LECTURE # 6: THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

HBIOANA: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY

BS HUMBIO BLOCK 8 | PROF. RAM JAIRUS LAPIRA

■ Ex. Patellae
● Based on Type of Ossification
OUTLINE
○ Cartilaginous/Endochondral Ossification
I. Classification of Bones
■ Bones are developed from cartilage
A. Structure of a Long Bone models
B. Bone Matrix ■ Ex. Short and long bones
C. Bone Cells ○ Membranous ossification
D. Bone Markings ■ Bones are formed in connective tissue
II. The Axial Skeleton membrane
A. The Skull ■ Ex. Frontal and parietal bones of skull,
B. The Vertebral Column mandible
III. Thoracic Cage ● Based on Structure
A. Sternum ○ Compact bone
B. Ribs ■ Denser, stronger of the two types of
IV. The Appendicular Skeleton osseous tissue
A. The Pectoral Girdle ■ Make up outer cortex of all bones
B. Bones of the Upper Limb ■ In immediate contact with the
C. Bones of the Lower Limb periosteum
V. Structural Classification of Joints ■ Made up of highly organized
VI. Functional Classification of Joints arrangement of concentric circles
■ Osteon (Haversian system)
■ Lamellae. Each osteon ring made
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES up of collagen and calcified matrix.
● Based on Shape and Functions ■ Central canal (Haversian canal).
○ Long bones Runs down the center of each
■ Cylinder-like, longer than it is wide osteon, contains blood vessels,
■ For movement and support nerves, and lymphatic vessels.
■ Ex. femur, tibia, fibula, metatarsals, ■ Perforating canal (Volkmann’s
humerus, ulna, metacarpals, phalanges canal). Oriented at right angle to the
○ Short bones central canal, where vessels and
■ Cube like shape, equal in width and nerve branch off
length ■ The osteocytes are trapped within
■ Provide stability and support with motion their lacunae at the borders of
■ Ex. carpals, tarsals adjacent lamellae
○ Flat bones ■ Canaliculi
■ Thin and curved ● Connect with other lacunae
■ Point of attachment for muscles and the central canal
■ Ex. Sternum, ribs, scapulae, cranial ● Allow nutrient transport and
bones waste removal
○ Irregular bones ○ Spongy (Cancellous) bone
■ Complex shape ■ Not arranged in concentric circles
■ Protect internal organs, for movement, but have osteocytes in lacunae
and support ■ Trabeculae
■ Ex. vertebrae and facial bones ● Lattice like network of matrix
○ Sesamoid bones spikes where the lacunae and
■ Small and round; embedded in tendons osteocytes are located
■ Protect tendons from excessive forces

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● Trabecular forms along lines of ○ Gives the bone flexibility so that it can bend
stress to direct forces out to the without being brittle
more solid compact bone

STRUCTURE OF LONG BONE BONE CELLS

● Two main regions: ● Osteoblast
○ Diaphysis. Hollow, tubular shaft that ○ The bone cell responsible for forming new
runs between the proximal and distal bone
bone ends ○ Found in the endosteum and the
○ Epiphysis. Wider section on each bone periosteum
end filled internal with spongy bone ○ Synthesize and secrete the collagen matrix
● Medullary cavity. Space inside the diaphysis and other proteins
filled with yellow bone marrow in adults ○ As the secreted matrix surrounding the
● Cortex (cortical bone). Outer walls of the osteoblast calcifies, the osteoblasts
diaphysis composed of dense and hard compact become trapped within it.
bone ● Osteocyte
● Metaphysis ○ Primary cell of mature bone located
○ Where each epiphysis meets the diaphysis (trapped) in a lacuna
○ Contains the epiphyseal plate which is the ○ Maintain the mineral concentration of
site of long bone elongation the matrix via the secretion of enzymes
■ Epiphyseal line. When the bone stops ○ Communicate with each other via long
growing. cytoplasmic processes that extend
● Articular cartilage through canaliculi
○ Thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the
epiphysis
○ Reduces friction and acts as a shock
absorber
● Endosteum
○ Lines the inside of the bone adjacent to the
medullary cavity
○ Bone cells cause the bone to grow, repair,
and remodel
● Periosteum
○ Covers the entire outer surface except BONE MARKINGS
around the articular cartilage ● An Articulation
○ Grow, repair, remodel bones ○ Where two bone surfaces come
○ Contains blood and lymph vessels along together
with nerves ○ These surfaces tend to conform to one
another, such as one being rounded and
BONE MATRIX the other cupped
● Consists of 1/3rd collagen fibers and 2/3rds ● A projection
calcium phosphate salt (hydroxyapatite) ○ An area of a bone that is raised above
● Hydroxyapatite the surface of the bone
○ Adheres to surface of collagen scaffolding ○ Attachment points for tendons and
○ Incorporates magnesium hydroxide, ligaments
fluoride, and sulfate ○ Their size and shape is an indication of
○ Give bones their hardness and strength the forces exerted through the
● Collagen fibers attachment of the bone
○ Gives a framework for calcification ● A hole

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○ Allows blood vessels and nerves to ● Lateral view

enter the bone ○ Dominated by cranium above and the
○ Size and shape reflected vessel and upper and lower jaws below
nerve size ○ The zygomatic arch (cheeckbone)
■ Arch that spans from the area of the
cheek above the ear canal
■ Formed by zygomatic bone
(anterior) and temporal bone
(posterior)
■ The masseter (for biting and
chewing) arises from the zygomatic
arch
○ Temporal fossa
■ Shallow space above zygomatic arch
■ Where temporalis (for chewing)
inserts into the zygomatic arch
● Bones of the Cranium
○ 8 bones
○ Paired parietal and temporal bones, and
THE AXIAL SKELETON unpaired frontal, occipital, sphenoid, and
● Central axis ethmoid bones
● 80 bones ○ The cranial cavity is almost completely
● Include skull, vertebral column, and thoracic occupied by the brain
cage ○ The base of the skull is the floor of the
● Serve to protect brain, spinal cord, heart, and braincase; a complex area that varies in
lungs depth and has numerous openings for
● Serves as the attachment site for muscles of cranial nerves, blood vessels and the
head, neck, back, and the shoulder and hip spinal cord.
joints. ○ Orbital roof
■ Frontal bone
THE SKULL ■ Lesser wing of the sphenoid
● Facial bones and cranium ■ “FrontLess Roof”
● 22 bones ○ Lateral Wall
○ 8 cranial ■ Greater wing of the sphenoid
○ 14 facial ■ Zygomatic bone
● Anterior view ■ “Greater zygoma”
○ Facial bones ○ Orbital floor
○ Orbit. Bony socket that houses the eyeball ■ Maxilla
and muscles that move the eyeball or open ■ Palatine bone
the upper eyelid ■ Zygomatic bone
○ The nasal cavity ■ “Floor MaPZ”
■ Divided by naval septum ○ Medial wall
● Upper portion is formed by the ■ Sphenoid bone
plate of ethmoid bone ■ Maxilla
● Lower portion is the vomer bone ■ Ethmoid
■ Inferior, middle, and superior nasal ■ Lacrimal
conchae ■ “SMEL”
● Bony plates are seen projecting
from each side of the septum

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forms the temporomandibular joint with the

mandible (lower jaw)
● Styloid process. A downward bony projection that
is the attachment site for muscles and ligament
supporting the hyoid bone

PARIETAL BONE
● Forms upper and lateral side of the skull
● The right and left parietal bones joining together
the sagittal suture
OCCIPITAL BONE
● Bounded anteriorly by the frontal bone and the
● Forms the posterior skull
coronal suture ● External occipital protuberance. Protrusion at
● Bound inferiorly by the temporal bone at the the posterior midline, which serves as an
squamous suture. attachment site for ligaments of the neck
● Bound posteriorly by the occipital bone at the ● Superior nuchal line. The most superior point at
lambdoid suture which muscles of the next attach to the skull
● Bregma. Point of intersection between the coronal ● Foramen magnum. Large opening on the base of
and sagittal sutures. the skull which allows the spinal cord to exit skull
● Occipital condyle. On either side of the foramen
magnum where they form joins with the first
cervical vertebrae for nodding motion of the head.
TEMPORAL BONE
● Forms the lower lateral side of the skull
● Squamous portion. The flattened, upper portion
● Zygomatic process. Below the squamous and
SPHENOID BONE
projecting anteriorly; forms the posterior portion of
● A complex bone of the central skull
the zygomatic arch ● Joins with almost every other bone of the skull
● Mastoid portion. Has the prominent mastoid ● Forms much of the base of the central skull
process ● Lesser wings of the sphenoid bone. Marks the
○ Locks during lock jaw boundary between the anterior and middle cranial
● Petrous portion. House the middle and inner ears fossae
● Pterior. Weakest part of the skull ● Sella turcica. Located at the midline of the middle
● External acoustic meatus (ear canal). Opening cranial fossa; Rounded depression in the floor
on the lateral side of the skull associated with the houses the pituitary (hypophyseal) gland
ear ● Greater wings of the sphenoid bone. Extend
● Internal acoustic meatus. Opening located inside laterally to either side away from sella turcica
the cranial cavity that connects the middle and where they form the anterior floor of the middle
inner ear cavities to the bone cranial fossa.
● Mandibular fossa. Depression on the base of the
skull anterior to the external acoustic meatus that

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● Medial pterygoid plate and lateral pterygoid ○ Join together at the midline to form the
plate. Two thin, vertically oriented bone plates on posterior hard palate
the inferior aspect of the skull. ● Nasal bone
○ Small bones that form the bony bridge of
the nose
○ Support the cartilages that form the lateral
walls of the nose
● Zygomatic bone
○ Cheekbone
○ Forms much of the lateral wall of the orbit
and the lateral-inferior margins of the
anterior orbital opening
○ The temporal process of the zygomatic one
projects posteriorly to form the zygomatic
ETHMOID BONE arch
● Midline bone that forms part of the upper nasal ● Lacrimal bone
cavity, upper nasal septum, and medial wall of the ○ Small bone that forms the antero-medial wall
orbit. of the orbit
● Contributes to the superior nasal concha and ○ Anterior portion that forms a shallow
middle nasal concha depression (the lacrimal fossa) which drains
● In the cranial cavity, forms a small area at the tears at the medial corner of the eye into the
midline which consists: nasolacrimal canal
○ Crista galli. Bony projection located at the ● Inferior nasal conchae
midline for attachment for the meninges ○ Formed a curved bony plate (turbinate) that
○ Cribiform plate. Flattened area with small projects into the nasal cavity space from the
openings termed olfactory foramina. lower lateral wall
● Vomer bone
○ Forms the posterior inferior part of the nasal
FACIAL BONES OF THE SKULL septum
● Form the upper and lower jaws, the nose, nasal
cavity, and nasal septum, and the orbit
● 14 bones
● Two unpaired bones
○ Vomer and mandible
● Six paired bones
○ Maxilla, palatine, zygomatic, nasal, lacrimal,
and inferior nasal conchae bones
● Maxillary bone
○ Form the upper jaw, much of the hard
palate, the medial floor of the orbit, and the
lateral base of the nose
○ The palatine process from each maxillary
bone join together at the midline to form the MANDIBLE
anterior hard palate ● Forms the lower jaw
● Palatine bone ● Each side of the mandible consists of
○ Irregularly shaped bones ○ Horizontal body
○ Contribute to the lateral walls of the nasal ○ Ramus. Two upward going bony projections
cavity and the medial wall of each orbit ■ Coronoid process. Provides attachment for
one of the biting muscles (anterior)

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■ Mandibular condyles. Articulates with the

mandibular fossa and the temporal bone to
form the temporomandibular joint (posterior).
○ Angle of the mandible. Where the body and
ramus come together
○ Mandibular notch. U-shaped curve located
between the coronoid and condylar process

ORBIT
● Bony socket that houses the eyeball and related
muscles
● Cone shaped, with narrow posterior region that
widens toward the large anterior opening
● The medial walls are parallel to each other but
each lateral wall diverges away from the midline at
a 45 angle.
● Contributions of the seven skull bones
○ Frontal bone. Forms the roof
○ Zygomatic bones. Forms the lateral wall and
lateral floor.
○ Maxilla and Palatine bone. Form the medial
floor
○ Ethmoid bone and lacrimal bone. Make up the REGIONS OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
medial wall
○ Sphenoid bone. Forms the posterior orbit ● Originally develops as a series of 33 vertebrae
● Eventually reduced to 24 vertebrae plus the fused
vertebrae of the sacrum and coccyx
● Seven cervical vertebrae (C1-C7)
HYOID BONE ● Twelve thoracic vertebrae (T1-T12)
● Not part of the skull ● Five lumbar vertebrae (L1-L2)
● Independent bone (not attached to others) ● One sacrum (fuse S1-S5)
● Small u-shaped bone located in the upper neck ● One coccyx (Cx)
near the level of the inferior mandible ● The C1 vertebra articulates superiorly with the
● Serves as the base for the tongue above, and is occipital condyles of the skull
attached to the larynx below and the pharynx ● The C1 vertebra articulates inferiorly with the C2
posteriorly vertebra
● Movements are coordinated with movements of
the tongue, larynx, and pharynx during CURVATURES OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
swallowing and speaking.
● Has four curvatures along its length
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN ● Curves increase the vertebral column's strength,
flexibility, and ability to absorb shock
● Consists of a sequence of vertebrae
● Primary curvatures are retained from the
● Supports the head, neck, and body original fetal
● Protects the spinal cord, which passes through ● Secondary curvatures develop after birth
openings in the vertebrae ● The fetal body is flexed anteriorly (fetal position)
● In the adult, this primary curvature is retained as
the thoracic curve and the sacrococcygeal
curve
● A secondary curve develops after birth as the
child learns to sit upright, stand, and walk
○ Secondary curves are concave posteriorly

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○ Develops as the cervical curve and the ● Superior articular process extends or faces
lumbar curve upward
● Kyphosis - an excessive posterior curvature of ○ The shape and orientation of the articular
the thoracic region
processes vary in different regions of the
● Lordosis - an excessive anterior curvature of
the lumbar region vertebral column
● Scoliosis - an abnormal, lateral curvature, ○ Play a major role in determining the type
accompanied by twisting of the vertebral column and range of motion

GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE VERTEBRAE

● A typical vertebra will consist of a body, a
vertebral arch, and seven processes
● The vertebral body
○ The anterior portion of each vertebra;
supports the body weight
○ The bodies progressively increase in size
and thickness going down the vertebral
column
○ Adjacent vertebrae are separated and united
by an intervertebral disc
● The vertebral arch
○ Forms the posterior portion of each vertebra
○ Consists of the right and left pedicles and
the right and left laminae
○ Each pedicle forms one lateral side of the
vertebral arch
○ Each lamina forms part of the posterior roof
of the vertebral arch.
○ Vertebral foramen - large opening between
the vertebral arch and body, which contains
the spinal cord
● Vertebral (spinal) canal
○ Formed by the alignment of the vertebral
foramina of the vertebrae
○ Serves as protection and passageway for
the spinal cord down the back
● Intervertebral Foramen
○ Opening formed by pedicles of adjacent
vertebrae together TYPICAL CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
○ Where a spinal nerve exits from the ● Have a small body, reflecting that they carry the
vertebral column least amount of body weight
● Seven processes arise from the vertebral arch ● Have a bifid (Y-shaped) spinous process
● Transverse process projects laterally and ● The spine of C7 is much longer (prominent)
arises from the junction point between the ● The transverse processes are sharply curved
pedicle and lamina (U-shaped) to allow for passage of the cervical
● Spinous process projects posteriorly at the spinal nerves
midline of the back ● The vertebral arteries that supply the brain
○ The transverse and spinous processes ascends up the neck by passing through the
serve as muscle attachment sites. transverse foramen

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● The superior and inferior articular processes of

the cervical vertebrae are flattened and face
either upward or downward

ATYPICAL CERVICAL VERTEBRAE

● The atlas (C1) vertebra
● Vertebra that supports the skull on top of the
vertebral column
● Does not have a body or spinous process
○ It is ring-shaped formed by an
anterior arch and a posterior arch
● The transverse processes are longer and
extend more laterally than those of other
cervical vertebrae
● The superior articular processes face
upward and are deeply curved for
articulation with the occipital condyles on the
base of the skull.
● The inferior articular processes are flat
and face downward to join with the superior
articular processes of the C2 vertebra,
● The axis (C2) vertebra
○ Serves as the axis when turning the head TYPICAL THORACIC VERTEBRAE
toward the right or left ● The bodies are larger than those of cervical
○ Resembles typical cervical vertebrae, but is vertebrae
distinguished by the dens (odontoid ● The spinous process is long and has a
process) pronounced downward angle that causes it to
■ A bony projection that extends upward overlap the next inferior vertebra
from the vertebral body ● The superior articular processes of thoracic
■ The dens joins with the inner aspect of vertebrae face anteriorly and the inferior
the anterior arch of the atlas where it is processes face posteriorly
held in place by transverse ligaments ● Costal facet. An additional facet is located on
the transverse process for articulation with the
tubercle of a rib

LUMBAR VERTEBRAE
● Carry the greatest amount of body weight
● Characterized by the large size and thickness of
the vertebral body
● Have short transverse processes and a short,
blunt spinous process that projects posteriorly
● The articular processes are large, with the
superior process facing backward and the
inferior facing forward.

SACRUM

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● Triangular-shaped bone that is thick and wide

where it is weight bearing and then tapers down
to a non-weight bearing apex
● Formed by the fusion of five sacral vertebrae
● Median sacral crest - remnant of the fused
spinous processes
● Lateral sacral crest - fused transverse
processes of the sacral vertebrae
● Sacral promontory - the anterior lip of the
superior base of the sacrum
● Sacral foramina - series of paired openings that
allow for branches of the sacral spinal nerves to
exit the sacrum
● Superior articular process of the sacrum -
articulates with the inferior articular processes
from the L5 vertebra STERNUM
● Elongated bony structure that anchors the
COCCYX anterior thoracic cage consists of three parts:
● A derived from the fusion of four (three or five) the manubrium, body, xiphoid process
small coccygeal vertebrae ● The manubrium
● Articulates with the inferior tip of the sacrum ○ The wider, superior portion of the sternum
● Not weight bearing in the standing position, but ○ The first ribs attach to the manubrium
may receive some body weight when sitting ● The body
○ The elongated, central portion of the sternum
INTERVERTEBRAL DISC ● Xiphoid process
● A fibrocartilaginous pad that fills the gap ○ The inferior tip of the sternum
between adjacent vertebral bodies ● Sternal angle
● Each disc is anchored to the bodies of its ○ Where the manubrium and body join together
adjacent vertebrae ○ Forms a slight bend
● Provide padding between vertebrae during ○ Second rib attaches to the sternum at the
weight bearing sternal angle
● Flexible and allow for movements of the ○ Important landmarks for the identification of
vertebral column the ribs
● Consists of two parts
○ The anulus fibrosus is the tough, fibrous
outer layer of the disc. RIBS
○ The nucleus pulposus consisting of a ● 12 pairs of curved, flattened bone that
softer, more gel-like material in the inner contributes to the thoracic wall
layer of the disc ● Articulate posteriorly with the T1-T12 thoracic
vertebrae
THORACIC CAGE ● Most attach anteriorly via their costal cartilages
● Forms the thorax (chest) portion of the body to the sternum
● Protects the heart and lungs ● Head of the rib
● Consists of 12 pairs of ribs with their costal ○ The posterior end of a typical rib
cartilages and the sternum ○ Articulates with the costal facet of the same
numbered thoracic vertebra and that of the
next higher vertebra

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● A shallow costal groove for the passage of ○ The right and left pectoral girdles are not
blood vessels and a nerve is found along the joined to each other and each operates
inferior margin of each rib independently
● Costal cartilage
○ Made of hyaline cartilage which connects
most ribs to the sternum SCAPULA
● True ribs ● Borders of the scapula:
○ Ribs 1-7 (vertebrosternal ribs) ○ The superior border of the scapula, the
○ Costal cartilage from these ribs attaches medial border of the scapula, and the lateral
directly to the sternum border of the scapula
● False ribs ● Glenoid cavity (glenoid fossa)
○ Do not attach directly to the sternum ○ Located between the superior and lateral
○ False ribs 8-10 are attached to the cartilage borders
of the next higher rib ○ Shallow depression that articulates with the
○ Floating ribs 11-12 are short ribs that do not humerus to form the glenohumeral joint
attach to the sternum at all (shoulder loint)
● Coracoid process
○ Hook-like projection located on the lateral
THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON end of the superior border
● Consist of 126 bones (in adult) ○ Anchored to the clavicle by ligament, and
● Includes all bones of the serves as the attachment site for muscles of
○ Upper and lower limbs the anterior
○ Pectoral and pelvic girdles ● Spine of the scapula
● The lower appendicular skeleton is ○ A long and prominent ridge that runs
specialized for stability during walking or across its upper portion
running. ● Acromion or acromial process
● The upper appendicular skeleton has greater ○ Flattened region extending laterally from
mobility and ranges of motion for lifting and the spine
carrying objects. ○ Forms the bony tip of the superior shoulder
region and articulates with the lateral end of
the clavicle
THE PECTORAL GIRDLE ● The scapula has three depressions
● Consists of the scapula and clavicle ○ Supraspinous fossa. Narrow depression
● The clavicle (collarbone) located superior to the spine
○ S-shaped bone on the anterior side of the ○ Infraspinous fossa. Broader depression
shoulder located inferior to the spine
○ Attached medially to the sternum of the ○ Subscapular fossa. Broad depression on
thoracic cage the anterior surface of the scapula
○ Its lateral end articulates with the scapula
○ Anchored to the axial skeleton by the
sternoclavicular joint, which allows extensive BONES OF THE UPPER LIMB
mobility of the entire pectoral girdle ● There are 30 bones in each upper limb
● The scapula (shoulder blade) ● The humerus
○ Lies on the posterior aspect of the shoulder ○ The single bone of the arm
○ Articulates with the humerus to form the ● The ulna and the radius
shoulder joint ○ The paired bones of the forearm
○ A flat, triangular-shaped bone with a ● Eight carpal bones
prominent ridge running across its posterior ○ Make up the base of the hand
surface ● Five metacarpal bones

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○ Form the palm of the hand ● Radial notch of the ulna

● Total of 14 phalanges ○ A small, smooth area inferior to the
○ Make up the fingers and thumb trochlear notch
○ The site of articulation forming the proximal
radioulnar joint
HUMERUS ● Olecranon process
● Head of the humerus ○ Superior portion of the ulna, which forms
○ The large, round, smooth region that faces the bony tip of the elbow
medially ● Interosseous membrane of the forearm
○ Articulates with the glenoid cavity of the ○ Dense connective tissue that unites the
scapula to form the shoulder joint ulna and radius bones
● Anatomical neck of the humerus ● Head of the ulna
○ The margin of the smooth area of the head ○ The small, rounded area that forms the
● Greater tubercle distal end
○ Expanded bony located on the lateral side of ● Styloid process of the ulna
the proximal humerus ○ Bony projection from the posterior side of
● Lesser tubercle the ulnar head
○ Smaller rise found on the anterior aspect of ○ Serves as an attachment for connective
the humerus tissues that unite the ulna with the carpal
● Surgical neck bones of the wrist joint
○ Located where the proximal end of the
humerus joins the narrow shaft of the
humerus
○ A common site of arm fractures
● Distaly, the humerus becomes flattened
● Medial epicondyle and lateral epicondyle
○ Prominent bony projection on the medial
and lateral side of the distal humerus,
respectively
● Two distal articulation forming the elbow joint
○ Trochlea
■ More medial; a spindle- or pulley
shaped region, which articulates with
the ulna bone
○ Capitulum
■ Lateral to the trochlea, a knob-like
structure on humerus that articulates
with the radius bone
● Olecranon fossa
■ A large depression at the posterior
humerus that receives the olecranon
process of the ulna when the forearm is
fully extended

ULNA
● Trochlear notch THE WRIST BONES
○ The crescent shaped proximal end ● Formed by a series of eight carpal bones
○ Articulates with the trochlea of the humerus ● Arranged in two rows;

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○ The proximal row (lateral to medial);

scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum and pisiform PHALANX BONES (PHALANGES)
■ Pisiform forms the bony bump that can ● Fingers and thumb contain 14 bones
be felt at the medial base of your hand ● The thumb (pollex)
○ The distal bones (lateral to medial): ○ Digit number 1
trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate ○ Has two phalanges, a proximal and a
distal phalanx bone
● Digits 2 (index finger) through 5 (little finger)
have three phalanges each
○ The proximal, middle, and distal phalanx
bones
● Interphalangeal joint
○ An articulation between adjacent
phalanges of the digits

THE HIP BONES (COXA)

● The pelvic girdle
○ Made up of two hip bones; serve as the
attachment point for lower limb
● The pelvis
○ Two hip bones combined with the sacrum
and coccyx of the axial skeleton
○ Strongly united to form a largely immobile,
weight-bearing structure
THE PALM OF THE HAND ● The pubic symphysis
● Metacarpal Bones ○ Where the right and left hip bones converge
○ Contains five elongated metacarpal anteriorly to attach to each other
bones
○ Lie between the carpal bones of the
wrist and the bones of the fingers
and thumb
○ Numbered 1-5, beginning at the
thumb
○ The first metacarpal bone (thumb)
■ Separated from the other
metacarpal bones
■ Allows it a freedom of
motion
○ Carpometacarpal joint
■ The proximal end of each
bone articulates with one of
the distal carpal bones
○ Metacarpophalangeal joint
■ The distal end of each bone
articulates with the proximal
phalanx bone
■ Forms the knuckles of the
hand

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ADULT HIP BONE ○ Defined by the inferior margin of the

● Formed by three separate bones that fuse pubic symphysis, ischial tuberosity, and
together the inferior tip of the coccyx
● The ilium, ischium, and pubis
● The ilium
○ Fan-like, superior region that forms the BONES OF THE LOWER LIMB
largest part ● Contains 30 bones
○ Firmly united to the sacrum at the sacroiliac ● The femur
joint ○ The single bone of the thigh
● The ischium ● The patella
○ Forms the posterointerior region ○ The kneecap and articulates with the distal
○ Supports the body when sitting femur
● The pubis ● The tibia
○ Forms the anterior portion ○ The larger, weight-bearing bone located on
○ It curves medially, where it joins to the pubis the medial side of the leg
of the opposite hip bone at the pubic ● The fibula
symphysis ○ The thin bone of the lateral leg
● Seven tarsal
○ Form the posterior portion of each foot
PELVIS ● Five metatarsal
● Acetabulum ○ Elongated bones forming the midtoot
○ Where the three hip bone converge centrally ● 14 phalanges
to form a deep, cup-shaped cavity ○ Make up the toes
○ Located on the lateral side of the hip bone
○ Part of the hip joint
● Obturator foramen FEMUR
○ Large opening in the anteroinferior hip bone ● The longest and strongest bone of the body
between the ischium and pubis ○ Accounts for approximately one-quarter of a
○ For the attachment of muscles on both its person's total height
internal and external surfaces ● Head of the femur
● The bony pelvis is divided into two regions ○ The rounded, proximal end, which
○ Greater pelvis (false pelvis) articulates with the acetabulum of the hip
■ The broad, superior region, defined bone to form the hip joint
laterally by the large upper hip bone ● Fovea capitis
■ Occupied by parts of the small and ○ Indentation on the medial side of the femoral
large intestines head carry an important artery that supplies
● Lesser pelvis (true pelvis) the head of the femur
○ More inferior, narrow, rounded space ● Neck of the femur
that contains the bladder and other ○ The narrowed region below the head
pelvic organs ○ A common area for fractures of the femur
● The pelvic brim (pelvic inlet) ● Greater trochanter
○ Forms the superior margin of the lesser ○ Large upward bony projection located
pelvis above the base of the neck
○ Defined by a line formed by the upper ○ Attachment of muscles that act across the
margin of the pubic symphysis, hip joint
illopectineal line, and the sacral ● Lesser trochanter
promontory ○ Small, bony prominence on the medial
● The pelvic outlet aspect of the femur below the neck
○ The inferior limit of the lesser pelvic

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FIBULA
TIBIA ● does not bear weight
● The main weight-bearing bone of the leg ● serves primarily for muscle attachments
● Medial and lateral condyles ● Head of the fibula
○ The proximal end of the tibia is greatly ○ Small, knob-like, proximal end of the fibula
expanded ○ Articulates with the inferior aspect of the
■ The tibia does not have epicondyles lateral tibial condyle to form the proximal
○ Articulate with the medial and lateral tibiofibular joint
condyles of the femur to form the knee joint ● Lateral malleolus
● Intercondylar eminence ○ Forms the distal end of the fibula
○ Located between the articulating surfaces of ○ It is s the bony bump on the lateral side of
the tibial condyles the ankle
○ An irregular, elevated area that serves as ○ It is medial side articulates with the talus
the inferior attachment for two supporting bone of the foot as part of the ankle joint
ligaments of the knee
● Tibial tuberosity
○ An elevated area on the anterior side of the TARSAL BONES
tibia, near Its proximal end ● Form the posterior half of the foot
● Interosseous membrane of the leg ● Talus
○ Sheet of dense connective tissue that unites ○ The most superior bone that articulates
the tibia and fibula bones with the tibia and fibula to form the ankle
● Medial malleolus joint
○ Expansion found on the medial side of the ● Calcaneus (heel bone)
distal ○ The largest bone of the foot; located inferior
○ Its inner smooth surface and that of the to the talus
distal end of the tibia articulate with the talus ○ Body weight is transferred from the tibia to
bone as part of the ankle joint the talus to the calcaneus
● Distal tibiofibular joint ● Cuboid bone
○ Articulation of the distal tibia with the distal ○ Articulates with the anterior end of the
end of the fibula calcaneus bone
○ Its medial side articulates with navicular
and lateral cuneiform
● Navicular bone
○ Anterior to the talus bone
● Three cuneiform bones
○ Anterior to the navicular bone
○ The medial cuneiform, the intermediate
cuneiform, and the lateral cuneiform
○ Together produce the transverse curvature
of the foot

PHALANGES
● The toes contain a total of 14 phalanx bones
(phalanges)
● Numbered 1-5, starting with the big toe (hallux)
● The big toe has two phalanx bones:
○ The proximal and distal phalanges

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 HBIOANA: THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

● All other toes have proximal, middle, and distal

phalanges
● Interphalangeal joint
○ A joint between adjacent phalanx bones

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS

● Fibrous joint
○ The adjacent bones are united by fibrous
connective tissue
● Cartilaginous joint
○ The bones are joined by hyaline cartilage or
fibrocartilage
● Synovial joint
○ The articulating surfaces of the bones are
within a joint cavity that is filled with a
lubricating fluid
○ Allow for free movement between the bones
and are the most common joints of the body

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS

● Synarthrosis or immobile joint
● Amphiarthrosis or slightly moveable joint
● Diarthrosis or freely moveable joint
● Fibrous joints
○ May be functionally classified as a
synarthrosis (immobile joint) or an
amphiarthrosis (slightly mobile joint)
● Cartilaginous joints
○ Also functionally classified as either a
synarthrosis or an amphiarthrosis joint
● Synovial joints
○ Functionally classified as a diarthrosis joint

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