AL - FARABI UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

Department of Engineering and Oil and Gas

Refinery

Name of Project:

PRODUCTION OIL

FROM

WASTE PLASTICS

A project report submitted to the University in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of B.Sc. in Engineering.

By

Sajjad Sattar Jabbar & Hiba Khalid Jwad

Dalia Abdul Kareem Jaaz

Supervised by :

Dr. Khalid Abid Ali

Academic Year 2021 - 2022

1
 Abstract
The Purpose of this Project is to Produce Oil from Waste-Plastics by
using (Catalytic Pyrolysis). Waste Plastics which are organic
substances have large impact on environment due to their non-
biodegradability, can be transformed into liquid and gaseous fuel for
internal combustion engine and boilers. In this Project, plastic wastes
(polyethylene ; PE) were used for the pyrolysis to get fuel oil that has
the same physical properties as the fuels like Gasoline, kerosene, and
diesel. First of all the oil produced can be used as a fuel for domestic
purposes and also in vehicles and industries when further refined.
Secondly the various types of pollution caused due to waste plastics can
be minimized. Plastic in the first place is manufactured from natural gas
specifically from ethane which is a constituent of natural gas. Therefore
the waste plastic can be converted back into it. The Plant Capacity is ;
(5000 Kg/hr of LDPE) . The work on our project includes the
completion of the following parts: Chapter one (Introduction), Chapter
two (Production Methods), Chapter three (Material Balance), Chapter
four (Energy Balance).

2
3
Nomenclature

1-

4
Contents page

Chapter One :- " Introduction "

- Introduction ……………..……………………………..8

2- Chapter Two " Literature Survey "

- Definition ………………………………………………12
- Types of Plastics ………………………………………..12

- Recycling Codes ………………………………………..14

- Polyethylene (PE) ………………………………………15

- Physical Properties ………………………………….…16

- Sources of Plastic Wastes …………………………...…18

- Uses ……………………………………………..………20

- Pyrolysis Application …………………………….……20

- Pyrolysis Technology ……………………………….…21

- Catalytic Pyrolysis Advantages …………….………...26

3- Chapter Three :-
" Material Balance " …………………….…...27
4- Chapter Four :-
" Energy Balance " ……………………….....39

5- Chapter Five :-
" Equipment Design " …………………….....54

5
6- Chapter Six :-
" Mechanical Design " ……………………...94

7- References …………………………………………...…...122

6
7
Chapter One ; ( Introduction )

Plastics are composed of high-molecular carbon chains and derived from

petrochemicals like crude oil. Based on their unique physical and chemical
properties, they can be molded into various solid objects applied in many different
fields. In general, there are 8 main sectors: packaging, building and construction,
textiles, consumer & institutional products, transportation, electrical/electronic,
industrial machinery, and others. Among them, packaging is the primary source
of plastics. Plastics are organic polymers with other various substances. Different
polymers can be combined to make different plastic resins which are important
for making products. since each kind of plastic resin has its specific physical and
chemical properties. Generally, plastic resins include low-density polyethylene
(LDPE); high-density polyethylene (HDPE); polypropylene (PP); Polystyrene
(PS); polyvinyl chloride (PVC); and others. For PS, it can be easily expanded and
became light after it. Foam cups, trays, and egg cartons are common expanded
products [1,2].

The global consumption of plastics was reported to be 230MT in 2005 of

which 47.5MT were produced in Europe . As it can be seen in figure 1; Europeans
and Americans are the great consumers of plastic of about 100kg/capita/annum
with the potential to rise 140kg/capita/annum by 2012 In India the consumption
of plastic has increased from 4000 tone/year (t/y) in 1992 to 5 MT/y in 2005. The
per capita plastic consumption is 4kg/y. Asian region (excluding Japan) is the
biggest developing region, where per capita plastic consumption was only 20kg
by 2008, but it is expected to increase by approximately 16kg by 2015. The
worldwide production fall back in 2008 to 245MT from 260MT in 2007. Europe
was the major producer of 25% of global total in 2008 [1].

8
 Many types of consumed plastic are available in our surroundings,
preferably those wastes are converted into liquid fuels. Mixed wastes used were
high density polyethylene (HDPE), low density polyethylene (LDPE),
polystyrene (PS), polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene-terephthalate (PET). The
pyrolysis processes were carried out with fixed bed reactor. Natural catalyst such
as Shwedaung clay, Mabisan clay, Bentonite clay, Dolomite and synthetic
catalyst, zinc oxide, were used as catalyst for pyrolysis of mixed plastic wastes.
Pyrolysis which falls into the category of chemical recycling process is an
endothermic, irreversible, high temperature phenomenon which transforms
organic material into its smaller constituents. Catalytic pyrolysis which represents
an area of intense scientific and technological research has a great potential to
absorb large volume of plastic waste [1,2].

Today, plastics materials are very frequent in daily life and provide a
fundamental contribution to our society. The typical distribution of household
plastics as a part of the overall solid waste stream is: polyolefins 66.9%,
polystyrene 13.3%, PVC 10.3%, PET 5.3% and others 4.2%. Waste plastic ends
its lifetime as municipal solid waste on the land fill. Over the world plastic waste

9
has continuously grown in the last decades. Disposal of waste plastics causes
serious environmental problems. Thus, plastic waste recycling has been a focus
of many researchers in the past few decades. Pyrolysis appears to be promising
technic of conversion of solid wastes plastic (SWP) to more usable materials such
as gas fuel and/or fuel oil or to high value feedstock for the chemical industry.
Thermal pyrolysis of plastic materials leads to a wide product distribution and
requires high degradation temperatures. During the cracking process of long
polymer molecules the degradation of polymer chains can be enhanced by
applying of various catalysts. The catalytic pyrolysis of plastic wastes gives
valuable products similar to diesel and gasoline. The most frequently used
catalysts are zeolites and mesoporous materials because of their porous structure
and acid properties. In the case of the polyolefin catalytic cracking like PE and PP
a number of acid porous solids, such as amorphous silica-alumina, zeolites and
ordered mesoporous materials, have been used as catalysts [3].

Plastic were invented in 1860, but have only been widely used in the last 30 years
plastic are light, durable, modifiable and hygienic. Plastic are made of long chain
of molecule called Polymers. Polymers are made when naturally occurring
substance such as crude oil or petroleum are transformed into other substance with
completely different properties. These polymers can then be made into granules,
powders and liquids, becoming raw materials for plastic products [4].

10
11
Chapter Two ; ( Literature Survey )

2.1- Definition:-
Waste Plastics which are organic substances have large impact on
environment due to their non-biodegradability, can be transformed into liquid and
gaseous fuel for internal combustion engine, boiler, fuel cells etc. There are
different plastic waste management techniques exist such as land filling, direct
burning (incineration), mechanical recycling and chemical recycling. Chemical
recycling is the most attractive method in accordance with principle of sustainable
development, and is also called feedstock or tertiary recycling [1].

In this Project, plastic wastes (polyethylene ; PE) were used for the
pyrolysis to get fuel oil that has the same physical properties as the fuels like
Gasoline, diesel etc. The waste plastics are subjected to depolymerization,
pyrolysis, and distillation to obtain different value added fuels such as Gasoline,
kerosene, and diesel, lube oil etc. Thus, the process of converting plastics to fuel
has now turned the problems into an opportunity to make wealth from waste. First
of all the oil produced can be used as a fuel for domestic purposes and also in
vehicles and industries when further refined. Secondly the various types of
pollution caused due to waste plastics can be minimized. Plastic in the first place
is manufactured from natural gas specifically from ethane which is a constituent
of natural gas. Therefore the waste plastic can be converted back into it [1].

2.2- Types of Plastics

Plastics have become an indispensable part in today’s world. Due to their
light weight, durability, energy efficiency, coupled with faster rate of production
and design flexibility, these plastics are employed in entire gamut of industrial
and domestic areas. Plastics are produced from petroleum derivates and are
composed primarily of hydrocarbons but also contain additives such as
antioxidants, colorants and other stabilizers. Disposal of the waste plastics poses
a great hazard to the environment and effective method has not been implemented.
Plastics are non-biodegradable polymers mostly containing carbon, hydrogen, and
few other elements like nitrogen. Due to its non-biodegradable nature, the plastic
waste contributes significantly to the problem of waste management [4].

Plastics play an important role in day-today life, as in certain application

they have an edge over conventional materials. Indeed, their light weight,
durability, energy efficiency, coupled with a faster rate of production and more
12
design flexibility, have allowed breakthroughs in fields ranging from non-
conventional energy, to horticulture and irrigation, water-purification systems and
even space flight. However one has to accept that virtues and vices co-exist.
Plastics are relatively cheaper and being easily available has brought about use
and throwaway culture. Plastics waste management has become a problem world
over because of their non-degradable property. A majority of landfills, allotted for
plastic waste disposal, are approaching their full capacity. Thus recycling is
becoming increasingly necessary [5].

In common usage, the term ‘plastic’ is considered equivalent to the term

polymer. Nevertheless, all plastics are polymers, but not all polymeric materials
are plastics. Polymers can be divided into three different groups : a) elastomers
(rubbers), b) plastics and c) fibers. There are five high volume groups of plastics
: polyethylene (low density PE-LD, linear low density PE-LLD and high density
polyethylene PE-HD), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
polystyrene (solid-PS, expandable-EPS), polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and
polyutherane (PUR) . Counted together, they constitute 80% of all the plastic
demand in the world in 2011.Plastics have a wide variety of combinations of
properties. Some are very rigid and brittle, while others are flexible, exhibiting
both elastic and plastic deformations when stressed and sometimes experiencing
considerable deformation before fracture. The biggest market shares belong to
polyethylene (29%), polypropylene (19%) and polyvinyl chloride (11%). Figure
2; shows worlds plastic demand divided by different types of plastics in 2011 [6].

13
2.3- Recycling Codes
Table-1; lists the recycling codes currently used in the world today. These
inform the consumer as to the type of polymer they are discarding and enables the
correct recycling of the waste plastic wherever possible [7].

14
2.4 – Polyethylene (PE)
Polyethylene (PE), light, versatile synthetic resin made from the
polymerization of ethylene. Polyethylene is a member of the important family of
polyolefin resins ; It is the most widely used plastic in the world. Ethylene (C2H4)
molecules are essentially composed of two methylene units (CH2) linked together
by a double bond between the carbon atoms—a structure represented by the
formula CH2=CH2. Under the influence of polymerization catalysts, the double
bond can be broken and the resultant extra single bond used to link to a carbon
atom in another ethylene molecule. Thus, made into the repeating unit of a large,
polymeric (multiple-unit) molecule, ethylene has the following chemical structure
[19]
:

This simple structure, repeated thousands of times in a single molecule, is

the key to the properties of polyethylene. The long, chainlike molecules, in
which hydrogen atoms are connected to a carbon backbone, can be produced in
linear or branched forms. Branched versions are known as low-density
polyethylene (LDPE) or linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE); linear
versions are known as high-density polyethylene (HDPE) [19].

LDPE is prepared from gaseous ethylene under very high pressures and
high temperatures in the presence of oxide initiators. These processes yield
a polymer structure with both long and short branches; LDPE is a very flexible
material. Its melting point is approximately 110 °C (230 °F). Principal uses are in
packaging film, trash and grocery bags, agricultural mulch, wire and cable
insulation, squeeze bottles, toys, and housewares. The plastic recycling code of
LDPE is #4 [19].

HDPE is manufactured at low temperatures and pressures, using Ziegler-

Natta catalysts. The lack of branches in its structure allows the polymer chains to
pack closely together, resulting in a dense, highly crystalline material of high
strength and moderate stiffness. Products include blow-molded bottles for milk
and household cleaners; blow-extruded grocery bags, construction film, and
agricultural mulch; and injection-molded pails, caps, appliance housings, and
toys. The plastic recycling code number of HDPE is #2 [19].

15
2.5 - Physical Properties
1) For several commercially available plastics
Physical data for several commercially available plastics are summarized
in Table -2 [8].

2) Pysical Properties For Polyethylene (PE)

Polyethylene (PE) is the most widely used thermoplastic polymer for
fabricated parts and components. It is available in a variety of grades and
formulations to suit different needs. In general, polyethylenes offer excellent
chemical and impact resistance, electrical properties and low coefficient of
friction. It is considered a dielectric material. In addition, polyethylenes are
16
lightweight, easily processed and offer near-zero moisture absorption. See details
of its material properties in the table below(Table-3). There are four categories of
polyethylene thermoplastic material based on density/property: low, medium,
high (HDPE) and ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene. Characteristics of
these include [20]:

{ Economical / Low co-efficient of friction / Excellent chemical resistance / Stable

in cryogenic environments / Good impact resistance / FDA/USDA approved
(HDPE) / Resistant to many solvents (HDPE) / Good fatigue and wear resistance
(HDPE) / Zero water absorption (HDPE)}

17
2.6- Sources of Plastic Wastes
Plastic wastes (normally remain a part of solid wastes as they are discarded
and collected a household wastes. The various sources of plastics includes
domestic items (food containers, milk covers, water bottles, packaging foam,
disposable cups, plates, cutlery, CD and cassette boxes. fridge liners, vending
cups, electronic equipment cases, drainage pipe, carbonated drinks bottles,
plumbing pipes and guttering, flooring. cushioning foams, thermal insulation
foams, surface coatings, etc.), agricultural (mulch films, feed bags, fertilizer bags,
and in temporary tarpaulin-like uses such as covers for hay, silage, etc.), wire and
cable, automobile wrecking, etc. Industrial plastic wastes are those arising from
the large plastics manufacturing, processing and packaging industry. The
industrial waste plastic mainly constitute plastics from construction and
demolition companies (e.g. polyvinylchloride pipes and fittings, tiles and sheets)
electrical and electronics industries (e.g. switch boxes, cable sheaths, cassette
boxes, TV screens, etc.) and the automotive industries spare-parts for cars, such
as fan blades, seat coverings, battery containers and front grills). Most of the
industrial plastic waste has relatively well physical characteristics i.e. they are
sufficiently clean and free of contamination and are available in fairly large
quantities [4].

The types of the waste plastics are LDPE, HDPE, PP, PS, and PVC. The
problems of waste plastics can‘t be solved by landfilling or incineration, because
the safety deposits are expensive and incineration stimulates the growing emission
of harmful greenhouse gases like COx, NOx, SOx and etc. These types of disposal
of the waste plastics release toxic gas which has negative impact on environment.
Plastic wastes can also classified as industrial and municipal plastic wastes
according to their origins, these groups have different qualities and properties and
are subjected to different management strategies. Plastic wastes represent a
considerable part of municipal wastes furthermore huge amounts of plastic waste
arise as a by-product or faulty product in industry and agriculture. The total plastic
waste, over 78% weight of this total corresponds to thermoplastics and the
remaining to thermosets. Thermoplastics are composed of polyolefins such as
polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene and polyvinyl chloride and can be
recycled. On the other hand thermosets mainly include epoxy resins and
polyurethanes and cannot be recycled [4].

18
 In 2015, there were 146 million tons packaging plastic which took about
one third of the total plastic products. And in the same year, among all the plastic
wastes, 141 million tons were packaging plastics. For other sectors except
building and construction section, there is a little difference on quantity between
production and their wastes. For the plastic wastes of building and construction,
they only take up about 20% of the products of building and construction which
means the lifetime of those kind of plastics is quite long. However, for most
plastic products especially products like packaging, they are in quite short
lifetime. The details of plastic production are shown in the figure 1, while the
details of plastics wastes are shown in the figure 2 [9].

Plastics are light weight and durability. Plastic wastes can be classified as
industrial and municipal waste plastic according to their origins. They have
different qualities and properties. Waste plastic represents a considerable part of
municipal wastes; furthermore huge amount of waste plastic arise as a byproduct
or faulty product in industry and agriculture. The plastic wastes are mainly two
types of plastics such as thermo plastics and thermosetting plastics. Thermo
plastics are composed of polyolefin such as high density polyethylene (HDPE),
low density polyethylene (LDPE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS),
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and can be
recycled. Thermosetting plastics mainly include epoxy resins and polyurethanes
and cannot be recycled. The quantity of thermoplastics found in waste is
increasing corresponding. Nowadays, the largest amount of plastic wastes is
disposed of by land filling, and incineration. So, Environmental pollution
increases day by day in everywhere. Plastic wastes are the main causes of
environmental pollution. There are three ways to management of plastic wastes.
They are land filling, incineration and recycling.

19
2.7- Uses
Recycling and reuse of plastics has obvious benefits of decreasing the
amount of waste plastics that end up in landfills; however, the overall recovery of
plastics for recycling is relatively small. The growing awareness in environmental
concerns and the reducing landfill space have prompted research in alternative
methods such as chemical recycling. Chemical or feedstock recycling involves
processes that convert plastic waste into petroleum feedstock, preferably gasoline
range fuel. Although a viable option, this method can be costly. Contributing to
the high costs is the fact that waste plastics are indeed mixtures of different
materials having different compositions and thus requiring different processing
conditions. Moreover, the chemical recycling (or cracking) of plastics has to be
combined with other technologies, such as categorization and pretreatment at the
upstream end, as well as various separations and product recovery processes on
the downstream end [11].

Applications for Polyethylene (PE) [20]

 Conveyor guides
 Chute liners
 Chemical holding tanks
 Food processing parts
 Medical equipment
 Packaging applications
 Conveyor wear strips (HDPE)
 Piping systems (HDPE)
 Liquid dispensing equipment (HDPE)
 Marine components (HDPE)

2.8- Pyrolysis Application and Economy

1) Pyrolysis is an effective chemical recycling method. It has been employed to
convert waste plastic into useful products such as fine chemicals, transportation
fuels, and lubricant oils.

2) Pyrolysis is also classified as the chemical and energy recovery system known
as cracking, gasification and chemolysis methods [12].

3) In the pyrolysis process (heating in an oxygen free atmosphere), the materials

(containing organic components) with higher molecular weights are decomposed,
20
generating liquid and gaseous products that can be used as a fuel and/or as sources
of raw chemicals [12].

3) pyrolysis is an especially appropriate recycling technique for waste streams

containing different plastics and other materials, for which mechanical recycling
is not feasible [12].

4) plastic waste is now one of the major components of municipal solid waste.
The challenge of dealing with plastic waste has been managed by a number of
different methods depending on local regulations and what is socially acceptable,
including recycling, reuse, disposal at landfill and conversion to energy by
pyrolysis.

5) Pyrolysis is the sustainable management of plastic waste along with production

of liquid oil as a source of energy and solid char and gases as value-added products
[13]
.

2.9- Pyrolysis Technology for Plastic wastes

Pyrolysis appears to be promising technic of conversion of solid wastes
plastic to more usable materials such as gas fuel and/or fuel oil or to high value
feedstock for the chemical industry. Thermal pyrolysis of plastic materials leads
to a wide product distribution and requires high degradation temperatures. During
the cracking process of long polymer molecules the degradation of polymer chains
can be enhanced by applying of various catalysts. The catalytic pyrolysis of
plastic wastes gives valuable products similar to diesel and gasoline. The most
frequently used catalysts are zeolites and mesoporous materials because of their
porous structure and acid properties. In the case of the polyolefin catalytic
cracking like PE and PP a number of acid porous solids, such as amorphous silica-
alumina, zeolites and ordered mesoporous materials, have been used as catalysts
[3]
.

The plastic wastes are mainly two types of plastics such as thermo plastics
and thermosetting plastics. Thermo plastics are composed of polyolefin such as
high density polyethylene (HDPE), low density polyethylene (LDPE.
Thermosetting plastics mainly include epoxy resins and polyurethanes and cannot
be recycled. The quantity of thermoplastics found in waste is increasing
corresponding. Nowadays, the largest amount of plastic wastes is disposed of by
land filling, and incineration. So, Environmental pollution increases day by day
in everywhere. Plastic wastes are the main causes of environmental pollution.
21
There are three ways to management of plastic wastes. They are land filling,
incineration and recycling. The problem of wastes cannot be solved by land filling
and incineration. Therefore, recycling method was used in this project[2].

Recycling has many types of techniques including pyrolysis; There are two types
of pyrolysis or cracking process such as thermal cracking and catalytic
cracking. Thermal cracking involves the degradation of the polymeric materials
by heating in the absence of oxygen. In thermal cracking, the temperature is about
350ºC to 900ºC.In catalytic cracking, a suitable catalyst is used to carry out the
cracking. The present of catalyst lowers the reaction temperature and time.
Addition of catalysts enhances the conversion and fuel quality[2].

1)- Pyrolysis By Thermal Cracking

Thermal (conventional) cracking provide high product distribution,
polymers require high temperature to breakdown in low molecular weight
products it also requires high reaction time. These are some problems because of
that catalytic cracking comes into existence. Less temperature and less time
consumption and narrower product distribution makes the catalytic process more
economical and attractive. It also increases reaction rate necessitate smaller
reactor volume. Catalytic cracking results in production of branched and cyclic
molecules and aromatics. Improved selectivity and quality of product are the main
features of catalytic cracking. The rate of reaction, distribution of products, and
type of upgrading reaction can be altered by the use of heterogeneous catalyst [1].

Plastics have woven their way into our daily lives and now pose a
tremendous threat to the environment. Over a 100million tonnes of plastics are
produced annually worldwide, and the used products have become a common
feature at over flowing bins and landfills. Though work has been done to make
futuristic biodegradable plastics, there have not been many conclusive steps
towards cleaning up the existing problem. Here, the process of converting waste
plastic into value added fuels is explained as a viable solution for recycling of
plastics. Thus two universal problems such as problems of waste plastic and
problems of fuel shortage are being tackled simultaneously [10].

22
 Thermal cracking or pyrolysis is the process of thermally degrading long
chain polymer molecules into smaller, less complex molecules through heat and
pressure. The process requires intense heat with shorter duration and in absence
of oxygen. It prevents the formation of COx, NOx and SOx due to absence of
oxygen . The three major products that are produced during pyrolysis are oil, gas
and char which are valuable for industries especially refineries. Thermal cracking
was chosen by many researchers since the process was able to produce high
amount of liquid oil up to 80 wt% at a moderate temperature of around 500°C . In
addition, thermal cracking is also very flexible since the process parameters can
be manipulated to optimize the product yield based on preferences. The liquid oil
produced can be used in multiple applications such as furnaces, boilers, turbines
and diesel engines without the need of upgrading or treatment [16].

23
2)- Pyrolysis By Catalytic Cracking
Process of pyrolysis is a thermochemical process conducted at high
temperatures and usually in presence of catalysts. Different type of catalysts,
natural and synthetic, can be used for conversion of organic wastes into valuable
fuels. The aim of catalyst is hydrogenation of alkenes, the removal of hetro atoms
such as oxygen, nitrogen and halogens. Since the use of expensive catalyst may
condition the economy of process and hence catalytic cracking process will be
advantageous when catalyst will have zero cost [3].

Through catalytic pyrolysis, a system was devised to convert waste

plastics into liquid hydrocarbons, coke and gas, which can then be used as boiler
fuel for power generation. The technology uses lower temperatures than
gasification-significantly lower, so it's more energy efficient to produce. Through
"random depolymerisation," or selective breaking of carbon-to-carbon bonds, in
addition to feeding in proprietary catalytic additives, the reactor melts and
vaporizes waste plastic in one step at temperatures between 840 and 1,020 degrees
F. On average, 79-80 percent of every pound of plastic fed into the system is
converted to liquid hydrocarbons, coke and gas. The resultant coke can be further
processed to produce additional fuel oil. This catalytic pyrolysis system additional
fuel oil. This catalytic pyrolysis system processes polyolefin like polyethylene
and polypropylene with up to 5 percent other plastic [14].

Pyrolysis of waste plastics in the presence of a catalyst lowers the pyrolysis

temperature and reaction time, increases the conversion rate of waste plastics into
fuel, increases the yield of fuel and satisfies the diesel and petrol quality of fuel
by increasing the octane value of petrol and decreasing the pour point of diesel.
The catalysts used for this purpose are solid acids such as silica, alumina, zeolite
β, zeolite Y, mordenite, HZSM-5, MCM-41 etc. Acidic catalysts (HZSM-5,
zeolite Y, mordenite and so on) have greater efficiency compared to less acidic
catalysts such as amorphous alumina silicate. The pore size and structure of
catalysts determine their performance in the cracking reaction as well as products
obtained [16].

Catalytic pyrolysis is an alternative to the recycling of pure or mixed plastics

waste. The catalyst can promote [15]:

 decomposition reactions at low temperatures with lower energy consumption;

 reduced costs;
 increase the yield of products with higher added value;
 increase the process selectivity;
24
 faster cracking reactions, leading to smaller residence times and reactors with
smaller volumes;
 inhibiting the formation of undesirable products;
 inhibiting the formation of products consisting primarily of cyclic
hydrocarbons, aromatic and branched, in the case of polyolefins catalytic
cracking;
 obtain liquid products with a lower boiling point range [17].

25
2.10- Catalytic Pyrolysis Advantages
Process of pyrolysis is a thermochemical process conducted at high
temperatures and usually in presence of catalysts. Different type of catalysts,
natural and synthetic, can be used for conversion of organic wastes into valuable
fuels [3].

Through catalytic pyrolysis, a system was devised to convert waste plastics

into liquid hydrocarbons, coke and gas, which can then be used as boiler fuel for
power generation. The technology uses lower temperatures than gasification-
significantly lower, so it's more energy efficient to produce. Through "random
depolymerisation," or selective breaking of carbon-to-carbon bonds, in addition
to feeding in proprietary catalytic additives, the reactor melts and vaporizes waste
plastic in one step at temperatures between 840 and 1,020 degrees F. On average,
79-80 percent of every pound of plastic fed into the system is converted to liquid
hydrocarbons, coke and gas. The resultant coke can be further processed to
produce additional fuel oil. This catalytic pyrolysis system additional fuel oil. This
catalytic pyrolysis system processes polyolefin like polyethylene and
polypropylene with up to 5 percent other plastic [14].

Catalytic pyrolysis is an alternative to the recycling of pure or mixed plastics

waste. The catalyst can promote [15]:

 decomposition reactions at low temperatures with lower energy consumption;

 reduced costs;
 increase the yield of products with higher added value;
 increase the process selectivity;
 faster cracking reactions, leading to smaller residence times and reactors with
smaller volumes;
 inhibiting the formation of undesirable products;
 inhibiting the formation of products consisting primarily of cyclic
hydrocarbons, aromatic and branched, in the case of polyolefins catalytic
cracking;
 obtain liquid products with a lower boiling point range.

26
27
3.1- Production Capacity

 From ref. [8,Table (1.1):

Status of per capita consumption of plastic in some selected countries
worldwide.
Then,
The average per capita consumption of plastic about 28 (kg).
The number of people in Baghdad = 8.4 million.
So,
𝑘𝑔
Waste plastic in Baghdad = 28 * (8.4 × 106 ) = 235.2 × 106 ( ) in Baghdad.
𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

𝑘𝑔 (𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟) (𝑑𝑎𝑦) 𝑘𝑔
Waste plastic = 235.2 × 106 ( )∗ (𝑑𝑎𝑦)
∗ = 26849.3 ( )
𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 365 24 (ℎ𝑟) ℎ𝑟

 From ref. [6, Figure (1.1):

17 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
About (17 %) of LDPE as waste plastic = ∗ 26849.3 ( ) = 4564.381 ( )
100 ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟

Therefor,
We will choose the following plant capacity:
𝑘𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑛
Inlet feed (waste LDPE) = 5000 ( ) ≈ 5 ( )
ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟

3.2- Process Conditions

1. Plastic (LDPE) start dehydration at 360 (℃).[7]

2. The pyrolysis gas passed through catalyst column at ratio of 0.2 by wt. of
catalyst to plastic at 500 (℃).[13,21]
3. The thermal decomposition was carried to 7000 (℃).[13]
4. The optimum temp. in catalyst pyrolysis is about 450 (℃), it was
observed that high liquid yield with low gas yield .[18]
5. The specification of plastic pyrolysis oil; (liquid oil):
𝑀𝐽
Calorific value ( ) = 39.5°
𝑘𝑔

API gravity at 60 (F) = 47.75

𝑚𝑚2
Viscosity ( ) = 5.56
𝑠𝑒𝑐

28
 𝑔
Density at 15 (℃); ( ) = 0.78
𝑐𝑚3

Ash (wt %) = 0.2

Flash point (℃) = 41

3.3- Process Block Diagram

29
3.4- Overall Material Balance

The liquid oil yield equal to (87.6 %).[13, Table(1)]

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝐿𝐷𝑃𝐸 )
Where,
𝑘𝑔
Inlet feed (waste LDPE) = 5000 ( ).
ℎ𝑟

And,
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 = 99.6 % [ 22, figure (1)]
Analysis of feed = { }.
𝐴𝑠ℎ = 0.4 %
Therefor,
99.6 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 = ∗ 5000 ( ) = 4980 ( )
100 ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟
F = feed = (st.4) = { 0.4 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
}
𝐴𝑠ℎ = ∗ 5000 ( ) = 20 ( )
100 ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡

𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 0.876 =
𝑘𝑔
4980 ( )
ℎ𝑟
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
∴ 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = 0.876 ∗ 4980 ( ) = 4362.48 ( ) = (st.11)
ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟

 From fef. [13, table (2)]:

The composition of liquid fraction obtained for LDPE at present catalyst are:
Aromatic Non – Aromatic
(𝐶5 ~ 𝐶9 ) 3.59 14.04 Gasoline = 17.63 %
(𝐶10 ~ 𝐶13) 0 22.28 Kerosene = 22.28 %
> 𝐶13 0 62.08 Diesel = 60.09 %

30
So,
𝑘𝑔
𝐺𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 17.63 % = 769.105 ( )
ℎ𝑟
𝑘𝑔
Liquid oil product consist of = 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒 = 22.28 % = 971.961 ( )
ℎ𝑟
𝑘𝑔
{ 𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 = 60.09 % = 2621.414 (ℎ𝑟 ) }
𝑘𝑔
∑(𝑠𝑡. 11) = 4362.48 ( )
ℎ𝑟
 From ref. [13, Table (1)]:
𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 87.6 %
𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 12.4 %
The catalyst pyrolysis yield (wt %) are = { }.
−−−−−−−
100 %
So,
87.6 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑖𝑙 = ∗ 4980 ( ) = 4362.48 ( )
100 ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟
12.4 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
LDPE plastic = 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 = ∗ 4980 ( ) = 617.52 ( )
100 ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
𝑘𝑔
{ ∑ 4980 ( ) }
ℎ𝑟

31
3.5- Mass Balance For Furnace

 Analysis of (st.4):
𝑘𝑔
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 = 99.6 % = 4980 ( )
𝐹 = (𝑠𝑡. 4) = { ℎ𝑟 }
𝑘𝑔
𝐴𝑠ℎ = 0.4 % = 20 ( )
ℎ𝑟
Then,
𝑘𝑔
∑(𝑠𝑡. 4) = ∑ 5000 ( )
ℎ𝑟

 Analysis of (st.6):
𝑘𝑔
(st.6) = Ash (solid) = 20 ( )
ℎ𝑟

 Analysis of (st.5):
𝑘𝑔
(st.5) = plastic vapours = 4980 ( ) = vapous of LDPE.
ℎ𝑟

32
Mass In = Mass Out
(st.4) = (st.5) + (st.6)
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
5000 ( ) = 20 ( ) + 4980 ( )
ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟
𝒌𝒈 𝒌𝒈
𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 ( ) = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 ( )
𝒉𝒓 𝒉𝒓

3.6- Mass Balance For Reactor Fixed Bed

 Analysis of (st.5):
𝑘𝑔
(st.5) = plastic vapours = 4980 ( ) = vapous of LDPE.
ℎ𝑟

 Analysis of (st.8):
* From ref. [13, table (1)]; ratio of catalyst to plastic = 0.2
So,
Required catalyst = 0.2 * plastic
Required catalyst = 0.2 * 4980 (kg) = 996 (kg) [stay time in reactor one hour].

33
  Analysis of (st.7):
𝑘𝑔
𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 87.6 % = 4362.48 ( )
ℎ𝑟
(st.7) = Reactor output = { 𝑘𝑔
}
𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 12.4 % = 617.52 ( )
ℎ𝑟

Then,
𝑘𝑔
∑(𝑠𝑡. 7) = ∑ 4980 ( )
ℎ𝑟

Mass In = Mass Out

(st.5) = (st.7)
𝒌𝒈 𝒌𝒈
𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 ( ) = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 ( )
𝒉𝒓 𝒉𝒓

3.7- Mass Balance For Condenser

 Analysis of (st.7):
𝑘𝑔
𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 87.6 % = 4362.48 ( )
ℎ𝑟
(st.7) = Reactor output = { 𝑘𝑔
}
𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 12.4 % = 617.52 ( )
ℎ𝑟

𝑘𝑔
∑(𝑠𝑡. 7) = ∑ 4980 ( )
ℎ𝑟

 Analysis of (st.9):
𝑘𝑔
𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 4362.48 ( )
ℎ𝑟
(st.9) = { 𝑘𝑔
}
𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 617.52 ( )
ℎ𝑟

𝑘𝑔
∑(𝑠𝑡. 9) = ∑ 4980 ( )
ℎ𝑟

34
Mass In = Mass Out
(st.7) = (st.9)
𝒌𝒈 𝒌𝒈
𝟒𝟗𝟖𝟎 ( ) = 𝟒𝟗𝟖𝟎 ( )
𝒉𝒓 𝒉𝒓

3.8- Mass Balance For Separator

 Analysis of (st.9):
𝑘𝑔
𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 4362.48 ( )
ℎ𝑟
(st.9) = { 𝑘𝑔
}
𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 617.52 ( )
ℎ𝑟

𝑘𝑔
∑(𝑠𝑡. 9) = ∑ 4980 ( )
ℎ𝑟
 Analysis of (st.10):
𝑘𝑔
(st.10) = Fuel gas = 617.52 ( )
ℎ𝑟

 Analysis of (st.11):
𝑘𝑔
Liquid oil = 4362.48 ( )
ℎ𝑟

35
Where,
𝑘𝑔
𝐺𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 17.63 % = 769.105 ( )
ℎ𝑟
𝑘𝑔
Liquid oil product consist of = 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒 = 22.28 % = 971.961 ( )
ℎ𝑟
𝑘𝑔
{ 𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 = 60.09 % = 2621.414 (ℎ𝑟 ) }
𝑘𝑔
∑(𝑠𝑡. 11) = 4362.48 ( )
ℎ𝑟

Mass In = Mass Out

(st.9) = (st.10) + (st.11)
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
4980 ( ) = 617.52 ( ) + 4362.48 ( )
ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟
𝒌𝒈 𝒌𝒈
𝟒𝟗𝟖𝟎 ( ) = 𝟒𝟗𝟖𝟎 ( )
𝒉𝒓 𝒉𝒓

3.9- Mass Balance For Distillation Column

36
  Analysis of (st.11):
𝑘𝑔
𝐺𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 17.63 % = 769.105 ( )
ℎ𝑟
𝑘𝑔
(st.11) = 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒 = 22.28 % = 971.961 ( )
ℎ𝑟
𝑘𝑔
{ 𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 = 60.09 % = 2621.414 ( ℎ𝑟 ) }
𝑘𝑔
∑(𝑠𝑡. 11) = 4362.48 ( )
ℎ𝑟

 Analysis of (st.12):
𝑘𝑔
(st.12) = Gasoline = 769.105 ( )
ℎ𝑟

 Analysis of (st.13):
𝑘𝑔
(st.13) = Kerosene = 971.961 ( )
ℎ𝑟

 Analysis of (st.14):
𝑘𝑔
(st.14) = Diesel = 2621.414 ( )
ℎ𝑟

Mass In = Mass Out

(st.11) = (st.12) + (st.13) +(st.14)
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
4362.48 ( ) = 769.105 ( ) + 971.961 ( ) + 2621.414 ( )
ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟
𝒌𝒈 𝒌𝒈
𝟒𝟑𝟔𝟐. 𝟒𝟖 ( ) = 𝟒𝟑𝟔𝟐. 𝟒𝟖 ( )
𝒉𝒓 𝒉𝒓

37
3.10- Mass Balance Overall

𝑘𝑔
Total Mass In = ∑(𝑠𝑡. 4) = ∑ 5000 ( )
ℎ𝑟

Total Mass Out = ∑(𝑠𝑡. 10) + (𝑠𝑡. 12) + (𝑠𝑡. 13) (𝑠𝑡. 14) + (𝑠𝑡. 6)
= ∑ 617.52 + 769.105 + 971.961 + 2621.414 + 20
𝑘𝑔
= ∑ 5000 ( )
ℎ𝑟

So,

∑ 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑰𝒏 = ∑ 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑶𝒖𝒕

𝒌𝒈 𝒌𝒈
𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 ( ) = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 ( )
𝒉𝒓 𝒉𝒓

38
39
4.1- Energy Equations For Various Phases

 From ref. [23]:

Where,
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝐶𝑝 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ; ( ) 𝑜𝑟 ( ).
𝑘𝑔. ℃ 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒. 𝑘
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝐻 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 ; ( ) 𝑜𝑟 ( ).
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝜆 = 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 ; (ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) .
And,
Heat gain = Heat lost
(Energy In) = (Energy Out)

 For liquids:
𝑄𝑖 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 ∗ 𝐶𝑝𝑖 ∗ ∆𝑇

 For change in phase:

𝑄 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝜆𝜈

 For gases:
𝑇2 𝑇2
𝑄 = ∑ 𝑛𝑖 ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑔 ∆𝑇 = ∑ 𝑛𝑖 ∫ (𝐴 + 𝐵𝑇 + 𝐶𝑇 2 + 𝐷𝑇 3)∆𝑇
𝑇1 𝑇1

𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
𝑄 = 𝑛𝑖 [𝐴(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑟) + (𝑇2 − 𝑇𝑟2 ) + (𝑇3 − 𝑇𝑟3 ) + (𝑇4 − 𝑇𝑟4 )]
2 3 4

40
4.2- Necessary Data
From material balance calculations:
 The catalytic pyrolysis for waste plastic (LDPE) are consist the following
products:
𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑂𝑖𝑙
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 = { 𝐺𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 }
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠
And, the components in (Liquid Oil) fraction obtained for (LDPE) are:
𝐺𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒; (𝐶5 ~ 𝐶9 )
𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑂𝑖𝑙 = {𝐾𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛; (𝐶10 ~ 𝐶13)}
𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙; > 𝐶13
So, Based on the previous information, the all products are:
𝐺𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠; (𝐶1 ~ 𝐶4)
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠; (𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟, 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛)
𝐺𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒; (𝐶5 ~ 𝐶9 )
𝐾𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛; (𝐶10 ~ 𝐶13 )
{ 𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙; > 𝐶13 }

4.3- Physical And Thermal Properties

- Heat Capacity for gases:

𝑘𝐽
𝐶𝑝𝑔 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑇 + 𝐶𝑇 2 + 𝐷𝑇 3 ; ( )
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒. 𝑘
Table (4.1) Heat capacity for gases. [23]
Comp. A B C D
(𝐶1 ~ 𝐶4) -4.224 30.626 × 10−2 -1.586 × 10−4 32.146 × 10−9

Where,
𝑇
𝐵 2 𝐶 𝐷
𝑄 = 𝑛 ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑔 ∆𝑇 = 𝑛 [𝐴(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑟) + (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑟 2 ) + (𝑇 3 − 𝑇𝑟 3 ) + (𝑇 4 − 𝑇𝑟 4 )]
𝑇𝑟 2 3 4

41
Table (4.2) Properties of fuel oil products. [23,24]

Comp. 𝑘𝑔 𝑇𝐵𝑃 (℃) Heat capacity; 𝑘𝐽

M.wt ( ) Latent heat; 𝜆𝑣 ( )
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔
Cp ( )
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒.℃
𝐶𝑝𝑔 = 3.05
(𝐶1 ~ 𝐶4) 44 - 42.1 𝑎𝑡 (360 (℃)) 426

𝐶𝑝𝐿 = 2.22
Gasoline 100 60 ~ 200 𝐶𝑝𝑔 = 1.55 350

𝐶𝑝𝐿 = 2.01
Kerosene 150 180 ~ 260 𝐶𝑝𝑔 = 1.4 285

𝐶𝑝𝐿 = 1.75
Diesel 200 260 ~ 340 𝐶𝑝𝑔 = 1.3 233

Solis (char) 12 ---------- 0.9 ----------

𝑀𝑃 = 110 𝑀𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 286.7

{ } { }
LDPE 4000 𝐵𝑃 = 350 (1.9 ~ 2.3) 𝑉𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑧. = 178.6

42
Figure (3.1) Process block diagram.

43
4.4- Energy Balance For Melter

Note: Melting point for (LDPE) about (105 ~ 115) (℃).

Heat In = Heat Out

Tref. = 25 (℃) = 298 (k)
𝑄1 + 𝑞ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 𝑄2
Where,
𝑄1 = [𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝 ∗ ∆𝑇]𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 = [𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝 ∗ (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑟 )]
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
𝑄1 = 5000 ( ) ∗ 2.1 ( ) ∗ (25 − 25)(℃) = 0
ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒. ℃

110 (℃) 150 (℃)

𝑄2 = [𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝 ∗ ∆𝑇]25 (℃) + [𝑚 ∗ 𝜆𝑣 ] + [𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝 ∗ ∆𝑇]110 (℃)
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
[5000 ( ) ∗ 2.1 ( ) ∗ (110 − 25)(℃)]
ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒. ℃
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
𝑄2 = + [5000 ( ) ∗ 286.7 ( )]
ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
+5000 ( ) ∗ 2.1 ( ) ∗ (150 − 110)(℃)}
{ ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒. ℃
𝑘𝐽
𝑄2 = 2746000 ( )
ℎ𝑟

44
So,
𝑞ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 𝑄2 − 𝑄1
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑞ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 2746000 ( ) − 0 = 2746000 ( )
ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟

4.5- Energy Balance For Furnace

- The optimum temperature in catalysis pyrolysis process about 450 (℃).[18]
- Temperature B.pt of (LDPE) about (340 ~ 365) (℃).[18]

Heat In = Heat Out

𝑄2 + 𝑞ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 𝑄3 + 𝑄4
Tref. = 25 (℃) = 298 (k)
Where,
𝑄2 = [𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝 ∗ ∆𝑇]𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 = [𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝 ∗ (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑟 )]
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
𝑄2 = 5000 ( ) ∗ 2.1 ( ) ∗ (150 − 25)(℃)
ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒. ℃
𝑘𝐽
𝑄2 = 1312500 ( )
ℎ𝑟

45
𝑄4 = [𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝 ∗ ∆𝑇]𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟 = [𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝 ∗ (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑟 )]
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
𝑄4 = 20 ( ) ∗ 0.9 ( ) ∗ (450 − 25)(℃)
ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒. ℃
𝑘𝐽
𝑄4 = 7650 ( )
ℎ𝑟

110 (℃) 150 (℃)

𝑄3 = [𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝 ∗ ∆𝑇]25 (℃) + [𝑚 ∗ 𝜆𝑣 ] + [𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝 ∗ ∆𝑇]110 (℃)
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
[4980 ( ) ∗ 2.1 ( ) ∗ (350 − 150)(℃)]
ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒. ℃
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
𝑄3 = + [4980 ( ) ∗ 178.6 ( )]
ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
{ +4980 ( ) ∗ 2.1 ( ) ∗ (450 − 350)(℃) }
ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒. ℃
𝑘𝐽
𝑄3 = 4026828 ( )
ℎ𝑟
Where,
𝑄2 + 𝑞ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 𝑄3 + 𝑄4
𝑘𝐽
𝑄2 = 1312500 ( )
ℎ𝑟
𝑘𝐽
𝑄3 = 4026828 ( )
ℎ𝑟
𝑘𝐽
𝑄4 = 7650 ( )
ℎ𝑟
So,
𝑞ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 𝑄3 + 𝑄4 − 𝑄2
𝑞ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 4026828 + 7650 − 1312500
𝑘𝐽
𝑞ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 2721978 ( )
ℎ𝑟

Choose,
𝑀𝐽
(LPG) for heating fuel; Hv ; (heating value) = 46 ~ 51 ( ).
𝑘𝑔

46
Then,
𝑞ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 = (𝑚° )𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 ∗ (ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
2721978 ( ) = (𝑚° )𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 ∗ 50 × 103 ( )
ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝑔
∴ (𝑚° )𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 ; (𝐿𝑃𝐺 ) 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 54.44 ( )
ℎ𝑟

4.6- Energy Balance For Reactor

- Minimum dehydration temperature for (LDP) about 350 (℃).[2]

Heat In = Heat Out

𝑄3 = 𝑄5 + ∆𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡.
Tref. = 25 (℃) = 298 (k)

47
Where,
110 (℃) 150 (℃)
𝑄3 = [𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝 ∗ ∆𝑇]25 (℃) + [𝑚 ∗ 𝜆𝑣 ] + [𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝 ∗ ∆𝑇]110 (℃)
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
[4980 ( ) ∗ 2.1 ( ) ∗ (350 − 150)(℃)]
ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒. ℃
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
𝑄3 = + [4980 ( ) ∗ 178.6 ( )]
ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
+4980 ( ) ∗ 2.1 ( ) ∗ (450 − 350)(℃)
{ ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒. ℃ }
𝑘𝐽
𝑄3 = 4026828 ( )
ℎ𝑟

𝑄6 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 ∗ 𝐶𝑝𝑖 ∗ ∆𝑇 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 ∗ 𝐶𝑝𝑖 ∗ (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑟 )

(617.52 ∗ 3.05) + (769.105 ∗ 1.55)

𝑄6 = {[ ] ∗ (350 − 25)}
+(971.961 ∗ 1.4) + (2621.414 ∗ 1.3)
𝑘𝐽
𝑄6 = 2549343 ( )
ℎ𝑟
So,
∆𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡. = 𝑄3 − 𝑄6
∆𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡. = 4026828 − 2549343
𝑘𝐽
∆𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡. = 1477484.99 ( ) ; (𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠)
ℎ𝑟

48
4.7- Energy Balance For Condenser

Heat In = Heat Out

𝑄6 = 𝑄7 + 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑.
Tref. = 25 (℃) = 298 (k)
Where,

𝑄6 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 ∗ 𝐶𝑝𝑖 ∗ ∆𝑇 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 ∗ 𝐶𝑝𝑖 ∗ (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑟 )

(617.52 ∗ 3.05) + (769.105 ∗ 1.55)

𝑄6 = {[ ] ∗ (350 − 25)}
+(971.961 ∗ 1.4) + (2621.414 ∗ 1.3)
𝑘𝐽
𝑄6 = 2549343 ( )
ℎ𝑟

49
𝑄7 = [∑ 𝑚𝑖 ∗ 𝐶𝑝𝑖 ∗ ∆𝑇] + [∑ 𝑚𝑖 ∗ 𝜆𝑐 ]

[𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝𝑔 ∗ ∆𝑇] + [𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝𝑙 ∗ ∆𝑇]𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒

[ 𝑔𝑎𝑠 ]
𝑄7 = { +[𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝𝑙 ∗ ∆𝑇]𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒 + [𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝𝑙 ∗ ∆𝑇]𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 }
+[[𝑚 ∗ 𝜆𝑐 ]𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 + [𝑚 ∗ 𝜆𝑐 ]𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑒 + [𝑚 ∗ 𝜆𝑐 ]𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 ]

(617.52 ∗ 3.05) + (769.105 ∗ 2.22)

[[ +(971.961 ∗ 2.01) ] ∗ (50 − 25)]
𝑄7 = +(2621.414 ∗ 1.75)
(769.105 ∗ −350) + (971.961 ∗ −285)
+[ ]
{ +(2621.414 ∗ −233) }
𝑘𝐽
𝑄7 = −903685.97 ( )
ℎ𝑟
Where,
𝑄6 = 𝑄7 + 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑.
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑. = 𝑄6 − 𝑄7
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑. = 2549343 − (−903685.97)
𝑘𝐽
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑. = 3453028.97 ( )
ℎ𝑟

To calculate cooling water required for condenser:

𝑞𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑. = 𝑚𝐻2 𝑂 ∗ 𝐶𝑝𝐻2𝑂 ∗ ∆𝑇
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
3453028.97 ( ) = 𝑚𝐻2 𝑂 ∗ 4.2 ( ) ∗ (40 − 25)(℃)
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔.℃

𝑘𝑔
∴ 𝑚𝐻2 𝑂 = 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 5480.99 ( )
ℎ𝑟

50
4.8- Energy Balance For Fractionation Column

Heat Gain = Heat Lost

𝑄𝐹 + 𝑞𝑅𝑒𝑏. = 𝑄𝐷 + 𝑄𝐵 + 𝑞𝐶 + 𝑄𝑠
Take,
𝐿
Reflex ratio = 2.5 =
𝐷

𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
∴ 𝐿 = 2.5 ∗ 𝐷 = 2.5 ∗ 769.105 ( ) = 1922.76 ( )
ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟
𝑘𝑔
𝑉𝑛 = (𝐿 + 𝐷 ) = 1922.76 + 769.105 = 2691.87 ( )
ℎ𝑟
Where,
𝑞𝐶 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝜆𝑐 = 𝑉𝑛 ∗ 𝜆𝑐

𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝑞𝐶 = (2691.87 ( )) ∗ (350 ( )) = 942154.5 ( )
ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔

51
Cooling water required for condenser:
𝑞𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑. = 𝑚𝐻2 𝑂 ∗ 𝐶𝑝𝐻2𝑂 ∗ ∆𝑇
𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
942154.5 ( ) = 𝑚𝐻2 𝑂 ∗ 4.2 ( ) ∗ (40 − 25)(℃)
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔. ℃
𝑘𝑔
∴ 𝑚𝐻2 𝑂 = 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1495.48 ( )
ℎ𝑟
Where,

𝑄𝐹 = ∑ 𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝𝑙 ∗ ∆𝑇

(769.105 ∗ 2.22) + (971.961 ∗ 2.01)

𝑄𝐹 = {[ ] ∗ (50 − 25)}
+(2621.414 ∗ 1.75)
𝑘𝐽
𝑄𝐹 = 206213.23 ( )
ℎ𝑟

𝑄𝐷 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝𝑙 ∗ ∆𝑇
𝑄𝐷 = {[769.105 ∗ 2.22] ∗ (130 − 25)}
𝑘𝐽
𝑄𝐷 = 179278.38 ( )
ℎ𝑟

𝑄𝐵 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝𝑙 ∗ ∆𝑇
𝑄𝐵 = {[971.961 ∗ 1.75] ∗ (300 − 25)}
𝑘𝐽
𝑄𝐵 = 467756.23 ( )
ℎ𝑟

𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝐶𝑝𝑙 ∗ ∆𝑇
𝑄𝑠 = {[2621.414 ∗ 2.01] ∗ (220 − 25)}
𝑘𝐽
𝑄𝑠 = 1027463.22 ( )
ℎ𝑟

52
Where,
𝑞𝑅 = (𝑄𝐷 + 𝑄𝐵 + 𝑞𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑. ) − 𝑄𝐹
𝑞𝑅 = (179278.38 + 467756.23 + 942154.5) − 206213.23
𝑘𝐽
𝑞𝑅 = 1382975.88 ( )
ℎ𝑟

Steam required for Reboiler:

𝑞𝑅 = 𝑚𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 ∗ 𝜆
𝑘𝐽 40683 𝑘𝐽
1382975.88 ( ) = 𝑚𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 ∗ ( )( )
ℎ𝑟 18 𝑘𝑔

𝑘𝑔
∴ 𝑚𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 611.891 ( ) = 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
ℎ𝑟

53
54
5.1- Fixed Bed Reactor

5.1.1- Properties & Specification

Table (5.1) Prosperities of compounds. [31,28]

Viscosity at
Comp. M.wt 𝑇𝐵𝑃 (℃) Density; Heat capacity; 350 (℃); 𝜇
(
𝑘𝑔
)
𝑘𝑔
𝜌 ( 3) CpL (
𝑘𝐽
) 𝑚𝑁𝑠
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒.𝑘 ( 2 )
𝑚
LDPE 4000 MP = 110 9200 1.9 ~ 2.3 100
BP = 350
Gases C1 ~ C4 44 -42.1 1.8 3.05 0.0074
(C3H8)
Gasoline 100 60 ~ 200 750 1.55 0.6

Kerosene 150 180 ~ 260 800 1.4 1.92

Diesel 200 260 ~ 340 850 1.3 2.5

55
  For Plastic Pyrolysis Oil (Liquid Oil):
𝑀𝐽
Calorific value ( ) = 39.5
𝑘𝑔

API gravity at 60 (F) = 47.75

𝑚𝑚2
Viscosity ( ) = 5.56
𝑠
𝑔
Density at 15 (℃) ( ) = 0.78
𝑐𝑚3

Ash (wt %) = 0.02

Flash point (℃) = 41
And,
350 + 450
𝑇𝑎𝑣. = = 400 (℃) = 673 (𝑘 ) = 752 (𝐹)
2
API = 47.75
𝑘𝑔
Av. Mwt = 250 ( )
𝑚3

𝑃 ∗ 𝑀𝑤𝑡 2 ∗ 101.3 ∗ 250 𝑘𝑔

𝜌𝑣 )𝑎𝑣. = = = 9.052 ( 3)
𝑅∗𝑇 8.314 ∗ 673 𝑚
𝑚𝑁𝑠
𝜇𝑣 = 0.02 ( 2 )
𝑚

5.1.2- Volumetric Flow Rate (𝑽° )

 From (St.7):
𝑘𝑔
𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 (𝑜𝑖𝑙) = 87.6 % = 4362.48 ( )
ℎ𝑟
𝑘𝑔
Reactor output = 𝐺𝑎𝑒𝑠𝑒 (𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠) = 12.4 % = 617.52 (ℎ𝑟 )
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
𝑘𝑔
{ ∑(𝑠𝑡. 7) = ∑ 4980 ( ) }
ℎ𝑟

So,
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
M = 4980 ( ) = 83 ( )
ℎ𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑣 )𝑎𝑣. = 9.052 ( )
𝑚3

56
 𝑀
∴ 𝑉 ° = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 =
𝜌𝑣
𝑘𝑔
83 ( ) 𝑚3
° 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉 = = 9.17 ( )
𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑖𝑛
9.052 ( 3)
𝑚

For fixed bed reactor:[33]

Mole balance: In – Out + Generation = Acc.

Where,
dNA
Acc. = = 0 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 )
dt

∴ 𝐼𝑛 – 𝑂𝑢𝑡 + 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0

𝐹𝐴° − 𝐹𝐴 + 𝑟𝐴 𝑉 = 0

𝑑(𝐹𝐴° − 𝐹𝐴 ) 𝑑(𝐹𝐴° ∗ 𝑋𝐴 )
𝐹𝐴° − 𝐹𝐴 = −𝑟𝐴 𝑉 → 𝑑𝑉 = =
−𝑟𝐴 −𝑟𝐴
𝑉 𝑋𝐴 𝐹𝐴° ∗ 𝑋𝐴 𝑋𝐴 𝑑𝑋
𝐴
∫ 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ → 𝑉 = 𝐹𝐴° ∫ … … … … … 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝐹𝑅
0 0 −𝑟𝐴 0 −𝑟𝐴

𝑉 𝐹𝐴° 𝑋𝐴 𝑑𝑋𝐴
𝜏𝑟 = ° = ° ∫
𝑉 𝑉 0 −𝑟𝐴
𝑋𝐴
𝑉 𝑑𝑋𝐴
∴ 𝜏𝑟 = = 𝐶𝐴° ∫
𝑉° 0 −𝑟𝐴

Where,

𝐹𝐴°
𝐶𝐴° =
𝑉°
𝑉
𝜏𝑟 =
𝑉°

𝜏𝑟 = Residence time.

𝑟𝐴 = rate of reaction.

57
𝐹𝐴° = initial moles of comp. A.

𝐶𝐴° = initial concentration of comp. A.

𝑉 ° = volumetric flow rate.

V = volume of reacted zone.

𝛽
−𝑟𝐴 = 𝑘 ∗ 𝐶𝐴𝛼 ∗ 𝐶𝐵 & 𝑛 = (𝛼 + 𝛽 ) … … …[33]
𝛼 = 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝. (𝐴) & 𝛽 = 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝. (𝐵 )
Where,
𝐹𝐴° (𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 )
𝐶𝐴° =
𝑉 ° (𝑚3 )
𝐹𝐵° (𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 )
𝐶𝐵° =
𝑉 ° (𝑚3)

𝐶𝐴 = 𝐶𝐴° ∗ (1 − 𝑋𝐴 )
𝐶𝐵 = 𝐶𝐵° − 𝐶𝐴° ∗ 𝑋𝐴 … … … … … ..[33]

−𝑟𝐴 = 𝐾 ∗ [𝐶𝐴° ∗ (1 − 𝑋𝐴 )] ∗ [𝐶𝐵° − 𝐶𝐴° ∗ 𝑋𝐴 ]

𝑑𝐶𝐴 𝑑𝑋𝐴
−𝑟𝐴 = − = 𝐶𝐴° = 𝐾 ∗ [𝐶𝐴° ∗ (1 − 𝑋𝐴 )] ∗ [𝐶𝐵° − 𝐶𝐴° ∗ 𝑋𝐴 ]
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑋𝐴
= 𝐾 ∗ (1 − 𝑋𝐴 ) ∗ [𝐶𝐵° − 𝐶𝐴° ∗ 𝑋𝐴 ]
𝑑𝑡
𝑡 𝑋𝐴 𝑑𝑋𝐴
∫ 𝐾 ∗ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫
0 0 (1 − 𝑋𝐴 ) ∗ (𝐶𝐵° − 𝐶𝐴° ∗ 𝑋𝐴 )
𝑋𝐴
𝑑𝑋𝐴
𝐾 ∗ 𝑡𝑟 = ∫
0 (1 − 𝑋𝐴 ) ∗ (𝐶𝐵° − 𝐶𝐴° ∗ 𝑋𝐴 )

1 𝑋𝐴 𝑑𝑋𝐴
𝑡𝑟 = ∗ ∫
𝐾 0 (1 − 𝑋𝐴 ) ∗ (𝐶𝐵° − 𝐶𝐴° ∗ 𝑋𝐴 )

58
5.1.3- Catalyst Volume (Vact.)
Residence time = 𝜏𝑟 = 10 (min).[35]

Where,

𝑉𝑐 = catalyst volume (𝑚3).

𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑉 ° = volumetric flow rate ( ) 𝑜𝑟 ( ).
ℎ𝑟 𝑠

°
𝑚3
𝑉 = 9.17 ( )
𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑉𝑐
𝜏𝑟 = ° → 𝑉𝑐 = 𝜏𝑟 ∗ 𝑉 °
𝑉
𝑚3
𝑉𝑐 = 10 (𝑚𝑖𝑛) ∗ 9.17 ( ) = 91.7 (𝑚3)
𝑚𝑖𝑛

And,
𝜋
𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑡. = ∗ (𝐷𝑅 )2 ∗ 𝐿
4
Where,
𝐷𝑅 = reactor diameter.
L = catalyst height.
 From [ref.34]:
Select catalyst particles diameter dP = 15 (mm); (assumed).
Select pressure drop (∆𝑃) from (2.5 to 15) (Kpas).
(𝐷𝑅 )6 − 𝛽 ∗ 𝐾 ∗ (𝐷𝑅 )2 − 𝐾 = 0
Where,
67.32 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 𝜇𝑓 ∗ (1 − 𝜖𝐵 )
𝛽=
𝑑𝑝 ∗ 𝑚 °

59
Where,
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑚° = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 4980 ( ) = 1.383 ( )
ℎ𝑟 𝑠
𝑚𝑁𝑠
𝜇𝑓 = 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 0.02 ( )
𝑚2
𝑑𝑝 = 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 15 (𝑚𝑚)
𝜌𝐵
𝜖𝐵 = 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 = (1 − ) = 0.45
𝜌𝑝

67.32 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 0.02 ∗ (1 − 0.45)

∴𝛽= = 0.1121
15 ∗ 1.383
And,
64 ∗ 𝛼 ∗ (𝑚° )2 ∗ 𝑊𝑎𝑐𝑡.
𝐾=
𝜋 ∗ 𝜌𝑓 ∗ 𝑑𝑝 ∗ ∆𝑃 ∗ 𝜌𝐵
Where,
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑚° = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 4980 ( ) = 1.383 ( )
ℎ𝑟 𝑠
𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑓 = 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 9.052 ( )
𝑚3
𝑑𝑝 = 15 (𝑚𝑚)
𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝐵 = 𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑡. = 881 ( )
𝑚3
∆𝑃 = 2.5 𝑡𝑜 15 (𝐾𝑝𝑎𝑠)
𝑘𝑔
𝑊𝑎𝑐𝑡. = 𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑡. ∗ 𝜌𝑐𝑎𝑡. = 91.7 (𝑚3) ∗ 881 ( ) = 80787.7 (𝑘𝑔)
𝑚3
1.75 ∗ (1 − 𝜖𝐵 ) 1.75 ∗ (1 − 0.45)
𝛼= = = 10.56
(𝜖𝐵 )3 (0.45)3
Then,
64 ∗ 10.56 ∗ (1.383)2 ∗ 80787.7 4168.34
𝐾= =
𝜋 ∗ 9.052 ∗ 15 ∗ ∆𝑃 ∗ 881 ∆𝑃

60
Table (5.2) ∆𝑃 Vs. 𝐷𝑅 .
∆𝑃 (Kpas) K 𝐷𝑅 (m)
2.5 1667.34 3.68
5 833.67 3.11
7.5 555.78 2.8
10 416.83 2.61
12.5 333.47 2.47
15 277.89 2.36

16

14

12

10

Pressure (kpas)
8

0
4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
DR (m)

Figure (5.1) ∆𝑃 Vs. 𝐷𝑅 .

At allowable pressure drop ∆𝑃 = 10 (Kpas)

∴ 𝐷 = 2.16 (𝑚) & 𝑙 = 17.14 (𝑚)

61
5.1.4- Total Reactor Volume (VR)

𝜋
𝑉𝑅 = ∗ (𝐷𝑅 )2 ∗ 𝐻 … … … … ..[33]
4

Where,
H = total reactor height (m).
VR = total reactor volume (𝑚3).
DR = reactor diameter (m).

 From previous calculations:

Vact. = catalyst volume = 91.7 (𝑚3).
DR = 2.61 (m).
L = 17.14 (m).
And,
91.7(𝑚3 )
VR = = 107.9 (𝑚3 )
0.85
𝜋 2
∴ 𝑉𝑅 = 107.9 (𝑚3) = ∗ (2.61 (𝑚)) ∗ 𝐻
4
∴ 𝐻 = 20.2 (𝑚)

62
  From previous calculation:
𝑚3
𝑉 ° = Volumetric flow rate = 9.17 ( ).
𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑣 = average density = 9.052 ( ).
𝑚3

𝜏𝑟 = residence time = 10 (min).

Vc = catalyst volume = 91.7 (𝑚3).
VR = total reactor volume = 107.9 (𝑚3 ).
DR = reactor diameter = 2.61 (m).
L = catalyst height = 17.14 (m).
H = total reactor height = 20.2 (m).
∆𝑃 = pressure drop = 13.16 (pas).
𝐻 20.2
( ) 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = = 7.74
𝐷 2.61

5.1.5- Pressure Drop Calculation (∆𝑷)

 From [ref.26]:
2 ∗ 𝑓𝑚 ∗ (𝐺 )2 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ (1 − 𝜖 )3−𝑛
∆𝑃 =
𝐷𝑃 ∗ 𝑔𝑐 ∗ 𝜌 ∗ 𝜃𝑠3−𝑛 ∗ 𝜖 3
Where,
D = DR = 2.61 (m) = 2610 (mm)
∴ 𝐷𝑃 = 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 15 (𝑚𝑚)
L = depth pf bed = Z = 17.14 (m)
𝑘𝑔
4980( )
𝑠
3600 𝑘𝑔
G = fluid mass velocity = 𝜋 = 0.259 ( )
4
∗(2.61)2 (𝑚2 ) 𝑚2 .𝑠

𝐷𝑃 ∗𝐺 15×10−3 ∗0.259
Re = Reynold No. = NRe = = = 19425
𝜇 0.02×10−3

63
  From [ref.26]:
When,
Re = 19425
𝑓𝑚 = 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 1
n = exponent = 1.98
𝜃𝑠 = 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑝𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 0.3

2 ∗ 1 ∗ (0.259)2 ∗ 17.14 ∗ (1 − 0.45)3−1.98

∆𝑃 = = 13.16 (𝑝𝑎𝑠)
15 × 10−3 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 9.052 ∗ (0.3)3−1.98 ∗ (0.45)3

64
5.1.6- Data Sheet

Operating Data
Type of charge Phase Gases & vapors
Rate of charge 𝑘𝑔⁄ℎ𝑟 4980
Catalyst type Catalyst Bentonite clay
Gas content % 100
Liquid content % 0
Working temperature ℃ 450
Working pressure atm 2
Volumetric flow rate 𝑚3⁄ℎ𝑟 9.17
Viscosity 𝑚𝑁𝑠 ⁄𝑚2 0.02
Density 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 9.052
Design Data
Reactor volume 𝑚3 107.9
Catalyst volume 𝑚3 91.7
Reactor height m 20.2
Catalyst height m 17.14
Reactor diameter m 2.61
Pressure drop Kpas 13.16

65
5.2- Condenser Design

 From Energy Balance:

𝑘𝐽
q = 3453028.97 ( )
ℎ𝑟

Table (5.3) Results from previous calculations.

Fluid condition Shell side Tube side
Component Liquid oil Cooling water
𝑘𝐽 4980 54809.98
Mass flow rate ( )
ℎ𝑟

Inlet temperature (℃) 350 25

Outlet temperature (℃) 50 40
Pressure (bar) 2 2

66
Figure (5.2) U – tube (based on figures from BS 3274; 1960).[25]

Figure (5.3) Internal floating with clamp ring (based on figures from BS 3274;
1960).[25]

Figure (5.4) Kettle reboiler with U – tube bundle (based on figures from BS
3274; 1960).[25]

67
5.2.1- Thermal Prosperities
 For Water (cooling water):[25,28]
40 + 25
𝑇𝑎𝑣. = = 32.5 (℃)
2
𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝐿 = 998 ( )
𝑚3
𝑘𝐽
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 4.2 ( )
𝑘𝑔. ℃
𝑚𝑁𝑠
𝜇𝐿 = 0.68 ( )
𝑚2
𝑘𝐽
𝑘𝑓 = 0.57 ( )
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒

68
  For Liquid Oil: [25,28]
350 + 50
𝑇𝑎𝑣. = = 200 (℃)
2
𝐴𝑃𝐼 = 47.75
𝑚𝑁𝑠
𝜇𝐿 = 4.34 ( )
𝑚2
𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝐿 = 780 ( )
𝑚3
𝑘𝑔
𝑀𝑤𝑡 )𝑎𝑣. = 250 ( )
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑚𝑁𝑠
𝜇𝑣 = 0.02 ( )
𝑚2
𝑘𝐽
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 2.26 ( )
𝑘𝑔. ℃
𝑘𝐽
𝑘𝑙 = 0.1 ( )
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑣 = 12.75 ( )
𝑚3

5.2.2- The Mean Temperature Difference (∆𝑻𝒎)

Where,
𝑇1 = 350 (℃) & 𝑇2 = 50 (℃)
𝑡1 = 25 (℃) & 𝑡2 = 40 (℃)

69
 (𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − ( 𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 =
(𝑇 − 𝑡2)
ln 1
( 𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
Where,
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = log mean temp. difference.
𝑇1 & 𝑇2 = inlet and outlet hot fluid temp.
𝑡1 & 𝑡2 = inlet and outlet cold fluid temp.

(350 − 40) − (50 − 25)

∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = = 113.2 (℃)
(350 − 40)
ln
(50 − 25)

 From [ref.25]:

∆𝑇𝑚 = 𝐹𝑡 ∗ ∆𝑇𝑙𝑚
Where,
∆𝑇𝑚 = tube temp. difference.
𝐹𝑡 = correction factor.
And,
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2) 350 − 50
𝑅= = = 20
(𝑡2 − 𝑡1) 40 − 25
(𝑡2 − 𝑡1) 40 − 25
𝑆= = = 0.046
(𝑇1 − 𝑡1 ) 350 − 25
70
Choose,
One shell & two tube passes.
∴ 𝐹𝑡 = 0.96 … ….[25]
∴ ∆𝑇𝑚 = 𝐹𝑡 ∗ ∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = 0.96 ∗ 113.2 (℃) = 108.7 (℃)

Figure (5.5) Temperature correction factor: one shell pass; two or more even
tube passes.[25]

71
5.2.3- Heat Transfer Area (A)
𝑄 = 𝑈 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ ∆𝑇𝑚 … … ….[25]
𝑄
∴𝐴=
𝑈 ∗ ∆𝑇𝑚
Where,
𝐽
Q = q = heat transfer (w); ( ).
𝑠
𝑤
U = overall heat transfer coefficient ( ).
𝑚2 .℃

A = heat transfer area (𝑚2 ).

∆𝑇𝑚 = tube temp. difference (℃).

 From Energy Balance:

𝑘𝐽 (ℎ𝑟) 𝑘𝐽
Q = 3453028.97 ( ) ∗ (𝑠)
= 9591 ( ) = 9591.747 (𝑘𝑤 )
ℎ𝑟 3600 𝑠

𝑄 = 9.592 × 106 (𝑤 )

And, ∆𝑇𝑚 = 108.7 (℃)

 From [ref.25]:

𝑤 𝑤
Assume, U = 600 ( ); because U = 500 ~ 700 ( ); for condenser &
𝑚2 .℃ 𝑚2 .℃
organic water system.
9.592 ∗ 106 (𝑊 )
𝐴= 𝑤 = 147.1 (𝑚2)
600 ( 2 ) ∗ 108.7(℃)
𝑚 .℃

72
Table (5.4) Typical overall coefficients.[25]

73
5.2.4- Number Of Tubes
 From [ref.25]:

Choose,
3
d = (in) & L = 16 (ft) = 4.88 (m).
4

3 𝑑 ° = tube outside diameter = 20 (mm)

d = (in) → { }
4 𝑑𝑖 = 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 16 (𝑚𝑚)
L = 16 (ft) = 4.88 (m)

A1 = area of single pipe = 𝜋 ∗ 𝑑 ° ∗ 𝐿 = 𝜋 ∗ 20 × 10−3 ∗ 4.88 = 0.307 (𝑚2)

Where,
A = heat transfer area = 147.1 (𝑚2).
And,
A = Nt * 𝜋 ∗ 𝑑 ° ∗ 𝐿 → 𝑁𝑡 ∗ 𝐴1
𝐴 𝐴
∴ 𝑁𝑡 = =
𝜋 ∗ 𝑑 ° ∗ 𝐿 𝐴1
147.1 (𝑚2)
𝑁𝑡 = = 480 = 𝑁𝑡
0.307 (𝑚2)

Table (5.5) Standard dimensions for steel tubes.[25]

74
5.2.5- Bundle Diameter (Db)
 From [ref.25]:

Use triangular pitch & (one shell – two tube passes):

K1 = 0.156 & n1 = 2.291
1
𝑁 𝑛1
𝐷𝑏 = 𝑑 ° ( ) … … ..[25] ……………1
𝑘1

Where,
𝑁= No. of tubes = 480
𝑑 ° = 20 (mm).
K1 & n1 = constants.
𝐷𝑏 = bundle diameter (mm).

1
480 2.291
𝐷𝑏 = 20 (𝑚𝑚) ∗ ( ) → 𝐷𝑏 = 666.1 (𝑚𝑚)
0.156

Table (5.6) Constants for use in equation (1).[25]

75
5.2.6- For tube side:
Mass Velocity (G) & Velocity (u)
Where,
𝑘𝑔
𝑚° = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 54809.98 ( ) …….. from Energy Balance
ℎ𝑟
𝜋 𝜋
Tube cross – sectional area = ∗ (𝑑𝑖 )2 = ∗ (16)2 = 201.1 (𝑚𝑚2)
4 4

Nt = tube No. = 480

N𝑡 480
Tube per pass = = = 240
2 2

At = total flow area per pass = 240 * 201.1× 10−6 (𝑚2) = 0.0483 (𝑚2 )
𝑘𝑔
54809.98 ( )
ℎ𝑟
𝑚° 3600 𝑘𝑔
G = Mass velocity = = = 315.22 ( )
𝐴𝑡 0.0483 (𝑚2 ) 𝑚2 .𝑠

And,
𝑘𝑔
𝐺 315.22 ( ) 𝑚
𝑚2 .𝑠
u = Velocity = = 𝑘𝑔 = 0.316 ( )
𝜌 998 ( 3 ) 𝑠
𝑚

Tube Side Coefficient (hi)

𝑚
u = 0.316 ( )
𝑠
𝑘𝑔
G = 315.22 ( )
𝑚2 .𝑠

𝑚𝑁𝑠
𝜇𝑙 = 0.68 ( )
𝑚2

𝑑𝑖 = 16 (mm)

𝜌 ∗ 𝑢 ∗ 𝑑𝑖 𝐺 ∗ 𝑑𝑖
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇𝑙 𝜇𝑙
𝐾𝑔
315.22 ( 2 ) ∗ 16 × 10−3(𝑚𝑚)
𝑅𝑒 = 𝑚 .𝑠 = 7416.94
0.68 × 10−3

76
 3 𝐾𝐽 −3 𝑁𝑠
𝐶𝑃 ∗ 𝜇 4.2 × 10 (𝑘𝑔. 𝑘 ) ∗ 0.68 × 10 (𝑚2 )
𝑃𝑟 = = 𝑤 = 5.01
𝑘𝑓 0.57 ( )
𝑚. ℃
When,
𝐿 4.88 (𝑚)
𝑅𝑒 = 7416.94 & = = 305
𝑑𝑖 16 × 10−3
 From [ref.25]:
𝐽ℎ = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 4.1 × 10−3
Where,
𝜇 0.14
( ) = 1; (𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑)
𝜇𝑤

ℎ𝑖 ∗ 𝑑𝑖 1 𝜇 0.14
∴ = 𝐽ℎ ∗ 𝑅𝑒 ∗ (𝑃𝑟 )3 ∗ ( )
𝑘𝑓 𝜇𝑤
ℎ𝑖 ∗ 16 × 10−3 1
= 4.1 × 10−3 ∗ 7416.94 ∗ (5.01)3 ∗ (1)0.14
0.57
𝑤
∴ ℎ𝑖 = 1843.78 ( 2 )
𝑚 .℃

Figure (5.6) Tube – side heat transfer factor.[25]

77
5.2.7- For shell side:
Mass Velocity (G) & Velocity (u) [25]
Where,
𝑘𝑔
𝑚° = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 4980 ( )
ℎ𝑟

𝐷𝑏 = 666.1 (𝑚𝑚)
𝐷𝑠 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = (𝐷𝑏 + 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
Where,
Clearance = 64 (mm).
𝐷𝑠 = 666.1 + 64 = 730.1 (𝑚𝑚)
𝐷𝑠
𝐿𝐵 = 𝑏𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 = … ….[25]
𝑏𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒 𝑁𝑜.

Note:
Buffle No. = 1; because change in phase inside shell side.

730.1 (𝑚𝑚)
𝐿𝐵 = = 730.1 (𝑚𝑚)
1

𝑃𝑡 = 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ = 1.25 ∗ 𝑑 °

𝑃𝑡 = 1.25 ∗ 20 (𝑚𝑚) = 25 (𝑚𝑚)

1.27
𝑑𝑒 = 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = ∗ ((𝑃𝑡 )2 − 0.917 (𝑑 ° )2 ) … …. For sequare.
𝑑°

1.27 2 2
𝑑𝑒 = ∗ ((25 (𝑚𝑚)) − 0.917 (20 (𝑚𝑚)) ) = 16.4 (𝑚𝑚)
20 (𝑚𝑚)

(𝑃𝑡 − 𝑑 ° ) ∗ 𝐷𝑠 ∗ 𝐿𝐵
𝐴𝑠 = 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 =
𝑃𝑡
(25 − 20) ∗ 730.1 ∗ 730.1 × 10−6
𝐴𝑠 = = 0.107 (𝑚2 )
25

78
 𝑚°
𝐺𝑠 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐴𝑠
𝑘𝑔
4980 (
)
ℎ𝑟
3600 𝐾𝑔
𝐺𝑠 = = 12.93 ( )
0.107 (𝑚2) 𝑚2. 𝑠

𝐾𝑔
𝐺𝑠 12.93 ( ) 𝑚
𝑚2 .𝑠
u= = 𝑘𝑔 = 1.014 ( )
𝜌 12.75 ( 3 ) 𝑠
𝑚

Figure (5.7) Shell – bundle clearance.[25]

79
Shell Side Coefficient (𝒉° )
𝑚
u = 1.014 ( )
𝑠

𝐾𝑔
𝐺𝑠 = 12.93 ( )
𝑚2 . 𝑠
𝑚𝑁𝑠
𝜇𝑙 = 4.34 ( )
𝑚2
𝑤
𝑘𝑓 = 0.1 ( )
𝑚.℃

𝑑𝑒 = 16.4 (𝑚𝑚)
𝑘𝐽
𝐶𝑝 = 2.26 ( )
𝑘𝑔.℃

For condensation (vertical) outside tubes:[25]

Where,
𝑘𝑔
𝑊𝑐 = 𝑚° = 4980 ( )
ℎ𝑟
𝑁𝑡 = 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑁𝑜. = 480
𝑑 ° = 20 (𝑚𝑚)
𝑇𝑣 = 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑊𝑐
𝑇𝑣 =
𝑁𝑡 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 𝑑 °
4980 𝑘𝑔
( ) 𝑘𝑔
3600 𝑠
𝑇𝑣 = = 0.0459 ( )
480 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 20 × 10−3 𝑚. 𝑠
And,
4 ∗ 𝑇𝑣 4 ∗ 0.0459
∴ 𝑅𝑒 = = = 423.04
𝜇𝑙 4.34 × 10−3

3 𝐾𝑔 −3
𝐶𝑃 ∗ 𝜇𝑙 2.26 × 10 (𝑚2. 𝑠) ∗ 4.34 × 10
𝑃𝑟 = = = 9.81
𝑘𝑓 0.1

80
Where,
𝑘𝑔
𝑇𝑣 = 0.0459 ( )
𝑚. 𝑠
𝑤
𝑘𝑓 = 𝑘𝑙 = 0.1 ( )
𝑚. ℃
𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑙 = 780 ( )
𝑚3
𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑣 = 12.75 ( )
𝑚3

For condensation outside vertical tubes:

1
°
𝜌𝑙 ∗ (𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 ) ∗ 𝑔 3
ℎ = ℎ𝑐 = 0.926 ∗ 𝑘𝑙 ∗ [ ]
𝜇𝑙 ∗ 𝑇𝑣
1
°
780 ∗ (780 − 12.75) ∗ 9.81 3
ℎ = ℎ𝑐 = 0.926 ∗ 0.1 ∗ [ ]
4.34 × 10−3 ∗ 0.0459
𝑤
∴ ℎ° = 4286.03 ( )
𝑚2. ℃

Figure (5.7) Shell – side heat transfer factors, segmental baffles. [25]
81
5.2.8- Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (𝑼°)
Where,
𝑤 °
𝑤
ℎ𝑖 = 1843.78 ( ) & ℎ = 4286.03 ( )
𝑚2. ℃ 𝑚2. ℃
 From [ ref.25]:
𝑤
ℎ𝑖𝑑 = 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 5000 ( 2 )
𝑚 .℃
𝑤
ℎ° 𝑑 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 5000 ( 2 )
𝑚 .℃
 From [ref.1]:

𝑤
∴ 𝑘𝑤 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑠 = 36 ( )
𝑚. ℃
° 𝑑°
1 1 1 𝑑 ∗ ln ( ) 𝑑° 1 𝑑° 1
𝑑𝑖
= + + +( ∗ )+( ∗ )
𝑈 ° ℎ° ℎ° 𝑑 2 ∗ 𝑘𝑤 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖

20
1 1 1 20 × 10−3 ∗ ln ( )
= + + 16 + (20 ∗ 1 ) + (20 ∗ 1
)
𝑈 ° 4286.03 5000 2 ∗ 36 16 5000 16 1843.78
𝑤
∴ 𝑈 ° = 702.62 ( )
𝑚2. ℃

𝑈 ° − 𝑈 702.62 − 600
% 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = = ∗ 100 = 17.1 %
𝑈 600

82
Table (5.7) Fouling factors (Coefficients), typical values.[25]

Table (5.8) Conductivity of metals.[25]

83
Assume,
𝑤
𝑈 ° = 702.62 ( ) ; (2𝑛𝑑 − 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 )
𝑚2. ℃
𝐴 = 125.59 (𝑚2) & 𝑁𝑡 = 409.1 = 410 & 𝐷𝑏 = 621.8 (𝑚𝑚)

For tube side:

𝑁𝑡
Tube per pass = = 205
2

𝐴𝑡 = 0.0412
𝑘𝑔
𝐺 = 369.54 ( )
𝑚2 . 𝑠
𝑚 𝑤
𝑢 = 0.37 ( ) ℎ𝑖 = 2161.51 ( )
𝑠 𝑚2 .℃

𝑅𝑒 = 8695.06
𝑃𝑟 = 5.01
𝐽ℎ = 4.1 × 10−3

For shell side:

Clearance = 63 (mm)
𝐷𝑠 = 684.8 (𝑚𝑚)
𝐿𝐵 = 684.8 (𝑚𝑚)
𝑤
𝐴𝑠 = 0.094 (𝑚2) ℎ° = 4270.95 ( )
𝑚2 .℃
𝐾𝑔
𝐺𝑠 = 14.72 ( 2 )
𝑚 .𝑠
𝑚
𝑢 = 1.154 ( )
𝑠
𝑘𝑔
𝑇𝑣 = 0.054 ( )
𝑚. 𝑠
𝑅𝑒 = 497.7
𝑃𝑟 = 9.81
84
 𝑤
∴ 𝑈 ° = 755.05 ( )
𝑚2. ℃

𝑈 ° − 𝑈 755.05 − 702.62
% 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = = ∗ 100 = 7.4 %
𝑈 702.62

5.2.9- Pressure Drop For Tube side

 From [ref.25]:

𝑙 𝜇 −𝑚 𝜌 ∗ 𝑢𝑡 2
∆𝑃𝑡 = 𝑁𝑃 [8 ∗ 𝐽𝑓 ∗ ( ) ∗ ( ) + 2.5] ∗
𝑑𝑖 𝜇𝑤 2
Where,
𝑁𝑃 = No. of passes = 2
L = tube length = 4.88 (m)
di = inside tube diameter = 16 (mm)
𝑘𝑔
𝜌 = fluid density = 998 ( )
𝑚3
𝑚
ut = velocity inside tube = 0.37 ( ).
𝑠

𝜇
( )=1
𝜇𝑤

When,
𝑅𝑒 = 8695.06 → 𝐽𝑓 = 5 × 10−3 … … … ..[25]

−3
4.88 × 103 998 ∗ (0.37)2
∴ ∆𝑃𝑡 = 2 [8 ∗ 5 × 10 ∗( ) ∗ 1 + 2.5] ∗
16 2
𝑁
∆𝑃𝑡 = 20084.1 ( ) = 2.91 (𝑝𝑠𝑖)
𝑚2

85
Figure (5.9) Tube – side fraction factors.[25]

5.2.10- Pressure Drop For Shell Side:

 From [ref.25]:

𝐷𝑠 𝐿 𝜌 ∗ 𝑢𝑠 2
∆𝑃𝑠 = [8 ∗ 𝐽𝑓 ∗ ( ) ∗ ( )] ∗
𝑑𝑒 𝐿𝐵 2
Where,
𝐷𝑠 = shell diameter = 684.8 (mm)
𝐿𝐵 = buffle spacing = 684.8 (mm)
L = tube length = 4.88 (m)
de = equivalent diameter = 16.2 (mm)
𝑘𝑔
𝜌 = fluid density = 780 ( )
𝑚3
𝑚
Us = velocity in shell = 1.154 ( ).
𝑠
𝜇
( )=1
𝜇𝑤

86
When,
𝑅𝑒 = 497.7 → 𝐽𝑓 = 6 × 10−3 … … … ..[25]

−3
684.8 4.88 × 10−3 780 ∗ (1.154)2
∴ ∆𝑃𝑠 = [8 ∗ 6 × 10 ∗( )∗( )] ∗
16.2 684.8 2
𝑁
∆𝑃𝑠 = 17418.11 ( ) = 2.53 (𝑝𝑠𝑖)
𝑚2

Figure (5.10) Shell – side fraction factors.[25]

87
5.3- Gas – Liquid Separator
 From [ref.25]:

5.3.1- Properties
From Material & Energy balance:
 For liquid oil:
𝑀𝐽
Calorific value ( ) = 39.5
𝑘𝑔

API gravity at 60 (F) = 47.75

𝑚𝑚2
Viscosity ( ) = 5.56
𝑠
𝑔
Density at 15 (℃) ( ) = 0.78
𝑐𝑚3

Ash (wt %) = 0.02

Flash point (℃) = 41
𝑚𝑁𝑠
𝜇𝑙 = 4.34 ( )
𝑚2
𝑘𝐽
𝐶𝑃𝑙 = 2.26 ( )
𝑘𝑔. ℃
88
  For fuel gas (C1 ~ C4):
𝑘𝑔
𝑀𝑤𝑡 = 44 ( )
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑇𝐵𝑃 = −42.1 (℃)
𝑘𝐽
𝐶𝑃𝑔 = 3.05 ( )
𝑘𝑔. ℃
𝑘𝐽
𝜆𝑣 = 426 ( )
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑣 = 1.8 ( )
𝑚3
𝑚𝑁𝑠
𝜇𝑣 = 0.01 ( 2 )
𝑚

5.3.2- Volumetric Flow Rate (𝑽° )

 From (Vapor Outlet Stream):
𝑘𝑔
M = mass flow rate = 617.52 ( )
ℎ𝑟

𝑃 ∗ 𝑀𝑤𝑡 101.3 ∗ 44 𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑣 = = = 1.66 ( 3)
𝑅∗𝑇 8.314 ∗ (50 + 273) 𝑚
So,
𝑘𝑔
𝑀 617.52 ( ) 𝑚3
° ℎ𝑟
𝑉 = = = 372 ( )
𝜌 𝑘𝑔 ℎ𝑟
1.66 ( 3)
𝑚
 From (Liquid Outlet Stream):

𝑘𝑔
M = mass flow rate = 4362.48 ( )
ℎ𝑟

𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑙 = 780 ( )
𝑚3
So,
𝑘𝑔
𝑀 4362.48( ℎ𝑟 ) 𝑚3
°
𝑉 = = 𝑘𝑔 = 5.6 ( )
𝜌 780( 3 ) ℎ𝑟
𝑚

89
5.3.3- Settling Velocity (ut)
 From [ref.25]:
1
𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 2
𝑢𝑡 = 0.07 ∗ [ ]
𝜌𝑣

Where,
𝑚
𝑢𝑡 = 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ( )
𝑠
𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑙 = 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ( )
𝑚3
𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑣 = 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ( )
𝑚3

The value of (ut) should be multiplied by a factor of (0.15) for safety.

 From (Vapor Outlet Stream):
𝑘𝑔
M = 617.52 ( )
ℎ𝑟

𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑣 = 1.66 ( )
𝑚3
 From (Liquid Outlet Stream):
𝑘𝑔
M = 4362.48 ( )
ℎ𝑟

𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑙 = 780 ( )
𝑚3

1
780 − 1.66 2 𝑚
∴ 𝑢𝑡 = 0.07 ∗ [ ] = 1.52 ( )
1.66 𝑠
So,
𝑚 𝑚
𝑢𝑡 = 0.15 ∗ 1.52 ( ) = 0.228 ( )
𝑠 𝑠

90
5.3.4- Minimum Allowable Diameter (𝑫𝒗 )
4∗𝑉𝑣
𝐷𝑣 = √ … … … … … … ..[25]
𝜋∗𝑢𝑡

Where,
𝐷𝑣 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑚)
𝑚3
𝑉𝑣 = 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 ( )
𝑠
𝑚
𝑢𝑡 = 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ( )
𝑠

𝑚3
372 ( ) 𝑚3
ℎ𝑟
𝑉𝑣 = = 0.303 ( )
3600 𝑠
𝑚
𝑢𝑡 = 0.228 ( )
𝑠

4 ∗ 0.303
𝐷𝑣 = √ = 1.3 (𝑚)
𝜋 ∗ 0.228

5.3.5- Vessel Volume & Height

Allow a minimum of 10 minutes hold up = 𝜏
Where,
𝑚3 𝑚3
Liquid volumetric flow rate = 𝑉 ° = 5.6 ( ) = 1.56 × 10−3 ( )
ℎ𝑟 𝑠

∴ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙 = 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉 ° ∗ 𝜏

−3
𝑚3 60 (𝑠)
𝑉𝐿 = [1.56 × 10 ( )] ∗ [10 (𝑚𝑖𝑛) ∗ ] = 0.936 (𝑚3)
𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜋
A = vessel cross – sectional area = ∗ 𝐷 2
4
𝜋
𝐴= ∗ (1.3)2 = 1.327 (𝑚2 )
4

91
 𝑉𝐿 0.936 (𝑚3)
∴ 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ = ℎ𝐿 = = = 0.71 (𝑚)
𝐴 1.327 (𝑚2)

Increase to allow space for positioning the level controller.

∴ ℎ𝐿 = 2 ∗ 0.71 (𝑚) = 1.42 (𝑚)

𝐷𝑣 1.3 (𝑚)
ℎ𝑑 = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = = = 0.65 (𝑚)
2 2

ℎ𝑔 = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐷𝑣 + 0.4 = 1.3 (𝑚) + 0.4 = 1.7 (𝑚)

∴ 𝐻 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = ℎ𝐿 + ℎ𝑑 + ℎ𝑔

𝐻 = 1.42 + 0.65 + 1.7 = 3.77 (𝑚)

92
𝐷𝑣 = 1.3 (𝑚)
ℎ𝐿 = 1.42 (𝑚)
ℎ𝑑 = 0.65 (𝑚)
ℎ𝑔 = 1.7 (𝑚)
𝑚
𝑢𝑡 = 0.228 ( )
𝑠
𝐻 = 3.77 (𝑚)

93
94
6.1- Mechanical Design Of Reactor
1- Cylindrical Shell Thickness (t):
𝑝𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑡=
2𝑆𝐸 − 1.2 𝑝𝑖
Where,
𝑡 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑚𝑚).
𝑁
𝑝𝑖 = 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ( ).
𝑚𝑚2

𝐷𝑖 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 2610 (𝑚𝑚) = 2.61 (𝑚).

𝑁
𝑆 = 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ( ).
𝑚𝑚2

𝐸 = 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (1) .

𝑇𝑖 = 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (℃).

Then,
𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑇𝑖 = 450 (℃) + 15 = 465 (℃)
𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑝𝑖 = 2 (𝑏𝑎𝑟) ∗ 1.1 = 2.2 (𝑏𝑎𝑟)
 From ref.[24]:
𝑁
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆 = 70 (𝑎𝑡 465 (℃)), 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙.
𝑚𝑚2
𝑁
2.2 ( 2 ) ∗ 2610 (𝑚𝑚)
𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑚 = 5 (𝑚𝑚)
𝑁 𝑁
(2 ∗ 70 ( ) ∗ 1) − 1.2 ∗ 2.2 ( )
𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚2
𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 5 (𝑚𝑚) + 2 (𝑚𝑚) = 7 (𝑚𝑚)

95
2- Head Thickness (t):
Choose, (tori-spherical head type) at Pi = 2.2 (bar).
0.885 𝑝𝑖 𝑅𝑐
𝑡=
𝑆𝐸 − 0.1 𝑝𝑖
Where,
𝑁
𝑝𝑖 = 0.22 ( ).
𝑚𝑚2

𝐷𝑖 = 𝑅𝑐 = 2610 (𝑚𝑚).
𝑁
𝑆 = 70 ( ).
𝑚𝑚2

𝐸=1
Then,
𝑁
0.885 ∗ 0.22 ( ) ∗ 2610 (𝑚𝑚)
∴ 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑚2 = 8 (𝑚𝑚)
𝑁 𝑁
(70 ( ) ∗ 1) − 0.1 ∗ 0.22 ( )
𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚2
𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 8 (𝑚𝑚) + 2 (𝑚𝑚) = 106 (𝑚𝑚)

3- Nozzle Sizing:
 For nozzle feed (F):

𝑘𝑔
𝑚° 𝐹 4980 ( ) 𝑚3 𝑚3
° ℎ𝑟
𝑉 = = = = 550.2 ( ) = 0.153 ( )
𝜌𝑓 𝜌𝑎𝑣. 9.052 𝑘𝑔 ℎ𝑟 𝑠
( 3)
𝑚

Where,
𝜋
𝑉° = 𝑢 ∗ 𝐴 = 𝑢 ∗ ∗ 𝑑2
4
When,
𝑚
u = 15 ( ) , (𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒)
𝑠

96
Then,

𝑚3 𝑚 𝜋
0.153 ( ) = 15 ( ) ∗ ∗ (𝑑𝐹 )2
𝑠 𝑠 4

∴ 𝑑𝐹 = 0.114(𝑚) = 114 (𝑚𝑚) = 4.9 (𝑖𝑛)

 For nozzle product (P):

𝑘𝑔
𝑚 °
𝑃 4980 ( ) 𝑚3 𝑚3
° ℎ𝑟
𝑉 = = = = 550.2 ( ) = 0.153 ( )
𝜌𝑝 𝜌𝑎𝑣. 𝑘𝑔 ℎ𝑟 𝑠
9.052 ( 3)
𝑚

Where,
𝜋
𝑉° = 𝑢 ∗ 𝐴 = 𝑢 ∗ ∗ 𝑑2
4
When,
𝑚
u = 15 ( ) , (𝐺𝑎𝑠 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒)
𝑠

Then,

𝑚3 𝑚 𝜋
0.153 ( ) = 15 ( ) ∗ ∗ (𝑑𝑃 )2
𝑠 𝑠 4

∴ 𝑑𝑝 = 0.114 (𝑚) = 114 (𝑚𝑚) = 4.9 (𝑖𝑛)

97
4- Shell Weight (𝑾𝝊 ):

𝑊𝜐 = 240 𝐶𝜐 𝐷𝑚 (𝐻𝜐 + 0.8 𝐷𝑚 ) ∗ 𝑡 … … … … … … … ..[24]

Where,
𝑊𝜐 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 (𝑁).
𝐻𝜐 = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑚).
𝐶𝜐 = 1.15 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡).
𝑚 𝑚
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ( 2) = 9.81 ( 2) .
𝑠 𝑠
𝑡 = 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑚𝑚).
𝐷𝑚 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑚) = (𝐷 + 𝑡 × 10−3).
Then,
𝐻𝜐 = 20.2 (𝑚)
𝑡 = 𝑒 = 10 (𝑚𝑚)
𝐷𝑚 = (2.61 + 10 × 10−3 ) = 2.62 (𝑚)

𝑊𝜐 = 240 ∗ 1.15 ∗ 2.62 ∗ (20.2 + 0.8 ∗ 2.62) ∗ 10

𝑊𝜐 = 161227 (𝑁)

98
5- Weight Of Packing (𝑾𝑷 ):
𝜋
𝑉𝑐 = ∗ (𝐷)2 ∗ 𝑍 … … ….[24]
4

Where,

𝑉𝑐 = packing volume = 91.7 (𝑚3).

D = diameter = 2.61 (m).

Z = packing height = 12.94 (𝑚).

𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑃 = packing density = 881 ( ).
𝑚3

Then,

𝑊𝑃 = 𝑉𝑐 ∗ 𝜌𝑃

𝑘𝑔
𝑊𝑃 = 91.7 (𝑚3 ) ∗ 881 ( ) ∗ 9.81 = 792527.3 (𝑁)
𝑚3

99
6- Bracket Support Design (supported on legs):

 From [ref.24]:
𝐹𝑏𝑠 = 60 𝐿𝑐 𝑡𝑐
Where,
𝑊 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝐹𝑏𝑠 = =
4 4

When,
D = diameter = 2.61 (m)
Then,
W = 1000 KN (maximum weight) [24]
Take,
NO. of brackets = 4 & 𝑡𝑐 = 30 (𝑚𝑚)
1000 (𝐾𝑁)
𝐹𝑏𝑠 = = 250 (𝐾𝑁); (𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡)
4

250 (𝐾𝑁) × 103 = 60 ∗ 𝐿𝑐 ∗ 30 (𝑚𝑚)

𝐿𝑐 = 167 (𝑚𝑚)

100
6.1.1- Cost For Fixed Bed Reactor
Where,
H = reactor height = 20.2 (m).
D = reactor diameter = 2.61 (m).
Z = packing height = 17.14 (m).

 For vertical column:

∴ 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 70 × 103 ($), 𝑖𝑛 (1998) (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒 (5.1))

 For packing:
1
𝑑𝑝 = (𝑖𝑛) = 15 (𝑚𝑚) = 𝑆
2
𝜋
𝑉𝑝 = 𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑉𝑐 = ∗ (𝐷)2 ∗ 𝑍 = 91.7 (𝑚3)
4
$
C = constant = 1400 ( ).[24]
𝑚3

$
∴ 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝐶 ∗ 𝑉𝑝 = 1400 ( 3 ) ∗ 91.7(𝑚3) = 128380 ($), 𝑖𝑛 (1998)
𝑚
Equipment cost = 70 × 103 + 128380 = 198380 ($) 𝑖𝑛 (1998)

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 (𝐵 ) = 𝐶𝐸 = 389.5 𝑖𝑛 (1998).

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 (𝐴) = 𝐶𝐸 = 607.5 𝑖𝑛 (2022).

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 (𝐴) 𝑖𝑛 (2022)

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 (𝐴) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 (𝐵 ) ∗ ………….𝟏
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 (𝐵 ) 𝑖𝑛 (1998)
607.5
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 198380 ($) ∗ = 309412 ($) 𝑖𝑛 (2022)
389.5

101
Figure (6.1) Vertical pressure vessels. Time base mid – 1998.[24]

102
Table (6.1) Purchase cost of miscellaneous equipment, cost factors for use in
equation (1) cost basis mid 1998.[24]

Table (6.2) Cost of column packing. Cost basis mid 1998. [24]

103
6.1.2- Control For Fixed Bed Reactor
CV = Control valve.

FC = Flow controller.

FI = Flow indicator.

TC = Temperature controller.

TI = Temperature indicator.

PI = Pressure indicator.

∆𝑃 = pressure drop indicator.

LC = Level controller.

104
6.2- Mechanical Design For Condenser
1- Cylindrical Shell Thickness (t):
𝑝𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑡=
2𝑆𝐸 − 1.2 𝑝𝑖
Where,
𝑡 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑚𝑚).
𝑁
𝑝𝑖 = 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ( ).
𝑚𝑚2

𝐷𝑖 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 684.8 (𝑚𝑚) = 𝐷𝑠

𝑁
𝑆 = 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ( ).
𝑚𝑚2

𝐸 = 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (1).

𝑇𝑖 = 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (℃).

Then,
𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑇𝑖 = 350 (℃) + 15 = 365 (℃)
𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑝𝑖 = 2 (𝑏𝑎𝑟) ∗ 1.1 = 2.2 (𝑏𝑎𝑟)
 From [ref.25]:
𝑁
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆 = 70 (𝑎𝑡 365 (℃)), 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙.
𝑚𝑚2
𝑁
0.22 ( ) ∗ 684.8 (𝑚𝑚)
𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑚2 = 3 (𝑚𝑚)
𝑁 𝑁
(2 ∗ 70 ( ) ∗ 1) − 1.2 ∗ 0.22 ( )
𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚2
𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 3 (𝑚𝑚) + 2 (𝑚𝑚) = 5 (𝑚𝑚)

105
2- Head Thickness (t):
Choose, (tori-spherical head type) at Pi = 2.2 (bar).
0.885 𝑝𝑖 𝑅𝑐
𝑡=
𝑆𝐸 − 0.1 𝑝𝑖
Where,
𝑁
𝑝𝑖 = 0.22 ( ).
𝑚𝑚2

𝐷𝑖 = 𝑅𝑐 = 684.8 (𝑚𝑚).
𝑁
𝑆 = 70 ( ).
𝑚𝑚2

𝐸=1
Then,
𝑁
0.885 ∗ 0.22 ( ) ∗ 684.8 (𝑚𝑚)
∴ 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑚2 = 5 (𝑚𝑚)
𝑁 𝑁
(70 ( ) ∗ 1) − 0.1 ∗ 0.22 ( )
𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚2
𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 5 (𝑚𝑚) + 2 (𝑚𝑚) = 7 (𝑚𝑚)

3- Nozzle Sizing:
 Nozzle for tube side:

𝑘𝑔
𝑚 ° 54809.98 ( ) 𝑚3 𝑚3
ℎ𝑟
𝑉= = = 54.92 ( ) = 0.0153 ( )
𝜌 𝑘𝑔 ℎ𝑟 𝑠
998 ( )
𝑚3

Where,
𝜋
𝑉 =𝑢∗𝐴 =𝑢∗ ∗ 𝑑2
4
When,
𝑚
u=2( )
𝑠

106
Then,

𝑚3 𝑚 𝜋
0.0153 ( ) = 2 ( ) ∗ ∗ (𝑑)2
𝑠 𝑠 4

∴ 𝑑 = 0.0987 (𝑚) = 98.7 (𝑚𝑚) = 3.9 (𝑖𝑛)

 Nozzle for shell side:

𝑘𝑔
𝑚° 4980 ( ℎ𝑟 ) 𝑚3 𝑚3
𝑉= = = 6.385 ( ) = 0.0018 ( )
𝜌 𝑘𝑔 ℎ𝑟 𝑠
780 ( 3)
𝑚

Where,
𝜋
𝑉 =𝑢∗𝐴 =𝑢∗ ∗ 𝑑2
4
When,
𝑚
u=2( )
𝑠

Then,

𝑚3 𝑚 𝜋
0.0018 ( ) = 2 ( ) ∗ ∗ (𝑑)2
𝑠 𝑠 4

∴ 𝑑 = 0.0436 (𝑚) = 43.6 (𝑚𝑚) = 1.7 (𝑖𝑛)

107
4- Shell Weight (𝑾𝝊 ):

𝑊𝜐 = 240 𝐶𝜐 𝐷𝑚 (𝐻𝜐 + 0.8 𝐷𝑚 ) ∗ 𝑡 … … … … … … … ..[25]

Where,
𝑊𝜐 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 (𝑁).
𝐻𝜐 = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑚).
𝐶𝜐 = 1.15 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡).
𝑚 𝑚
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ( 2) = 9.81 ( 2) .
𝑠 𝑠
𝑡 = 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑚𝑚).
𝐷𝑚 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑚) = (𝐷 + 𝑡 × 10−3).

Then,
𝐻𝜐 = 4.88 (𝑚)
𝑡 = 𝑒 = 7 (𝑚𝑚)
𝐷𝑚 = (684.8 + 7 × 10−3 ) = 0.692 (𝑚)

𝑊𝜐 = 240 ∗ 1.15 ∗ 0.692 ∗ (4.88 + 0.8 ∗ 0.692) ∗ 7

𝑊𝜐 = 7264.4 (𝑁)

108
5- Weight Of Tubes (𝑾𝑵 ):
𝑊𝑁1 = 240 𝐶𝜐 𝐷𝑚 (𝐻𝜐 + 0.8 𝐷𝑚 ) ∗ 𝑡 … … … … … … … ..[25]

Where,

𝑑 ° − 𝑑𝑖 20 − 16
𝑡= = = 2 (𝑚𝑚)
2 2

𝐷𝑚 = (𝐷𝑖 + 𝑡) × 10−3 = (16 + 2) × 10−3 = 18 × 10−3 (𝑚)

𝐻𝜐 = 𝐿 = 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 4.88 (𝑚)

Then,

𝑊𝑁1 = 240 ∗ 1.08 ∗ 18 × 10−3 ∗ (4.88 + (0.8 ∗ 18 × 10−3)) ∗ 2

𝑊𝑁1 = 45.7 (𝑁)

𝑊𝑁 = 45.7 (𝑁) ∗ 410 = 18737 (𝑁)

109
6- Bracket Supports Design:
 From [ref.25]:

Table (6.3) Dimensions.

Vessel Dimension (m) Dimension (mm)
diameter
(m) V Y C E J G t2 t1 bott. bott.
diam. holes
0.685 0.58 0.15 0.7 0.29 0.225 0.095 8 5 20 25

110
6.2.1- Cost For H.E.
Where,
A = area heat transfer = 125.59 (𝑚2).

 From [ref.30]:
At pressure = 2.2 (bar) = 222.86 (Kpas)
∴ 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 1.5 × 104 ($), 𝑖𝑛 (1998)

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 (𝐵 ) = 𝐶𝐸 = 389.5 𝑖𝑛 (1998).

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 (𝐴) = 𝐶𝐸 = 607.5 𝑖𝑛 (2022).

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 (𝐴) 𝑖𝑛 (2022)

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 (𝐴) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 (𝐵 ) ∗
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 (𝐵 ) 𝑖𝑛 (1998)
607.5
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 1.5 × 104 ($) ∗ = 23395.4 ($) 𝑖𝑛 (2022)
389.5

Figure (6.2) Purchase cost of floating heat exchangers with 0.019 (m) OD
3
×0.025 (m) ( (𝑖𝑛)𝑂𝐷 × 1 (𝑖𝑛))square pitch and 4.88 (m) = 16 (ft).bundles of
4
carbon steel construction.[30]

111
6.2.2- Control For H.E.
CV = Control valve.
FC = Flow controller.

FI = Flow indicator.

TC = Temperature controller.

TI = Temperature indicator.

PI = Pressure indicator.

∆𝑃 = pressure drop indicator.

LC = Level controller.

112
6.3- Mechanical Design Of Separator
1- Cylindrical Shell Thickness (t):
𝑝𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑡=
2𝑆𝐸 − 1.2 𝑝𝑖
Where,
𝑡 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑚𝑚).
𝑁
𝑝𝑖 = 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ( ).
𝑚𝑚2

𝐷𝑖 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1300 (𝑚𝑚).

𝑁
𝑆 = 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ( ).
𝑚𝑚2

𝐸 = 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (1).

𝑇𝑖 = 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (℃).

Then,
𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑇𝑖 = 50 (℃) + 15 = 65 (℃)
𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑝𝑖 = 2 (𝑏𝑎𝑟) ∗ 1.1 = 2.2 (𝑏𝑎𝑟)
 From ref.[25]:
𝑁
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆 = 125 (𝑎𝑡 65 (℃))
𝑚𝑚2
𝑁
0.22 ( ) ∗ 1300 (𝑚𝑚)
𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑚2 = 3 (𝑚𝑚)
𝑁 𝑁
(2 ∗ 125 ( ) ∗ 1) − 1.2 ∗ 0.22 ( )
𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚2
𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 3 (𝑚𝑚) + 2 (𝑚𝑚) = 5 (𝑚𝑚)

113
2- Head Thickness (t):
Choose, (tori-spherical head type) at Pi = 2.2 (bar).
0.885 𝑝𝑖 𝑅𝑐
𝑡=
𝑆𝐸 − 0.1 𝑝𝑖
Where,
𝑁
𝑝𝑖 = 0.22 ( ).
𝑚𝑚2

𝐷𝑖 = 𝑅𝑐 = 1300 (𝑚𝑚).
𝑁
𝑆 = 125 ( ).
𝑚𝑚2

𝐸=1
Then,
𝑁
0.885 ∗ 0.22 ( ) ∗ 1300 (𝑚𝑚)
∴ 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑚2 = 4 (𝑚𝑚)
𝑁 𝑁
(125 ( ) ∗ 1) − 0.1 ∗ 0.22 ( )
𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚2
𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 4 (𝑚𝑚) + 2 (𝑚𝑚) = 6 (𝑚𝑚)

3- Nozzle Sizing:
 For nozzle Feed (F):

𝑘𝑔
𝑚 𝐹° ) 4980 ( 𝑚3 𝑚3
° ℎ𝑟 −3
𝑉 = = = = 6.39 ( ) = 1.78 × 10 ( )
𝜌𝑓 𝜌𝑎𝑣. 𝑘𝑔 ℎ𝑟 𝑠
780 ( 3)
𝑚
Where,
𝜋
𝑉° = 𝑢 ∗ 𝐴 = 𝑢 ∗ ∗ 𝑑2
4
When,
𝑚
u = 2 ( ) , (𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒)
𝑠

114
Then,

−3
𝑚3 𝑚 𝜋
1.78 × 10 ( ) = 2 ( ) ∗ ∗ (𝑑𝐹 )2
𝑠 𝑠 4

∴ 𝑑𝐹 = 0.034 (𝑚) = 34 (𝑚𝑚) = 1.4 (𝑖𝑛)

 For nozzle Top (V):

𝑘𝑔
𝑚 °
𝑉 617.52 ( ) 𝑚3 𝑚3
° ℎ𝑟
𝑉 = = = = 343.1 ( ) = 0.0953 ( )
𝜌𝑓 𝜌𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑘𝑔 ℎ𝑟 𝑠
1.8 ( 3)
𝑚
Where,
𝜋
𝑉° = 𝑢 ∗ 𝐴 = 𝑢 ∗ ∗ 𝑑2
4
When,
𝑚
u = 15 ( ) , (𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 )
𝑠

Then,

𝑚3 𝑚 𝜋
0.0953 ( ) = 15 ( ) ∗ ∗ (𝑑𝑉 )2
𝑠 𝑠 4

∴ 𝑑𝑉 = 0.0899 (𝑚) = 89.9 (𝑚𝑚) = 3.5 (𝑖𝑛)

 For nozzle Bottom (L):

𝑘𝑔
𝑚 °
𝐿𝑚 4362.48 ( ) 𝑚3 𝑚3
ℎ𝑟
𝑉° = = = 3
= 5.593 ( ) = 1.56 × 10 ( )
𝜌𝑓 𝜌𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡. 𝑘𝑔 ℎ𝑟 𝑠
780 ( 3)
𝑚
Where,
𝜋
𝑉° = 𝑢 ∗ 𝐴 = 𝑢 ∗ ∗ 𝑑2
4

115
When,
𝑚
u = 1 ( ) , (𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 )
𝑠

Then,

𝑚3 𝑚 𝜋
1.56 × 10 ( ) = 1 ( ) ∗ ∗ (𝑑𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡. )2
3
𝑠 𝑠 4

∴ 𝑑𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡 = 0.045 (𝑚) = 45 (𝑚𝑚) = 1.8 (𝑖𝑛)

4- Shell Weight (𝑾𝝊 ):

𝑊𝜐 = 240 𝐶𝜐 𝐷𝑚 (𝐻𝜐 + 0.8 𝐷𝑚 ) ∗ 𝑡 … … … … … … … ..[25]

Where,
𝑊𝜐 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 (𝑁).
𝐻𝜐 = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑚).
𝐶𝜐 = 1.15 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡).
𝑚 𝑚
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ( 2) = 9.81 ( 2) .
𝑠 𝑠
𝑡 = 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑚𝑚).
𝐷𝑚 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑚) = (𝐷 + 𝑡 × 10−3).
Then,
𝐻𝜐 = 3.77 (𝑚)
𝑡 = 𝑒 = 10 (𝑚𝑚)
𝐷𝑚 = (1.3 + 10 × 10−3) = 1.31 (𝑚)

𝑊𝜐 = 240 ∗ 1.15 ∗ 1.31 ∗ (3.77 + 0.8 ∗ 1.31) ∗ 10

𝑊𝜐 = 17420 (𝑁)

116
5- Weight Of Fluid (Material) (𝑾𝒇):
Where,

D = diameter = 1.3 (m).

L = length or height of fluid = 1.42 (𝑚2).

𝜋
𝑉𝑓 = volume of fluid = ∗ (𝐷)2 ∗ 𝐿
4

And,
𝑘𝑔
Fluid density (max.) = 780 ( ) = 𝜌𝑓
𝑚3

So,
𝜋
𝑉𝑓 = ∗ (1.3)2 ∗ 1.42 = 1.89 (𝑚3 )
4
Then,

𝑊𝑓 = 𝑉𝑓 ∗ 𝜌𝑓 ∗ 𝑔

𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝑊𝑓 = 1.89 (𝑚3 ) ∗ 780 ( ) ∗ 9.81 ( ) = 14461.9 (𝑁)
𝑚3 𝑠2

117
6- Bracket Support Design (supported on legs):

 From [ref.25]:
𝐹𝑏𝑠 = 60 𝐿𝑐 𝑡𝑐
Where,
𝑊 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝐹𝑏𝑠 = =
4 4

When,
D = diameter = 1.3 (m)
Then,
W = 230 KN (maximum weight) [25]
Take,
NO. of brackets = 4 & 𝑡𝑐 = 20 (𝑚𝑚)
230 (𝐾𝑁)
𝐹𝑏𝑠 = = 57.5 (𝐾𝑁); (𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡)
4

57.5 (𝐾𝑁) × 103 = 60 ∗ 𝐿𝑐 ∗ 20 (𝑚𝑚)

𝐿𝑐 = 48 (𝑚𝑚)

118
6.3.1- Cost For Separator
 For Vertical shell:
Where,
H = reactor height = 3.77 (m).
D = reactor diameter = 1.3 (m).

∴ 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 9.5 × 103 ($), 𝑎𝑡 1998 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒 (5.3))

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 (𝐵 ) = 𝐶𝐸 = 389.5 𝑖𝑛 (1998).

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 (𝐴) = 𝐶𝐸 = 607.5 𝑖𝑛 (2022).

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 (𝐴) 𝑖𝑛 (2022)

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 (𝐴) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 (𝐵 ) ∗ ………….𝟑
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 (𝐵 ) 𝑖𝑛 (1998)
607.5
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 9.5 × 103 ($) ∗ = 19935.2($) 𝑖𝑛 (2022)
389.5

119
Figure (6.3) Vertical pressure vessels. Time base mid – 1998.[25]

120
6.3.2- Control For Separator
CV = Control valve.

FC = Flow controller.

FI = Flow indicator.

TC = Temperature controller.

TI = Temperature indicator.

PI = Pressure indicator.

∆𝑃 = pressure drop indicator.

LC = Level controller.

121
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