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Bloom's taxonomy
Bloom's taxonomy is a set of three hierarchical models used for classification of educational
learning objectives into levels of complexity and specificity. The three lists cover the learning
objectives in cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. The cognitive domain list has been
the primary focus of most traditional education and is frequently used to structure curriculum
learning objectives, assessments and activities.

The models were named after Benjamin Bloom, who chaired the committee of educators that
devised the taxonomy. He also edited the first volume of the standard text, Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals.[1][2]

History
The publication of Taxonomy of Educational Objectives followed a series of conferences from
1949 to 1953, which were designed to improve communication between educators on the design
of curricula and examinations.[3]

The first volume of the taxonomy, Handbook I: Cognitive[1] was published in 1956, and in 1964
the second volume Handbook II: Affective was published.[4][5][6][7][8] A revised version of the
taxonomy for the cognitive domain was created in 2001.[9]

Cognitive domain (knowledge-based)

In the 1956 original version of the taxonomy, the cognitive
domain is broken into the six levels of objectives listed
below.[10] In the 2001 revised edition of Bloom's taxonomy,
the levels have slightly different names and their order was
revised: Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate,
and Create (rather than Synthesize).[9][11]

Bloom's Taxonomy

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1956 cognitive domain levels[10]

Level Description Example

Knowledge involves recognizing or remembering facts,

terms, basic concepts, or answers without necessarily
understanding what they mean. Some characteristics
may include:

Knowledge of specifics—terminology, specific facts Name three common varieties of

Knowledge Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with apple.
specifics—conventions, trends and sequences,
classifications and categories
Knowledge of the universals and abstractions in a
field—principles and generalizations, theories and
structures

Comprehension involves demonstrating an Summarize the identifying

understanding of facts and ideas by organizing, characteristics of a Golden
Comprehension
summarizing, translating, generalizing, giving Delicious apple and a Granny
descriptions, and stating the main ideas. Smith apple.

Application involves using acquired knowledge to solve

problems in new situations. This involves applying
Would apples prevent scurvy, a
acquired knowledge, facts, techniques and rules.
Application disease caused by a deficiency in
Learners should be able to use prior knowledge to solve
vitamin C?
problems, identify connections and relationships and
how they apply in new situations.

Analysis involves examining and breaking information

into component parts, determining how the parts relate
to one another, identifying motives or causes, making
inferences, and finding evidence to support Compare and contrast four ways of
generalizations. Its characteristics include: serving foods made with apples
Analysis
and examine which ones have the
Analysis of elements highest health benefits.
Analysis of relationships
Analysis of organization

Synthesis involves building a structure or pattern from

diverse elements; it also refers to the act of putting parts
together to form a whole or bringing pieces of Convert an "unhealthy" recipe for
information together to form a new meaning. Its apple pie to a "healthy" recipe by
characteristics include: replacing your choice of
Synthesis
ingredients. Argue for the health
Production of a unique communication benefits of using the ingredients
Production of a plan, or proposed set of operations you chose versus the original ones.
Derivation of a set of abstract relations

Evaluation involves presenting and defending opinions

by making judgments about information, the validity of
ideas, or quality of work based on a set of criteria. Its
characteristics include: Which kinds of apples are suitable
Evaluation
for baking a pie, and why?
Judgments in terms of internal evidence
Judgments in terms of external criteria

Affective domain (emotion-based)

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Skills in the affective domain describe the way people react

emotionally and their ability to feel other living things' pain
or joy. Affective objectives typically target the awareness and
growth in attitudes, emotion, and feelings.

There are five levels in the affective domain moving through

the lowest-order processes to the highest.

Affective domain levels

Level Description A scaffolding hierarchy of the

affective domain related to learning
The lowest level; the student passively pays attention.
Receiving Without this level, no learning can occur. Receiving is
about the student's memory and recognition as well.

The student actively participates in the learning

Responding process, not only attends to a stimulus; the student
also reacts in some way.

The student attaches a value to an object,

phenomenon, or piece of information. The student
Valuing
associates a value or some values to the knowledge
they acquired.

The student can put together different values,

information, and ideas, and can accommodate them
Organizing
within their own schema; the student is comparing,
relating and elaborating on what has been learned.

The student at this level tries to build abstract

Characterizing
knowledge.

Psychomotor domain (action-based)

Skills in the psychomotor domain describe the ability to
physically manipulate a tool or instrument like a hand or a
hammer. Psychomotor objectives usually focus on change or
development in behavior or skills.

Bloom and his colleagues never created subcategories for

skills in the psychomotor domain, but since then other
educators have created their own psychomotor
taxonomies. [7] Simpson (1972) proposed a taxonomy of
seven levels. [12]

A scaffolding hierarchy of the

psychomotor domain related to
learning

Simpson's psychomotor domain levels[12]

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Level Description Examples Keywords

Detects non-verbal
communication
cues.
Estimates where a
ball will land after it
is thrown and then
moves to the
correct location to chooses · describes ·
The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor catch the ball. detects · differentiates
Perception activity: This ranges from sensory stimulation, Adjusts the heat of · distinguishes ·
through cue selection, to translation. the stove to the identifies · isolates ·
correct temperature relates · selects
by smell and taste
of food.
Adjusts the height
of the forks on a
forklift by comparing
where the forks are
in relation to the
pallet.

Knows and acts

Readiness to act: It includes mental, physical, upon a sequence of
and emotional sets. These three sets are steps in a
manufacturing begins · displays ·
dispositions that predetermine a person's
process. explains · moves ·
response to different situations (sometimes
Set Recognizes his or proceeds · reacts ·
called mindsets). This subdivision of
her abilities and shows · states ·
psychomotor is closely related with the
limitations. volunteers
"responding to phenomena" subdivision of the
affective domain. Shows desire to
learn a new process
(motivation).

Performs a
mathematical
equation as
demonstrated.
copies · traces ·
The early stages of learning a complex skill that Follows instructions
Guided follows · reacts ·
includes imitation and trial and error: Adequacy to build a model.
response reproduces ·
of performance is achieved by practicing.
Responds to hand- responds
signals of the
instructor while
learning to operate
a forklift.

assembles ·
calibrates · constructs
Use a personal · dismantles · displays
The intermediate stage in learning a complex
computer. · fastens · fixes ·
skill: Learned responses have become habitual
Mechanism Repair a leaking grinds · heats ·
and the movements can be performed with
tap. manipulates ·
some confidence and proficiency.
measures · mends ·
Drive a car. mixes · organizes ·
sketches

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assembles ·
calibrates · constructs
The skillful performance of motor acts that · dismantles · displays
involve complex movement patterns: · fastens · fixes ·
Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, Maneuvers a car grinds · heats ·
and highly coordinated performance, requiring a into a tight parallel manipulates ·
minimum amount of energy. parking spot. measures · mends ·
Complex Operates a mixes · organizes ·
overt This category includes performing without
hesitation and automatic performance. For computer quickly sketches
response and accurately. (Note: The key words are
example, players will often utter sounds of
satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a Displays the same as in
tennis ball or throw a football because they can competence while mechanism, but will have
tell by the feel of the act what the result will playing the piano. adverbs or adjectives that
produce. indicate that the
performance is quicker,
better, more accurate,
etc.)

Responds
effectively to
unexpected
experiences.
Modifies instruction
to meet the needs
of the learners. adapts · alters ·
Skills are well developed and the individual can
Performs a task changes · rearranges
Adaptation modify movement patterns to fit special
with a machine that · reorganizes · revises
requirements.
was not originally · varies
intended for that
purpose (the
machine is not
damaged and there
is no danger in
performing the new
task).

Constructs a new
set or pattern of
movements
organized around a arranges · builds ·
Creating new movement patterns to fit a
novel concept or combines · composes
particular situation or specific problem: Learning
Origination theory. · constructs · creates ·
outcomes emphasize creativity based upon
Develops a new designs · initiates ·
highly developed skills.
and comprehensive makes · originates
training program.
Creates a new
gymnastic routine.

Definition of knowledge
In the appendix to Handbook I, there is a definition of knowledge which serves as the apex for
an alternative, summary classification of the educational goals. This is significant as the
taxonomy has been called upon significantly in other fields such as knowledge management,

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potentially out of context. "Knowledge, as defined here, involves the recall of specifics and
universals, the recall of methods and processes, or the recall of a pattern, structure, or
setting."[13]

The taxonomy is set out as follows:

1.00 Knowledge
1.10 Knowledge of specifics
1.11 Knowledge of terminology
1.12 Knowledge of specific facts
1.20 Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics
1.21 Knowledge of conventions
1.22 Knowledge of trends and sequences
1.23 Knowledge of classifications and categories
1.24 Knowledge of criteria
1.25 Knowledge of methodology
1.30 Knowledge of the universals and abstractions in a field
1.31 Knowledge of principles and generalizations
1.32 Knowledge of theories and structures

Criticism of the taxonomy

As Morshead (1965) pointed out on the publication of the second volume, the classification was
not a properly constructed taxonomy, as it lacked a systematic rationale of construction.

This was subsequently acknowledged in the discussion of the original taxonomy in its 2001
revision,[9] and the taxonomy was reestablished on more systematic lines.

Some critiques of the taxonomy's cognitive domain admit the existence of these six categories
but question the existence of a sequential, hierarchical link.[14] Often, educators view the
taxonomy as a hierarchy and may mistakenly dismiss the lowest levels as unworthy of
teaching.[15][16] The learning of the lower levels enables the building of skills in the higher levels
of the taxonomy, and in some fields, the most important skills are in the lower levels (such as
identification of species of plants and animals in the field of natural history).[15][16]
Instructional scaffolding of higher-level skills from lower-level skills is an application of
Vygotskian constructivism.[17][18]

Some consider the three lowest levels as hierarchically ordered, but the three higher levels as
parallel.[9] Others say that it is sometimes better to move to application before introducing
concepts, the goal being to create a problem-based learning environment where the real world
context comes first and the theory second, to promote the student's grasp of the phenomenon,
concept, or event.

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The distinction between the categories can be seen as artificial since any given cognitive task
may entail a number of processes. It could even be argued that any attempt to nicely categorize
cognitive processes into clean, cut-and-dried classifications undermines the holistic, highly
connective and interrelated nature of cognition.[19] This is a criticism that can be directed at
taxonomies of mental processes in general.

The taxonomy is widely implemented as a hierarchy of verbs, designed to be used when writing
learning outcomes, but a 2020 analysis showed that these verb lists showed no consistency
between educational institutions, and thus learning outcomes that were mapped to one level of
the hierarchy at one educational institution could be mapped to different levels at another
institution.[20]

Implications
Bloom's taxonomy serves as the backbone of many teaching philosophies, in particular, those
that lean more towards skills rather than content.[8][9] These educators view content as a vessel
for teaching skills. The emphasis on higher-order thinking inherent in such philosophies is
based on the top levels of the taxonomy including application, analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation. Bloom's taxonomy can be used as a teaching tool to help balance evaluative and
assessment-based questions in assignments, texts, and class engagements to ensure that all
orders of thinking are exercised in students' learning, including aspects of information
searching.[21]

Connections between disciplines

Bloom's taxonomy (and the revised taxonomy) continues to be a source of inspiration for
educational philosophy and for developing new teaching strategies. The skill development that
takes place at higher orders of thinking interacts well with a developing global focus on multiple
literacies and modalities in learning and the emerging field of integrated disciplines.[22] The
ability to interface with and create media would draw upon skills from both higher order
thinking skills (analysis, creation, and evaluation) and lower order thinking skills (knowledge,
comprehension, and application).[23][24]

Visual interpretations
Bloom's original taxonomy may not have included verbs or visual representations, but
subsequent contributions to the idea have portrayed the ideas visually for researchers, teachers
and students.

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Bloom's taxonomy Bloom's revised Bloom's taxonomy Bloom's cognitive

organized radially taxonomy organized verbs portrayed as a domain organized
as a pyramid of light bulb as an inverted
learning levels with pyramid
explanations of each

See also
DIKW pyramid – Data, information, knowledge, wisdom hierarchy
Educational psychology – Branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of
human learning
Educational technology – Use of technology in education to improve learning and teaching
Fluid and crystallized intelligence – Factors of general intelligence
Higher-order thinking – Concept in education and education reform
In Over Our Heads – Book on psychological development by Robert Kegan
Integrative complexity – Research psychometric
Know-how – Ability to do something
Ladder of inference – Metaphorical model of cognition and action by Chris Argyris
Learning cycle – How people learn from experience
Learning styles – Largely debunked theories that aim to account for differences in
individuals' learning
Mastery learning – Instructional strategy and educational philosophy
Metacognition – Thinking about thinking, higher-order thinking skills
Model of hierarchical complexity – Framework for scoring how complex a behavior is
Pedagogy – Theory and practice of education
Physical education – Educational course related to the physique and care of the body
Reflective practice – Ability to reflect on one's actions so as to engage in a process of
continuous learning
Rubric (academic) – Scoring guide for assessment
Structure of observed learning outcome – Model of levels of increasing complexity in
understanding
Wisdom – Ability to think and act using knowledge, experience, understanding, common
sense and insight

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References
1. Bloom, B. S.; Engelhart, M. D.; Furst, E. J.; Hill, W. H.; Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy
of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Vol. Handbook I: Cognitive
domain. New York: David McKay Company.
2. Shane, Harold G. (1981). "Significant writings that have influenced the curriculum: 1906–
1981". Phi Delta Kappan. 62 (5): 311–314.
3. Bloom et al. 1956, p. 4: "The idea for this classification system was formed at an informal
meeting of college examiners attending the 1948 American Psychological Association
Convention in Boston. At this meeting, interest was expressed in a theoretical framework
which could be used to facilitate communication among examiners.
4. Simpson, Elizabeth J. (1966). "The classification of educational objectives: Psychomotor
domain". Illinois Journal of Home Economics. 10 (4): 110–144.
5. *Harrow, Anita J. (1972). A taxonomy of the psychomotor domain: A guide for developing
behavioral objectives. New York: David McKay Company.
6. *Dave, R. H. (1975). Armstrong, R. J. (ed.). Developing and writing behavioral objectives.
Tucson: Educational Innovators Press.
7. Clark, Donald R. (1999). "Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains" (http://www.nwlink.com/
~donclark/hrd/bloom.html). Retrieved 28 Jan 2014.
8. Krathwohl, David R. (2002). "A revision of Bloom's taxonomy: An overview" (https://dergipar
k.org.tr/tr/pub/rumeli/issue/62156/885379). Theory into Practice. Routledge. 41 (4): 212–
218. doi:10.1207/s15430421tip4104_2 (https://doi.org/10.1207%2Fs15430421tip4104_2).
ISSN 0040-5841 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0040-5841). S2CID 13116159 (https://api.se
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9. Anderson, Lorin W.; Krathwohl, David R., eds. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching,
and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. New York:
Longman. ISBN 978-0-8013-1903-7.
10. Hoy, Anita Woolfolk (2007). Educational psychology (10th ed.). Boston: Pearson/Allyn and
Bacon. pp. 530–531, 545. ISBN 978-0205459469. OCLC 68694368 (https://www.worldcat.o
rg/oclc/68694368).
11. Armstrong, Patricia (2010-06-10). "Bloom's Taxonomy" (https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub
-pages/blooms-taxonomy/). Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Vanderbilt University.
Retrieved 29 June 2016.
12. Simpson, Elizabeth (1972), Educational objectives in the psychomotor domain (https://files.e
ric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED010368.pdf) (PDF), vol. 3, Washington, D.C.: Gryphon House, pp. 25–
30, ERIC ED010368 (https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED010368), retrieved 3 April 2018
13. Bloom et al. 1956, p. 201.
14. Paul, R. (1993). Critical thinking: what every person needs to survive in a rapidly changing
world (3rd ed.). Rohnert Park, California: Sonoma State University Press.
15. Flannery, Maura C. (November 2007). "Observations on biology" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20170306033013/https://www.nabt.org/websites/institution/File/pdfs/american_biology_tea
cher/2007/069-09-0561.pdf) (PDF). The American Biology Teacher. 69 (9): 561–564.
doi:10.1662/0002-7685(2007)69[561:OOB]2.0.CO;2 (https://doi.org/10.1662%2F0002-7685
%282007%2969%5B561%3AOOB%5D2.0.CO%3B2). S2CID 85828325 (https://api.semanti
cscholar.org/CorpusID:85828325). Archived from the original (https://www.nabt.org/websites
/institution/File/pdfs/american_biology_teacher/2007/069-09-0561.pdf) (PDF) on 2017-03-
06. Retrieved 2017-03-05. "Biology is often referred to as an observational science almost
as a slur, with the implication that biologists simply look at the living world without the strong
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as a slur, with the implication that biologists simply look at the living world without the strong
theoretical and mathematic underpinnings of a science like physics. There is the suggestion
that observation is easy. Thus biology is viewed as a lightweight science—anyone can do it:
just go out and start looking, at birds, at grass, at cells under the microscope. Benjamin
Bloom's taxonomy of learning tasks puts observation at the lowest level, with recall of
information. This denigration of observation has long bothered me because I see it as often
difficult and complex, a skill that needs to be learned and a talent that is much more
developed in some."
16. Lawler, Susan (26 February 2016). "Identification of animals and plants is an essential skill
set" (https://web.archive.org/web/20161117044125/http://theconversation.com/identification-
of-animals-and-plants-is-an-essential-skill-set-55450). The Conversation. Archived from the
original (https://theconversation.com/identification-of-animals-and-plants-is-an-essential-skill
-set-55450) on 17 November 2016. Retrieved 5 March 2017. "Ironically, the dogma that has
been so detrimental to field taxonomy is known as Bloom's taxonomy. University lecturers
are told to apply an educational theory developed by Benjamin Bloom, which categorises
assessment tasks and learning activities into cognitive domains. In Bloom's taxonomy,
identifying and naming are at the lowest level of cognitive skills and have been
systematically excluded from University degrees because they are considered simplistic."
17. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). "Chapter 6: Interaction between learning and development". Mind in
society: the development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
Harvard University Press. pp. 79–91.
18. Keene, Judith; Colvin, John; Sissons, Justine (June 2010) [2010]. "Mapping student
information literacy activity against Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive skills" (http://jil.lboro.ac.uk
/ojs/index.php/JIL/article/view/PRA-V4-I1-2010-1). Journal of Information Literacy. 4 (1): 6–
21. doi:10.11645/4.1.189 (https://doi.org/10.11645%2F4.1.189). "When supporting students
outside the classroom situation, a subject aware advisor should be capable of spotting
mistakes in a student's solution and of analysing these mistakes to identify the difficulty that
the student is encountering. Such support can be seen as offering scaffolding in a student's
'zone of proximal development' (Vygotsky, 1978) and exemplified by teaching students to
analyse a problem through the identification of the key elements and the relationships
between these elements."
19. Fadul, J. A. (2009). "Collective Learning: Applying distributed cognition for collective
intelligence". The International Journal of Learning. 16 (4): 211–220. doi:10.18848/1447-
9494/CGP/v16i04/46223 (https://doi.org/10.18848%2F1447-9494%2FCGP%2Fv16i04%2F4
6223). ISSN 1447-9494 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1447-9494).
20. Newton, Philip M.; Da Silva, Ana; Peters, Lee George (10 July 2020). "A pragmatic master
list of action verbs for Bloom's taxonomy" (https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffeduc.2020.00107).
Frontiers in Education. 5. doi:10.3389/feduc.2020.00107 (https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffeduc.2
020.00107).
21. BJ Jansen, D Booth, B Smith (2009) Using the taxonomy of cognitive learning to model
online searching (https://faculty.ist.psu.edu/jjansen/academic/pubs/jansen_using_the_taxon
omy_of_cognitive_learning_to_model_online_searching.pdf), Information Processing &
Management 45 (6), 643-663
22. Kress, G.; Selander, S. (2012). "Multimodal design, learning and cultures of recognition".
Internet and Higher Education. 15 (1): 265–268. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2011.12.003 (https://d
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24. The New London Group (1996). A pedagogy of multiliteracies: designing social futures.
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Harvard Educational Review.

Further reading
Bloom, B. S. (1994). "Reflections on the development and use of the taxonomy". In Rehage,
Kenneth J.; Anderson, Lorin W.; Sosniak, Lauren A. (eds.). Bloom's taxonomy: A forty-year
retrospective. Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Vol. 93. Chicago:
National Society for the Study of Education. ISSN 1744-7984 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/
1744-7984).
Clark, Donald R. (1999). "Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains" (http://www.nwlink.com/
~donclark/hrd/bloom.html). Retrieved 28 Jan 2014.
Krathwohl, D. R.; Bloom, B. S.; Masia, B. B. (1964). Taxonomy of educational objectives:
The classification of educational goals. Vol. Handbook II: the affective domain. New York:
David McKay Company.
Morshead, Richard W. (1965). "On Taxonomy of educational objectives Handbook II:
Affective domain" (https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/43808/1/11217_2004_A
rticle_BF00373956.pdf) (PDF). Studies in Philosophy and Education. 4 (1): 164–170.
doi:10.1007/bf00373956 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf00373956). hdl:2027.42/43808 (https
://hdl.handle.net/2027.42%2F43808). S2CID 143935506 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Co
rpusID:143935506).
Orlich, Donald; Harder, Robert; Callahan, Richard; Trevisan, Michael; Brown, Abbie (2004).
Teaching strategies: a guide to effective instruction (https://archive.org/details/teachingstrate
gi0000unse) (7th ed.). Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-6182-9999-7.

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