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Plasma Membrane interactions with water are what allow plasma

membranes to form.
The plasma membrane, also called the cell
membrane, is the membrane found in all cells that 2. PROTEINS
separates the interior of the cell from the outside Proteins are wedged between the lipids that
environment. In bacterial and plant cells, a cell make up the membrane, and these
wall is attached to the plasma membrane on its transmembrane proteins allow molecules that
outside surface. The plasma membrane consists couldn’t enter the cell otherwise to pass
of a lipid bilayer that is semipermeable. The through by forming channels, pores or gates.
plasma membrane regulates the transport of In this way, the cell controls the flow of these
materials entering and exiting the cell. molecules as they enter and exit. Proteins in
the cell membrane play a role in many other
functions, such as cell signaling, cell
recognition, and enzyme activity.

3. CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are also found in the plasma
membrane; specifically, most carbohydrates
in the membrane are part of glycoproteins,
which are formed when a carbohydrate
attaches to a protein. Glycoproteins play a
role in the interactions between cells,
including cell adhesion, the process by which
cells attach to each other.
STRUCTURE
The modern understanding of the plasma
A cell’s plasma membrane defines the cell,
membrane is referred to as the fluid mosaic
outlines its borders, and determines the nature of
model. The plasma membrane is composed of a
its interaction with its environment. Cells exclude
bilayer of phospholipids, with their hydrophobic,
some substances, take in others, and excrete still
fatty acid tails in contact with each other. The
others, all in controlled quantities. The plasma
landscape of the membrane is studded with
membrane must be very flexible to allow certain
proteins, some of which span the membrane.
cells, such as red and white blood cells, to change
Some of these proteins serve to transport
shape as they pass through narrow capillaries.
materials into or out of the cell. Carbohydrates are
These are the more obvious plasma membrane
attached to some of the proteins and lipids on the
functions. In addition, the plasma membrane’s
outward-facing surface of the membrane. These
surface carries markers that allow cells to
form complexes that function to identify the cell to
recognize one another, which is vital for tissue and
other cells. The fluid nature of the membrane
organ formation during early development, and
owes itself to the configuration of the fatty acid
which later plays a role in the immune response’s
tails, the presence of cholesterol embedded in the
“self” versus “non-self” distinction.
membrane (in animal cells), and the mosaic
nature of the proteins and protein-carbohydrate
complexes, which are not firmly fixed in place.
Plasma membranes enclose the borders of cells,
but rather than being a static bag, they are
dynamic and constantly in flux.

CHARACTERISTICS

1. The plasma membrane is the outermost layer

of covering present around cells and all
The Fluid Mosaic Model
internal organelles of the cell whose function
is the protection of the cell and its
organelles.
1. PHOSPHOLIPIDS
2. It is a boundary layer that allows only selected
The membrane is partially made up of
substances to enter and exit the cell and its
molecules called phospholipids, which
organelles, therefore they are referred to as
spontaneously arrange themselves into a
selectively permeable membrane.
double layer with hydrophilic (“water loving”)
3. Since, it monitors the exit and entry of
heads on the outside and hydrophobic
substances, it acts as a connection between
(“water hating”) tails on the inside. These
the cell and its surrounding environment.

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4. The thickness of this layer ranges from 5nm Passive Transport

to 8nm and is composed of phospholipids,
carbohydrates, proteins, and some other Passive transport is a naturally occurring
conjugated molecules. phenomenon and does not require the cell to
expend energy to accomplish the movement. In
passive transport, substance move from an area
FUNCTIONS of higher concentration to an area of low
concentration in a process called diffusion.
By acting as the boundary that separates the
cytoplasm (as well as the nucleus) from the
extracellular environment, the plasma membrane THREE TYPES OF PASSIVE
helps regulate substances that enter or leave the TRANSPORT
cell, through characteristics of the phospholipid
bilayer, which in turn provides ideal cellular 1. SIMPLE DIFFUSION
conditions for the cell to function normally. This process is the result of the random
movement of molecules. Process in which a
Some of the other functions of the plasma single substance moves from an area of high
membrane may be classified as follows: concentration to an area of low concentration.

1. TRANSPORT When the concentration of substances on

Transport is one of the main functions of the both sides of the membrane is equal,
plasma membrane. While some substances diffusion will not take place anymore. This is
are allowed into the cell, some are prevented known as dynamic equilibrium as
from gaining entrance. Therefore, the plasma characteristics of homeostasis in the cell.
membrane is selectively permeable and thus
does not allow all substances in and out of the
cell. You can duplicate this slide as much as
you want to customize your presentation.

There are two types main types of transport

that occur through the plasma membrane
including:

• PASSIVE TRANSPORT Figure: Diffusion through a permeable

The type of transportation that does not membrane
require the use of energy
2. FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• ACTIVE TRANSPORT It is the movement of materials across the
Through the use of energy given that plasma membrane by means of transport or
substances have to be transported transmembrane proteins down a
against a concentration gradient concentration gradient (from high to low
concentration) with the expenditure of cellular
2. INGESTION energy.
Because of the nature of the plasma
membrane, different types of cells are able to TWO KINDS OF CARRIER PROTEIN
ingest a variety of substances into the cell. First, channel proteins which provide
This is achieved through such processes as openings or pores across phospholipid
endocytosis, phagocytosis, and pinocytosis. bilayer for the molecules or ions can pass.
Second, the carrier proteins or receptor
3. CELL DIVISION proteins that changes its shape after the
As mentioned, the plasma membrane is a molecule or ions bind with them and moves
dynamic structure that is always in motion. or transport the molecules or ions across the
This characteristic makes it easy for a cell to membrane.
divide when need be to form two daughter
cells from the original cell. Here, the plasma
membrane pinches at the central part and
separates to form two new cells.

4. COMMUNICATION
Through structures on their surface (proteins
and carbohydrates) cells are able to
communicate with each other and interact
through signaling. Figure: Facilitated Diffusion

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3. OSMOSIS In this manner, water diffuses inside the cell

It is the diffusion of water through a causing it to swell and if this action continues,
selective permeable membrane according to cell will soon burst or cytolyze. This is known
the concentration gradient of water across the as cytolysis. Also in this situation, the turgor
membrane. Osmosis transports only water pressure increases inside the cell.
and the membrane limit the diffusion of
solutes in the water.

Osmotic pressure is the result of the force

exert outward due to the increased water that
move inside the cell. It is also defined as the
tendency of a solution to take in pure solvents
by osmosis.

On the other hand, another pressure which is

outward exerted against the wall. This is
known as turgor pressure.

Active Transport
Active Transport is defined as a process that
involves the movement of molecules from a region
of lower concentration to a region of higher
concentration against a gradient or an obstacle
with the use of external energy.
IMPORTANCE OF OSMOSIS
As water is essential to life then this process is
also important to living organism. This type of PROCESS OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT
cellular transport is important to plants since
plants need water and also to animals including Active transport requires energy to move
humans related to thirst and drinking in particular. substances from a low concentration of that
substance to a high concentration of that
substance, in contrast with the process of
THREE TYPES OF SOLUTIONS osmosis. Active transport is most commonly
accomplished by a transport protein that
1. ISOTONIC SOLUTION undergoes a change in shape when it binds with
A solution is said to be isotonic when the the cell’s “fuel,” a molecule called adenosine
concentration inside and outside of the cell is triphosphate (ATP).
the same or equal. Water molecules can still
move in and out of the cell (normal in shape)
but in random, hence no osmosis occurs but
the term is dynamic equilibrium.

2. HYPERTONIC SOLUTION
A solution is said to be hypertonic when there
is greater concentration of dissolved
substances outside the cell than the inside. In
this situation, water moves or diffuses out of
the cell.

And if the movement of water continues to go

outside of the cell, plasmolysis will occur
which means the loss of water from a cell
resulting to drop of turgor pressure. Plants will
wilt if not watered regularly as well as the skin
wrinkles due to loss of water.

3. HYPOTONIC SOLUTION
A solution is said to be in hypotonic when the
concentration of dissolved substances is
greater inside the cell than the outside.

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To move substances against a concentration or membrane folds over the substance and it
electrochemical gradient, a cell must use energy. becomes completely enclosed by the
Active transport mechanisms do just this, membrane. At this point a membrane-bound
expending energy (often in the form of ATP) to sac, or vesicle, pinches off and moves the
maintain the right concentrations of ions and substance into the cytosol.
molecules in living cells. In fact, cells spend much
of the energy they harvest in metabolism to keep
their active transport processes running. For
instance, most of a red blood cell’s energy is used
to maintain internal sodium and potassium levels
that differ from those of the surrounding
environment.

STRUCTURE OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT

TWO MAIN KINDS OF ENDOCYTOSIS
1. PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Primary active transport directly uses a 1. PHAGOCYTOSIS
source of chemical energy (e.g., ATP) to Also called as cellular eating, occurs
move molecules across a membrane against when the dissolved materials enter the
their gradient. cell. The plasma membrane engulfs the
solid material, forming a phagocytic
vesicle.

2. PINOCYTOSIS
Also called as cellular drinking, occurs
when the plasma membrane folds
inward to form a channel allowing
dissolved substances to enter the cell.
When the channel is closed, the liquid is
encircled within a pinocytic vesicle.

2. SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Secondary active transport (cotransport), on
the other hand, uses an electrochemical
gradient – generated by active transport – as
an energy source to move molecules against
their gradient, and thus does not directly
require a chemical source of energy such as
ATP.

2. EXOCYTOSIS
Exocytosis describes the process of vesicles
fusing with the plasma membrane and
releasing their contents to the outside of the
cell. Exocytosis occurs when a cell produces
substances for export, such as a protein, or
when the cell is getting rid of a waste product
or a toxin. Newly made membrane proteins
and membrane lipids are moved on to the
plasma membrane by exocytosis.

TYPES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT

1. ENDOCYTOSIS
Endocytosis is the process of capturing a
substance or particle from outside the cell by
engulfing it with the cell membrane. The

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3. PROTEIN PUMPS cell, and the process repeats. The sodium-

Protein pumps are transmembrane proteins, potassium pump is found in the plasma
which are involved in the active transport of membrane of almost every human cell and is
ions across the membrane against the common to all cellular life. It helps maintain
concentration gradient. cell potential and regulates cellular volume.

5. ELECTROCHEMICAL GRADIENT
The difference in charge and chemical
concentration across a membrane.

Electrochemical gradients arise from the

combined effects of concentration gradients
and electrical gradients.

4. SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP
Sodium-potassium pump, the most important
pump in the animal cell is considered as an
example of primary active transport. In this
process of transportation, the sodium ions are
moved to the outside of the cell and
potassium ions are moved to the inside of the
cell. 6. CONCENTRATION GRADIENT
A concentration gradient contains stored
The sodium-potassium pump moves sodium energy that drives diffusion. Solute molecules
ions to the outside of the cell and potassium from the side of higher concentration move
ions to the inside of the cell, areas where across the membrane to an area of lower
these ions are already highly concentrated. concentration until both sides have an equal
ATP is required for the protein to change concentration, called equilibrium.
shape. ATP is converted into ADP
(adenosine diphosphate) during active Concentration gradient diffusion happens
transport. over time across a membrane.

CARRIER PROTEINS FOR

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
The sodium-potassium pump system moves
sodium and potassium ions against large 1. UNIPORTER carries one molecule or ion.
concentration gradients. It moves two 2. SYMPORTER carries two different molecules
potassium ions into the cell where potassium or ions, both in the same direction.
levels are high, and pumps three sodium ions 3. ANTIPORTER also carries two different
out of the cell and into the extracellular fluid. molecules or ions, but in different directions.

As is shown in Figure above, three sodium

ions bind with the protein pump inside the
cell. The carrier protein then gets energy from
ATP and changes shape. In doing so, it
pumps the three sodium ions out of the cell.
At that point, two potassium ions from outside
the cell bind to the protein pump. The
potassium ions are then transported into the

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EXAMPLES OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT • Carrier proteins such as uniporters,

symporters, and antiporters perform
• Phagocytosis of bacteria by Macrophages. primary active transport and facilitate the
• Movement of Ca2+ ions out of cardiac muscle movement of solutes across the cell’s
cells. membrane.
• Transportation of amino acids across the
intestinal lining in the human gut.
• Secretion of proteins like enzymes, peptide Vesicular Transport
hormones, and antibodies from different
cells. • also called as corpuscular transport
• Functioning of the White Blood Cells by • a membrane protein that regulates or
protecting our body by attacking diseases facilitates the movement of specific
causing microbes and other foreign invaders. molecules a vesicles membrane
• a type of transport by vesicle formation. An
KEY POINTS active movement of substances across the
cell membrane via a vesicle.
• During active transport, a protein pump • it involves a transport of macromolecules
uses energy, in the form of ATP, to move across the plasma membrane
molecules from an area of low concentration • it is a subtype of active transport (requires
to an area of high concentration. ATP)
• Primary active transport directly uses a • it is of three types: Endocytosis, Exocytosis
source of chemical energy (e.g., ATP) to and Transcytosis
move molecules across a membrane against
their gradient. TYPES OF VESICULAR TRANSPORT
• Secondary active transport (cotransport),
on the other hand, uses an electrochemical 1. ENDOCYTOSIS
gradient – generated by active transport – as
• It is a cellular process in which substances
an energy source to move molecules
are brought into the cell. The material to be
against their gradient, and thus does not
internalized is surrounded by an area of cell
directly require a chemical source of energy
membrane, which then buds off inside the cell
such as ATP.
to form a vesicle containing the ingested
• Endocytosis involves cells taking in material.
substances from outside the cell by engulfing
• The term was proposed by De Duve in 1963.
them in a vesicle derived from the cell
• The importance of Endocytosis is that it
membrane. Exocytosis is where cells shift
enables uptake of nutrients and helps to
materials, such as waste products, from
control the composition of the plasma
inside the cell to the extracellular space.
membrane. The process is vital for the
• Pinocytosis primarily refers to the uptake of
regulation of major cellular functions such as
extracellular fluids and small molecules by a
antigen presentation or intracellular signaling
cell, whereas phagocytosis is a process by
cascades
which the cell membrane invaginates around
• Endocytosis has two types: Phagocytosis,
large macromolecular structures (e.g.,
Pinocytosis, and Receptor – Mediated
proteins and viruses) that are otherwise
Endocytosis (RME).
unable to diffuse into the cell.
• The sodium-potassium pump system
A. PHAGOCYTOSIS
moves sodium and potassium ions against
• Phagocytosis derived from Greek word
large concentration gradients. It moves two
(phagein) “to eat”, and (kytos) “cell”, is the
potassium ions into the cell where potassium
process by which a cell uses its plasma
levels are high, and pumps three sodium ions
membrane to engulf a large particle (≥ 0.5
out of the cell and into the extracellular fluid.
μm) in diameter, giving it a rise to an internal
• Concentration gradient is the change in
compartment called phagosome. It is one
concentration of a substance over a given
type of endocytosis. A cell that performs
distance. An electrical gradient is a change
phagocytosis is called phagocyte.
in electric potential over a given distance. An
• It plays a central role in innate immunity by
electrochemical gradient is a change in the
illuminating pathogenic bacteria, fungi and
concentration of ions across a membrane or
malignant cells, and contribute to adaptive
membrane potential.
immunity by presenting antigens to
• A uniporter carries one molecule or ion. A
lymphocytes.
symporter carries two different molecules or
• In a multicellular organism’s immune system,
ions, both in the same direction. An
phagocytosis is a major mechanism used to
antiporter also carries two different
remove pathogens and cell debris. The
molecules or ions, but in different directions.
ingested material is then digested in

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phagosome. Bacteria, dead tissue cells, and 2. EXOCYTOSIS

small mineral particles are all examples of • It is the fusion of secretory vesicles with the
objects that may be phagocytized. Some plasma membrane and results in the
protozoa use phagocytosis as means to discharge of vesicle content into the
obtain nutrients. extracellular space and the incorporation of
• Phagocytosis was first noted by Canadian new proteins and lipids into the plasma
Physician William Osler (1876), and later membrane.
studied and named by Elie Metchnikoff • Exocytosis can be constitutive in all cells or
(1880,1833). regulated on specialized cells such as
neurons, endocrine and exocrine cells.
B. PINOCYTOSIS • Steps of exocytosis includes: vesicle
• It refers to the uptake of extracellular fluids trafficking, tethering, docking, priming and
and dissolved solutes, such as fat droplets, fusing.
vitamins, and antigens.
• The term pinocytosis is derived from the 3. TRANSCYTOSIS
Greek word “pino”, meaning “to drink” and • The vesicular transport of macromolecules
“cyto”, meaning “cell”. Therefore, the process from one side of a cell to the other, is a
of pinocytosis can be thought of as cellular strategy used by multicellular organisms to
drinking. selectively move material between two
• Pinocytosis is a cellular process that requires environments without altering the unique
substantial energy in the form of adenosine composition of those environments.
triphosphate (ATP) and is a form of
endocytosis, a general process by which
substances are brought into a cell.

C. RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS
(RME)
• also known as clathrin- mediated
endocytosis, is a process by which cells
absorb metabolites, hormones, proteins and
some cases viruses- by inward budding of the
plasma membrane or (invagination).
• The function of receptor- mediated
endocytosis is diverse. It is widely used to the
specific uptake of certain substances
required by the cell.
• The role of the receptor-mediated
endocytosis is well recognized up to take
down regulation of transmembrane signal
transduction but can also promote sustained
signal transduction.
• The main stages of clathrin-mediated
endocytosis can be subdivided into 6 main
steps: initiation, growth, stabilization, vesicle
budding, scission and uncoating.

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