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Application of Gas Monitoring Sensors in Underground Coal Mines and

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 ISSN 2249-6343
International Journal of Computer Technology and Electronics Engineering (IJCTEE)
Volume 3, Issue 3, June 2013

Application of Gas Monitoring Sensors in

Underground Coal Mines and Hazardous Areas
A. Kumar*, T.M.G. Kingson, R.P. Verma, A. Kumar, R. Mandal, S. Dutta, S.K. Chaulya and G.M. Prasad
CSIR-Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research, Dhanbad, India
*Corresponding Author, Email: [email protected]

A. Combustible Gases
Abstract-Underground mining requires equipment and
manpower to operate under the earth surface. Subsurface A hazardous area is defined based on three criteria, namely
atmosphere may be contaminated with poisonous gases that (i) depending upon type of gas, (ii) ignition temperature of
displace the necessary oxygen to support life or flammable gases the gas, and (iii) likelihood of gas being present in flammable
that may cause explosion. Therefore, it is necessary to develop concentrations. Flammability limit, thus defined, gives the
technologies and find ways to accurately measure concentration
levels of toxic and flammable gases levels in subsurface
proportion of combustible gases in a mixture, between which
atmosphere for safety of underground coal mines. Each sensor limits mixture is flammable.
has its own advantages and constraints, like some sensors are  Lower Explosive Limit (LEL): The minimum
better for sensing toxic gases and some are better for concentration of gas or vapour mixed with air
combustible gas detection. The paper enumerates operating (percentage by volume, at room temperature) that will
principle, working procedure and application of different types
cause the propagation of flames when it comes in contact
of sensors for monitoring toxic and flammable gases in
hazardous areas. with a source of ignition. In common terminology,
mixtures below the LEL are too lean to ignite.
Index Terms- Gas sensors, MEMS, Nanotechnology, TLVs  Upper Explosive Limit (UEL): The maximum
concentration of gas or vapour mixed with air (percent
I. INTRODUCTION by volume, at room temperature) that will cause the
Underground coal mine is characterized by tough working propagation of flames when it comes in contact with an
condition and hazardous environment. Many accidents occur ignition source. In common terminology, mixtures above
in underground coal mine which leads to fatal accidents and the UEL are too rich to support combustion.
huge loss of properties. These accidents have variety of B. Toxic Gases
causes, including sudden rise in toxicants such as carbon As toxic gases can cause harm in low levels over a long
monoxide (CO), dangerous flammable gases especially period of time (chronic exposure) or in higher concentrations
methane (CH4) or firedamp and insufficient oxygen for mine over a short period of time (acute exposure), different
workers to breathe. Therefore, for sustainable growth of coal countries have established threshold limit values (TLVs) for
mining industry and safety of miners, it is necessary to poisonous gases in order to advance worker protection by
develop technologies and find ways to make mines hazard providing timely scientific information to occupational and
free [1]. environmental health professionals.
To keep atmosphere just right in underground coal mine, TLVs of airborne substances refer to those concentrations
the primary requirement is to regularly monitor the levels of within which personnel may be exposed without known
gases, like oxygen, methane, carbon dioxide, carbon adverse effects to their health or safety. Followings are the
monoxide etc. This gives miners short and long term trending three types of TLVs:
information in the subsurface atmosphere and allows early (i) Time Weighted Average (TWA) is the average
warning against explosive and toxic atmospheres at every concentration to which nearly all workers may be
place where miners normally work or travel. No mineworker exposed over given hours of work shift/week without
should enter any underground work place, in particular those known adverse effects. However, many substances are
places with poor air circulation (e.g. blind headings), unless sufficiently toxic that short-term exposures at higher
the air has been checked therein to ensure a safe breathable concentrations may prove harmful or even fatal.
atmosphere free from levels of hazardous gases. (ii) Short-Term Exposure Limit (STEL) is a time-weighted
average concentration occurring over a period of not
II. HAZARDOUS AREA more than few minutes. It is also recommended that such
Fire, toxic atmospheric contaminant and dust or gas circumstances should not occur many times.
explosion are some critical hazards specifically linked to (iii) Ceiling Limit (CL) is the concentration that should not
underground mining. It is necessary to figure out which area be exceeded at any time. This is relevant for the most
needs to be defined as hazardous area so that miners should toxic substances or those that produce an immediate
be alerted in advance (Table I). irritant effect.

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International Journal of Computer Technology and Electronics Engineering (IJCTEE)
Volume 3, Issue 3, June 2013

III. GAS DETECTING SENSORS Resistor value RB and trim pot R1 are selected with
Gas sensors detect presence of various gases within an relatively large resistance values to ensure proper function of
area, usually as a part of safety system. Sensors give a the circuit. During its operation, a current is passed through
proportional electrical response depending upon the the coil, which heats up the bead to a high temperature. The
concentration of gas to be detected. If the concentration gas is burned when a flammable gas molecule comes into
exceeds threshold concentration limit, the instrument contact with the catalyst layer. The reaction occurs without a
containing it will provide an alarm to nearby personnel, or it flame since the level is below the Lower Explosive Limit (or
may activate other remedial actions, such as increasing the LEL) of the gas. However, during burning reaction, heat is
ventilation, switching off the power supply etc. [3]. Different released which increases the temperature of bead. This
methods for detecting above gases are given in Table II and increase in temperature causes rise in electrical resistance of
their operating principles are summarized in Table III. the coil.

Table II: Different methods of gas detection [4]

Name Methods of detection
Oxygen Electrochemical, paramagnetic, flame
lamp
Methane Catalytic oxidation, thermal
conductivity, optical, acoustic, flame
lamp
Carbon dioxide Optical, infrared
Carbon monoxide Electrochemical, catalytic oxidation,
semiconductor, infra-red
Sulphur dioxide Electrochemical, infra-red Fig.1: Catalytic bead [7]
Nitric oxide, Electrochemical
There is another bead in the circuit which is identical to the
Nitrous oxide, detector bead, but does not contain any catalyst. This bead
Nitrogen dioxide will react to changes in humidity, ambient temperature etc.,
Hydrogen Electrochemical, semiconductor but will not react to flammable gas. All that is required is a
sulphide comparison of the resistance of one bead against another in a
Hydrogen Catalytic oxidation Wheatstone bridge type circuit in order to obtain a
meaningful signal.
A. Catalytic Bead Sensors
Theory: Combustible gas mixtures will not burn until they
reach an ignition temperature. However, in the presence of
certain chemical media, the gas will start to burn or ignite at
lower temperatures. This phenomenon is known as a catalytic
combustion.
A coil of wire is coated with glass or ceramic material
which is coated with a catalyst. The coil is electrically heated
to a temperature that will allow it to burn (catalyze)
combustible hydrocarbon (CHC) gas being monitored.
Pellistors are miniature calorimeters used to measure the
energy liberated by burning of a combustible (flammable)
gas or vapor [6]. A pellistor consists of a coil of
small-diameter platinum wire supported in a refractory bead Fig. 2: A catalytic bead sensor Wheatstone bridge [8]
coated with a layer of catalytic material (Fig. 1), on which the
gas is burnt. The coil serves two purposes: firstly, it is used to Reaction: Reaction takes place on the surface of catalytic
heat the bead electrically to its operating temperature of bead is given as
around 500°C, and secondly it is used to detect changes in CH4 + 2O2 + 8N2 CO2 + 2H2O + 8N2 (1)
temperature produced by oxidation of flammable gas.
Working procedure: A Catalytic bead sensor is used in From the above reaction, one part of methane requires ten
Wheatstone bridge (Fig. 2), a circuit for measuring an parts of air for complete combustion. For a sensor to detect
unknown resistance by comparing it with known resistances. methane, the signal output will respond linearly from 0–5%
A balanced bridge has no output signal. R1 is trim resistor that of methane. As the concentration reaches close to 9%, the
keeps the bridge balanced. signal increases very rapidly & peaks at around 10% (Fig. 3).

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International Journal of Computer Technology and Electronics Engineering (IJCTEE)
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follows:
The signal starts to drop slowly as the concentration of gas (i) Catalyst poisoning: Poisoning compounds cause a
passes approximately 20%; after 20% it drops sharply and at permanent reduction of the sensor sensitivity. The exact
100% sensor signal is zero. cause of poisoning is very difficult to identify. Tetraethyl
lead, silicon compounds and sulphur compounds are
among the most common poisons.
(ii) Sensor inhibitors: Inhibitors cause a temporary loss of
sensitivity to sensor and may be partially or totally
recovered after a short exposure to fresh air. The most
common inhibitors are H2S, chlorine, chlorinated
hydrocarbons and halogen compounds.
(iii) Sensor cracking: The sensor, when exposed to high
concentration of gases, excessive heat and various
oxidation processes that take place on the sensor surface,
may eventually deteriorate its performance.

Fig. 3: Sensor output vs. methane concentration [8]

Factors affecting the operations of catalytic sensors are as

Factors affecting the operations of catalytic sensors are as

Table I: List of gases and their hazardous limits in underground mines [2]

Name of gas Flammability Guideline for TLVs Hazards

limits in air (%)
Oxygen >19.5% Oxygen deficiency, may cause
explosive mixtures with reactive gases
Nitrogen CL = 81,000 ppm Inert
Methane 5 to15 At 1% isolate electricity, at 2% Explosion
remove personnel.
Carbon dioxide TWA = 0.5%, STEL = 3.0%, CL = Promotes increased rate of respiration
1.5%
Carbon monoxide 12.5 to 74.5 TWA = 0.005%, STEL = 0.04%, Highly toxic; explosive
CL = 200 ppm
Sulphur dioxide TWA = 2 ppm, STEL = 5 ppm, CL Very toxic; irritant to eyes throat and
= 10 ppm lungs
Nitric oxide TWA = 50 ppm Oxidizes rapidly to NO2
Nitrous oxide TWA = 50 ppm Narcotic (laughing gas)
Nitrogen dioxide TWA =3 ppm, CL= 5 ppm Very toxic; throat and lung irritant;
pulmonary infections
Hydrogen sulphide 4.3 to 45.5 TWA = 10 ppm, STEL = 15ppm, Highly toxic; irritant to eyes and
CL = 15ppm respiratory tracts; explosive
Hydrogen 4 to 74.2 Highly explosive

Table III: Classification of sensors by transducer operating principle [5]

Sl. Types of devices Physical change Source of signal

No.
1 Catalytic gas sensors Temperature or Changes in resistance in wheat stone bridge
(pellistors), thermal heat
sensors
2 Optical sensors Absorbance Either caused by gas itself, or due to reaction with certain indicator.
(infrared, laser, optical Luminescence Emission, caused by chemical reaction
fiber) Refractive index For example, caused by change in solution composition.
Scattering Caused by particles of definite sizes present in the sample.
3 Semiconductor (solid Electrical Changes in work function

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state) gas sensors conductivity

4 Electrochemical gas Voltametric Changes in current between electrodes is measured
sensors
(potentiometric or
amperometric )
5 Piezo-electric sensors Mass Changes of resonant frequency of quartz oscillator plate due to
(quartz crystal adsorption of a gas on its chemically modified surface
microbalance)
6 Flame ionization Ionisation Amount of ionization
detector, photo
ionization detector
B. Infrared Gas Sensor
Theory: Gas molecules are made up of number of atoms
bonded to one another. These interatomic bonds are similar to
springs, connecting atoms of various masses together. This
bonding vibrates with a fixed frequency called the natural
frequency. When infrared radiation interacts with gas
molecules as shown in Fig. 4, part of energy has the same
frequency as the gas molecule‟s natural frequency and it is
absorbed while rest of the radiation is transmitted. As the gas Fig. 5: Infrared gas sensor [11]
molecules absorb this radiation, the molecules gain energy
and vibrate more vigorously. It is well known that almost all CHCs absorb IR at
approximately 3.4 μm wave length, and at this region H 2O
and CO2 are not absorbed, making the system immune to
humidity and atmospheric changes. Beer's Law describes the
exact relationship between IR light intensity and gas
concentration [12]:
Fig. 4: Effect of infrared radiation on bonding of molecule I = I0 ekP (2)
Where:
This vibration results in temperature rise of gas molecules. I — the intensity of light striking the detector,
Rise in temperature is detected by the detector. On the other I0 — the measured intensity of an empty sample chamber,
hand, the radiation absorbed by the gas molecules at the k — a system dependent constant, and
particular wavelength will cause a decrease in the original P — the concentration of the gas to be measured.
wavelength. This radiation energy decrease can be detected
as a signal also.
Working of Non-Dispersive Infrared (NDIR): It is based
on infrared absorption property of some gases which consists
of a single IR source, a beam splitter and two detectors as
shown in Fig. 5. One detector is used to monitor the
characteristic hydrocarbon wavelength. The other is a
reference that monitors an atmospheric “window” where no
IR active gases are normally present. Infrared energy
(2-5microns, where micron is a common unit to express
wavelength in infrared range) is emitted from the source, Fig. 6: Spectral absorbance by gases [13]
passes through the gas cell, and is reflected back to the
detectors. If no hydrocarbons are present within the gas Infrared detectors convert electromagnetic radiation
sample, then energy reaching the detector is the same. energy or temperature changes into electrical signals. Some
However, if some combustible hydrocarbons are present, of the detectors (Fig. 7) types are:
they will absorb some IR energy at that wavelength, thus (i) Pyroelectric detector: Pyroelectric materials are crystals,
reducing the amount received by the analytic detector. Gas such as lithium tantalite [14], which exhibit spontaneous
concentration is determined by comparing the relative values polarization, or a concentrated electric charge that is
between the two wavelengths (Fig. 6). This is called dual temperature dependent. As infrared radiation strikes the
beam infrared detector [9]-[10]. detector surface, the change in temperature causes a
current to flow. This current is proportional to the
intensity of radiation.

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to seal the chambers and the same intensity of pulsed

This detector exhibits good sensitivity and good infrared radiation is received by both chambers when no
response to a wide range of wavelengths, and does not target gas is present. When a sample containing target
require cooling of the detector. It is the most commonly gas flows through the sample cell, reduced radiation
used detector for gas monitors. energy is received by the detector chamber. This causes
temperature and pressure to drop in the detector
chamber. The amount of temperature or pressure drop is
in direct proportion to the gas concentration. In the case
of linked chambers, the pressure difference between the
two chambers causes a detectable flow, which is
measured as a signal. In the case where a diaphragm
separates the two chambers, a movement of the
diaphragm causes a measurable change in capacitance.
(iii) Photoacoustic detector: This detector is similar to luft
(a) detector except that the pressure change is measured by a
condenser microphone. The sample gas is passed
through a chamber at a preset time interval and the
chamber is sealed with a fixed volume of sample gas
trapped inside. A specific wavelength of infrared
radiation is pulsed into the chamber via an infrared
transparent window. The pulsating pressure change is
measured by the microphone as a frequency change
which produces the signal [16]-[17].

Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR): FTIR measuring

principle is used for multi-gas detection (Figs. 8). The
principle of FTIR is that the gas to be analyzed is led through
a cuvette with an IR light source at one end (i.e. sending out
scattered IR light), and a modulator that “cuts” the infrared
light into different wavelength. At other end of the cuvette, a
detector is measuring the amount of IR light to pass through
the cuvette. By data processing, Fourier Transformation
mathematics is used to turn the measured absorption values
into gas concentration for the analyzed gases. As the light is
modulated into many different wavelengths, it is possible to
(b) analyze many different gases in the same instrument, such as
CO, H2O, SO2, NO, HF, NH3 etc. [18].

Fig. 8: FTIR infrared spectrum [19]

(c)
Fig. 7: Different detectors used for converting into Infrared provides high accuracy, resistance to
electrical signals: (a) Pyroelectric, (b) Luft and (c) contamination and reliable measurements. Unlike catalytic
Photoacoustic detector [13] bead sensor, gas sample enters and leaves the cell unchanged.
Nothing is transformed, substituted or removed from it. As
(ii) Luft detector: A luft detector consists of two chambers,
the IR source ages, its energy level decreases. But there is
either linked by a micro flow sensor or divided by a
only one source. Therefore, the energy level reduction will
diaphragm [15]. The chambers are sealed with a target
equally affect both sensor tubes (reference and detection) and
gas at a low pressure. IR transparent windows are fitted
no imbalance is detected.

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following reactions:
There is no need of extreme temperature for detection, For working electrode: CO + H2O → CO2 + 2H+ + 2e- (3)
resulting in less stress on construction materials. As there is For counter electrode: O2 + 4H+ + 4e- → 2H2O (4)
no combustion, corrosive combustion by-products are not
Overall cell reaction: 2CO + O2 → 2CO2 (5)
produced. All electronics and active components are sealed
away from the combustible gas environment. So, there is no
The main responsibility of the potentiostat circuit is to
inhibitor, which helps in providing improved gas response
ensure that adequate current is fed to the counter electrode
[20].
and the counter electrode can operate at its preferred
However, close coupling of electronics to IR sensor limits
potential.
operation at high temperature. Exceeding the operational
For a sensor requiring an external driving voltage, the
temperature limit can cause IR sensor drift or failure. Due to
sensing electrode potential does not remain constant due to
component precision and assembly, IR sensors have higher
the continuous electrochemical reaction taking place on the
initial cost than catalytic detectors. IR sensors do not detect
surface of the electrode. It causes deterioration of
all combustible gases (e.g. hydrogen). Humidity and water
performance of the sensor over extended periods of time. To
may affect the sensor. Dust and dirt can coat the optics and
improve the performance of the sensor, a reference electrode
impair sensor response.
is introduced. The reference electrode maintains the value of
C. Electrochemical Sensors this fixed voltage at the sensing electrode. No current flows to
Theory: Electrochemical sensors are fuel cell-like devices or from the reference electrode. Sometimes a scrubber filter
consisting of an anode, cathode, and electrolyte. The is installed in front of the sensor to filter out unwanted gases.
components of the cell are selected such that target gas is [23].
allowed to diffuse into the cell, which causes chemical Gas specific electrochemical sensors can be used to detect
reactions and generates current. the majority of common toxic gases, namely CO, H2S, Cl2,
Working procedure: It (Fig. 9) consists of a sensing SO2 etc. in a wide variety of safety applications. They can be
electrode (or working electrode) and counter electrode specific to a particular gas or vapour. They are typically very
separated by a thin layer of electrolyte/catalysts. Gas that accurate. They do not get poisoned easily.
comes in contact with the sensor first passes through a small As disadvantages, electrochemical gas sensors have a
capillary-type opening and then diffuses through a narrow temperature range and a short shelf life; they are
hydrophobic barrier, and eventually reaches the electrode subject to several interfering gases such as hydrogen. Sensor
surface. This approach is adopted to allow the proper amount lifetime will be shortened in very dry and hot areas.
of gas to react at the sensing electrode to produce sufficient D. Semiconductor Sensor
electrical signal while preventing the electrolyte leaking out
Theory: These sensors (also called solid state sensor) are
of the sensor. The gas that diffuses through the barrier reacts
primarily used for toxic gas measurements and limited use in
at the surface of the sensing electrode involving either an
CHC gas measurement. A semi conducting material is
oxidation (CO, H2S, NO, SO2 etc.) or reduction (NO2 and
applied to a non-conducting substrate between two electrodes
Cl2) mechanism. These reactions are catalyzed by electrode
(Fig. 10).
materials specifically developed for the gas of interest [21].

Fig. 10: Schematic diagram of modern resistive

Fig. 9: Electrochemical gas sensor [22] semiconductor gas sensor [24]

The substrate is heated to a temperature such that the gas

The counter electrode balances the reaction of sensing
being monitored can cause a reversible change in the
electrode – if the sensing electrode oxidizes the gas, then the
conductivity of the semi-conducting material. The target gas
counter electrode must reduce some other molecule to
interacts with the surface of the metal oxide film (generally
generate an equivalent current.
through surface adsorbed oxygen ions), which results in
Reactions: The reaction kinematics is explained by the

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change in charge carrier concentration of the material.

This leads to alter the conductivity of the material. An Tin oxide semiconductor is small, mechanically rugged,
n-type semiconductor is one where the majority charge sensitive to parts per million (ppm) levels, flood-proof and
carriers are electrons, and upon interaction with a reducing less expensive. The major disadvantage of the sensor is that
gas an increase in conductivity occurs. Conversely, an the sensor is sensitive to humidity and temperature, but not
oxidizing gas serves to deplete the sensing layer of charge specific to gases and vapors.
carrying electrons, resulting in a decrease in conductivity.
Opposite effects are observed with p-type semiconductor
material (Table IV).

Table IV: Response of semiconductor for different types

of gases [25]
Classification Oxidizing gases Reducing gases
n-type Resistance Resistance
increase decrease
p-type Resistance Resistance
decrease increase

Working procedure: The gas sensing film is located on a

micro machined hotplate which operates at 100-400 °C.
Under zero gas condition, it is assumed that O2 molecules tie
up free electrons in the metal oxide semiconductor material
by absorbing on its surface, thereby inhibiting electrical flow
[26]. The depleted layers are responsible for a high contact
resistance. For conduction, electrons must cross over the
surface barriers.
As reducing gases (CO, methane, H2S or H2 gases) are
introduced, they replace the O2, release free electrons and
decrease resistance between the electrodes (Fig. 11). This Fig.11: Conductivity model of SnO2: (a) in air; (b) during
change in resistance is measured electrically. It is exposure to CO (Debye length lD<< grain diameter); and (c)
proportional to the concentration of gas being measured [28]. conduction path after strong sintering [27]
The sensitivity of metal-oxide gas sensors can be
substantially improved by dispersing a low concentration of Tungsten oxide semiconductor is somewhat rugged,
additives, such as Pd, Pt, Au etc. sensitive to parts per million level, can be made gas specific
Reactions: Atmospheric oxygen molecules are adsorbed and have wide temperature range. The disadvantages of this
on the surface of semiconductor oxides in the form of O −, O2- sensor is that its need linearizing output, some sensors have
or O2−. The reaction kinematics is explained by the following tendency to “go to sleep” or spike, the response may slow on
reactions: older sensors and more expensive than other sensors [28].
O2 (gas) + e− → O2 (ads)− (6)
E. Laser Sensor
O2 (gas)− + e− → 2O (ads)− (7)
1) Tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy
The presence of chemically adsorbed oxygen causes Theory: Tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy
electron depletion in the thin film surface and building up of (TDLAS) is a technique used for measuring concentration of
Schottky surface barrier. Consequently, the electrical gases (methane, water vapour etc.) in a gaseous mixture
conductance of thin film decreases to a minimum. The SnO 2 based on the characteristic of the distributed feedback (DFB)
thin film interacts with oxygen by transferring the electron diode laser with narrow line width and tenability. This makes
from the conduction band to adsorb oxygen atoms. The it possible to obtain the spectroscopy of single molecule
response to H2S can be explained as a reaction of gas with the absorption line in the characteristic absorption spectrum
O2 (ads)−: region [29].
The focus here is on a single absorption line in the
H2S + 3O (ads)− → H2O(g) + SO2 (g) + 3e− (8)
absorption spectrum of a particular species of interest [30].
TDLAS sensors commonly exploit the laser‟s fast tuning
With this reaction, many electrons are released to thin film
capability to modulate the wavelength, causing it to sweep
surface. This decreases the Schottky surface barrier and
back and forth across an absorption feature at a precise
makes depletion layer thinner; consequently, the electrical
modulation frequency. When narrow-band light passes a gas
conductance of the thin film increases. Metal oxide
cell, Beer's Law describes the exact relationship between IR
semiconductor (MOS) sensors may be used for toxic as well
light intensity and gas concentration same as Infrared gas
as combustible gas monitoring.

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sensor. tuning over an interested wavelength range swiftly to

Working procedure: Most of gaseous materials show fulfill the function of spectroscopy scan, may overcome
characteristic optical absorptions, especially in the the drawback of FTIR, especially in field on-line
mid-infrared (2–25µm) band. The optical fingerprints of applications where fast response needed [29].
different gases have made the spectral absorption a unique c. A further advantage of near infrared TDLAS is
method of gas analysis [31]. In TDLAS, a diode laser emits compatible with optical fibers for optical
light at a well-defined but tunable wavelength over the communication, which makes it easy to realize
characteristic absorption lines of a target gas in the path of the multipoint remote sensing.
laser beam. This causes a reduction of the measured signal d. The laser emission line-width is narrower than gas
intensity, which can be detected by a photodiode, and then absorption line-widths. This may be contrasted with
used to determine the gas concentration (Fig. 12). near-IR (NIR) absorption techniques that sample with
broadband sources and measure absorption from
multiple lines across a fairly broad range of frequencies.
TDLAS thus offers the advantage of selectivity for a
target trace gas absent spectral interferences from other
background gases.
Disadvantages:
a. In different temperature conditions, for the same
concentration of gas, the amplitude of second harmonic
detected by lock in amplifier fluctuates with the variation
of ambient temperature. For the retrieval of the trace gas
concentration, the influence of temperature fluctuations
must be taken into account.
b. Any noise introduced by the light source or the optical
system will deteriorate the detectability of the technique.

Fig. 12: TDLAS gas detector system [32] 2) Differential Absorption Light Detection and Ranging
Theory: Simple TDLAS measures the presence/
Different diode laser are used based on application and the concentration of a particular gas is based on receiver
range of tuning required. Typical examples of laser diode are measuring wavelength not absorbed by the target gas
InGaAsP/ InP (tunable over 900 nm to 1.6 µm), InGaAsP/ whereas differential absorption light detection and ranging is
InAsP (tunable over 1.6 µm to 2.2 µm) [33]. Varying the based on returning backscattered signal intensity absorbed by
quantum cascade laser (QCL) temperature and/or laser target gas as shown in Fig. 13. This system can detect and
injection current provides wavelength tuning of the emitted measure the presence of CO2, CO, CH4 etc. LIDAR (Light
laser radiation from DFB devices within a limited spectral Detection And Ranging) operates in the ultraviolet, visible
range (~10 cm-1). The external cavity configuration, and infrared portion of the spectrum [36].
EC-QCL approach allows tuning over a range of >200 cm-1
[34]. Wavelength modulation spectroscopy (WMS) is based
on the modulation of the light emitted by a laser that is slowly
tuned through an absorption feature of the species to be
detected. The signal of second harmonic can be measured
with lock-in amplifier and it is proportional to the
concentration [35]. In different temperature conditions, for
the same concentration of gas, the amplitude of second
harmonic detected by lock in amplifier fluctuates with the
variation of ambient temperature. WMS measures faster Fig. 13: Differential absorption LIDAR concept [36]
response and can provide parts per million (ppm) to parts per
billion (ppb) chemical detection limits, depending on the Working procedure: The laser source emits a laser beam in
spectroscopic properties of the target gas and the sampling tune with molecular absorption line of a target gas and
path length. WMS is thus a highly sensitive and gas-specific receives a reflected signal affected by gas absorption of the
form of spectroscopic gas analysis [32]. target gas in the atmosphere [37]. Near the optimum
Advantages: wavelength for the particular gas to be measured, the amount
a. TDLAS has been widely employed in detecting of absorption of the transmitted light varies strongly
atmospheric trace gases due to its high sensitivity, high according to the wavelength for each particular molecule, and
selectivity, and fast time. this creates unique molecular “signatures” for these gases.
b. TDLAS method uses a compact single mode diode laser Therefore, the method called “Differential Absorption
LIDAR” (DIAL) can be used to determine the concentration.

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The large dust particles also backscatter radiation, but their Advantages of fiber optic sensor are geometrical
scattering is much less wavelength dependent [38]. flexibility, remote sensing capability, small size and
lightweight. It offers complete electrical isolation.
F. Fiber Optic Sensor
Theory: Two distinct approaches used in fiber optic G. Thermal Conductivity
sensors are: Firstly, by directly probing the spectrochemical The principle of thermal conductivity is very similar to that
changes, when interrogating wavelength coincides with the of the pellistor. Two platinum coils are arranged in a
absorption band of the analyte. Such direct spectroscopic Wheatstone bridge circuit. One coil is in contact with the gas
measurement is observed in near infrared TDLAS. Secondly, stream and other is sealed into a separate chamber, used for
by utilizing an analyte specific reagent transducer converts temperature compensation (Fig. 15). All the gases have
analyte concentration into an optical signal. Majority of this different thermal conductivity‟s and so will conduct heat
involve an intermediate sensor element, which undergoes away from the coil in the gas stream at different rates. The
chemical changes initiated in the presence of the specific change in temperature of the coil is directly proportional to
analyte [39]. the change in thermal conductivity of the gas mixture flowing
past it [43].
In second method, sensor works based on modified
cladding approach [40]. The cladding of the optical fiber is The major drawback of the sensor is that it is less selective
and sensitive. This technique for detecting gas is suitable for
removed and the gas sensitive material (the conducting
the measurement of high (%V/V) concentrations of binary
polymer film) is coated on a small section of the fiber
gas mixes
(sensing probe). The sensing probe length, source intensity
and source wavelength, indicates influence on the sensor
response.
Working procedure: Optical fiber sensor uses a light
modulation, i.e. one of the light parameter changes according
to the analytes presence. Organic conducting polymer such as
polypyrrole, polyaniline, polythiophene shows a reversible
change in their resistance when exposed to certain vapors
[41]. The change in conductivity changes permittivity, which
leads to change in the refractive index. The analytes reacts
with the coating to change the optical properties i.e. refractive
index, absorbance, and fluorescence which is coupled to core
to change the transmission properties through the optical Fig.15: Thermal conductivity [44]
fiber. An extrinsic fiber-optic evanescent wave chemical
H. Ionization Detector
sensor is developed by replacing a certain portion of the
original cladding with chemically sensitive material [42]. Photo ionization (Fig. 16) and flame ionization (Fig. 17)
The sensor structure in which small section of cladding is are common detection techniques used for gas
replaced with chemically sensitive layer is shown in Fig. 14. chromatographic (GC) systems in laboratory environments.
Both have very good sensitivity and large linear dynamic
range.

Fig. 14: Configuration of fiber optic sensor and geometric

optics ray through the sensing region [42]
Fig. 16: Photo ionization detector [47]
Any change in the refractive index of the modified
cladding due to the analyte can change the condition of total Both techniques measure the current generated by the
internal reflection between the modified cladding and air, and ionized species sensed by ion collector. The photoionization
results in an intensity change. technique ionizes molecules using a high energy photon
source, such as ultraviolet (UV) radiation [45], while flame

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ionization technique burns organic molecules in a hydrogen Fig. 18: CMOS based micro hotplate design of gas sensor
flame [46]. The ions generations are detected similarly in array [50]
both PIDs and FIDs. When electric field gradient is applied The resistance of a metal oxide film varies depending on
across the ionization region to drive the ions to the electrodes, the type of gas exposure. Combustible gases such as CH4,
the ions release their charges to produce signals that can be H2S and NH3 act as reducing agents thereby adding electrons
processed. to the metal oxide, which increases conductivity (decreases
resistance). Metal oxide sensing films have been doped with
noble metals to increase sensitivity and reduce response time.
Dopants such as Pt or Pd are catalysts that promote chemical
reactions by reducing the activation energy between the film
and test gas without being consumed by them. This allows the
reaction to occur at a faster rate and lower gas concentrations.
Cantilever based sensor (piezoelectric based):
Piezoelectric power generator made by MEMS technology
can scavenge power from low-level ambient vibration
sources. The developed MEMS power generators are
featured with fixed/narrow operation frequency and power
output in microwatt level [52]. These devices can be used as
sensing platforms. Molecular adsorption of target gas onto
Fig. 17: Flame ionization detector [48]

The main differences between these two techniques are

their ionization source and mechanism. The photoionization
technique is a nondestructive method whereas the gas sample
is destroyed in flame ionization method.
I. MEMS Technology
Micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) are
three-dimensional, electro-mechanical devices, which are
made by micromachining silicon wafers using standard
microelectronic fabrication and post-process techniques [49].
MEMS have been used to reduce the size, power Fig. 19: Cantilever based hydrogen gas sensor [54]
consumption and cost of gas sensors while improving overall
performance [50]. MEMS can be used in different innovative the sensing element, a cantilever, shifts its resonance
ways by combining the existing proven technologies as frequency and changes its surface forces (surface stress).
described herewith. Adsorption onto the sensing element (composed of two
MEMS based array of sensor (work function based): chemically different surfaces) produces a differential stress
Micromachining processes have enabled designers to place between the two surfaces and induces bending. The analyte
arrays of sensors on a single chip that can be mass-produced that induces the mechanical response is chemisorbed onto the
at reduced cost. SnO2/Pt, WO3/Au and ZnO/Pd sensing films cantilever in a reversible or irreversible process. Devices that
were found sensitive to the target gases NH 3, H2S, and CH4, respond to chemical stimuli in this manner are referred as
respectively. Sensing pastes are deposited on the outside of a micro-cantilever sensors [53].
ceramic tube with a heater on the inside (Fig. 18). But these Cantilever based hydrogen sensor uses piezoelectric
sensors have some cross-sensitivity. Further, this technique principle for gas sensing. This sensor uses stress-sensitive,
suffers from baseline drift, and high resistance and recovery palladium coated micro-cantilevers to detect hydrogen (Fig.
time. However, sensor array response to the gases is unique, 19). Absorption of hydrogen into palladium is fully
which allows selectivity by pattern recognition [51]. reversible, at any given moment the cantilever capacitance
indicates the current hydrogen concentration [54].
J. Nanotechnology
Applications of nanotechnology in gas sensors are still in
the preliminary stage of development. Presently, metal oxide
1-dimensional (1D) nanostructure as gas sensors are most
promising area for nanotechnology. Some other 1D
nanostructure gas sensors operation is based on changes in
the photoluminescence spectroscopy and the mass of sensing

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element, which accurately uses a quartz crystal microbalance the sensing material. It is quantitatively measured based on
[55]. change in frequency rate (Sf) given by:
1D nanostructure has advantages over conventional Sf= |∆f/∆t| = | (af2∆m/A)/ ∆t | (9)
metal-oxide-based sensors in terms of power consumption, Where,
sensitivity, miniaturization and large surface area to volume ∆ƒ — response frequency shift within the time interval of
ratio [56]. The change in the electrical conductivity caused by ∆t,
chemisorption of gas molecules on the surface of 1D a — constant,
nanostructure metal oxides is measured by ƒ— fundamental frequency of the unloaded piezoelectric
electro-transducers. The main structures of the crystal,
electro-transducers are field effect transistors (FET), resistive ∆m — mass loading on the surface of the crystal, and
gas micro-sensors, and resistive gas sensors [57]. 1D A — surface area of the electrode.
nanostructure FET is fabricated using a single nanowire
bridge between two metal electrodes on a heavily doped Ceramics such as zinc oxide (ZnO), tin oxide (SnO2),
silicon substrate covered with SiO2 acting as insulating layer indium oxide (In2O3), and titanium dioxide or titania (TiO2)
between the nanowire/electrode combinations and the are used as nanowires/nanobelts for gas sensing. Carbon
conducting silicon (Fig. 20). nanotubes (CNTs) have many distinct properties that may be
exploited to develop next generation sensors. Single walled
nanotubes (SWNTs) have been highlighted as gas-sensing
elements due to the 1D structure with all the atoms residing
only on the surface.
CNTs can be designed to have specific properties by
changing the ratio of diameters of linearly joined CNTs,
which in turn can be used in fabrication of FETs. The
untreated SWNT-FET typically shows a p-type behavior,
with threshold voltages being shifted upon gas exposure [58].
Fig. 20: The schematic of the single nanowire FET [57] The inlet and outlet valves allow gases to flow over the
carbon nanotubes of FET. Gas flow increases conductance of
Resistive gas micro-sensors are manufactured by MEMS the carbon nanotubes. This can be obtained using
technology in which a film composed of nanowires is current-voltage relationship before and after exposure to the
contacted by pairs of metal electrodes on a substrate (Fig. gases. The effect occurs because when the gas molecules
21). The measurement is performed by monitoring the bond to the carbon nanotubes, charge is transferred from the
changes in current or resistance of the device. The other one nanotubes to the gas molecules, which increases
is resistive gas sensor, the channel length between the two hole-concentration in the carbon nanotubes and enhances the
electrodes for resistive sensor is usually in the millimeter conductance (Fig. 22). The carbon nanotubes are covered
scale within a ceramic tube. with an insulating protection film [59]. CNTs show almost
threefold sensitivity and efficiency compare to other metal
oxide gas sensors available in the market, such as tin oxide
sensor [60].

Fig. 21: Resistive nano-sensors: (a) MEMS structures with

interdigitated electrode; and (b) nanowire gas sensors on
ceramic tube [57].

For photoluminescence measurement, nanowire samples

are mounted in a small vacuum chamber with ports to pass
gasses and provide optical access. Photo-desorption and Fig. 22: Carbon nanotubes based gas sensor using MEMS
photo-adsorption of gases are found to affect the intensity, platform [61]
indicating the participation of free carriers. The time
dependence of the changes in the spectral peak intensity is IV. CHARACTERISTICS OF GAS SENSORS
compared for measurement of gas concentration. Performance of sensors is characterized by the following
Quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) is an extremely parameters [62]:
sensitive measurement device. The principle of measurement  Sensitivity is a change of measured signal per analyte
is based on mass change as the gas adsorbs on the surface of concentration unit, i.e. the slope of a calibration graph.

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This parameter is sometimes confused with the detection  Life cycle is the period of time over which the sensor
limit. will continuously operate.
 Selectivity refers to characteristic that determines
whether a sensor can respond selectively to a group of V. COMPARISON OF VARIOUS SENSORS
analytes or even specifically to a single analyte. An ideal sensor would possess: (i) high sensitivity,
 Stability is the ability of a sensor to provide reproducible dynamic range, selectivity and stability; (ii) low detection
results for a certain period of time. This includes limit; (iii) good linearity; (iv) small hysteresis and response
retaining the sensitivity, selectivity, response and time; and (v) long life cycle. However, no single gas sensor is
recovery time. perfect in all the above parameters. Combination of
 Detection limit is the lowest concentration of the analyte appropriate detectors and sampling techniques help in
that can be detected by the sensor under given reliable measurement of the target gas based on ambient
conditions, particularly at a given temperature. conditions of the measuring area. Selection of right sensor is
 Dynamic range is the analyte concentration range important for mitigating the impending hazard.
between the detection limit and the highest limiting One sensor can be evaluated and compared against other
concentration. sensors. Selection of sensors depends on various parameters,
 Linearity is the relative deviation of an experimentally namely physical properties of target gases, ambient
determined calibration graph from an ideal straight line. conditions, required sensitivity, maintenance cycle, method
 Resolution is the lowest concentration difference that of operations etc. Given the large number of variables, it is
can be distinguished by sensor. tempting to either oversimplify the selection process to a few
 Response time is the time required for sensor to respond rules. Three qualities are essentially required in a sensor for
to a step concentration change from zero to a certain gas monitoring, i.e. simple, reliable and easy to maintain.
concentration value. Simple means not much complicated, adapted to user‟s
 Recovery time is the time it takes for the sensor signal to requirement and backed by strong technology. Reliable
return to its initial value after a step concentration indicates always “alarm” when required and “never” when
change from a certain value to zero. should not. Easy to maintain specifies calibration is not
 Working temperature is usually the temperature that required often, lifespan is long and troubleshooting is simple.
corresponds to maximum sensitivity. Advantages and disadvantages of different types of sensor
 Hysteresis is the maximum difference in output when the are summarized in Table V.
value is approached with an increasing and a decreasing
analyte concentration range.

Table V: Comparison of various gas detection techniques [63] - [65]

Sensor Advantages Disadvantages
Catalytic Simple, robust and inexpensive. Sensor poisoning, sensor inhibitors and sensor cracking
Infrared Immune to poisons and contamination, fail-safe Flammability detection is only in %LEL range, high to
operation, no routine calibration is required, and medium power consumption, and the gas must be infrared
ability to operate in continuous presence of gas. active.
Electrochemical Reliable, fast response, low power, measures toxic Limited to operate at low ambient temperature and narrow
gases in relatively low concentration, and wide pressure range, unsuitable for use in dry atmosphere and not
range of gases can be detected. fail-safe.
Semiconductor Robust, long operating life, wide operating Commonly poor selectivity causing „false‟ alarm, high
(solid state) temperature range, detect wide range of gases. power consumption and response drift problem.
Fiber optic (clad High sensitivity, short response time and operate at Not stable for long time, irreversibility, and low selectivity.
modified) room-temperature.
Laser No interference from other gases, high speed, high Only one gas can be measured with each instrument; heavy
selectivity, low maintenance and operating cost, dust, steam or fog blocks laser beam.
and self-calibration.
Flame ionization Best for CHC compounds. Not used in explosive areas, destroy the sample, responds
detector poorly to halogenated hydrocarbons, and non-specific
response.
Photo ionization Good method for organic compound detection at Non-specific response, and responds only to ionizable
detector low level. gases.
Thermal General applicability, large linear range, simplicity Low sensitivity
Conductivity and non-destructive.

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Nanotechnology Ultra-sensitive, large surface area to volume ratio, Fabrication and repeatability is difficult, and expensive.
fast response time and light weight.

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Dr. Swades kumar Chaulya, B. Tech., M. Tech., Ph.D.
(IIT, BHU)

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 ISSN 2249-6343
International Journal of Computer Technology and Electronics Engineering (IJCTEE)
Volume 3, Issue 3, June 2013

Scientist
CSIR-CIMFR, Dhanbad
Research Area: Wireless Communication, Control
Monitoring Automation in Underground Mines.
[email protected]

Dr. Girendra Mohan Prasad, M.Sc., Ph.D. (ISM,

Dhanbad)
Sr. Principal Scientist
CSIR-CIMFR, Dhanbad
Research Area: Mine Instrumentation and
Communication.
[email protected]

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