Ultrasonic Sensor

• Used to detect hidden tracks, discontinuities in metals, composites,

plastics, ceramics, and for water level detection
• In robotic navigation and object detection it is used to detect the
presence of objects.
• The laws of physics which are indicating the propagation of sound
waves through solid materials have been
• HC SR04 Ultrasonic sensor
Contd..
• The pin configuration of HC-SR-04 is as follows,
• VCC – +5 V supply
• TRIG – Trigger input of the sensor. Microcontroller applies 10 us
trigger pulse to the HC-SR04 ultrasonic module.
• ECHO–Echo output of the sensor. Microcontroller reads/monitors this
pin to detect the obstacle or to find the distance.
• GND – Ground
Working principle
• Sound waves can travel through the mediums with specific velocity
depends on the medium of propagation. The sound waves which are
having high frequency reflect from boundaries and produce
distinctive echo patterns.
• Ultrasonic sensors are excellent at suppressing background
interference.
• Virtually all materials which reflect sound can be detected, regardless
of their color even transparent also.
• Microscopic ultrasonic sensors are suitable for target distances from
20 mm to 10 m and as they measure the time of flight they can
ascertain a measurement with pinpoint accuracy.
• Ultrasonic sensors can see through dust-laden air and ink mists. Even
thin deposits on the sensor membrane do not impair its function.
Working principle contd..
• First, need to transmit trigger pulse of at
least 10 us to the HC-SR04 Trig Pin.
• Then the HC-SR04 automatically sends
Eight 40 kHz sound wave and wait for
rising edge output at Echo pin.
• When the rising edge capture occurs at
Echo pin, start the Timer and wait for a
falling edge on Echo pin.
• As soon as the falling edge captures at
the Echo pin, read the count of the
Timer. This time count is the time
required by the sensor to detect an
object and return back from an object.
How to calculate distance?
To measure the specific distance from your sensor, this can be
calculated based on this formula:

We know that,
Distance= Speed* Time. The speed of sound waves is 343
m/s. So,
Total Distance= (343 * Time of flight(Echo) pulse)/2

Total distance is divided by 2 because the signal travels from

HC-SR04 to object and returns to the module HC-SR-04.
Applications of an Ultrasonic Sensor
• It uses to avoid and detect obstacles with robots like biped
robot, obstacle avoider robot, pathfinding robot etc.
• Used to measure the distance within a wide range of 2cm to
400cm.
• Used to map the objects surrounding the sensor by rotating
it.
• Depth of certain places like wells, pits etc can be measured
since the waves can penetrate through the water.
Touch Sensors
• Used to obtain information associated with the contact between a
manipulator hand and objects in the workspace.
• It is subdivided into two principal categories
• Binary sensors
• Basically switches respond to presence or absence of an object
• Analog sensors
• It gives output signal proportional to a local force.
• Binary Sensors
• Contact devices – micro switches
• A switch is placed on inner surface of each finger of a manipulator to
determine if a part is present between the fingers
• Multiple binary sensors can be used inside the surface area of each finger to
provide tactile information
• Also it is mounted on external surface area to guide the manipulator
throughout the workspace
Contd..
• Analog Sensors
• It is a compliant device whose output is proportional to a local force
• Construction of a basic analog touch sensor
• A spring –loaded rod which is mechanically linked to a rotating shaft in a such a way that
the displacement of the rod due to a lateral force results in a proportional rotation of the
shaft. The rotation is measured continuously using a pot or digitally using a code wheel.
• Spring constant should be known
• Accuracy is less
• Only one or two sensor can be used,
• wear and tear more

• Development of tactile sensing arrays

• Wide area touch information
Artificial Skins
• One more new approach using array of electrodes in electrical contact with
a compliant conductive material(e.g. graphite based substance) whose
resistance varies as a function of compression.
• An object pressing against the surface causes local deformations which are
measured as continuous resistance variations which can be transformed
into electrical signals whose amplitude is proportional to the force being
applied at any given point on the surface of the material
• Several approaches in construction of artificial skins
• Window concept
• Long narrow electrode pairs placed in same substrate plane with active electronic
circuit
• Conductive material is located between two array of thin , flat, flexible electrodes
that intersect perpendicularly
• Use of anisotrophically ( electrically conductive in only one direction) conductive
material
Four approaches for construction of artificial Skins
figures
Slip measurement using Touch sensor
• The measurement of tangential motion to determine slip using touch
sensor
• The proposed device is as shown below Artificial skins meant for external sensing in robots are typically
constructed using one of two approaches: (1) resistive-based sensing
and (2) capacitive-based sensing. Here's a brief overview of each
approach:

Resistive-Based Sensing: In this approach, the artificial skin is made up

of multiple layers of conductive material, separated by a non-conductive
material. When pressure is applied to the skin, the layers of conductive
material are pushed together, which changes the resistance of the
material. By measuring the resistance of each layer, the robot can
determine the amount and location of pressure being applied to the
skin. This approach is relatively simple and inexpensive, but it has
some limitations, such as low sensitivity and poor spatial resolution.

Capacitive-Based Sensing: In this approach, the artificial skin is made

up of multiple layers of conductive material, separated by a
non-conductive material, just like in the resistive-based approach.
However, instead of measuring resistance, the skin measures changes
in capacitance as pressure is applied. As the layers of conductive
material are pushed together, the capacitance between the layers
changes, which can be measured to determine the amount and location
of pressure being applied to the skin. This approach has some
advantages over resistive-based sensing, such as higher sensitivity and
better spatial resolution, but it is more complex and expensive to
implement.
Computer vision or Machine vision or robot vision
• Vision
• The task of extracting information about the external world from ray rays
imaged by camera or an eye
• External noncontact type
• Vision system helps robot perform following tasks
• Inspection
• Identification
• Visual Servoing and Navigation control
• Hardware components of a
vision system
Elements in a vision sensor
• Vision systems main imaging components
• Camera , sensing array , associated electronics, output signal format and lens
• Camera systems
• Analog : not in common anymore
• Digital
• Basic working of camera
• Measurement of intensity of
Light reflected by object
Pixel, Different sensors,
Monocolor, color television
standard
Cameras contd..
• 5 major parameters govern the choice of cameras
• Field of view, resolution, working distance, depth of field and image data
acquisition rate
• Types of camera
• Vidicon camera
• Bulky vacuum tube device, almost extinct today, sensitive to electromagnetic noise
inference and needs high power
• Advantages: High resolution and better light sensitivity
• Digital camera (charge coupled devices or charge integrated devices)
• Solid state technology, solid state silicon wafer area that has photosites printed on it.
• Each small area of wafer called pixel
• Image is projected on pixel surface area, charge is developed proportional to intensity of
light at that location
• Collection of charges -> read sequentially ->image representation
• Output discrete representation of image as a voltage sampled in time
Working principle of Vidicon Camera
Digital camera contd..
• Advantages
• Small in size, more rugged, lasts longer and have less inherent image
distortion
• Disadv : cost more
• Lighting Techniques (proper illumination of scene is important)
• The main task to create contrast between object to be detected
• Typical lighting techniques
• Direct incident
• Diffuse incident
• Lateral lightening
• Dark field lightening
• Back lightening
Steps in a vision system
• Vision sensing has 2 parts
• Image acquisition and image processing

• Image acquisition
• Image acquired by a camera, stored in memory as jpeg or any other format
• It’s a hardware function
• Software control light intensity, focus, camera angle, synchronization etc.
• 4 principle elements
• Light source : ambient or controlled
• Lens
• Image sensor converts light energy to electrical image form
• Electronics reads sensed image process it and transfer to computer for further processing
Image processing
• It is used to enhance, improve or alter an image and to prepare it for
image analysis
• It examines the digitized data to locate and recognize an object within
the image field
• It has several sub process
• Image data reduction
• Histogram analysis
• Thresholding
• Masking
• Edge detection
• Segmentation
• Morphological operations
Image analysis
• Its collection of operations and techniques that are used to extract
information from images
• Some of the analysis techniques are
Laser range measurement sensors use triangulation to determine the distance to an object. The
• Feature extraction basic principle behind triangulation is that if you know the distance between two points and the angle
between them, you can calculate the distance to a third point.
• Object recognition
In the case of a laser range measurement sensor, the sensor emits a laser beam that reflects off the
• Template matching target object and returns to the sensor. The sensor then measures the angle between the emitted
laser beam and the reflected laser beam.
• structural
To calculate the distance to the object, the sensor also needs to know the distance between the
sensor and the laser emitter. This distance is usually fixed and known, so the only unknown variable
is the distance to the target object.

Using trigonometry, the sensor can calculate the distance to the object based on the angle between
the emitted laser beam and the reflected laser beam and the distance between the sensor and the
laser emitter.

This process is repeated multiple times to ensure accuracy and to measure the range from multiple
angles. The final range measurement is then calculated based on the average of these
measurements.

Overall, the triangulation method used by laser range measurement sensors is a highly accurate and
reliable way to measure distances to objects.
Laser sensor based range measurement
Time of Flight Range Finders
• It is the concept in which distance estimates are based on the time elapsed
between the transmission and return of the sonic pulse.
• Range Sensors are used for robot navigation and obstacle avoidance.
• Mainly estimating the distance to the closest objects.
• Two methods are based on lasers
• Method 1
• To determine range is to measure the time it takes an emitted pulse of light to return
coaxially (i.e. along the same path) from a reflecting surface.
• D= c T/2 ; T- pulse transit time , c- speed of light
• Light travels at approximately 1 ft/ns ,the electronic instrument must be 50 ps time
resolution to achieve ± ¼ inch accuracy in range .
• Method 2
• Pulsed laser system produces 2D arrays with values proportional to distance
• 2D scan is accomplished by deflecting laser light via a rotating mirror
• The working range of the device is 1 to 4 m and accuracy ±0.25 cm
• The displayed images in which intensity are proportional the distance between the
sensor and reflecting surface at that point.
• This provides intensity as well as range information
Continuous beam laser
• It measures distance as delays (i.e.) phase shift between the outgoing and
returning beams
• Suppose a beam of laser light of wavelength ƛ is split into two beams
• One is reference beam travels a distance L to a phase measuring device and
other travels a distance D out to a reflecting surface
• Total distance traveled by reflected beam is D’ = L+2D
• If D = 0; D’ = L (both the beams are in phase)
• If D increases, then phase shift is introduced between the two beams at
the point of meassurement
• D’ = L+ θ /360 ƛ
• If θ =360° , again D’ = L ( both waveforms aligned )
• Unique solution , θ <360° or 2D < ƛ ; D = θ /360 *(ƛ/2)
• Distance in terms of phase shift , if ƛ is known
Principle of range measurement by phase shift
Contd..
• As wavelength of laser light is small ( e.g. 632.8nm) impractical for
robotic applications.
• Modulate the amplitude of laser light by using a waveform of much
higher wavelength ( Amplitude modulated waveform)
• The reference signal is modulated function c = f ƛ , modulating sine
wave frequency of f =10Mhz has a wavelength of 30m
• Modulated reference signal sent out to a target and returning beam is
taken out of modulating signal and compared with reference to
determine phase shift.
• To reduce uncertainties in distance measurement averaging return
signal for longer to reduce error considering all noise conditions.
• Continuous laser beam needs higher power
Sensor Selection
• Two type of characteristics for sensor selection
• Static and Dynamic parameters
• Static parameters
Static parameters contd..
Contd..
Contd..
• Environmental conditions
• Power requirement and its easy availability
• Chemical reactions, corrosions, extreme temperatures, light , dirt accumulation ,
electromagnetic field, radioactive environments, shock and vibrations should be
considered
• Reliability and maintainability
• Mean Time To Failure (MTTF)
• Average number of hours between failures that cause some part of the sensor to become
inoperative
• Expected available 98 -99%
• Mean Time To Repair (MTTR)
• Interfacing
• Standard easily plug- in sensors with signal conditioning device
• Others
• Initial cost, maintenance cost, cost of disposal and replacement, operational
simplicity, ease of availability of the sensors and their spares, reputation of
manufacturers