be managed like any
other meeting. However, since this will be a bigger undertaking, there should be
offsite preplanning meetings to determine the best way to create a smooth and
productive process. The meeting agenda should be sent out prior to the event
so that everyone knows what to expect. For your first offsite meeting, there
might be a premeeting for the entire team to know what to expect at the offsite
event. Make sure that all project stakeholders are invited to the meeting. If a
key person cannot attend, someone should be sent in their place. At the offsite
meeting, you will allow for more to be accomplished than producing your project
documents. If the offsite meeting is done correctly, you will also:
Q Speed up the process of getting the initial project documentation completed
Q Set the tone for the project and the work will be accomplished
Q Gain consensus on what is included and not included in the project
Q Gain buy-in from the team who will lead the work to be accomplished
Q Build team rapport
Q Establish team roles and responsibilities

The project management process means planning the work and then working
the plan.

Project life cycle

Projects are temporary; therefore, they have a beginning, middle, and an end.
They have a limited life, and the cycle of the project’s life usually goes through
four phases:
Q Define
Q Select
 Global Project Management Strategies in a Program Management World 391

Q Execute
Q Closeout

The project life cycle seems similar to the project process groups; however,
the life cycle is a linear process. The cycle of a project varies from one project to
another in duration, resources, and requirements. In the first phase, a project
concept is identified. The concept is shaped and modeled into a defined idea.
A need, problem, or opportunity is brought to light and recognized. The need
requirement is clearly defined. The problem is then quantified, and a budget is
determined. If a customer is looking for a solution to a need, problem, or oppor-
tunity, they may put together a request for proposal (RFP). In the RFP docu-
ment, the customer is looking for vendors to reply on how they could best resolve
the customer’s concerns or provide the best solution to their new opportunity.
The RFP comprehensively states what is required from the customer’s point of
view. The document also states the application process and the criteria for selec-
tion. The project concept is then reviewed by the project approval board. The
project approval board can be a portfolio governance process, a program man-
agement process, or another form of business process. The project is reviewed
to determine if it aligns to the company’s strategy. If the concept passes, then
the project is formally selected. A vendor may then develop a proposal for the
customer. If the vendor is selected because their solution offers the greatest
benefit at a reasonable price, a contract stating the working relationship and
what is to be delivered is negotiated and signed.
Then the project work begins. Detailed project planning begins. Scheduling,
monitoring, and control plans are created. Different resources are used. The
focus is on the project objectives and achieving the results that are required by
the customer.
After the project is fully executed, the project is evaluated to make sure that
it met the customer’s needs, and then it is terminated. Formal project closeout
activities are performed. Resources are freed up, and feedback is requested of
the customer.

Project process groups

The PMI defines five distinct process groups. These process groups define the
activities that should be accomplished within that process group. The process
groups are initiating, planning, executing, controlling, and closing. Often when
process groups are described, they sound like unique, distinct, all-encompassing
events and that once one is accomplished you move on to the next phase or pro-
cess group. The process groups could be isolated events in the most simplest of
projects. However, in most projects, the process groups overlap to some degree.

Initiating phase. During the initiating phase of a project, a number of activities

are accomplished. First, the project needs to be selected. This may be done by
an external group prior to the project manager being selected or the project
team being assembled.
392 Appendix C

Once a project is selected, it is important to look at former projects that are

similar to the project you are working on. This historical data helps provide guid-
ance and gives an insight to roadblocks that may occur. You want to learn from
the lessons learned of previous projects. If you don’t have historical information,
you can interview experts in the company that have done similar projects.
After you gather this information, it is important to define the project objec-
tives. What are we trying to achieve? What are we going to deliver? How long
will it take us? How much will it cost? What are the roadblocks that we have to
maneuver around? These constraints must be identified, defined, and planned
for in a project. It is also important to define all the assumptions that you plan
on being a factor in your project.
Other work that happens in this phase:
Q Select the project.
Q Gather background information.
Q Verify the business need.
Q Define project objectives.
Q Identify constraints and assumptions.
Q Define the responsibilities of the project manager.
Q Determine high-level resource requirements.
Q Define the project description.

Initiating is the first step in the project management process. It includes all
the work necessary to create a project charter. Much of the work done in the
initiating process is later refined in the planning process.

Planning phase. Planning is important, and is often one area that is skipped
over by anxious project teams ready to roll up their sleeves and get started on the
“real work.” There is a correlation between the amount of time spent in planning
and the success of a project. Projects that spend little time in the planning phase
generally take longer and require rework. This is due to the team not having
a clear understanding of the scope of the project and what is required of them.
The more experience a person has in doing projects, the more sophisticated the
development of the project plan becomes. They really understand how critical
it is to put effort into a clear and well-thought-out plan. You wouldn’t build a
house without a blueprint. Why would you start a project without a plan?
A number of documents are prepared during the planning phase of a project.
The more complex a project is, the more details that should be included.
Q The scope statement ensures that the project includes all the work and only
the work required to complete the project successfully.
Q The work breakdown structure includes all of the deliverables for the projects
and groups them together in an organizational chart. Think of the deliverables
 Global Project Management Strategies in a Program Management World 393

in the work breakdown structure as nouns. They are tangible deliverables. The
GANTT chart should start with verbs, or action words, of what is going to
get done.
Q Team roles and responsibilities.
Q Time management plan. Task estimates should not be longer than the amount
of time that you can lose in a project. As a rule of thumb, no task should be
longer than 10 days, but this is dependent on the length of the project. Each
project manager should determine the maximum-allowed duration for a task’s
length. Tasks that take longer than the maximum should be broken down.
Q Cost plan.
Q Communication plan.
Q Procurement plan.
Q Quality plan. Quality must be planned in, not inspected in, and the impact of
poor quality could be increased costs, low morale, lower customer satisfaction,
and increased risk.
Q Risk identification, quantification, qualification, and response planning.

Once all the planning work is completed, it can’t be just put into a drawer
and forgotten. It must be updated and revised as the project progresses. The
project plan is used as a base for you to monitor and control the project. It also
is a guideline to show how successful you have been in executing the project. At
the end of the project, the plan is used in the closeout process to create lessons
learned and histories, which can then be reviewed for future projects.

Execution. Execution is where the rubber meets the road. All the planning and
preparation goes into action. The team begins to execute on all the plans that
were created. Here is where you:
Q “Work the plan”
Q Manage the project process
Q Work on completing the work packages defined in the WBS
Q Communicate project status
Q Hold progress meetings
Q Manage the team
Q Manage project expectations
Q Identify changes
Q Assure quality
Q Provide information and updates to the program manager

Controlling phase. In the controlling phase, you are monitoring and controlling
the status of your project. You use your project plan and check for variances.
394 Appendix C

To some degree, the controlling phase happens throughout all the phases of the
project. Here your focus is on performance measuring and reporting. The project
manager oversees the change control and quality process. Risks are monitored
and risk triggers are identified that would cause the project to possibly have
a response plan activated. All aspects of the project, including time, cost, and
quality, are measured and analyzed to ensure the project progresses as planned.
If there are deviations, corrective action is taken through the formal change
control process.
Change requests are formal documents submitted by anyone on the project
after the project has been approved. A change request can become a major
issue if not formally documented. You will find that a decision could be made,
thinking it is what is best for the project, then months later people will wonder
why it was done. A change control board can review requests to determine if
additional analysis is warranted. The change is then approved or rejected. The
change control board may include the project manager, customer, experts, spon-
sor, and others.

Closing phase. In the closing phase, all project activities are terminated and
the product of the project is transferred to others. Project resources are released.
Project procurement audits are conducted to make sure that the resources
obtained were processed correctly. The results of the project are then verified
to make sure that the team delivered all of the objectives for the project. Formal
acceptance is given by the customer.
Often, there is a closeout meeting. In the meeting, project objectives are listed
and the project team and stakeholders determine how closely the project met
those objectives. Lessons learned are gathered at this closeout meeting too. The
entire project plan is updated and stored in a central server system to be used
as a history for future projects. The closing phase is critical to the long-term
success of the business’s project culture, and should never be skipped.

Throughout the phases

The project manager is leading the project effort throughout the phases of the
project. They are solving problems and negotiating for resources. The proj-
ect manager is communicating effectively with the project stakeholders and
program manager. They hold productive and informative meetings. They also
manage stakeholder expectations.

Project plan
Some people believe a GANNT chart is a project plan. While the GANNT chart
is an important element in the project plan, it is not the only component. A proj-
ect plan is a multipage document created by the project manager based on input
from the team and stakeholders. The documentation includes many elements,
from charts and tables to detailed descriptions and summaries. The project plan
is the tool that helps the project manager effectively manage a project.
 Global Project Management Strategies in a Program Management World 395

Though every project is different, a project plan needs to be designed and cre-
ated to handle the nuances of the project and requirements of the stakeholders.
Elements that could be present in a project plan include:
Q Project charter
Q Project management approach
Q Scope statement
Q WBS
Q Responsibility and project team role chart/assignments
Q Network diagram/major milestones
Q Budget
Q Schedule
Q Resources
Q Change control plan/system
Q Performance measurement baselines
Q Management plans (scope, schedule, cost, quality, staffing, communications,
risk response, procurement)

The plan should be as complete as possible, although it may evolve over the course
of the project. Maintaining the plan is an ongoing job of the project manager through-
out the life of the project. The project manager must create a project plan that is
believed in, approved, realistic, and formally documented. Many companies have
standard procedures, forms, and guidelines for planning projects. These templates
should be followed in planning the project. If not, the documents need to be created
with input from the program manager and carried out by the project managers.
The plan needs to specify how you are going to manage every aspect of the
project. This can come in different flavors, depending on the size of the project.
The larger the project, the more formal you need to be with the plan, and every
item needs to be documented and, in some cases, signed off on by your customers.
The project manager must control the project according to the project plan.
When working within a program, a project manager must:
Q Follow the guidelines as set by the program manager on the level of detail
and information that needs to be included in the Project Plan
Q Monitor and control the project and roll up information to the program level
Q Inform the program manager if any variances to the project occur
Q Work with the program manager in risk response execution

How are projects selected?

Projects are selected based on many different methods. Basically, projects have
to fit into the strategic plan of the organization. The selection of projects should
396 Appendix C

be done through the organization’s project portfolio process. The selection of the
projects a company takes on is rarely straightforward and uncomplicated. There
is often competing priorities and objectives, and decisions have to be made on
the correct approach to best meet the strategic goals of the company. Some of
the tools that are used to select projects include:
Q A panel of people who analyze and review a new project idea
Q Peer review
Q Scoring models
Q Economic models
Q Benefit compared to cost

When working within a program, the project process may be different. A

program of work may first be formalized. Then from the program, projects are
created to best deliver on the objectives set forth in the program.

Knowledge and maturity

There is a link between the use of project management tools and processes
and the success of a project. There are five levels in the project management
maturity model. The first level has no formal processes or procedures. Projects
are managed ad hoc. Often, projects are unplanned and informal, and those
working on the project often improvise as they go along. Project outcomes at
this stage are unpredictable. There could also be little organizational support
for project processes, which are thought to be more effort than value. Often
at this stage, projects never really end; they just die out, and deliverables are
often not met.
As the level of maturity moves from level 1 to level 2, a basic grasp of project
understanding forms. A project group might begin to define some processes that
they will follow. These new processes are generally used for large projects.
Moving to level 3, the project management process is further defined and used
on all large projects. There will be more extensive training at this stage. There
is a consistent use of project tools and techniques for all projects.
As a company moves on to level 4, the process is defined even further and all
projects, large and small, use the method. Project oversight is fully integrated
with the business planning. At this point, senior management is involved in the
process. The organization can effectively plan, manage, and control multiple
projects.
At level 5, continuous process improvement is fully utilized. The organization
becomes a project-centered organization. The business fully buys into the fact
that the future growth of the company is dependent on the success of the projects
it approves. The business learns from prior projects and improves processes.
Along with the company focusing on a continuous improvement environment
where they move up the project maturity ladder, the company needs to focus on
what PMI defines as nine “knowledge areas” in project management.
 Global Project Management Strategies in a Program Management World 397

The Nine Knowledge Areas

1 Project integration Project integration is the process that ensures project
management elements are coordinated effectively.
2 Project scope Project scope focuses on making sure that what is
management required for the project is the work that is completed
and nothing more.
3 Project time Project time management is the work that ensures a
management project is completed on time.
4 Project cost Project cost management ensures that the project is
management completed within budget.
5 Project quality Project quality management ensures that the project
management will satisfy its purpose.
6 Project human resource Project human resource management focuses on how
management you manage and organize the project team.
7 Project communications Project communications management includes the
management proper creation, collection, distribution, and storage
of information.
8 Project risk Project risk management identifies, quantifies,
management qualifies, controls, and responds to risk.
9 Project procurement Project procurement management is the process of
management acquiring supplies and services from outside the
organization.

When you combine the nine knowledge areas with project maturity, you can
gauge where you are in each of the knowledge areas. The following table fur-
ther illustrates what typically occurs at each level of the maturity model using
knowledge area examples. Each level builds upon the previous one. The tools
listed are only examples of tools that an organization would use at that level of
maturity. As you progress up the levels, the tools from previous levels are still
completed but also include the next level’s benefits. This is not a linear process.
In some knowledge areas, you could be at a level 1, whereas at others you could
be at a level 5.

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5

Project No formal Foundation Formal Integrated Continuous
management processes methodology for process improvement
knowledge areas all projects environment
Project integration No established Project charter Preliminary project Monitor and Close project; use
management processes used for scope statement control information for
high-profile and project project future projects,
projects management plan work and building a
integrated history and
change feeding back
control into the
organization’s
best practices

(Continued)
398 Appendix C

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5

Project scope No established Scope planning Scope
management processes and definition verification
and WBS to and control
determine
project
objectives and
business need
high-profile
projects
Project time No established Activity Schedule
management processes definition, control
sequencing,
resource
estimating,
durations
estimating,
and schedule
development
Determine
critical path
Project cost No established Cost estimating Cost control
management processes and budgeting
Project quality No established Quality Quality Quality control
management processes planning assurance
Project human No established Human Acquire project Manage project
resource processes resource team and team
management planning develop project
team
Project No established Communication Information Performance
communication processes planning distribution reporting
management plan and and manage
communication stakeholders
requirements
Project risk No established Risk Risk monitor
management processes management and control
planning
Risk
identification
Qualitative risk
analysis
Quantitative
risk analysis
Risk response
planning
Project No established Plan Request seller Contract Contract
procurement processes purchases and responses administration closeout
management acquisitions Select sellers
Plan
contracting
 Global Project Management Strategies in a Program Management World 399

Maturity model benefits

The maturity model provides a number of benefits. First, it provides a roadmap
for a continuous improvement model for the business. The model is a tool to
help identify an organization’s project-delivery strengths and weaknesses. It
provides a way to set realistic goals for improvement. Here you can focus on
improvements for selected projects, and as you learn from these efforts, you
can expand to other projects. The model allows for a way to measure progress
improvements to enhance capability.
When fully utilizing project management processes, you will find that your
project management’s effective use of time increases. Rather than focusing
effort on putting out fires and reworking project deliverables, project managers
can work on new initiatives. Project rework decreases because there is a clearer
understanding of project requirements and a closer working relationship with
customers.

Triple play of constraints

In baseball, a team accomplishes a triple play by making three outs in the same
continuous play. Triple plays are infrequent because specific circumstances
must be present to make the play possible. In project management, the triple
constraints are circumstances that are always present in virtually any project,
and a project manager needs to manage them continuously. To hit a home run
with the quality of your project, you need to manage the constraints of scope,
time, and budget. Time and budget is self-explanatory. Time is the length of time
to go from the start of a project, through the project management processes, to
project handover (Fig. C-1).
The budget is the planned financial cost of the project. A budget plan specifies
how resources will be allocated or spent during a particular period. The plan
shows the total amount of money allocated or needed for a specific purpose.
Project scope is the project’s requirements. The requirements could be any-
thing from workflow conditions, project specifications and design, to people and
resources needed to complete the project.

Cost

Quality

Time Scope

Figure C-1 Triple constraints of project management.

400 Appendix C

Scope, time, and budget make up the basic structure for your projects, and
how these three “bases” are managed affects the quality of a project. These
three foundational elements are so intertwined that a change to one will affect
at least one of the other two. Constraints are major factors to consider when
building your project plan. When you look at the project constraints, you have
to ask yourself a number of questions, among them:
Q What is included in the project, and what is not included in the project?
Q Who do we have available to work on the project? What are their skill sets,
and when will they be available?
Q When does the project have to be completed by?
Q What is the budget for the project? Is it realistic to meet the needs of the
customers?

Along with these, numerous other questions need to be asked to better under-
stand the project’s constraints. Answering questions like the ones provided here
help to build the foundation for your project. A project evolves from a blue-sky
concept to something that is more down to earth and tangible.
Often, certain constraints hold true for any project that you work on in your
company. These can be broad concerns that affect any manager, like the skill set
of the staff, or limited resources. The project manager generally has to spend
time with stakeholders defining the project to solidify the deliverables. In a
project, it is critical to create a comprehensive roadmap of your starting loca-
tion and your destination. This would become your scope framework. Then you
have to estimate the time it will take to drive to your location and how much it
will cost to get there. You also need to factor in a few roadblocks, road construc-
tion, and detours along the way. If you find that there are concerns with the
time, cost, or scope, your roadmap needs to be reevaluated. The reevaluation
processes is iterative throughout your project, and your customer must sign off
on this roadmap.
Some constraints can be anticipated, and plans should be created to
handle those situations. If you were building a house, an obvious constraint

Cheap

Quality

Fast Good

Figure C-2 The trade-off of triple constraints.

 Global Project Management Strategies in a Program Management World 401

Figure C-3 Triple constraints blended together to

create quality.

could be bad weather. Bad weather may not happen during the duration
of your project, but it needs to be planned for, and time and cost need to be
built into your project to handle such an occurrence. Contingency is fac-
tored into budgets and slack time into schedules to allow for unknown risks.
Constraints are simply parameters to be managed by the project team. At the
core or center of the triple constraint is quality. The balance among the three
determines the level of quality the project will deliver. Quality becomes the
residual effort of the balance of constraints (Fig. C-3).
Constraints are factors that limit the project team’s options. A single project
may have cost, time, human resources, and other constraints. For example,
you might need a software developer with a specific skill set, but the best one
in the company is already 100 percent allocated to another project. This would
be a major constraint in completing your project successfully. Plans have to be
made to prevent this from being an issue on your project.
Project quality comes from effectively balancing the constraints. There is a
saying among project managers where they change the constraint names from
time, cost, and scope to fast, cheap, and good, respectively (Fig. C-2). Then the
project manager would be allowed to pick any two, but only two. The project can
be fast and cheap, cheap and good, or good and fast. The result of these actions
causes the following conditions: If it is fast and cheap, it will not be very good; if
it is cheap and good, it won’t be fast; and if it is good and fast, it won’t be cheap.
Projects are like walking a tightrope. You need to be in balance to make it across
the rope to complete the project. Usually, you see the triple constraints in a form
of a triangle. If you change one side of the triangle, it affects the other two sides.
In reality, the constraints overlap a great deal. Time alone does not lead to a
great project, nor does cost or scope. When the constraints are in harmony, the
result is a project that meets the customer’s objectives.
402 Appendix C

TABLE C-1 Project Team Roles

Project manager Establishes project methodology
Maintains customer relationships
Oversees contract administration
Manages project planning, control, reporting, and evaluation
Helps with project marketing
Advises on project engineering
Advises on project manufacturing
Manages purchasing and subcontracting
Handles field operations
Manages project finances
Manages project closeout
Reports to the program manager, program/project director, and/or
PMO office
Sponsor Is the company’s executive responsible for the project
Assists to get the project funded
Facilitates project success
Helps remove project barriers
Supports the project manager
Customer Source for project requirements
Guides project manager on project risk concerns
Receives the completed project
Project engineer Owns the technical portion of any proposal
Understands the customer’s technical requirements and
determines if company is technically capable
Breaks down requirements to lowest level
Ensures that the engineering schedules can be met
Conducts design reviews
Advises and supports project manager on technical issues
Functional manager Owns the oversight of completing deliverables
Assigns resources to projects
Balances project workload with operational responsibilities
Contract administrator Manages the legal aspects of the project proposal
Leads all contract negotiations
Explains contract language
Submits contract deliverables
Identifies scope changes and customer delays
Initiates request for final payment
Retains all relevant records
Stakeholder Provides the project team with project requirements
Participates in the project
Program manager Supports the project manager
Guides project manager on the deliverables for the project
Ensures project alignment to the organisations objectives
 Global Project Management Strategies in a Program Management World 403

Project manager
The project manager is the person who has project oversight and is the primary
person accountable for the success of the project. Depending on how a company
is structured—whether it is a functional, matrix, or project-based organization—
a project manager will have varying degrees of authority to match the account-
ability. If authority and accountability do not match, the project manager needs
to work with the sponsor of the project to resolve the issue.
The project manager’s main responsibilities are to ensure that:
Q The customer is satisfied
Q The work is completed inside the parameters set for the scope, time, and
budget
Q The quality required by the customer is met

The project manager provides leadership in planning, organizing, and control-

ling the work effort. This person will also coordinate the activities of the project
team by delegating the task work, and does not try to take the entire project
work upon their own shoulders. The project manager works to gain commitment
from the project team and buy-in from the stakeholders.
If the project manager’s organization has an established project management
office (PMO) with the structure that has a formal project methodology, it is up to
the project manager to follow the prearranged structure. However, if a structure
does not exist, it is up to the project manager to define how the project is going
to be run, with sign-off from the critical stakeholders and program manager.
Table C-1 provides an example of a project team with the roles and responsibili-
ties outlined. If a project manager hasn’t run a project before, it would be good
to follow the policies and procedures according to PMI. Every project and orga-
nization is unique, and it is often necessary for the project manager to tailor the
project structure to fit the needs of the project, team, and organization.
The project manager needs to build relationships with customers and stake-
holders. They oversee the project planning, control, reporting, and evaluation.
The project manager is a jack of all trades; however, they do not have to be
the master of any of them. They need to help market the project, work with
engineering to develop requirements, and work with manufacturing to build a
process to develop the project.
Q Establish project methodology
Q Customer relationships
Q Contract administration
Q Project planning, control, reporting, evaluation, and direction
Q Marketing
Q Engineering
Q Manufacturing
404 Appendix C

Q Purchasing and subcontracting

Q Field operations
Q Financial
Q Manage project closeout

Role of the project manager. A project manager is responsible for coordinating a

project and making sure that the desired outcome is reached on time and within
budget. Being a project manager is a large responsibility. Picture a juggler. First,
they may start out with a couple of balls in one hand, and then move to many
balls using both hands. The juggler’s eyes are always on the different balls.
Project managers usually do not have the luxury of building up the number of
balls that they are juggling in a project. Often, they have to manage all nine
balls right away. Why nine balls? The nine balls represent the nine areas of
expertise that a project manager must focus on when managing a project. The
nine areas were discussed earlier and are called knowledge areas by PMI. These
nine areas are project integration, scope, time, cost, quality, human resources,
communication, risk, and procurement. A project manager must keep their eyes
on the nine balls, making sure that none of them fall.
The project management discipline evolved out of the need to coordinate
resources to achieve predictable results. It is up to the project manager to coor-
dinate resources effectively to deliver the objectives of the project.
A project manager must possess “hard” and “soft” skills. The hard skills lie
in understanding the project management principles and being able to execute
the discipline in a manner appropriate for the organization.
The soft skills are often overlooked when discussing project management.
These include leadership, interpersonal skills, communication skills, conflict
management, and delegation.
A project manager provides leadership to a project. They are the ones that
lead the effort to plan appropriately, organize effectively, and monitor and con-
trol judiciously. They are responsible for coordinating the activities of the team
and managing the delegation of tasks and resolving conflicts. Project manag-
ers gain commitments from their stakeholders and manage their expectations
throughout the project. They realize that they can’t manage a project just in
project meetings, but rather roll up their sleeves and communicate with stake-
holders at various times and build relationships with them. Project managers,
by their very nature, need to be inquisitive and ask questions and not wait until
information comes to them. Project managers are proactive.
Project managers must also have the ability to accept uncertainty and manage
change effectively. Usually when you start a project, you will not receive com-
prehensive project information. Detective work is required to uncover project
deliverables, customer needs, and stakeholders that need to be involved. Most
projects start with a level of ambiguity, and while working on a project, the
haziness lessens. However, unplanned events arise. A project manager must
 Global Project Management Strategies in a Program Management World 405

remain flexible and agile to handle the ebbs and flows of the different currents
that may wash upon a project’s shore.
Only in the smallest of projects is the project manager working alone. On most
projects, a project manager is managing a team and needs to work to build that
team and keep them focused on the project’s goals and deliverables.
Projects are done to satisfy a customer’s need; therefore, a project manager
needs to be customer-focused. The project manager also must keep the cus-
tomer informed. The project manager must first understand their customer
and the customer’s needs for the project. Overall, projects are undertaken due to
a business need. It is critical that the project manager adheres to the priori-
ties of the business. In a program, the project manager must work closely with
the program manager to make sure the deliverables are meeting the program
objectives.
Project manager best practices:
Q Hold regular project status meetings with appropriate team members.
Q Meet with stakeholders in groups and individually. There could be times that
some issues need to be discussed privately.
Q Provide team with consistent feedback on project’s status.
Q Ensure that you communicate in the mode that is best for the receiver and
the message.
Q Messages can be:
 Q Formal or informal
 Q Delivered verbally or in writing

Formal Informal
Verbal Presentation Hallway
Project status/ conversations
review meetings Stop by the office
or work area
Phone call
Written Project plan E-mail
document Instant/text message
Status report

Q Be available, friendly, and willing to discuss any issues that may be presented
to you.
Q Documentation. Document, document, document! You need to document the
project plan, decisions made, and any changes. The documentation must be
clear enough so that when you go back to review it many months later, it is
clear and understandable to all of the stakeholders.
406 Appendix C

Q Documented information should be distributed in a timely manner to the

appropriate parties for review. Documents should be stored in a shared stor-
age area so that the entire project team can access them.
Q Project managers can’t manage from their desks; they need to be around the
work areas and talking with stakeholders. You can find out a lot about the
status of the project in informal settings.

Level of project management effort. During the various stages of a project,

different levels of effort are required from a project manager. In the initiating
phase of a project, a project manager is often not part of this process until near
the end if it. Usually, the initiating phase is handled by the PMO or portfolio
management process to determine whether this work effort should become a
project for the organization given the limited resources that it has. A project
manager is often not assigned until the end of initiating phase or the beginning
of the planning process.
The planning process is where the majority of the project manager’s work
should focus, as depicted in Fig. C-4a. However, some project managers and
teams are so excited to get to work on a project, they often skip this process or
spend little time in planning, as depicted in Fig. C-4b.
In a poorly run project, the execution phase of the project never seems to end
(Fig. C-4b), unlike in a well-run project (Fig. C-4a). Throughout the project, the
project manager needs to maintain and update the project plan.
Level of project management effort

Monitoring and
controlling process

Initiating Planning Executing Closing

process process process process
Phase of the project
Figure C-4a Phases of a project.
 Global Project Management Strategies in a Program Management World 407

Level of project management effort

Monitoring and
controlling process

Initiating Planning Executing Closing

process process process process
Phase of the project
Figure C-4b Typical level of project management effort in a poorly run project.

In a well-run project, you will see that the monitoring and controlling process
is at the center of the diagram and should be at the center of all your projects.
Monitoring and controlling a project starts as soon as you begin a project and
doesn’t end until you close a project. In a poorly run project, the monitoring and
control circle is off to the side. Some project teams do not focus on monitoring
and controlling at all, or only as an afterthought. Often it is too late to focus
on monitoring and controlling when you get to project execution. The project
often spins out of control, and a project manager spends a great deal of time
“putting out fires.”
At the execution phase of a project, the project manager directs the project
team on work packages and lets them get on with their work. At times in this
phase the project manager will have a slightly smaller workload since the heavy
lifting of the planning phase is done.
Unfortunately, in poorly run projects, project managers will spend a great
deal of time working and putting out fires. In a well-run project, there will be a
formal closeout and celebration for the completion of a successful project. In a
poorly run project, the project hits a road block or another project comes along
to take the resources, leaving the project floundering and never delivering upon
the deliverables it set out to accomplish.
In different phases of a project, the project manager will have a slightly dif-
ferent focus. As discussed earlier, a project goes through five process groups,
and the project manager has different responsibilities in each of these groups.
In the planning phase of a project, the project manager should spend the
majority of their effort in this process group. In this process group, the
project manager will lead the effort to create the project scope, WBS, schedule,
408 Appendix C

cost communication, and risk plans. They will work to determine the quality
standards for the project. With all this information, they will then build a
budget.
They will also create a formal change control process. The change control
process can be in the form of a document that a person fills out, requesting
a change. Then the change control committee reviews the changes to make a
determination as to whether the change should take effect. The change needs
to be weighed against other predetermined project work to determine if there
are any conflicts with what was planned in the project.
In the execution process, the project manager will manage the change control
process, direct the technical team to execute the work as defined in the project
plan, manage the project interfaces to execute the work as defined in the project
plan, acquire and manage project resources, execute the project plan, make sure
work packages are completed as planned, and distribute information to make
sure the project is at the quality required by the customer. They will also hold
project meetings effectively. Prior to meetings, agendas will be produced; fol-
lowing the meeting, minutes will be distributed. They will also actively identify
variances to the project plan. A manager cannot wait for concerns to come to
him or her—they must be proactive and seek out issues.
The monitoring and controlling process is usually depicted in most books as
the fourth process, which may be confusing. The monitoring and controlling
process happens throughout the entire project, although to a lesser degree at
the beginning and to a greater degree at the end. During the monitoring and
controlling process, the project manager monitors risk triggers and monitors
project activities and makes sure that they are following the plan. They also
keep the stakeholders informed of the project status; produce dashboard project
status reports on schedule, cost, scope, resources, quality, and risk; control cost
and changes to the project; manage the project team’s performance and provide
feedback and help to resolve issues to enhance performance; and manage stake-
holder expectations and resolve issues.
The closing process is one process group that often is overlooked. Closing
is a critical process and can be a valuable tool to improve future project suc-
cess. In the closing process, the project manager formally terminates all project
activities. There is a formal handoff of the project results to the customer.
Resources are released, including equipment, facilities, money, and people. A
lessons-learned document is created and shared with other project managers.
The lessons-learned document is reviewed in the initiation stage of future proj-
ects to help judge the resources and processes needed for it to be successful. This
document is then archived with the other closeout documents.
Overall, there are a number of essential items that the project manager should
keep in mind. In the real estate business, there are three things to focus on:
“location, location, location.” In project management, it is critical to focus on
“communication, communication, communication.” It is critical to understand
the customer’s concerns and speak their language. You always want to give
your customer what they want—no more, no less. Always provide an accurate
 Global Project Management Strategies in a Program Management World 409

picture of the status of your project. You do not want to be the boy who cried
wolf; however, you do not want to under-represent critical issues either.
You want to use the tools and techniques set out by your program office.
Deviating from them will cause confusion and provide issues to the office, who
often use the information to roll it into other documentation for upper manage-
ment. Monitor your project closely, and actively seek out concerns. Identify risks
and discuss them with your team. Create a daily log of your activities. Small
decisions that are made on one day will be forgotten a few weeks or months
later. It is important to keep a record of all your activities, like a captain’s log.
Mentor your team. In the end, the project’s success or failure rests on your
shoulders. I once had a manager advise me to treat a project and its resources
as if they were my own. In a sense, the resources do become your own, and it
becomes your responsibility to deliver what you promised. Your reputation as
a project manager is built upon previous successes.

Sponsor
A sponsor is a person or group of people in the performing organization that
helps fund the project. The sponsor is the company’s executive ultimately
responsible for the project. The sponsor also helps remove project barriers and
supports the project manager throughout the project.

Customer
The customer is the person or group receiving the results of the project, and is
the source for project requirements. The project manager works with the cus-
tomer to make sure expectations are met according to the project plan. Thus, it
is important for the project manager to manage customer expectations.
When project concerns arise, the project manager reviews options with the
customer to determine the best project outcome.

Project engineer
Highly technical projects will have a project engineer or software engineer
consulting on the technical aspects. The project engineer is responsible for the
technical feasibility and success of the project. This person must understand
the customer’s technical requirements. Also, they must understand the techni-
cal aspects where the project is going to reside. The project engineer conducts
design reviews, and is a member of the core project team.

Functional manager
The functional manager is generally the manager of the group of people that
will be conducting the work for the project. The functional manager owns the
oversight of completing projects and assigns resources within their own depart-
ment. They also balance the project workload with operational responsibilities.
Functional managers are generally on the core project team.
410 Appendix C

Contract administrator
Projects with a lot of legal ramifications should have a contract administrator
who, in most cases, is a lawyer. The contract administrator would be respon-
sible for all of the legal aspects of a project proposal. This person would also
lead contract negotiations and explain contract language to the core project
team. The contract administrator would submit all of the project contract deliv-
erables. They would also work with the customer if there are changes to the
scope or other delays and explain how that affects agreements. In addition,
the contract administrator would handle the request for final payments. The
contract administrator would not necessarily be on the core team, but would
be the financial advisor and would be called upon whenever there was a legal
matter to manage.

Stakeholders
Stakeholders have a stake, or interest, in the project, and their interests may
be positively or negatively affected by it. However, not all stakeholders play an
active role throughout the entire project, or even complete tasks on the project.
Stakeholders in projects include the program manager, project manager, spon-
sor, customer, and project team. Basically, anyone who participates or could
be affected by the project is a stakeholder. Stakeholders have influence on a
project. Different projects will have a different mix of stakeholders, depending
on the needs of the project.
It is critical that a project manager identify anyone who is necessary for the
project’s success. It is not always easy to identify a stakeholder. The project
manager needs to ask who will make a contribution and who will be affected
by the project. The sponsor is the person or persons who provide the financial
resources for the project and removes high-level obstacles and corporate issues,
and helps with resource allocations. The project team is the group of people who
complete tasks on the project. Often, the project team is broken into a core team,
who are the leads on key areas in your project, then there is a larger team that
accomplishes the tasks of the project.
It is critical for your project’s success to accurately identify all of the stake-
holders. Nothing is worse than coming close to the end of execution and finding
that you did not have a necessary functional project requirement because you
had not met with and gathered information from a key yet unknown stake-
holder. Stakeholders are not static. They evolve and change throughout a proj-
ect, especially in larger projects. People leave the company or industry, or are
promoted to different areas of the business. Also, the needs of the business or
market can change. Thus, it is important to periodically reassess your stake-
holder list. When you are working with a stakeholder, you need to make sure
you provide them with:
Q Information about the project status and make sure their needs are still
being met
 Global Project Management Strategies in a Program Management World 411

Q Involvement in the project through assigning them work, using them as

experts, reporting to them, and involving them in changes and creation of
lessons-learned documentation
Q Project management information so that they know what to expect from the
project management process
Q Formal acceptance documents for them to sign-off on

Stakeholder management is proactive work. The processes discussed here

help with managing stakeholder expectations.
The practice of project management has evolved into a discipline with
standardized processes and procedures. As organizations adapt the project
management methodology, they become more successful in delivering project
objectives. This appendix illustrates some of the common understandings of the
project process. As projects are aligned under a program, an added dimension of
effort is supplemented to the process. A successful project or program manager
should have a strong understanding of the project management standards to
constructively achieve the organization’s strategic program outcomes.
This page intentionally left blank
 Index

Note: A page number followed by a t or f indicates that the entry is included in a table or figure.

acceptance, 238 broadband case

accounting, 316 calculating rate of return and, 367–368
acquisition strategies, merger and, 21 culture/language issues and, 368
AdMob, 306 education content censorship and, 368–369
Aeronomics, 308–309 equipment production/delivery and, 368–369
Africa, 310, 366, 367–368 global partnering, strategic alliances and,
agency program setup, 348–350 368
alliances, 20–21. See also partnerships global portfolio of projects and, 366–367
Amazon, 325 global program benefits and, 367
American National Standards Institute global program development and, 366
(ANSI), 309 global program manager and, 367
ANSI. See American National Standards global transparency and, 368
Institute government relations and, 368
Anthony C. Baker Architects and Planners, program development and, 365–369
317 regulatory issues and, 368
Apple, 9 strategic global objectives and, 366
Asia, 310, 362 Browder and LaGuizamon & Associates, 317
assumptions, 233 Brown, James, 339–340
assumptions analysis, 234 budgeting, 231
Atlanta Journal-Constitution, 316–317 Bureau of the Budget (BOB), 336
avoidance, 238 business case, 315
The Azerbaijan National Science butterfly effect, 154–155
Foundation, 241
Azeri, 241 Cable News Network (CNN), 10
Cash, James, 332
balance cashflow analysis, 66, 146
project portfolios and, 177–179 cause and effect, 235
risk-reward bubble diagrams and, Centers for Disease Control, U.S., 311
177, 178f change management system, 357
banks, 362 checklists, 86, 234
barriers/threats to potential entry, 15–16 Chevron, 264
Bart, David, 141 childhood obesity, 17
Basecamp, 306 China, 186, 360, 362
Basic Systems, Inc., 308–309 closing process group
benchmarking, 19, 86. See also strategic cost approve component transition and, 117–121
analysis close program and, 114–116
benefits analysis, 66 close program procurements and, 116–117
BOB. See Bureau of the Budget PMI standards for program management
Boeing Company, 121 and, 114–121
brainstorming, 82, 234 CNN. See Cable News Network

413
414 Index

codes, global program managers and, 250 contracts (Cont.):

collaborative partnerships, alliances and, global reviews with, 318–319
20–21 innovation, outsourcing and,
communications requirements analysis, 68 306–323
competency, program managers, scheduling introduction, 305
and, 257–261 local markets and types of, 319
competitive advantage/strategy, 19–20 lump-sum, 324
competitive analysis, 322–323 open-ended global collaboration on Internet
competitive forces, 15–16 and, 325–326
component milestones, 66 program management with partnerships,
computer conference management, 265 procurement and, 305–326
concept, explanation of, 248 program managers with risk and types of,
configuration management, 265 323–326
conflict risk and types of, 323–326
administrative issues and, 264–266 risk response planning and, 239
assembling right team in virtual context target-cost, 324
and, 266–267 unit-price, 324
baselining schedules and, 270–271 controlling process group
business savvy and, 268 administer program procurements and,
communications and, 266 105–106
ethics/morals in global context and, 263–264 manage program benefits and,
global time management, time zones and, 111–113
261–262 manage program issues and, 99–100
managing global risk and, 261–275 monitor and control program changes and,
managing schedules on network and, 271 113–114
motivating people in global program and, monitor and control program financials and,
267–268 106–108
office politics and, 268 monitor and control program performance
preparing program budgets and, 274–275 and, 97–99
preparing staffing policy, plans and, 272–274 monitor and control program risks and,
program management and managing global 104–105
risk and, 261–275 monitor and control program schedule and,
project manager reports for executives and, 101–102
266 monitor and control program scope and,
resource planning for outsourced activity 100–101
and, 272 monitor program stakeholder expectations
resource planning rules of thumb and, 274 and, 108–110
reviewing/feedback to project managers/ provide governance oversight and,
coaching and, 267 110–111
scheduling, resource planning for report program performance and,
outsourcing and, 268–269 102–104
scrubbing schedules and, 270 Cooper, Robert, 355–356
strategic leadership and, 263 corrective action, 240
constraint lists, 233 cost estimates/schedule, 233
construction, 314 cost management, 264–265
contractor capacity, 316 cost-reimbursable contracts, 324
contracts, 81 country-of-origin product instructions, 319
cost-reimbursable, 324 critical markets, 24
country-of-origin product instructions and, 319 “Cultural Barriers to the Use of Western
developing suppliers with global view and, 319 Project Management in Chinese
encouraging overseas manufacturing and, Enterprises: Some Empirical Evidence
319 from Yunnan Province” (Wang and Liu),
global e-procurement and, 324–325 186
global program managers and, 252–253 cultural differences, 2
 Index 415

culture Eastern case (Cont.):

broadband case and issues with language eight strategies and key measurements in,
and, 368 193–194
building risk-based organizational, 230 explanation of strategies in, 207–208
codes, 126 improve environmental impact, 205–206,
international codes of, 253–254 212
symbols of global, 250 improve technology and plant equipment to
Culture Code: An Ingenious Way to Understand produce products more efficiently and,
Why People Around the World Live and 204–205, 211–212
Buy as They Do, The (Rapaille), 253 measures of effectiveness in,
currency values, 2 199–207
customers mission, 198
global, 363 opportunities, 196
power of, 15 overview, 194–195
reputation with, 17 portfolio process of, 188–189
program development in, 208–213
Daly, Leo A., 316 program management strategies and,
decision tree analysis, 237 188–213
DeCosta, Ben, 316, 317 programs as organizational commitments at,
Delphi technique, 234 213–215
Delta Air Lines, 317 reduce waste and non-value-added costs,
Department of Defense (DOD), 329, 330 206–207, 213
Department of Transportation (DOT), 329, 330 risk-based strategy and program
design reviews, 146 development in, 190–192
diagramming techniques, 235 secure economically priced power and,
diagrams 199, 209
balance and risk-reward, 177 secure other resources at reasonable costs
bubble, 178f and, 200, 210
influence, 235 stakeholder relations and, 192–193
techniques for, 235 strategic plan, 197
direct federal programs, 328 strengths, 195
diversification strategies, 26 threats and risks, 196–197
diversity, global program managers and, 250 underlying elements of risk-based strategic
documentation reviews, 234 plan in, 198
DOD. See Department of Defense weaknesses, 195–196
DOT. See Department of Transportation economic conditions, 2
Doz, Yves, 332 Egypt, 262
energy independence
Ead, Michelle, 332 OFIM program role in, 341–342
earned value analysis, 240 performance budgeting and, 348
Eastern case Englund, Randall L., 281
background, 189–190 e-procurement, 316, 324–325
build responsible/knowledgeable workforce, ethical standards, 315
202–204, 211 ethics
commitment and partnership in, 192, 198 conflict and global context of morals and,
communicating strategy and risk in, 207–208 263–264
core competencies and risk contingencies in, honest, quantitative reporting and, 263
198 law breaking and, 264
create safe working environment and, shady financial practice and,
202, 211 263–264
cultivate/promote customer awareness/ expert judgment, 82, 111
satisfaction and, 200–202, 210 external program elements, 43
driving force and production capability in, external risks, 234
198 ExxonMobil, 261
416 Index

FAA. See Federal Aviation Administration Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid:
Facebook, 306 Eradicating Poverty Through Profits
Fast Strategy (Doz and Kosonen), 332 (Prahalad), 310
FCC. See Federal Communications Franklin, Benjamin, 153
Commission Friedman, Thomas, 121, 340
FDIC. See Federal Deposit Insurance
Corporation Gantt charts, 135, 136, 137, 138, 246
federal agency management systems, with Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without
tools and techniques, 342–347 Giving In (Fisher and Ury), 252
federal agency portfolio management, 342 global butterfly, 155
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), 328 global competitive strategies
Federal Communications Commission (FCC), alliances and collaborative partnerships, 23
382 exporting, 22–23
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation franchising, 22
(FDIC), 382 global setting for program management and,
federal energy independence program, 347 21–23
federal program management globalization’s benefits and, 21–22
coordinating, 331 licensing, 23
coordinating agency program setup and, multi-country, 23
348–350 global culture, symbols of, 250
customer-driven public/private partnership global forces
and, 347–348 economic, 2
federal agency management systems, tools, global setting for program management and,
techniques and, 342–347 2–3
federal agency portfolio management and, political, 2
342 project portfolio process and, 3
federal program managers and, 339–341 regulatory/legal, 2
global reference and, 331–332 social/cultural, 2
integration as leadership function and, technical, 2
350 global goals
integration as wide-ranging quality/process crafting global strategies and, 12–13
improvement standard and, developing global strategic plans and, 10–11
350–358 evaluating/aligning performance and, 13–14
introduction, 327 global setting for program management and,
OFIM involvement in health care reform 10–17
and, 342 global strategies with portfolios/programs/
OFIM program role in energy independence projects and, 13
and, 341–342 global strategy and, 11
performance budgeting/energy independence industry and global competitive analysis and,
and, 348 14–16
program reference and, 332–333 organization’s internal factors and, 16–17
real transparency and, 330 setting global objectives and, 11–12
structural change and, 333–339 global mission
structure of federal energy independence conceptual/belief-driven mission statements
program and, 347 and, 4–5
what’s wrong with, 327–330 concrete/tangible mission statements and,
federal program managers, 339–341 4–5
Federal Reserve, 382 global setting for program management and,
finance, 314 3–6
financing, 322 mission statement uses with, 3–4
Fisher, Roger, 252, 307 global portfolio management, 157–159
focus groups, 82, 144 bubble diagram, 178f
Forbes, 261 developing portfolio process and, 160–162
formula-driven federal programs, 328 global portfolio and, 153
 Index 417

global portfolio management (Cont.): global program managers (Cont.):

how portfolios, programs and project risk management plan and, 278–281
management relate with, 172–179 roles in, 275–277
introduction, 153 scheduling and, 257–261
need for portfolios and, 159 single project managers and, 245–246
portfolio development and, 156–157 single/multiple project management systems
portfolio process and, 162–171 and, 250–251
priority model and, 168f skills and attributes of, 243
programs as unifying/organizational themes specific responsibilities, 242–243
and, 153–155 technically savvy, 248–249
project ranking model and, 169f technology developments relevant to
strategic buckets and, 166f program and, 251
strategies for global, 153–179 thinking globally, acting locally, 249
world without program/project portfolio, training, 250–251
program management system and, transition to, 247
155–156 website design case and, 254–257
global program managers. See also program global reference, 331–332
managers global shareholders, 7
ability to teach and, 250 global stakeholders, 7
business acumen and, 249–250 global strategic management
business strategy implementation and, 244 global setting for program management and,
business support functions/operations and, 8–9
251 using strategies to expand business and, 9
competencies, 248–250 global success factors, 16
contracts and, 252–253 global values
creation of program workforce, team and global setting for program management and,
support system for results and, 244 9–10
departmental/functional manager roles and, from IBM, 9
277–278 from Microsoft, 9–10
explanation of concept and, 248 global vision
focused leadership and, 249 difference between mission and vision
general responsibilities, 242 statements with, 6
global program management duties and, global setting for program management and,
244–245 6–7
global program network and, 245 global/industry competitive analysis
global program portfolio planning, delivery competitive forces and, 15–16
systems and issues for, 251 dominant economic traits for industry and,
global reference of program management 14
and, 248 drivers of industry change and, 15
language, diversity, codes/symbols of global global competitor analysis and, 14–15
culture and, 250 global goals and, 14–16
managing conflict/risk globally, 261–275 global success factors and, 16
managing virtual teams and technology, industry attractiveness and, 16
251–252 globalization
negotiating skills and, 252 under fire and program management, 361
organized, 249 program management influenced by, 360–361
planning, scheduling, budgeting, monitoring, goals
reviewing and, 245 global, 10–17
program discipline and, 245 industry/global competitive analysis and,
program reference and, 248 14–16
program resources/funding acquisition and, PMI standards for program, 58f
244 project portfolio, 173–179
program stakeholders/sponsors and, visionary, 10
244–245 go/no-go decisions, 111
418 Index

Google, 306, 360 inspiration, motivation through, 10

government. See also federal program integration
management as leadership function, 350
broadband case and, 368 as wide-ranging quality/process
program management and bigger role for, improvement standard, 350–358
361–362 intellectual property
Grace Commission, 336 analysis, 320
Graham, Robert J., 281 protection, 2
interface management, 356
Handbook of Program Management: How to internal rate on return (IRR), 167
Facilitate Project Success with Optimal international culture codes, 253–254
Program Management (Brown), 339–340 International Organization of Legal Metrology
Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport, (OIML), 309
316–318 interpretation/scoring, 232
Health and Human Services (HHS), 328 interviewing, 82, 144, 234, 237
health care reform, 342 IRR. See internal rate on return
HHS. See Health and Human Services
Hindustan Lever Limited (HLL), 310, 311, 312 job descriptions, for global program managers,
historical information, 234 242–243
HLL. See Hindustan Lever Limited Johnson & Johnson, 154
Hot, Flat, and Overcrowded (Friedman), 340
Housing and Urban Development (HUD), 328 Kaplan, Robert, 37
“How Xerox Forfeited the PC War” (Landley), 9 Kazakhstan, 261, 264
HUD. See Housing and Urban Development Kellogg Company, 32
human resource management, 264 KHAFRA Engineering Consultants, 317
Kosonen, Mikko, 332
IBM, 9, 325 Kuhn, Thomas, 346
India, 310, 362
industry Landley, Rob, 9
attractiveness, 16 Lanfeng Liu, 186
taking on new shape, 362 language barriers, 2
industry/global competitive analysis, global languages
goals and, 14–16 barriers, 2
influence diagrams, 235 broadband case with culture and, 368
information-gathering techniques, 234 global program managers and, 250
innovation, 362 program risks and communication impacts
benefits management and, 311 on virtual team performance
developing partnerships, supplier with, 218
relationships with, 306–307 laws/regulations, global forces and, 2
doing good with program management and, 310 leadership, conflict and strategic, 263
global avionics program management case left brain, 3
and, 308–309 legal, 315
lessons learned with, 312 Leo A. Daly architectural firm,
licensing and other program issues overseas 316–318
with, 308 Levine, Harvey A., 157
organizational interrelationships and licensing, 2, 314
interfaces with, 313–315 global competitive strategies and, 23
partnerships, outsourcing and, 306–323 program issues overseas and, 308
postscript, 310 LiMo, 306
program definition with, 311 Linux Second Life, 325
program design and, 311 litigation, 316
program governance and, 311 local network management, 265–266
program strategy and, 311 location, location, location, 23
strategic partnerships and stakeholder London School of Hygiene, 311
management with, 311 lump-sum contracts, 324
 Index 419

make-or-buy decisions, 318–319 OIML. See International Organization of Legal

manager roles Metrology
departmental/functional, 277–278 OMB. See Office of Management and Budget
program managers with departmental and operations, 314
functional, 277–278 opportunities, 234
manufacturing, 314 organizational analysis, 82, 144
market demand, 320 organizational chart, 81
marketing, 314 organizational risks, 233–234
McDonald’s, 17 original equipment manufacturers (OEMs),
McKinsey Global Institute, 361 187–188
meeting management, 265 outsourcing, 21
merger strategies, 21 airport designer dumped and, 316–317
methodology, 231 benefits management and, 311
Microsoft, 9, 131, 135, 238 conflict with scheduling and resource
global values from, 9–10 planning for, 268–269
Middle East, 253, 307, 341, 360, 363 developing partnerships, supplier
mission statements relationships with, 306–307
components of effective, 5–6 doing good with program management and,
difference between vision and, 6 310
global, 3–6 global avionics program management case
“hard” and “soft,” 4–5 and, 308–309
mitigation, 238 lessons learned with, 312
Morison, Robert, 332 licensing and other program issues overseas
motivation, through inspiration, 10 with, 308
make-or-buy decisions and, 318–319
NAPA. See National Academy of Public organizational interrelationships and
Administration interfaces with, 313–315
NASA. See National Aeronautic and Space partnerships, innovation and, 306–323
Administration postscript, 310
National Academy of Public Administration program definition with, 311
(NAPA), 337 program design and, 311
National Aeronautic and Space Administration program governance and, 311
(NASA), 328, 329, 330 program strategy and, 311
National Baldrige Quality Award, 350–351 strategic partnerships and stakeholder
National Institute for Standards and management with, 311
Technology, 308–309 overseas manufacturing, 319
National Institutes of Health, 328
negotiating skills, 252–253, 316 partnerships, 316
network information exchange, 301–304 customer-driven public/private, 347–348
NGOs, 310 innovation, outsourcing and, 306–323
Norton, David, 37 introduction, 305
program management with contracts,
obesity, 17 procurement and, 305–326
OEMs. See original equipment manufacturers risk, types of contracts and, 323–326
Office of Federal Innovative Management (OFIM) permitting, 314
energy independence and, 341–342 PMI. See Project Management Institute
federal agency portfolio management and, 342 PMI PMBOK guide, 217, 225, 226–227, 228,
functions of, 337–338 229, 235, 238, 239
health care reform and, 342 building risk-based organizational culture
program planning/evaluation and, 338 and, 230
Office of Management and Budget (OMB), interface management and, 230
336, 337 issues not addressed in, 230–231
office process management, 265 program and portfolio management and,
OFIM. See Office of Federal Innovative 230
Management risk and cost integration and, 230–231
420 Index

PMO. See project management office procurement (Cont.):

political stability, 2 contracts and global e-, 325
Porter’s five forces model of competition global context and other issues with, 315
barriers/threats to potential entry and, innovation, outsourcing and, 306–323
15–16 interface with, 315
competition from substitutes and, 15 introduction, 305
power of customers and, 15 program management with partnerships,
power of suppliers and, 15 contracts and, 305–326
rivalry among competing sellers and, 16 program manager roles and process of, 313
portfolio management, 356–357 risk, types of contracts and, 323–326
portfolio process procurement management, 265
continuous improvement of, 163 product description, 233
management, 163–170 product functional specifications, 320–321
phased-in, 162 profit margins, 17
project portfolio benefits and, 170–171 profit sanctuaries, 24
standards for, 162–163 program charter updates, 66
portfolio process management program concepts
analyze and, 164–165 examining competencies and outcomes with,
criterion for, 167–168 365
improve/enhance and, 170 new organizational structure for new, 364–365
inventory and, 163–164 new products and outsourcing with, 365
mobilize and, 169–170 program management, development and,
optimize and, 168–169 364–365
prioritize and, 165–167 restructuring for global program
portfolio value maximization management and, 365
balanced score card and, 176 program development
ECV and, 176–177 broadband case and, 365–369
NPV and, 175–176 conclusions about program management and,
NPV prioritization and, 176 359–363
productivity index and, 177 generating creative program concepts and,
project portfolios and, 175–177 364–365
scoring model and, 177 introduction, 359
portfolios. See also global portfolio new global, 359–369
management portfolio decisions and, 360
developing process, 160–162 short-term projects not adding up to global, 360
development, 156–157 softer factors of, 359
global, 153 summary, 369
global project, 173 program evaluation system, 357
need for, 159 program impact analysis, 82
process, 162–171 program information technology system, 355
programs in world of, 173 program life cycle, PMI standards for program
relation among programs, project management and, 44–45, 46f, 47–97
management and, 172–179 program management
Prahalad, C. K., 310 Asia rising and, 362
President’s Private Sector Survey on Cost bigger role for government and, 361–362
Control, 337 conclusions about program development and,
price stability, 363 359–363
pricing approach, 315–316 federal, 327–358
pricing issues, 2 generating creative program concepts and,
process domain, 344 364–365
process group, PMI standards for program global customers and, 363
management and monitoring, 97–114 global portfolio management strategies and,
procurement, 315 153–179
classic program manager role in, 312 global program manager and, 241–304
 Index 421

program management (Cont.): program management, global strategies for

global program risk management and, alignment of programs with strategic
217–240 objectives and, 213
global reference of, 248 Eastern case and, 188–213
global setting for, 1–27 eight-part strategy and, 207f
globalization under fire and, 361 introduction, 181–182
globalization’s influence on, 360–361 postscript, 215
industry taking on new shape and, 362 programs as organizational commitments
information system, 296 and, 213–215
innovation marching on and, 362 Western Technologies and, 182–188
management as science called into question program management, PMI standards for
and, 362 administer program procurements and, 105f
new global, 359–369 analyze program risks and, 71f
new global program development and, approve component initiation and, 96f
359–369 approve component transition and, 118f
partnerships, contracts and procurement benefits management process and, 37f
with, 305–326 budget program costs and, 78f
PMI’s standard for, 29–151 close program and, 115f
portfolio decisions and, 360 close program procurements and, 116f
price stability in question and, 363 closing process group and, 114–121
program managers and global, 244–245 conduct program procurement and, 93f
resources feeling strained and, 361 develop program financial plans and, 75f
roles in process of, 275–277 develop program infrastructure and, 64f
shifting consumption patterns and, 362 develop program management plan and, 62f
strategies for global, 181–215 develop program schedule and, 65f
transparency in, 363 direct/manage program execution and, 87f
trust in business running out and, 361 distribute information and, 91f
world without programs, portfolios and, engage program stakeholders and, 95f
155–156 estimate program costs and, 77f
program management, global setting for external program elements and, 43
alliances/collaborative partnerships and, Gantt chart, PERT chart view and, 137f
20–21 Gantt chart cost table and, 137f
benchmarking and, 19 Gantt chart view and, 135f
businesses strengthened for global project Gantt chart view entry table and, 136f
delivery and, 3 global support model and, 122f
competitive advantage/strategy and, 19–20 identify program risks and, 70f
critical markets and, 24 identify program stakeholders and, 80f
diversification strategies and, 26 initiate program and, 53f
global competitive strategies and, 21–23 integrated programs and, 139f
global forces and, 2–3 introduction, 29
global goals and, 10 manage component interfaces and, 90f
global mission and, 3–6 manage program architecture and, 89f
global strategic management and, 8–9 manage program benefits and, 112f
global values and, 9–10 manage program issues and, 99f
global vision and, 6–7 manage program resources and, 88f
introduction, 1 manage program stakeholder expectations
location, location, location and, 23 and, 109f
merger/acquisition strategies and, 21 monitor/control program changes and, 113f
other strategies and, 24–26 monitor/control program financials and, 107f
outsourcing and, 21 monitor/control program performance and,
profit sanctuaries and, 24 98f
strategic cost analysis and, 18–19 monitor/control program risks and, 104f
summary, 26 monitor/control program schedule and, 101f
SWOT and, 17–18 monitor/control program scope and, 100f
422 Index

program management, PMI standards for (Cont.): program managers

monitoring/controlling process group and, competencies, 248–250
97–114 departmental/functional manager roles and,
organizational structure/roles of PMO and, 277–278
149f doing business internationally, 319–322
other considerations with, 127–150 expectations from project managers,
plan and establish program governance 293–294
structure and, 83f explanation of concept and, 248
plan communications and, 67f federal, 339–341
plan for audits and, 84f finding drivers of competition worldwide,
plan program procurements and, 74f 322
plan program quality and, 86f global, 241–304
plan program risk management and, 68f global program management involvement
plan program risk responses and, 73f and, 244–245
plan program scope and, 57f global reference of program management
plan program stakeholder management and, and, 248
79f global schedule conflicts/negotiations and,
PMI and, 30–33 254–257
PMO development/ongoing maintenance introduction, 241
process and, 143f job description for global, 242–243
program architecture and, 60f managing conflict/risk globally and, 261–275
program financial framework and, 55f negotiating skills and, 252–253
program goals and objectives and, 58f network information exchange and, 301–304
program governance process and, 41f PMI standards for program management
program life cycle and, 44–45, 46f, and and role of, 34–43
47–97 procedures for schedule tracking/reporting
program manager’s role and, 34–43 and, 296–299
program manager’s skills and, 42f program management information system
program process and, 120f and, 296
program requirements and, 59f program manager competencies and,
provide governance oversight, 110f 248–250
PWBS and, 61f program reference and, 248
qualities of communication and, 125f program review meetings/reports and,
quality assurance in PMO and, 126f 299–301
relationships with other project standards review agenda, 294
and, 33–34 risk management plan and, 278–281
report program performance and, 103f risks, types of contracts and, 323–326
resource usage view of integrated programs risks with contracts, 323
and, 140f roles in program management process and,
resources sheet view and, 136f 275–277
resources usage view and, 139f sample program review questionnaire and,
risk response matrix and, 51f 295–296
stakeholder communication plan and, 49f scheduling, competency and, 257–261
summary, 150–151 senior management roles and, 281–282
support systems and, 121–127 single project managers v., 245–246
tasks usage view and, 140f ten key roles of, 292–293
tracking Gantt/tracking table and, training global, 250–252
138f transition to, 247
program management information systems, 67 typical project management windows for
program manager competency program review and, 282–291
cost estimating, earned value and, 258 using international culture codes and,
quality and, 260–261 253–254
resourcing and, 258–260 program master schedule, 66
scheduling and, 257–261 program monitoring and control system, 357
 Index 423

program reference, 248, 332–333, 340 Project Management Institute (PMI), 30–33
program review meetings/reports, 299–301 program risk management and, 224–232
program review questionnaire, 295–296 standard for program management
program risk according to, 29–151
issues involved with, 224–228 Project Management Journal, 186
risk management and, 217–219 project management office (PMO), 160
risk management planning and, 228–229 project management risks, 233
program risk register updates, 66 project managers
program risks criteria for make-or-buy decisions, 318–319
differences in contractual/financial expectations from, 293–294
arrangements, 218–219 program managers v., 245–246
differences in sense of urgency or work ethic, project portfolios
218 benefits, 170–171
effects of global financial crisis, 219 goals of, 173–179
incompatibility of technical systems, codes, portfolio value maximization and, 175–177
standards and, 218 process and global forces, 3
lack of integration of projects in program strategic alignment and direction with,
structure, 219 174–175
language-generated communication impacts ways to achieve balance and, 177–179
on virtual team performance, 218 world without programs, program
logistical/transportation problems, 219 management system and, 155–156
unstable local sponsor or client, 218 project risk response audits, 240
unstable political and/or jurisdictional project risk reviews, 240
issues, 218 project standards, 33–34
unstable supplier chain issues, 219 published information, 234
program schedule management plan, 66
program stakeholder management plan, 81 qualitative risk analysis
programs assumptions and, 236
butterfly effect and, 154–155 data precision and, 235
federal energy independence, 347 data precision ranking and, 236
as organizational commitments and program identified risks and, 235
management strategies, 213–215 inputs to, 235–236
portfolio development and, 158 list of prioritized risks and, 236
in portfolio world, 173 list of risks for additional analysis/
relation among portfolios, project management and, 236
management and, 172–179 outputs from, 236–237
strategic objectives and alignment of, 213 overall risk ranking for project and, 236
strategies for successful, 182 probability/impact risk rating matrix and,
Tylenol poisoning case and, 154–155 236
as unifying/organizational themes with project status and, 235
global portfolio management, 153–155 project type and, 235
uses for, 154 projects assumptions testing and, 236
world without project portfolio, program results and trends, 237
management system and, 155–156 risk management plan and, 235
project change requests, 240 risk probability and impact with, 236
project charter, 232 scales of probability and, 236
project communication, 239 tools/techniques for, 236
project delivery, strengthening businesses for quality, 314
global, 3 quantitative risk analysis
project files, 234 decision tree analysis and, 237
project management inputs to, 237
relation among portfolios, programs and, interviewing and, 237
172–179 outputs from, 237–238
windows for program review, 282–291 prioritized list of, 237
424 Index

quantitative risk analysis (Cont.): risk management, 315

probabilistic analysis of project and, global program, 217–240
237–238 introduction, 217
probability of achieving cost/time objective plan and program management, 278–281
and, 238 PMI and program, 224–232
sensitivity analysis and, 237 program risk and, 217–219
simulation and, 237 qualitative risk analysis and, 235–237
tools and techniques for, 237 quantitative risk analysis and, 237–238
questionnaires, 82, 144 risk cause and effect model, 220f
risk identification and, 232–235
Rapaille, Clotaire, 253 risk monitoring, control and, 239–240
rate of return (ROR), 360 risk response planning and, 238–239
Reagan, Ronald, 335–337 sample program, 221, 222f
recession, 362 risk management plan
Reform ‘88 Project, 336 global program managers and, 278–281
regulations/laws, global forces and, 2 program administrator, management office
regulatory federal programs, 328 and, 279
reporting formats, 232 program review/monitoring, senior
requests for proposals (RFPs), 81 management role and, 280–281
residual risks, 239 program review/monitoring and, 278
resource lists, 158–159 program team roles and, 278–279
resource management system, 354–355 specific project administrator tasks and, 279
resource plan, 233 typical project management windows for
return on investment (ROI), 17, 167 program review and, 282–291
review agenda, 294 risk management planning
RFPs. See requests for proposals defined roles and responsibilities and, 229
right brain, 3 inputs to, 229–231
risk issues not addressed in PMBOK and,
managing global conflict and, 261–275 230–231
partnerships, types of contracts and, organization’s policies for, 229
323–326 outputs from, 231–232
risk analysis project charter and, 229
risk management and qualitative, stakeholder risk tolerances and,
235–237 229–230
risk management and quantitative, tools and techniques for, 231
237–238 work breakdown structure and, 230
risk causes, 238 risk monitoring, control and
risk database, 240 corrective action and, 240
risk identification earned value analysis and, 240
assumption and constraint lists with, inputs to, 239
233 outputs from, 240
checklists, 240 periodic risk reviews and, 240
inputs to, 232–233 project change requests and, 240
outputs from, 235 project communication and, 239
product description and, 233 project risk response audits and, 240
project charter and, 232 risk database and, 240
project planning outputs and, 232–233 scope changes and, 239
resource plan and, 233 technical performance measurement and,
risk categories and, 233–234 240
risk management and, 232–235 tools/techniques for, 240
schedule and cost estimates with, 233 updates to risk identification checklists and,
tools/techniques for, 234–235 240
triggers and, 235 updates to risk response plan and, 240
WBS and, 232 workaround plans and, 240
 Index 425

risk owners, 238 senior management roles (Cont.):

risk response planning, 240 explore follow-up potential and, 288–289
acceptance and, 238 financial performance and, 287
avoidance and, 238 generate new program concepts and, 284
common risk causes and, 238 identify/clarify requirements and, 284
contingency reserve amounts needed for, 239 implementation and, 287
contractual agreements and, 239 information on competitive challenges and,
inputs to, 238 291
mitigation and, 238 lessons learned and, 287–288
outputs from, 239 narrative report, presentation and, 289
residual risks and, 239 obtain customer feedback and, 288
risk management and, 238–239 opportunities for customer partnering and,
risk owners and, 238 291
risk response plan and, 239 program definition/project scope statements
risk thresholds and, 238 and, 285
secondary risks and, 239 project documents and, 287
tools and techniques for, 238 project team performance and, 291
transference and, 238 responsibility matrix and, 286
risk thresholds, 238 sample tools and, 290–291
rivalry, among competing sellers, 15–16 work breakdown, task list and, 285
ROI. See return on investment sensitivity analysis, 237
roles/responsibilities, 231 services, federal programs, 328
ROR. See rate of return simulation, 237
Skype, 306
Sarbanes-Oxley standards, 130, 148 South America, 360, 363
scale, 323 staffing policy
scenario analysis, 71 conflict and preparing, 272–274
schedule conflicts/negotiations, 254–257 developing acquisition plan and,
access and, 271 273–274
updates and, 271 developing department, 273
schedule management tools, 66 developing patterns for, 273
schedule tracking/reporting, procedures for, forecast future staff requirements and, 273
296–299 levels, assignment and, 273
schedule/cost estimates, 233 preparing plans for, 274
scheduling, 314 stage-gateway process, 355–356
program managers, competency and, 257–261 stakeholder analysis, 82
scope changes, 239 stakeholder checklist, 82
scoring/interpretation, 232 stakeholder inventory, 82
SEC. See Securities and Exchange Commission stakeholder register, 81–82, 146
secondary risks, 239 The Standard for Program Management (PMI),
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), 31
382 strategic cost analysis, 18–19
senior management roles, 281–282 strategies
approvals and, 284 competitive advantage, 19–20
broad scoping and, 284 diversification, 26
conduct kick-off meeting and, 285 Eastern case and explanation of, 207–208
design and, 286–287 for emerging industries, 24
develop bottom-up project budgets and, 286 for fragmented industries, 25
develop broad program schedule and, 286 global competitive, 21–23
develop risk analysis and, 286 global portfolio management, 153–179
earned value and, 291 global program management, 181–215
establish formal program team and, 285 for high-velocity markets, 24
establish/maintain potential project lists for industry leaders, 25
and, 284 location, 23
426 Index

strategies (Cont.): Turner, Ted, 10

for mature industries, 24–25 Tylenol poisoning case
merger and acquisition, 21 butterfly effect and, 154–155
niche, 20 as global butterfly, 155
as path to competitive advantage, 8–9 as program example, 154–155
for runner-up firms, 25
for stagnant/declining industries, 25 unemployment, 2
success indicators with, 17 unit-price contracts, 324
successful program, 182 Ury, William, 252, 307
for weak/crisis-ridden businesses, 25 U.S. Postal Service, 328
strengths, 234
structural change, federal program value chain analysis, 18–19. See also strategic
management and, 333–339 cost analysis
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Kuhn), vision statements
346 components of, 7
substitutes, competition from, 15 difference between mission and, 6
suppliers, power of, 15 Visionary goals, 10. See also global goals
supply chain management, 316
support systems, PMI standards for program WBS, 232
management and, 121–127 weaknesses, 234
surveys, 82, 144 WebEx, 306
Sweden, 262 website design case
SWOT analysis, 54, 70 assumptions about, 255–256
opportunities and threats delineated by, background, 254
17–18 earned value calculations and, 256–257
program management and, 17–18 global program managers and, 254–257
strengths and weaknesses measured by, negotiating from interest and, 257
17–18 project manager’s decision and, 255
symbols of global culture, 250 project schedule, 254–255
Western Technologies
Tagam, Kirsten, 316 approach to program management,
Tapscott, Dan, 326 186–187
target-cost contracts, 324 China’s values and beliefs compared to, 186
“Teaming Up to Crack Innovation” (Cash, Ead, cultural integration at, 186
and Morison), 332 methods of managing processes at, 185
technical performance measurement, 240 portfolio process of, 182–185
technical risks, 233 program management strategies and,
technology, global forces and, 2 182–188
technology development, 323 simplifying program delivery and, 187
terrorism, 2 supplying OEMs and, 187–188
testing, 314 Whisler, John, 316
threats, 234 Wikia, 306
thresholds, 232 Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes
time management, 264 Everything (Tapscott), 326
time zones, 261–262 women, 2
timing, 232, 322 work habits, 265
tracking, 232 workaround plans, 240
Trade Act of 1979, U.S., 309 World Bank, 311
trademark protection, 2 The World Is Flat (Friedman), 121
transference, 238
transparency, 330, 358, 363 Xerox, 9
triggers, 235 Xiaojin Wang, 186