VAPOR POWER

CYCLES
Thermodynamics 2
CARNOT VAPOR CYCLE
The Carnot Vapor Cycle

Arrangement of Carnot Cycle Carnot Cycle on Temperature-

Entropy Diagram
Carnot Cycle Analysis: Boiler
• Heat added, QB
• Saturated water at state 1 is evaporated in a boiler at constant
pressure to form saturated steam in state 2.

• Energy balance:

• If mass flow rate is considered

Carnot Cycle Analysis: Turbine
• Turbine Work, W T
• The steam is expanded isentropically from state 2 to state 3. This
work maybe done in a reciprocating engine or a turbine.
• Energy balance:

• Considering mass flow rate:

• If the kinetic and potential variations are considered:

Carnot Cycle Analysis: Condenser
• Condenser, QC
• After expansion the steam is partially condensed at constant
pressure from state point 3 to state point 4. As the pressure
remains constant, the saturation temperature of steam also
remains constant.
• Energy balance:

• If mass flow rate is considered

Carnot Cycle Analysis: Compressor
• Compressor, WC
• The condensation process is stopped at 4, where s4 = s1. Finally
the steam is compressed isentropically in a rotary or reciprocating
compressor to state 1.
• Energy balance:

• Considering mass flow rate:

Carnot Cycle Analysis: Efficiency & Ratio
• Cycle Efficiency:

• Work Ratio
Carnot Cycle Analysis: Steam rate
• The specific steam consumption (Steam rate)
• is the mass of steam used to perform a unit work or the mass flow
rate of steam consumed to produce a unit of power. For good
design, a lower value of steam rate is desired. A lower value of
steam rate means that a smaller quantity of steam is needed to
develop the desired power output.

For the ideal Carnot Cycle

Sample Problem No. 1
A Carnot cycle used steam pressures of 3 MPa and 0.004
MPa. Calculate:
• Heat and work transfers
• Work ratio
• Cycle efficiency
• Steam consumption
IDEAL RANKINE CYCLE
 The Ideal Rankine Cycle

The ideal Rankine cycle is composed of the following processes:

1-2: Reversible adiabatic expansion in the turbine ( or other prime mover
such as a steam engine), s = c.
2-3: Constant pressure rejection of heat in the condenser, p = c.
3-4: Reversible adiabatic pumping process in the pump, s = c.
4-1: Constant pressure addition of heat in the steam generator, p = c.
Temperature-Entropy Diagram
Rankine Cycle Analysis: Turbine

• Energy balance across the turbine:

• If the turbine is adiabatic and the potential energy is

neglected, the turbine power :
Rankine Cycle Analysis: Condenser
• Energy balance:
Rankine Cycle Analysis: Pump
• Exact Pump Work:
• Energy balance:

• Approximate Pump Work

• Conditions:
• Water is practically an incompressible liquid ( v3 = v4 )
• The change in internal energy is negligible. ( u3 = u4 )
• Energy balance (approximate pump work):
Rankine Cycle Analysis: Boiler
• The first-law analysis, considering only the water yields
Rankine Cycle Analysis: Efficiency
• Thermal efficiency of the cycle is the net work divided by
the heat added.
Rankine Cycle Analysis: Adiabatic Condenser
Rankine Cycle Analysis: Isentropic Efficiency
Sample Problem No. 2
A steam power plant operating in a Rankine cycle has
saturated vapor at 3.0 MPa leaving the boiler. The turbine
exhausts to the condenser operating at 10 kPa. Find the
specific work and heat transfer in each of the ideal
components and the cycle efficiency.
Solution to Sample Problem No. 2
Sample Problem No. 3
Steam enters the turbine of a power plant at 5 MPa and
400°C, and exhausts to the condenser at 10 kPa. The
turbine produces a power output of 20 000 kW with an
isentropic efficiency of 85%. What is the mass flow rate of
steam around the cycle and the rate of heat rejection in the
condenser? Find the thermal efficiency of the power plant
and how does this compare with a Carnot cycle.
Solution to Sample Problem No. 3
Solution to Sample Problem No. 3
Assignment (Problems):
1. A small steam power plant has a boiler exit of 3 MPa, 400°C while
it maintains 50 kPa in the condenser. All the components are ideal
except the turbine which has an isentropic efficiency of 80% and it
should deliver a shaft power of 9.0 MW to an electric generator.
Find the specific turbine work, the needed flow rate of steam and
the cycle efficiency.
2. A steam power plant operates with a high pressure of 5 MPa and
has a boiler exit temperature of 600°C receiving heat from a 700°C
source. The ambient at 20°C provides cooling for the condenser so
it can maintain 45°C inside. All the components are ideal except for
the turbine which has an exit state with a quality of 97%. Find the
work and heat transfer in all components per kg water and the
turbine isentropic efficiency. Find the rate of entropy generation per
kg water in the boiler/heat source setup.
3. A steam power plant has a steam generator exit at 4 MPa, 500oC
and a condenser exit temperature of 45oC. Assume all components
are ideal and find the cycle efficiency and the specific work and
heat transfer in the components also its cycle efficiency.
Practice Problem No. 1
Practice Problem No. 2
Practice Problem No. 3
EFFECT OF PRESSURE AND
TEMPERATURE ON THE
RANKINE CYCLE
Lowering the condenser pressure
• Suppose we reduce the
pressure at the condenser
from P2 to P2’ with the
corresponding decrease in
temperature.
• Results:
• Reduction in the condenser
pressure will increase the
thermal efficiency of the
Rankine cycle.
• Note: That too much moisture
might result to the reduction of
the turbine efficiency and may
cause erosion of turbine blades.
Increasing Steam Generator Temperature
Increasing Steam Generator Pressure

Effect: increased
Limitation: Metallurgical consideration
IDEAL REHEAT CYCLE
IDEAL REHEAT CYCLE

• Turbine Power:

• Heat added in the Boiler:

• Pump power:

• Thermal Efficiency:
SAMPLE PROBLEM No. 4
A smaller power plant produces steam at 3 MPa, 600oC in
the boiler. It keeps the condenser at 45oC by transfer of 10
MW out as heat transfer. The first turbine section expands
to 500 kPa and then flow is reheated followed by the
expansion in the low pressure turbine. Find the reheat
temperature so the turbine output is saturate vapor. For
this reheat find the total turbine power output and the boiler
heat transfer.
Solution to Sample Problem No. 4
THE IDEAL REGENERATIVE
CYCLE
The Ideal Regenerative Cycle
Direct-contact, open heat-exchanger
• In the previous slide, “m” is defined as

• By performing energy balance, neglecting kinetic energy

and potential energy:

the fraction of the total mass that is withdrawn for regenerative heating
• Turbine Power:

• Pump power:

• Heat added in the Boiler:

• Thermal Efficiency:
Closed-feed water heater, heat exchanger

Terminal Temperature Difference = T2a – T6

Sample Problem No. 5:
A Rankine cycle operating with ammonia is heated by
some low temperature source so the highest T is 120oC at
a pressure of 5000 kPa. Its low pressure is 1003 kPa and it
operates with one open feedwater heater at 2033 kPa. The
total flow rate is 5 kg/s. Find the extraction flow rate to the
feedwater heater assuming its outlet state is saturated
liquid at 2033 kPa. Find the total power to the two pumps.
Solution to Sample Problem No. 5:
THE IDEAL REHEAT-
REGENERATIVE CYCLE
The Ideal Reheat-Regenerative Cycle
• In this cycle, the reheat cycle and the regenerative cycle are
combined to attain the following objectives:
• Further improvement in the overall thermal efficiency.
• Further reduction in the moisture content of steam during the later part of
the expansion process.

• Further, the said cycle has two cases, such as:

• Case 1. ( Two open heaters )
• Case 2. ( One open heater and one closed heater )
Case 1. (Two open heaters)

• Turbine Power:
• Pump power:

• Heat added in the Boiler:

• Thermal Efficiency:
Case 2.
(One open heater and one closed heater)

• Turbine Power:
• Pump power:

• Heat added in the Boiler:

• Thermal Efficiency:
Sample Problem No. 6:
Consider an ideal combined reheat and regenerative cycle
in which steam enters the high-pressure turbine at 3.0
MPa, 400°C, and is extracted to an open feedwater heater
at 0.8 MPa with exit as saturated liquid. The remainder of
the steam is reheated to 400°C at this pressure, 0.8 MPa,
and is fed to the low pressure turbine. The condenser
pressure is 10 kPa. Calculate the thermal efficiency of the
cycle and the net work per kilogram of steam.
Solution to Sample Problem No. 6:
Practice Problem No. 4:
An ideal steam power plant is designed to operate on the
combined reheat and regenerative cycle and to produce a
net power output of 10 MW. Steam enters the high-
pressure turbine at 8 MPa, 550°C, and is expanded to 0.6
MPa, at which pressure some of the steam is fed to an
open feedwater heater, and the remainder is reheated to
550°C. The reheated steam is then expanded in the low-
pressure turbine to 10 kPa. Determine the steam flow rate
to the high-pressure turbine and the power required to drive
each of the pumps.
Solution to Practice Problem No. 4
COGENERATION
Cogeneration
• Cogeneration is the production of more than one useful
form of energy (such as process heat and electric power)
from the same energy source.

The fuel utilization or cogeneration efficiency is the ratio of useful to the energy input
 Sample Problem No. 7:
Steam enters the turbine of a cogeneration
plant at 7 MPa and 500°C. One-fourth of the
steam is extracted from the turbine at 600-kPa
pressure for process heating. The remaining
steam continues to expand to 10 kPa. The
extracted steam is then condensed and mixed
with feedwater at constant pressure and the
mixture is pumped to the boiler pressure of 7
MPa. The mass flow rate of steam through the
boiler is 30 kg/s. Disregarding any pressure
drops and heat losses in the piping, and
assuming the turbine and the pump to be
isentropic, determine the net power produced
and the utilization factor of the plant.