2.

Less Messy Electric Stuff : DC causes fewer

Module 5: AC Circuits disruptions in electronic devices, which is helpful for
things like computers.
5.1 features of DC Current:-
Direct Current (DC) is a type of electric flow that 3. Batteries Work Well : Batteries give out DC power
always goes in one direction. It doesn't change back and are great for devices that need steady energy, like
and forth like Alternating Current (AC). Here's what phones and emergency systems.
you need to know about DC:
4. Making Things with Electricity : Some special
1. Steady Flow : DC always flows steadily in the same things we make need DC, like when we want to put a
direction, unlike AC which switches directions. shiny coating on something (electroplating).
2. Battery Power : DC is what batteries and things like
solar panels produce. 5. Certain Electronics Love It : Some electronic parts,
3. Not Always for Long Distances : While DC is used like the ones making your gadgets work, really like
in many devices, it's not great for sending power over DC.
really long distances like AC is.
6. Steady Power : Batteries provide a constant power
4. Good for Certain Devices : Some devices, like level, which some gadgets need.
diodes and transistors, work well with DC.
7. Less Energy Waste : AC can waste some energy,
5. Charging Batteries : When you charge your phone but DC is more efficient because it doesn't play those
or laptop, you're using DC. tricks.

6. Simple and Predictable : DC is like a straight road 8. Short Trips, Less Loss : For short trips, DC power
for electricity – it's simpler and easier to control can lose less energy compared to AC.
compared to AC.
9. Sun and Wind Power : Solar panels and wind
Remember, even though turbines create DC power, so using it directly can save
DC is supposed to go in energy.
one direction, real-world
stuff can cause a bit of 10. Techy Places : In places with lots of computers
wiggling in that direction and devices, like data centers, DC is getting more
sometimes. And modern popular because it works better.
technology can play with DC to make it do different
things. But remember, AC is still the top choice for sending
5.2 Advantages of DC Over AC :- power over long distances and changing the power
Direct Current (DC) has some good points compared level. The one to pick depends on what job you need
to Alternating Current (AC) in certain situations: electricity to do!

1. Simple Circuits :- DC circuits are easier to work

with because the electricity flows in a straight line.
 degrees and indicates the position of one waveform
5.3 comparison of Direct Current (DC) and relative to another.
Alternating Current (AC) :
Direct Current Alternating Current 7. Waveform : A graphical representation of how
Aspect (DC) (AC) voltage or current varies with time. The most
Constant, always common AC waveform is the sinusoidal waveform.
Direction of Flow in one direction Reverses periodically
Voltage Level Steady voltage Voltage varies in cycles 8. Root Mean Square (RMS) Voltage : The
Batteries, solar effective voltage of an AC waveform that would
Sources cells, etc. Generators, power plants
produce the same average power dissipation as a
Circuit Complexity Simpler circuits Can be more complex corresponding DC voltage.
Electromagnetic
Interference Less EMI More EMI 9. Peak-to-Peak Voltage : The difference between
Efficient battery Not suitable for direct the maximum positive and maximum negative
Energy Storage storage storage
values of an AC waveform.
Certain devices
Component like diodes, Works with a wide range of
Compatibility transistors devices
Long-Distance Efficient through
Transmission Less efficient transformers
Less over short More due to capacitance and
Energy Losses distances inductance
Suitable for direct
use of solar and Requires conversion for
Renewable Energy wind power distribution
No reactive power Reactive power can cause
Reactive Power inefficiencies
Electronics, 10. Peak Current : The maximum value of the AC
batteries, some current waveform.
industrial General power distribution,
Applications processes motors, etc.
11. Reactance : The opposition that an AC circuit
offers to the flow of alternating current due to
Remember, both DC and AC have their own factors like capacitance or inductance.
strengths and are used in different situations based
on what's needed. 12. Impedance (Z) : The total opposition offered
by an AC circuit to the flow of alternating current. It
5.4 common terms and their definitions related to combines resistance and reactance and is measured
Alternating Current (AC): in ohms.

1. Alternating Current (AC) : An electric current 13. Resonance : The condition in an AC circuit
that reverses direction periodically. This reversal where the reactive components (capacitance and
occurs in a cyclical manner, typically following a inductance) cancel each other out, resulting in a
sinusoidal waveform. higher current flow.

2. Frequency (f) : The number of complete cycles 14. AC Circuit : A circuit that uses alternating
(oscillations) of AC that occur in one second. It is current, consisting of components like resistors,
measured in Hertz (Hz). Standard AC power capacitors, and inductors.
systems often use a frequency of 50 or 60 Hz.
15. Transformer : A device that changes the
3. Voltage (V) : The electrical potential difference voltage level of an AC signal by electromagnetic
between two points in a circuit. In AC, the voltage induction. It is crucial for efficient AC power
regularly changes in both magnitude and direction transmission and distribution.
over time.
16. Three-Phase AC : A system where three AC
4. Amplitude (Peak Voltage) : The maximum voltages are generated, each offset by a third of the
value of the AC voltage waveform, measured from period. It's commonly used for power distribution
the centerline to the peak of the waveform. and industrial applications.

5. Period (T) : The time it takes for one complete 17. Power Factor : The ratio of real power (used for
cycle of an AC waveform to occur. It is the useful work) to apparent power (total power). It
reciprocal of frequency (T = 1/f). indicates how effectively power is being utilized in
an AC circuit.
6. Phase Angle : The measure of the shift in time
between two AC waveforms. It's expressed in
18. AC Generator (Alternator) : A device that Neutral : Wire that completes an electrical circuit,
converts mechanical energy into AC electrical allowing current to flow back. Used for safe
energy through electromagnetic induction. operation.

These terms help describe the characteristics and Earth (Ground) : Connection to the ground for
behavior of Alternating Current, which is the safety. Prevents shocks, dissipates charges, and
standard form of electricity used for power stabilizes voltage.
distribution in most parts of the world. 5.7 USe of vector Diagram:-
Vector diagrams are graphical tools that help
5.5Advantages of AC Over Dc :- represent quantities with both magnitude and
direction, making them useful in various fields,
Certainly, here's a concise version of the advantages including physics, engineering, and mathematics.
of Alternating Current (AC) over Direct Current Here are some common applications of vector
(DC): diagrams:

1. Efficient Transmission : AC is better for Electrical Engineering :

sending electricity over long distances with fewer - AC Circuits : Vector diagrams are used to
energy losses. visualize phase relationships between voltages and
currents in AC circuits. This helps in understanding
2. Voltage Flexibility : AC voltage can be easily impedance, power factor, and circuit behavior.
changed for safer distribution and efficient
transmission. 5.8 AC simple circuit :-

3. Motor Compatibility : Many motors and Certainly, let's talk about a simple AC circuit:
appliances work on AC power, making it great for
industries.

4. Transformer Usage : AC's easy voltage

transformation is crucial for devices like
transformers, motors, and generators.

5. Safe Maintenance : AC lines can be made safer

for workers during maintenance. Components : In a basic AC circuit, you might
have a few components:
6. Cost-Effective Generation : AC generators are - AC Power Source : This could be a wall outlet
common and cost-effective for large-scale power. or a generator providing alternating current.
- Load : This is the device that uses the electrical
7. Polyphase Efficiency : AC's polyphase systems energy. It could be a light bulb, a fan, or any
are efficient for large machines and motors. electrical appliance.

8. Frequency Control : AC systems can keep a Wiring : The circuit consists of wires connecting
steady frequency, stabilizing devices. the components. There are typically three wires:
- Live (L) Wire : Carries the alternating current
9. Power Grid Integration : AC fits well with from the power source to the load.
existing power grids. - Neutral (N) Wire : Completes the circuit by
carrying the current back from the load to the power
10. Lower Corrosion Risk : AC reduces the risk of source.
metal corrosion in pipelines. - Earth (E) Wire : Provides a safe path for electric
current to the ground, enhancing safety by
11. Lighting Compatibility : Most lighting works preventing shocks and discharging static electricity.
better on AC power.
Operation : When you turn on the AC power, the
Both AC and DC have their places, but AC's alternating current flows from the live wire through
characteristics make it preferable for widespread the load, providing energy for the device to work.
power distribution and large-scale applications. Once the current passes through the load, it returns
through the neutral wire to complete the circuit.
5.6 Neutral and earth concept :-
Waveform : The voltage and current in an AC
Certainly, here's a very brief explanation of the circuit follow a sinusoidal waveform that alternates
concepts: between positive and negative values. The
frequency (how often the wave completes a cycle)
and amplitude (peak value) of the waveform
depend on the power source.
 - Impedance (Z) is the total opposition to the current
Safety : The earth wire is connected to the in the circuit. In a series circuit with a resistor and
grounding of the building. In case of faults or short an inductor, the impedance is the vector sum of the
circuits, it provides a safe path for excess current to resistance and the inductive reactance (Z = R + jXL,
flow into the ground, preventing electric shocks and where j represents the imaginary unit).
potential fires.
Current Flow :
Remember, this is a simplified explanation of a basic - The alternating current in the circuit is determined
AC circuit. More complex circuits can involve by the impedance. If the impedance is high, the
resistors, capacitors, inductors, and other current is lower, and if the impedance is low, the
components that affect the behavior of the circuit current is higher.
and its response to alternating current.
Key Points :
5.9 AC circuit with R & L in series :- - The phase relationship between the voltage and
Certainly, let's discuss a simple AC circuit with a current in an inductor causes the circuit to behave
resistor (R) and an inductor (L) connected in series: differently than a pure resistive circuit.
- Series RL circuits are used in various applications,
including filters and impedance matching circuits.

Remember that AC circuits with reactive

components like inductors are more complex to
analyze due to the phase shifts between voltage and
current. Phasor diagrams help simplify the
visualization of these phase relationships.
Power and Power factor in AC Single phase circuit:-
5.10 power and power factor in an AC single-phase
circuit:

Power : In AC circuits, power is how quickly

Components : electricity is used. It's calculated based on the
- AC Power Source : Provides alternating current. current and the component's resistance. Some
- Resistor (R) : A component that resists the flow devices can store and release power without using it
of current, converting electrical energy into heat. up.
- Inductor (L) : A component that stores energy in
a magnetic field when current flows through it.

Wiring :
- The circuit consists of the AC power source, the
resistor (R), and the inductor (L) connected in a
series arrangement.

Operation : Power Factor (PF) : Power factor shows how

- When AC power is applied, the alternating current efficiently electricity is being used. A higher PF
flows through the circuit. means less waste. It's like using more of the energy
- In the resistor (R), the current encounters you pay for.
resistance, leading to a voltage drop across the
resistor according to Ohm's law (V = IR). Real Power : This is the useful power that does
- In the inductor (L), the alternating current causes actual work, like lighting up a room.
the buildup and collapse of a magnetic field,
inducing a back EMF (electromotive force) that Reactive Power : Some power goes back and
opposes changes in the current. This is called forth without being used, especially in devices like
inductive reactance (XL). motors and inductors.

Phasor Diagram : Apparent Power : Total power supplied,

- In a phasor diagram, the current and voltage for including real and reactive power. It's what the
the resistor and inductor are represented by vectors. circuit needs.
The voltage across the resistor is in phase with the
current (voltage and current vectors align). Power factor is important for efficient energy use
However, the voltage across the inductor lags and keeping costs down.
behind the current by 90 degrees (voltage vector
trails the current vector by 90 degrees). 5.11 R-C Series circuit:-

Overall Impedance (Z) :

Certainly, let's discuss a simple R-C (Resistor- - Due to the phase relationship between the current
Capacitor) series circuit: and voltage in the capacitor, the circuit's power
factor might be affected. A phase angle difference
exists between the voltage across the resistor and the
voltage across the capacitor.

Key Points :
- R-C series circuits are used in various applications,
including filters and timing circuits.
- The interplay between resistance and capacitance
can result in unique phase shifts and impedance
behaviors.
- Phasor diagrams help visualize the phase
relationships and behaviors of the circuit's
components.

Remember that analyzing AC circuits with reactive

Components : components like capacitors involves understanding
- AC Power Source : Provides alternating current. phase shifts and complex impedance relationships.
- Resistor (R) : Adds resistance, converting
electrical energy into heat. 5.12 R-L-C Series circuit:-
- Capacitor (C) : Stores and releases electrical Certainly, let's discuss a series R-L-C (Resistor-
energy by building and discharging a charge. Inductor-Capacitor) circuit in an AC setup:

Wiring :
- The circuit consists of the AC power source, the
resistor (R), and the capacitor (C) connected in a
series arrangement.

Operation :
- When AC power is applied, the alternating current
flows through the circuit.
- In the resistor (R), the current encounters
resistance, causing a voltage drop across it
according to Ohm's law (V = IR).
- In the capacitor (C), the alternating current causes
the buildup and release of a charge, inducing a
voltage across it that opposes changes in voltage.
This is called capacitive reactance (XC).

Phasor Diagram :
- In a phasor diagram, the current and voltage for Components :
the resistor and capacitor are represented by vectors. - AC Power Source : Provides alternating current.
The voltage across the resistor is in phase with the - Resistor (R) : Adds resistance, converting
current (voltage and current vectors align). electrical energy into heat.
However, the voltage across the capacitor leads the - Inductor (L) : Stores and releases energy in a
current by 90 degrees (voltage vector leads the magnetic field as current flows through.
current vector by 90 degrees). - Capacitor (C) : Stores and releases energy in an
electric field by building and discharging a charge.
Impedance (Z) :
- Impedance is the total opposition to the current in Wiring :
the circuit. In a series R-C circuit, impedance is the - The circuit consists of the AC power source, the
vector sum of the resistance and the capacitive resistor (R), the inductor (L), and the capacitor (C)
reactance (Z = R + jXC, where j represents the connected in a series arrangement.
imaginary unit).
Operation :
Current Flow : - When AC power is applied, the alternating current
- The alternating current in the circuit is determined flows through the circuit.
by the impedance. If the impedance is high, the - The resistor (R) causes a voltage drop according to
current is lower, and if the impedance is low, the Ohm's law (V = IR).
current is higher. - The inductor (L) causes a phase lag between
current and voltage due to its inductive reactance
Phase Angle and Power Factor : (XL).
- The capacitor (C) causes a phase lead between
current and voltage due to its capacitive reactance
(XC).

Phasor Diagram :
- In a phasor diagram, the current and voltage for
the resistor, inductor, and capacitor are represented
by vectors. Each has a specific phase relationship
with the current.

Impedance (Z) :
- Impedance is the total opposition to the current in
the circuit. In a series R-L-C circuit, impedance is the
vector sum of resistance (R), inductive reactance
(XL), and capacitive reactance (XC). Mathematically,
Z = R + j(XL - XC), where j represents the imaginary Components :
unit. - AC Power Source : Provides alternating current.
- Resistor (R) : Adds resistance, converting
Resonance : electrical energy into heat.
- A series R-L-C circuit can exhibit resonance at a - Inductor (L) : Stores and releases energy in a
particular frequency when the inductive and magnetic field as current flows through.
capacitive reactances cancel each other out. This - Capacitor (C) : Stores and releases energy in an
results in the minimum impedance and maximum electric field by building and discharging a charge.
current flow.
Operation :
Key Points : - At the resonance frequency, the inductive
- R-L-C series circuits have intricate behaviors due reactance (XL) and capacitive reactance (XC) are
to the combination of resistance, inductance, and equal in magnitude but opposite in phase.
capacitance. - The impedance of the circuit becomes minimal at
- The interaction of these components results in resonance (Z = R).
phase shifts, impedance changes, and resonance - Current flow through the circuit is maximized
effects. since the impedance is lowest.
- Such circuits are used in applications where
precise frequency response and filtering are Applications :
required. - Series resonance circuits are often used in
applications where a specific frequency needs to be
Understanding the interplay between resistance, accentuated or filtered.
inductance, and capacitance in a series R-L-C circuit - They are used in radio tuning circuits, where the
helps in designing filters, tuning circuits, and resonance frequency corresponds to the desired
understanding AC circuit behaviors. radio frequency.
- Audio systems and communication devices can
5.13 Series resonance circuit :- utilize series resonance for filtering out unwanted
frequencies.
A series resonance circuit is an electrical circuit that
consists of a resistor (R), an inductor (L), and a Advantages :
capacitor (C) connected in series. This type of circuit - Series resonance circuits can provide very high
exhibits a phenomenon called resonance, which current at resonance, which can be useful for power
occurs at a specific frequency where the capacitive transfer applications.
reactance (XC) and inductive reactance (XL) cancel - They can achieve precise frequency response and
each other out, resulting in the circuit having filtering characteristics.
minimum impedance and maximum current flow.
Disadvantages :
- Outside the resonance frequency, the impedance
increases dramatically, potentially causing
unwanted effects in the circuit.
- The behavior of series resonance circuits can be
complex and sensitive to changes in frequency.

Key Points :
- Series resonance circuits highlight the interplay
between inductive and capacitive reactances.
- At resonance, the circuit becomes exceptionally
efficient at transferring power.
Understanding the behavior of series resonance
circuits is essential for designing circuits that require 5.15 Parallel Resonance circuit :-
precise frequency responses and optimal power A parallel resonance circuit is an electrical setup
transfer at specific frequencies. where a resistor (R), an inductor (L), and a capacitor
(C) are connected in parallel. This circuit exhibits
5.14 R-L, R-C,R-L-C parallel Circuits:- resonance at a specific frequency where the
impedance is minimized, resulting in a maximum
Certainly, let's cover these three types of parallel flow of current. Here's a simplified explanation:
circuits briefly:

Components :
- AC Power Source : Provides alternating current.
- Resistor (R) : Adds resistance, converting
electrical energy into heat.
R-L Parallel Circuit : - Inductor (L) : Stores and releases energy in a
- In an R-L (Resistor-Inductor) parallel circuit, the magnetic field.
resistor (R) and the inductor (L) are connected in - Capacitor (C) : Stores and releases energy in an
parallel to each other. electric field.
- The resistor allows immediate current flow, while
the inductor resists changes in current. Operation :
- This circuit can show interesting behaviors due to - At resonance, the inductive reactance (XL) and
the interaction between resistance and inductance. capacitive reactance (XC) become equal but opposite
in phase, canceling each other out.
R-C Parallel Circuit : - This cancellation leads to a low impedance in the
- In an R-C (Resistor-Capacitor) parallel circuit, the circuit, allowing maximum current flow.
resistor (R) and the capacitor (C) are connected in - The resistor (R) limits the current to prevent
parallel to each other. overloading.
- The resistor allows immediate current flow, while
the capacitor charges and discharges over time. Applications :
- This circuit can be used for filtering and time delay - Parallel resonance circuits are used in applications
applications. where a specific frequency needs to be emphasized
or blocked.
R-L-C Parallel Circuit : - They're used in radio frequency circuits, where
- An R-L-C (Resistor-Inductor-Capacitor) parallel resonance can be tuned to a desired frequency.
circuit includes all three components connected in - Filters for audio and radio signals can be designed
parallel. using parallel resonance.
- Each component affects the circuit differently: the
resistor dissipates energy, the inductor resists Advantages :
changes in current, and the capacitor stores and - At resonance, the circuit becomes extremely
releases energy. efficient at passing current.
- Such circuits can be quite complex due to the - Parallel resonance circuits can achieve sharp and
combined effects of all components. selective frequency responses.

Key Points : Disadvantages :

- Parallel circuits offer different paths for current - The circuit's impedance can increase significantly
flow. outside the resonance frequency.
- Each type of circuit (R-L, R-C, R-L-C) has distinct - Careful design is required to avoid unwanted
characteristics and applications. effects due to high current at resonance.
- Understanding these circuits helps in designing
filters, time delay circuits, and analyzing complex Key Points :
electrical systems. - Parallel resonance circuits showcase the interplay
between inductive and capacitive reactances.
These simple explanations provide a basic - At resonance, the circuit allows maximum current
understanding of the behavior of parallel circuits flow, making it highly efficient for specific
with different combinations of components. frequencies.
 for analyzing and designing electrical systems for
Understanding parallel resonance circuits is crucial efficiency and effective energy usage.
for designing filters, tuning circuits, and maximizing
power transfer at specific frequencies. 5.17 power factor-improvement of power factor :-
Power Factor :
5.16 power, Energy, power factor in AC single Power factor (PF) is a measure of how efficiently
phase system problem ;- electrical power is being used in a circuit. It's the
ratio of real power (actual useful power) to apparent
Sure, let's work through some examples involving power (total power supplied to the circuit). A higher
power, energy, and power factor in an AC single- power factor indicates more efficient use of
phase system: electricity.

Example 1: Power Calculation Importance of Improving Power Factor :

Suppose you have an AC circuit with a voltage of Low power factor can result in inefficiencies,
230 volts and a current of 5 amperes. Calculate the increased energy costs, and stress on the electrical
power consumed by the circuit. system. By improving the power factor, you can:
- Reduce energy consumption and lower electricity
Solution : bills.
Power (P) = Voltage (V) × Current (I) - Increase the capacity of your electrical system,
P = 230 V × 5 A allowing it to handle more loads.
P = 1150 watts (W) - Reduce voltage drops and line losses, which
enhances overall system performance.
Example 2: Energy Consumption
If the circuit in Example 1 operates for 3 hours, Ways to Improve Power Factor :
calculate the energy consumed. 1. Use Capacitors : Adding power factor
correction capacitors to the circuit can offset reactive
Solution : power, improving the power factor. Capacitors act
Energy (E) = Power (P) × Time (t) as reactive power sources that balance out the
E = 1150 W × 3 hours inductive load's effects.
E = 3450 watt-hours (Wh) or 3.45 kilowatt-hours
(kWh) 2. Load Balancing : Distribute loads more evenly
across the phases of a three-phase system. This can
Example 3: Power Factor Calculation reduce phase imbalances and improve power factor.
For a circuit with a real power (P) of 800 watts and
an apparent power (S) of 1000 volt-amperes (VA), 3. Efficient Motor Usage : Use energy-efficient
find the power factor. motors that have a higher power factor. These
motors consume less reactive power.
Solution :
Power Factor (PF) = Real Power (P) / Apparent 4. Correct Sizing : Size capacitors correctly.
Power (S) Oversized capacitors can result in an excessively
PF = 800 W / 1000 VA high power factor, causing issues.
PF = 0.8
5. Regular Maintenance : Maintain and repair
Example 4: Correcting Power Factor equipment to prevent inefficiencies and power
You have a circuit with an apparent power (S) of factor degradation.
1200 VA and a power factor (PF) of 0.6. Calculate the
real power (P) and the reactive power (Q). Steps to Improve Power Factor :
1. Measurement : Measure the power factor of the
Solution : circuit to identify how much improvement is
Real Power (P) = Apparent Power (S) × Power needed.
Factor (PF)
P = 1200 VA × 0.6 2. Analysis : Determine the sources of low power
P = 720 watts (W) factor. Is it due to motors, inductive loads, or other
factors?
Reactive Power (Q) = √(Apparent Power^2 - Real
Power^2) 3. Capacitor Addition : If appropriate, add power
Q = √(1200^2 - 720^2) factor correction capacitors to the circuit. Consult an
Q ≈ 960 VA expert for proper sizing and connection.

These examples illustrate how to calculate power, 4. Monitoring : Continuously monitor the power
energy, and power factor in AC single-phase factor to ensure that it stays within an acceptable
systems. Understanding these concepts is important range.
 Benefits of Improved Power Factor : - Phasors are vectors that represent the magnitude
- Lower electricity bills due to reduced energy and phase of the sinusoidal quantities.
wastage.
- Enhanced system performance and reduced strain 5. Delta (Δ) and Star (Y) Connections :
on equipment. - Three-phase loads can be connected in either a
- Increased capacity of your electrical system to delta (Δ) or star (Y) configuration.
handle additional loads.
- Reduced environmental impact by using energy
more efficiently.

Improving power factor is a smart way to save on

energy costs, improve the efficiency of your
electrical system, and contribute to a more
sustainable use of resources.

5.18 3 Phase AC fundamentals;-

Three-phase AC (alternating current) is a type of
electrical power distribution that utilizes three
separate sinusoidal waveforms, each having the
same frequency but offset by 120 degrees from each - In a star connection, each load is connected from a
other. Here are the fundamentals of three-phase AC phase to a common neutral point.
systems: -In a delta connection, loads are connected in a
closed loop.
1. Three Phases :
- In a three-phase system, there are three separate 6. Power Calculation :
AC voltages or currents, denoted as phase A, phase - The total power in a three-phase system is the sum
B, and phase C. of the power in each phase.
- These phases are separated by 120 degrees - For a balanced load, the total power is given by P =
electrically, creating a balanced and continuous √3 × VL × IL × power factor, where VL is the line
power supply. voltage and IL is the line current.

2. Phase Voltages and Line Voltages : 7. Applications :

- The phase voltages are the voltages of individual - Three-phase AC is widely used in industrial and
phases with respect to a common reference point commercial settings for powering machinery,
(usually the neutral). motors, lighting, and large equipment.
- The line voltages are the voltages between any two - Power generation and distribution grids often use
phases. In a balanced three-phase system, the line three-phase systems due to their efficiency.
voltage is √3 times higher than the phase voltage.
Three-phase AC systems provide a robust and
efficient way to distribute electrical power, and their
balanced nature reduces voltage fluctuations and
ensures steady power delivery.

5.19 Relation between Line and Phase Voltage:-

In a three-phase AC system, there's a specific

relationship between line voltage and phase voltage.
3. Advantages of Three-Phase System : This relationship depends on the type of connection
- Higher Efficiency: Three-phase power systems are used: star (Y) or delta (Δ).
more efficient for transmitting and distributing large
amounts of power over long distances. i) Star (Y) Connection :
- Constant Power Transfer: Unlike single-phase - In a star-connected three-phase system, each load
systems, three-phase systems have a constant power is connected from a phase to a common neutral
transfer over each cycle. point.
- Smoother Power Output: The combination of three - The line voltage (VL) is the voltage between any
phases results in smoother power output, reducing two of the three phases.
fluctuations and vibration in machines.

4. Phasor Diagrams :
- Phasor diagrams help visualize the relationships
between phase voltages and currents in a three-
phase system.
 - In a star connection, each load or source is
connected from a phase to a common neutral point.
- The common point is typically the "neutral" or
"ground" connection in electrical systems.
- Advantages: It provides a neutral point for
connecting single-phase loads, which can balance
the system. It's often used in systems where single-
phase and three-phase loads coexist.

2. Delta (Δ) Connection :

- In a delta connection, loads or sources are
connected in a closed loop, forming a triangle or
delta shape.
- The phase voltage (Vph) is the voltage across an - Each load or source connects between two phases.
individual load (resistor, motor, etc.) connected to a - There's no neutral connection in a delta system.
single phase and the common neutral point. - Advantages: It's commonly used in high-power
- For a balanced star connection, the line voltage industrial applications because it can handle higher
(VL) is √3 times higher than the phase voltage currents without requiring a neutral connection. It's
(Vph): also suitable for systems where single-phase loads
VL = √3 × Vph are minimal.

ii) Delta (Δ) Connection : Both star and delta connections have their uses
- In a delta-connected three-phase system, loads are based on the specific requirements of the
connected in a closed loop. application. The choice between the two depends on
- The line voltage (VL) is the voltage across any two factors like the types of loads, power distribution
points in the closed loop. efficiency, and whether a neutral connection is
needed. It's important to understand these
connections when designing and working with
three-phase electrical systems.

5.21 Neutral in 3 phase system:-

In a three-phase electrical system, the neutral is a
common reference point that is often associated with
the star (Y) connection. Here's what you need to
know about the neutral in a three-phase system:

i) Star (Y) Connection and Neutral :

- In a star connection, each phase is connected to a
common neutral point.
- The neutral point is typically the center point
- The phase voltage (Vph) is the voltage across an where the three phases are connected together.
individual load connected to a single phase and the - It's important to note that not all three-phase
common point in the delta loop. systems have a neutral. Delta-connected systems, for
- In a balanced delta connection, the line voltage instance, do not have a neutral.
(VL) is the same as the phase voltage (Vph):
VL = Vph ii) Functions of the Neutral :
1. Balancing : In systems with both single-phase
Remember, these relationships hold true for and three-phase loads, the neutral helps balance the
balanced three-phase systems, where the currents. Single-phase loads are typically connected
magnitudes of the voltages are the same in all between one phase and the neutral, which can
phases and the phase shift between them is 120 prevent imbalances in the system.
degrees.
2. Safety : The neutral provides a reference point
5.20 systems of connections in 3 Phase Ac:- for grounding and helps dissipate excess current
In three-phase AC systems, there are two common during fault conditions, improving safety by
systems of connections for loads and sources: the preventing shocks and fires.
Star (Y) connection and the Delta (Δ) connection.
These connections define how the phases and loads 3. Measurement : In systems where single-phase
are interconnected. Let's explore both systems: loads are measured, the neutral allows for accurate
measurement of single-phase power consumption.
1. Star (Y) Connection :
- Also known as the "wye" connection. 4. Lighting and Low-Power Devices : Many
lighting systems and low-power devices are
designed for single-phase connections, and the calculations, as it represents the efficiency of energy
neutral provides the return path for these loads. conversion in the circuit.

5.22 Delta (Δ) Connection and Neutral : 5.24 The two wattmeter method for measuring of
- Delta-connected systems do not have a neutral Power in 3phase AC:-
connection because the loads are connected between
the phases and there's no common neutral point. The two-wattmeter method is a technique used to
- In such systems, the lack of a neutral can simplify measure the power in a balanced three-phase AC
certain aspects of wiring but might require system. It involves using two wattmeters to
additional considerations for loads that need a determine the total power consumed by the load, as
neutral. well as the power factor. Here's how the two-
wattmeter method works:
Understanding the role of the neutral in a three-
phase system is essential for safe and efficient
electrical design, especially in systems where both
single-phase and three-phase loads are present.

5.23 power in start and delta connections:-

In three-phase AC systems, the calculation of power
in star (Y) and delta (Δ) connections differs due to
the configuration of the loads and the way currents
are distributed. Let's look at power calculations in
both types of connections:

i) Star (Y) Connection : Principle :

In a star-connected system, each load is connected The two-wattmeter method is based on the fact that
from a phase to the common neutral point. The in a balanced three-phase system, the sum of the
power calculations are as follows: readings of two wattmeters connected correctly
gives the total power consumed by the load, and
1. Power in Each Phase (Pph) : their difference gives the reactive power.
- Power in each phase is given by: Pph = √3 × Line
Voltage (VL) × Line Current (IL) × Power Factor Procedure :
(PF) 1. Connect two wattmeters correctly to the load in a
three-phase system. The wattmeters should be
2. Total Power (Ptotal) : connected to measure the power in each phase.
- The total power is the sum of power in each
phase: Ptotal = 3 × Pph 2. Note down the readings of both wattmeters.

ii) Delta (Δ) Connection : Calculation :

In a delta-connected system, each load is connected 1. Total Active Power (P) :
between two phases, forming a closed loop. The - Total active power is the sum of the two
power calculations are different due to the absence wattmeter readings: P = W1 + W2.
of a neutral: - P represents the total power consumed by the
load.
1. Power in Each Phase (Pph) :
- Power in each phase is given by: Pph = Line 2. Total Reactive Power (Q) :
Voltage (VL) × Line Current (IL) × Power Factor - Total reactive power is the difference between
(PF) the two wattmeter readings: Q = W1 - W2.
- Q represents the reactive power of the load.
2. Total Power (Ptotal) :
- The total power is the sum of power in each 3. Apparent Power (S) :
phase: Ptotal = 3 × Pph - Apparent power is calculated using the formula:
S = √(W1^2 + W2^2).
It's important to note that the formulas for power in
star and delta connections are similar, but the √3 4. Power Factor (PF) :
term in the star connection accounts for the - Power factor is calculated using the relationship
difference in voltage between line voltage (VL) and between active power (P) and apparent power (S):
phase voltage (Vph). PF = P / S.

Remember, these calculations are based on balanced Advantages :

conditions, where the magnitudes of voltages and - The two-wattmeter method works for both
currents are equal and the phases are 120 degrees balanced loads and unbalanced loads.
apart. Power factor plays a crucial role in these
- It provides accurate measurements of active and - Motors: Correct phase sequence is crucial for
reactive power in a three-phase system. motors to rotate in the intended direction.
- Industrial Equipment: Machinery and equipment
Limitations : in industrial settings require proper phase sequence
- This method is primarily suited for balanced three- for accurate operation.
phase systems. - Generator Connections: When connecting
- Accuracy may be compromised in cases of severe generators to the grid, phase sequence must match
unbalance. to prevent synchronization issues.

The two-wattmeter method is a practical approach Advantages :

to measure power and power factor in balanced - Prevents incorrect phase connections that can
three-phase systems, offering valuable insights into cause equipment damage or malfunction.
the load's characteristics and efficiency. - Offers a quick and easy way to verify phase
sequence before energizing equipment.
5.25 Phase-Sequence indicator (meter) in 3 Phase - Ensures safety by avoiding unexpected behavior of
AC :- motors and machinery.

A phase-sequence indicator, also known as a phase- Limitations :

sequence meter or phase-rotation indicator, is a - Phase-sequence indicators work best in balanced
device used to determine the correct order of the three-phase systems.
phases in a three-phase AC system. It helps ensure - They might not provide accurate results in
the proper connection of equipment and prevents unbalanced or distorted systems.
incorrect wiring, which can lead to issues like motor
rotation in the wrong direction or malfunctioning of Overall, phase-sequence indicators are essential
equipment. Here's how it works: tools for electrical installations, maintenance, and
troubleshooting in three-phase AC systems,
ensuring the proper functioning and safety of
equipment.

5.26 Phase-Sequence indicator (meter) using choke

and lamp:-
A phase-sequence indicator using a choke and lamp
is a simple and cost-effective method to determine
the correct phase sequence in a three-phase AC
system. It involves using a choke (inductor) and
lamp (light bulb) to visually indicate the phase
sequence. Here's how it works:

Principle :
The phase-sequence indicator detects the sequence
of phase voltages in a three-phase system. It
determines whether the phase sequence is in the
correct order (typically ABC or clockwise) or in the
reverse order (CBA or counterclockwise).

Components :
A phase-sequence indicator typically includes:
- LEDs or indicator lights labeled "A," "B," and "C" to
indicate the presence of each phase. Components :
- A logic circuit that determines the sequence of the - Choke (Inductor) : A coil of wire that creates a
voltages based on the phase relationship. magnetic field when current flows through it.
- Lamp (Light Bulb) : An incandescent lamp that
Operation : lights up when connected to a voltage source.
1. Connect the phase-sequence indicator to the
three-phase circuit. Operation :
2. The indicator reads the voltages of the three 1. Connect the choke in series with one phase of the
phases. three-phase supply.
3. It compares the sequence of the voltages to the 2. Connect the lamp across the remaining two
expected sequence (ABC or CBA). phases.
4. The indicator then lights up the corresponding 3. If the phase sequence is correct, the magnetic field
LEDs to show the correct phase sequence. produced by the choke will cause the lamp to glow.

Use Cases : Explanation :

- When current flows through the choke, it creates a - Lamp (Light Bulb) : An incandescent lamp that
magnetic field. lights up when connected to a voltage source.
- If the phase sequence is correct (e.g., ABC or
clockwise), the magnetic field's effect on the lamp's Operation :
filament will cause the lamp to glow. 1. Connect the capacitor in series with one phase of
- If the phase sequence is incorrect (e.g., CBA or the three-phase supply.
counterclockwise), the magnetic field's effect on the 2. Connect the lamp across the remaining two
lamp will be different, and the lamp might not glow phases.
or behave differently. 3. If the phase sequence is correct, the lamp will
glow.
Use Cases :
- This method is commonly used in temporary or Explanation :
basic installations where a phase-sequence indicator - When current flows through the capacitor, it
device isn't available. causes a phase shift between the current and the
- It's useful for quick checks of phase sequence voltage across the capacitor.
before energizing equipment. - If the phase sequence is correct (e.g., ABC or
clockwise), the phase shift introduced by the
Advantages : capacitor will interact with the lamp in such a way
- Simple and easy to implement with minimal that the lamp will glow.
components. - If the phase sequence is incorrect (e.g., CBA or
- Provides a visual indication of correct phase counterclockwise), the phase relationship will be
sequence. different, and the lamp might not glow or behave
differently.
Limitations :
- This method relies on the behavior of the lamp in Use Cases :
response to the choke's magnetic field and might not - Similar to the previous method, this approach is
be as accurate as dedicated phase-sequence useful for quick checks of phase sequence before
indicators. energizing equipment.
- It might not work well in certain lighting - It's simple and can be handy in situations where
conditions. more advanced phase-sequence indicators aren't
available.
Keep in mind that while this method can give you a
basic indication of phase sequence, it might not be Advantages :
suitable for all situations, especially in critical or - Easy to set up with minimal components.
precise applications. For accurate and reliable phase - Provides a visual indication of correct phase
sequence verification, dedicated phase-sequence sequence.
indicators are recommended.
Limitations :
5.27 Phase-Sequence indicator (meter) using - Like the previous method, the accuracy of this
Capacitor and lamp:- approach might not be as high as dedicated phase-
sequence indicators.
Creating a phase-sequence indicator using a - It might not work well in all lighting conditions.
capacitor and lamp is another simple method to
determine the correct phase sequence in a three- Remember that while these basic methods can offer
phase AC system. This method utilizes the phase a quick indication of phase sequence, they might not
shift between the capacitor's reactance and the be suitable for all scenarios. For accurate and
supply voltage. Here's how it works: reliable phase sequence verification, dedicated
phase-sequence indicators should be used,
especially in critical or precise applications.

Components :
- Capacitor : An electrical component that stores
and releases energy in an electric field.