Web Design & Development CS-506

Lec 23-25
HANDOUTS
WEB DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

- 277 -
Lec – 23
Web Design & Development CS-506

Lecture 23

Multithreading
Introduction
Multithreading is the ability to do multiple things at once with in the same application. It
provides finer granularity of concurrency. A thread — sometimes called an execution
context or a lightweight process — is a single sequential flow of control within a
program.

Threads are light weight as compared to processes because they take fewer resources then
a process. A thread is easy to create and destroy. Threads share the same address space
i.e. multiple threads can share the memory variables directly, and therefore may require
more complex synchronization logic to avoid deadlocks and starvation.

Sequential Execution vs Multithreading

Every program has atleast one thread. Programs without multithreading executes
sequentially. That is, after executing one instruction the next instruction in sequence is
executed. If a function is called then until the completion of the function the next
instruction is not executed. Similarly if there is a loop then instructions after loop only
gets executed when the loop gets completed. Consider the following java program having
three loops in it.

// File ThreeLoopTest.java

public class ThreeLoopTest {

public static void main (String args[ ]) {

//first loop
for (int i=1; i<= 5; i++)
System.out.println(“first ” +i);

// second loop
for (int j=1; j<= 5; j++)
System.out.println(“second ” + j);

// third loop
for (int k=1; k<= 5; k++)
System.out.println(“third ” + k);

} // end main
} // end class

- 278 -
Lec – 23
Web Design & Development CS-506

When the program executes, the loops are executed sequentially, one after the other. It
generates the following output.

Note: Each loop has 5 iterations in the ThreeLoopTest program.

- 279 -
Lec – 23
Web Design & Development CS-506

However, if we use multithreading — with one thread per loop — the program may
generate the following output.

Note: Each loop has 10 iterations in the ThreadTest program. Your output can be
different from the one given above.

--------------
Notice the difference between the outputs of the two programs. In ThreeLoopTest each
loop generated a sequential output while in ThreadTest the output of the loops got
intermingled i.e. concurrency took place and loops executed simultaneously

Let us code our first multithreaded program and try to learn how Java supports
multithreading.

- 280 -
Lec – 23
Web Design & Development CS-506

Java Threads
Java includes built-in support for threading. While other languages have threads bolted-
on to an existing structure. i.e. threads were not the part of the original language but latter
came into existence as the need arose.

All well known operating systems these days support multithreading. JVM transparently
maps Java Threads to their counter-parts in the operating system i.e. OS Threads. JVM
allows threads in Java to take advantage of hardware and operating system level
advancements. It keeps track of threads and schedules them to get CPU time. Scheduling
may be pre-emptive or cooperative. So it is the job of JVM to manage different tasks of
thread. Let’s see how we can create threads?

Creating Threads in Java

There are two approaches to create threads in Java.

• Using Interface
• Using Inheritance

Following are the steps to create threads by using Interface:

1. Create a class where you want to put some code that can run in parallel
with some other code and let that class implement the Runnable interface
2. Runnable interface has the run() method therefore provide the
implementation for the run() method and put your code that you want to
run in parallel here
3. Instantiate Thread class object by passing Runnable object in constructor
4. Start thread by calling start() method

Following are the steps to create threads by using Intheritance:

1. Inherit a class from java.lang.Thread class
2. Override the run() method in the subclass
3. Instantiate the object of the subclass
4. Start thread by calling start() method

- 281 -
Lec – 23
Web Design & Development CS-506

Threads Creation Steps Using Interface

To write a multithreaded program using Runnable interface, follow these steps:

• Step 1 - Implement the Runnable Interface

class Worker implements Runnable

• Step 2 - Provide an Implementation of run() method

public void run( ){
// write thread behavior
// code that will be executed by the thread

• Step 3 - Instantiate Thread class object by passing Runnable object in the

constructor
Worker w = new Worker(“first”);
Thread t = new Thread (w);

• Step 4 – Start thread by calling start() method

t.start();

Threads Creation Steps Using Inheritance

To write a multithreaded program using inheritance from Thread class, follow these
steps:

• Step 1 – Inherit from Thread Class

class Worker extends Thread

• Step 2 - Override run() method

public void run( ){
// write thread behavior
// code that will execute by thread

• Step 3 - Instantiate subclass object

Worker w = new Worker(“first”);

• Step 4 – Start thread by calling start() method

t.start();

- 282 -
Lec – 23
Web Design & Development CS-506

Three Loops: Multi-Threaded Execution

So far we have explored:
• What is multithreading?
• What are Java Threads?
• Two ways to write multithreaded Java programs

Now we will re-write the ThreeLoopTest program by using Java Threads. At first we will
use the Interface approach and then we will use Inheritance.

Code Example using Interface

// File Worker.java
public class Worker implements Runnable {
private String job ;
//Constructor of Worker class
public Worker (String j ){
job = j;
}
//Implement run() method of Runnable interface
public void run ( ) {
for(int i=1; i<= 10; i++)
System.out.println(job + " = " + i);
}

} // end class

// File ThreadTest.java
public class ThreadTest{
public static void main (String args[ ]){
//instantiate three objects
Worker first = new Worker (“first job”);
Worker second = new Worker (“second job”);
Worker third = new Worker (“third job”);

//create three objects of Thread class & passing worker

//(runnable) to them
Thread t1 = new Thread (first );
Thread t2 = new Thread (second);
Thread t3 = new Thread (third);

//start threads to execute

t1.start();
t2.start();
t3.start();
}//end main
} // end class

- 283 -
Lec – 23
Web Design & Development CS-506

Code Example using Inheritance

Following code is similar to the code given above, but uses Inheritance instead of
interface

// File Worker.java

public class Worker extends Thread{

private String job ;

//Constructor of Worker class

public Worker (String j ){
job = j;
}

//Override run() method of Thread class

public void run ( ) {
for(int i=1; i<= 10; i++)
System.out.println(job + " = " + i);
}

} // end class

// File ThreadTest.java

public class ThreadTest{

public static void main (String args[ ]) {

//instantiate three objects of Worker (Worker class is now

//becomes a Thread because it is inheriting from it)class
Worker first = new Worker (“first job”);
Worker second = new Worker (“second job”);
Worker third = new Worker (“third job”);

//start threads to execute

t1.start();
t2.start();
t3.start();

}//end main
} // end class

--------------

- 284 -
Lec – 23
Web Design & Development CS-506

Thread Priorities
Threads provide a way to write concurrent programs. But on a single CPU, all the threads
do not run simultaneously. JVM assigns threads to the CPU based on thread priorities.
Threads with higher priority are executed in preference to threads with lower priority. A
thread’s default priority is same as that of the creating thread i.e. parent thread.

A Thread’s priority can be any integer between 1 and 10. We can also use the following
predefined constants to assign priorities.

Thread.MAX_PRIORITY (typically 10)

Thread.NORM_PRIORITY (typically 5)
Thread.MIN_PRIORITY (typically 1)

To change the priority of a thread, we can use the following method

setPriority(int priority)

It changes the priority of this thread to integer value that is passed. It throws an
IllegalArgumentException if the priority is not in the range MIN_PRIORITY to
MAX_PRIORITY i.e. (1–10).

For example, we can write the following code to change a thread’s priority.

Thread t = new Thread (RunnableObject);

// by using predefined constant

t.setPriority (Thread.MAX_PRIORITY);

// by using integer constant

t.setPriority (7);

Thread Priority Scheduling

The Java runtime environment supports a very simple, deterministic scheduling algorithm
called fixed-priority scheduling. This algorithm schedules threads on the basis of their
priority relative to other Runnable threads.

At any given time, when multiple threads are ready to be executed, the runtime system
chooses for execution the Runnable thread that has the highest priority. Only when that
thread stops, yields (will be explained later), or becomes Not Runnable will a lower-
priority thread start executing. If two threads of the same priority are waiting for the
CPU, the scheduler arbitrarily chooses one of them to run. The chosen thread runs until
one of the following conditions becomes true:

- 285 -
Lec – 23
Web Design & Development CS-506

• A higher priority thread becomes Runnable.

• It yields, or its run() method exits.
• On systems that support time-slicing, its time allotment has expired.

Then the second thread is given a chance to run, and so on, until the interpreter exits.
Consider the following figure in which threads of various priorities are represented by
capital alphabets A, B, …, K. A and B have same priority (highest in this case). J and K
have same priority (lowest in this case). JVM start executing with A and B, and divides
CPU time between these two threads arbitrarily. When both A and B comes to an end, it
chooses the next thread C to execute.

- 286 -
Lec – 23
Web Design & Development CS-506

Code Example: Thread Priorities

Try following example to understand how JVM executes threads based on their priorities.

// File PriorityEx.java
public class PriorityEx{
public static void main (String args[ ]){
//instantiate two objects
Worker first = new Worker (“first job”);
Worker second = new Worker (“second job”);

//create two objects

Thread t1 = new Thread (first );
Thread t2 = new Thread (second);

//set thread priorities

t1.setPriority (Thread.MIN_PRIORITY);
t2.setPriority (Thread.MAX_PRIORITY);

//start threads to execute

t1.start();
t2.start();

}//end main
} // end class

Output

- 287 -
Lec – 23
Web Design & Development CS-506

Problems with Thread Priorities

However, when using priorities with Java Threads, remember the following two issues:

First a Java thread priority may map differently to the thread priorities of the underlying
OS. It is because of difference in priority levels of JVM and underlying OS. For example

• Solaris has 232–1 priority levels

• Windows NT has only 7 user priority levels

Second, starvation can occur for lower-priority threads if the higher-priority threads never
terminate, sleep, or wait for I/O indefinitely.

- 288 -
Lec – 23
Web Design & Development CS-506

References:

ƒ Java, A Practical Guide by Umair Javed

ƒ Java How to Program by Deitel and Deitel
ƒ CS193j handouts on Stanford

- 289 -
Lec – 24
Web Design & Development CS-506

Lecture 24

More on Multithreading

In this handout, we’ll cover different aspects of multithreading. Some examples are given
to make you understand the topic of multithreading. First we will start with an example
that reads data from two text files simultaneously.

Example Code: Reading Two Files Simultaneously

The task is to read data from file “first.txt” & “second.txt” simultaneously. Suppose that
files contains the following data as shown below

first 1
first 2
first 3
first 4
first 5
first 6
first 7
first 8
first 9
first 10
first.txt

second 1
second 2
second 3
second 4
second 5
second 6
second 7
second 8
second 9
second 10
second.txt

- 290 -
Lec – 24
Web Design & Development CS-506

Following is the code of ReadFile.java that implements Runnable interface.The file

reading code will be written inside run( ) method

// File ReadFile.java
import java.io.*;
public class ReadFile implements Runnable{
//attribute used for name of file
String fileName;

// param constructor
public ReadFile(String fn){
fileName = fn;
}

// overriding run method

// this method contains the code for file reading
public void run ( ){
try
{
// connecting FileReader with attribute fileName
FileReader fr = new FileReader(fileName);
BufferedReader br = new BufferedReader(fr);

String line = "";

// reading line by line data from file
// and displaying it on console
line = br.readLine();

while(line != null) {
System.out.println(line);
line = br.readLine();
}
fr.close();
br.close();

}catch (Exception e){

System.out.println(e);
}

} // end run() method

}

- 291 -
Lec – 24
Web Design & Development CS-506

Next, look at the Test.java class that contains the main() method.

// File Test.java
public class Test {
public static void main (String args[]){

// creating ReadFile objects by passing file names to them

ReadFile first = new ReadFile("first.txt");
ReadFile second = new ReadFile("second.txt");

// Instantiating thread objects and passing

// runnable (ReadFile) objects to them
Thread t1 = new Thread(first);
Thread t2 = new Thread(second);

// starting threads that cause threads to read data from

// two different files simultaneously
t1.start();
t2.start();

}
}

Output
On executing Test class, following kind output would be generated:

- 292 -
Lec – 24
Web Design & Development CS-506

Useful Thread Methods

Now let’s discuss some useful thread class methods.

ƒ sleep(int time) method

- Causes the currently executing thread to wait for the time (milliseconds) specified
- Waiting is efficient equivalent to non-busy. The waiting thread will not occupy
the processor
- Threads come out of the sleep when the specified time interval expires or when
interrupted by some other thread
- Thread coming out of sleep may go to the running or ready state depending upon
the availability of the processor. The different states of threads will be discussed
later
- High priority threads should execute sleep method after some time to give low
priority threads a chance to run otherwise starvation may occur
- sleep() method can be used for delay purpose i.e. anyone cal call
Thread.sleep()method
- Note that sleep() method can throw InterruptedException. So, you
need try-catch block

Example Code: Demonstrating sleep ( ) usage

Below the modified code of Worker.java is given that we used in the previous
handout.
// File Worker.java
public class Worker implements Runnable {
private String job ;
//Constructor of Worker class
public Worker (String j ){
job = j;
}
//Implement run() method of Runnable interface
public void run ( ) {
for(int i=1; i<= 10; i++) {
try {
Thread.sleep(100); // go to sleep for 100 ms
}catch (Exception ex){
System.out.println(ex);
}
System.out.println(job + " = " + i);
} // end for
} // end run
} // end class

- 293 -
Lec – 24
Web Design & Development CS-506

Below is the code of SleepEx.java that contains the main() method. It will use
the Worker class created above.

// File SleepEx.java
public class SleepEx {
public static void main (String args[ ]){

// Creating Worker objects

Worker first = new Worker (“first job”);
Worker second = new Worker (“second job”);

// Instantiating thread class objects

Thread t1 = new Thread (first );
Thread t2 = new Thread (second);

// starting thread
t1.start();
t2.start();
}

} // end class

Output
On executing SleepEx.java, the output will be produced with exact alternations
between first thread & second thread. On starting threads, first thread will go to sleep
for 100 ms. It gives a chance to second thread to execute. Later this thread will also
go to sleep for 100 ms. In the mean time the first thread will come out of sleep and
got a chance on processor. It will print job on console and again enters into sleep state
and this cycle goes on until both threads finished the run() method

- 294 -
Lec – 24
Web Design & Development CS-506

Example Code: Using sleep ( ) for delay purpose

Before jumping on to example code, lets reveal another aspect about main() method.
When you run a Java program, the VM creates a new thread and then sends the
main(String[] args) message to the class to be run! Therefore, there is always at
least one running thread in existence. However, we can create more threads which can
run concurrently with the existing default thread.
sleep() method can be used for delay purpose. This is demonstrated in the
DelayEx.java given below

// File DelayEx.java
public class DelayEx {
public static void main (String args[ ]){
System.out.println(“main thread going to sleep”);
try {
// the main thread will go to sleep causing delay
Thread.sleep(100);
}catch (Exception ex){
System.out.println(ex);
}
System.out.println(“main thread coming out of sleep”);
} // end main()
} // end class

Output
On executing DelayEx class, you will experience a delay after the first statement
displayed. The second statement will print when the time interval expired. This has been
show below in the following two diagrams:

- 295 -
Lec – 24
Web Design & Development CS-506

ƒ yield( ) method
- Allows any other threads of the same priority to execute (moves itself to the end
of the priority queue)
- If all waiting threads have a lower priority, then the yielding thread resumes
execution on the CPU
- Generally used in cooperative scheduling schemes

Example Code: Demonstrating yield ( ) usage

Below the modified code of Worker.java is given

// File Worker.java
public class Worker implements Runnable {
private String job ;
//Constructor of Worker class
public Worker (String j ){
job = j;
}
//Implement run() method of Runnable interface
public void run ( ) {
for(int i=1; i<= 10; i++) {

// giving chance to a thread to execute of same priority

Thread.yield( );
System.out.println(job + " = " + i);

} // end for
} // end run

} // end class

- 296 -
Lec – 24
Web Design & Development CS-506

Below is the code of YieldEx.java that contains the main() method. It will
use the Worker class created above.

// File YieldEx.java
public class YieldEx {
public static void main (String args[ ]){

// Creating Worker objects

Worker first = new Worker (“first job”);
Worker second = new Worker (“second job”);

// Instantiating thread class objects

Thread t1 = new Thread (first );
Thread t2 = new Thread (second);

// starting thread
t1.start();
t2.start();
}

} // end class

Output

Since both threads have the same priority (until we change the priority of some thread
explicitly). Therefore both threads will execute on alternate basis. This can be
confirmed from the output given below:

- 297 -
Lec – 24
Web Design & Development CS-506

Thread States: Life Cycle of a Thread

A thread can be in different states during its lifecycle as shown in the figure.

start()

new

ready
I/O completed

notify()
times expires
or interrupted blocked
dispatch

waiting yield()
sleeping
sleep()

running Block on I/O

wait()

dead
run completes

Some Important states are

ƒ New state
- When a thread is just created

ƒ Ready state
- Thread’s start() method invoked
- Thread can now execute
- Put it into the Ready Queue of the scheduler

ƒ Running state
- Thread is assigned a processor and now is running

ƒ Dead state
- Thread has completed or exited
- Eventually disposed off by system

- 298 -
Lec – 24
Web Design & Development CS-506

Thread’s Joining
- Used when a thread wants to wait for another thread to complete its run( ) method
- For example, if thread2 sent the thread2.join() message, it causes the currently
executing thread to block efficiently until thread2 finishes its run() method
- Calling join method can throw InterruptedException, so you must use try-
catch block to handle it

Example Code: Demonstrating join( ) usage

Below the modified code of Worker.java is given. It only prints the job of the
worker

// File Worker.java
public class Worker implements Runnable {
private String job ;
public Worker (String j ){
job = j;
}
public void run ( ) {
for(int i=1; i<= 10; i++) {
System.out.println(job + " = " + i);
} // end for
} // end run
} // end class

The class JoinEx will demonstrate how current running (main) blocks until the
remaining threads finished their run( )

// File JoinEx.java
public class JoinEx {
public static void main (String args[ ]){
Worker first = new Worker ("first job");
Worker second = new Worker ("second job");
Thread t1 = new Thread (first );
Thread t2 = new Thread (second);
System.out.println("Starting...");
// starting threads
t1.start();
t2.start();
// The current running thread (main) blocks until both

- 299 -
Lec – 24
Web Design & Development CS-506

//workers have finished

try {
t1.join();
t2.join();
}
catch (Exception ex) {
System.out.println(ex);
}

System.out.println("All done ");

} // end main
}

Output

On executing JoinEx, notice that “Starting” is printed first followed by printing

workers jobs. Since main thread do not finish until both threads have finished their
run( ). Therefore “All done” will be print on last.

=================================

- 300 -
Lec – 24
Web Design & Development CS-506

References:

ƒ Java, A Practical Guide by Umair Javed

ƒ Java tutorial by Sun: http://java.sun.com/docs/books/tutorial/
ƒ CS193j handouts on Stanford

- 301 -
Lec – 25
Web Design & Development CS-506

Lecture 25

Web Application Development

Introduction
Because of the wide spread use of internet, web based applications are becoming vital
part of IT infrastructure of large organizations. For example web based employee
performance management systems are used by organizations for weekly or monthly
reviews of employees. On the other hand online course registration and examination
systems can allow students to study while staying at their homes.

Web Applications
In general a web application is a piece of code running at the server which facilitates a
remote user connected to web server through HTTP protocol. HTTP protocol follows
stateless Request-Response communication model. Client (usually a web-browser) sends
a request to Server, which sends back appropriate response or error message.

Figure 1: A typical web application

A web server is a software which provides users, access to the services that are present on
the internet. These servers can provide support for many protocols used over internet or
intranet like HTTP, FTP, telnet etc

HTTP Basics
A protocol defines the method and way of communication between two parties. For
example when we talk to our teacher we use a certain way which is different from the
way that we adopt with our fiends or parents. Similarly there are many different protocols
used by computers to communicate with each other depending on applications.

- 302 -
Lec – 25
Web Design & Development CS-506

For example an Echo Server only listens to incoming name messages and sends back
hello message, while HTTP protocol uses various types of request-response messages.

Figure 2: HTTP communication model

- HTTP is as request-response oriented protocol.

- It is a stateless protocol since there is no built-in state management between
successive requests. We will discuss state later.

Parts of an HTTP request

- Request Method: It tells the server the type of action that a client wants to perform

- URI: Uniform Resource Indictor specifies the address of required document or

resource

- Header Fields: Optional headers can be used by client to tell server extra
information about request e.g. client software and content type that it understands.

Figure 3: HTTP request example

- Body: Contains data sent by client to the server

- 303 -
Lec – 25
Web Design & Development CS-506

- Other request headers like FROM (email of the person responsible for request)
and VIA (used by gateways and proxies to show intermediate sites the request
passes) can also be used.

Request Parameters

- Request can also contain addition information in form of request parameters

o In URL as query string e.g.

http://www.gmail.com/register?name=ali&state=punjab
o As part of request body (see Figure 3)

Parts of HTTP response

- Result Code: A numeric status code and its description.

- Header Fields: Servers use these fields to tell client about server information like
configurations and software etc.

- Body: Data sent by server as part of response that is finally seen by the user.

Figure 4: HTTP response example

- 304 -
Lec – 25
Web Design & Development CS-506

HTTP Response Codes

- An HTTP Response code tell the client about the state of the response i.e. whether
it’s a valid response or some error has occurred etc. HTTP Response codes fall
into five general categories

o 100-199
ƒ Codes in the 100s are informational, indicating that the client
should respond with some other action.

ƒ 100: Continue with partial request.

o 200-299
ƒ Values in the 200s signify that the request was successful.

ƒ 200: Means every thing is fine.

o 300-399
ƒ Values in the 300s are used for files that have moved and usually
include a Location header indicating the new address.

ƒ 300: Document requested can be found several places; they'll be

listed in the returned document.

o 400-499
ƒ Values in the 400s indicate an error by the client.

ƒ 404: Indicates that the requested resource is not available.

ƒ 401: Indicates that the request requires HTTP authentication.

ƒ 403: Indicates that access to the requested resource has been

denied.

o 500-599
ƒ Codes in the 500s signify an error by the server.

ƒ 503: Indicates that the HTTP server is temporarily overloaded and

unable to handle the request.

- 305 -
Lec – 25
Web Design & Development CS-506

- 404: indicates that the requested resource is not available

- 401: Indicates that request requires HTTP authentication

- 306 -
Lec – 25
Web Design & Development CS-506

Server Side Programming

Web server pages can be either static pages or dynamic pages. A static web page is a
simple HTML (Hyper Text Transfer Language) file. When a client requests an HTML
page the server simple sends back response with the required page.

Figure 5: Static web page request and response

An example of static web page is given below

- 307 -
Lec – 25
Web Design & Development CS-506

While in case of dynamic web pages server executes an application which generates
HTML web pages according to specific requests coming from client. These dynamically
generated web pages are sent back to client with the response.

Figure 6: Dynamic web page request and response

Why build Pages Dynamically?

We need to create dynamic web pages when the content of site changes frequently and
client specific response is required. Some of the scenarios are listed below

- The web page is based on data submitted by the user. e.g. results page from search
engines and order confirmation pages at on line stores.

- 308 -
Lec – 25
Web Design & Development CS-506

- The Web page is derived from data that changes frequently. e.g. a weather report
or news headlines page.

- The Web page uses information from databases or other server-side resources.
e.g. an e-commerce site could use a servlet to build a Web page that lists the
current price and availability of each item that is for sale.

- 309 -
Lec – 25
Web Design & Development CS-506

Server side programming involves

- Using technologies for developing web pages that include dynamic content.

- Developing web based applications which can produce web pages that contain
information that is connection-dependent or time-dependent.

Dynamic Web Content Technologies Evolution

Dynamic web content development technologies have evolved through time in speed,
security, ease of use and complexity. Initially C based CGI programs were on the server
Then template based technologies like ASP and PHP were then introduced which allowed
ease of use for designing complex web pages. Sun Java introduced Servlets and JSP that
provided more speed and security as well as better tools for web page creation.

Figure 7: Dynamic web content technologies evolution

- 310 -
Lec – 25
Web Design & Development CS-506

Layers & Web Application

Normally web applications are partitioned into logical layers. Each layer performs a
specific functionality which should not be mixed with other layers. Layers are isolated
from each other to reduce coupling between them but they provide interfaces to
communicate with each other.

Figure 8: Simplified view of a web application and its layers

- Presentation Layer:
Provides a user interface for client to interact with application. This is the only
part of application visible to client.

- Business Layer

The business or service layer implements the actual business logic or functionality
of the application. For example in case of online shopping systems this layer
handles transaction management.

- Data Layer

This layer consists of objects that represent real-world business objects such as an
Order, OrderLineItem, Product, and so on.

- 311 -
Lec – 25
Web Design & Development CS-506

Java – Web Application Technologies

There are several Java technologies available for web application development which
includes Java Servlets, JavaServer Pages, JavaServer Faces etc.

Figure 9: Java web application technologies (presentation/web tier)

- 312 -
Lec – 25
Web Design & Development CS-506

References:

ƒ Java, A Practical Guide by Umair Javed

ƒ Java tutorial by Sun: http://java.sun.com/docs/books/tutorial/

- 313 -