GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 - Is when there is the meeting or union of the sperm and egg cell

and be fertilized to form a zygote and eventually become a

Science complete organism.
- Is a systematize body of knowledge based on facts and truths - Fertilization occurs.
verified by investigation and experimentation. - Ex.: bacteria, some plants and algae, and primitive animals like
Biology worms, sponges, hydria.
- Derived rom 2 Greek words “Bio” meaning life and “logos”  Sexual Reproduction
meaning study. - the organism reproduces its own kind without the fertilization of
- Science that deals with the study of life and living organisms of the egg and the sperm.
different forms and kinds. - ex.: most plants and animals
SIX MAJOR BRANCES OF BIOLOGY TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
1. Zoology a. Fission (binary or multiple)
- the scientific study of behavior, structure, physiology, - the most common form of reproduction in
classification, and distribution of animals. prokaryotes such as bacteria.
2. Microbiology - It occurs in some single-celled eukaryotes.
- the study of microscopic organism dealing with unicellular - DNA replication and segregation occur
(bacteria), multicellular and acellular (viruses). simultaneously.
3. Botany - E.g. paramecium, euglena, amoeba
- the study that deals with the study of plants, their structure, - In multiple fission, instead of 2 daughter
properties, biochemical processes including classification and cells unlike in binary fission, many
disease of plant.
daughter cells are produced from the parent cell.
4. Genetics
- Study of genes, genetic variations and heredity in organisms. - Nucleus undergoes repeated division to produce a large number
5. Anatomy of nuclei. Each nucleus along with little bit of cytoplasm forms
- Study of the structure of organisms and their parts. a membrane around it.
6. Physiology - e.g. plasmodium, amoeba (sometimes undergo binary fission)
- Deals with the normal functions of living organisms and their b. Budding
parts. - A new individual develops from some
Since there is no unequivocal meaning of life, most current generative anatomical point or part of
descriptions in biology are descriptive. the parent organism.
- The formation of an outgrowth (bud) from
Life an organism.
- Is the aspect of existence of man that processes, acts, reacts and - The bud is capable of developing into a new
evolves through growth, reproduction and metabolism. individual.
- Is considered a characteristic of something that preserves, - Also known as gemmation
furthers or reinforces its existence in the given environment. c. Fragmentation
Live - a parent organism breaks into fragments or pieces, each capable
- Is defined as to have life (to be able to perform different of growing independently into a new organism.
processes of life such as acts to react, to reproduce, to reside d. Parthenogenesis
somewhere or to adopt and behave throughout one’s life in a - A female gamete or egg cell develops
particular way). into an individual without
fertilization.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE - The term comes from the Greek word
1. Movement ‘parthenos’ meaning virgin and
- The ability to move or transfers for one place or location to ‘genesis’ meaning creation.
another - An adaptive strategy that allows
- Using different locomotory structures or parts (wings, feet, organisms to reproduce when sexual reproduction is not
flippers, etc.) a living thing that can transfer from one place to possible due to environmental conditions.
another. - Involves the replication of an egg by mitosis resulting in diploid
- Tropism – but not all movements are visible. There are cells that are clones of the parent (variations)
movements as result to stimulus or agent, a very good - E.g. insects like bees, family of lizards (gecko, whiptail, monitor),
example are plants, they cannot literally move or transfer to fishes
another place. This is the kind of movement among plants. e. Spore Formation (Sporulation)
- ex.: Thigmo tropism – response to sense of touch (makahiya), - The formation of spores from vegetative cells during unfavorable
phototropism – plants that move and follow the direction of environmental conditions.
the sun. - An adaptive response that
2. Reproduction allows bacteria
- The ability to produce its own kind. (bacillus species) to
- This is for the continuity of the species so as not to become survive given adverse
extinct. conditions (radiation,
- Two types of reproduction: extreme heat or cold,
lack of nutrition, etc.).
 Asexual Reproduction
- Are called endospores
because they are formed inside the bacterial cell and when the
 cell dies, the spore is release and regenerate into similar - after acquiring food and water, our body breaks it down into
bacteria when condition becomes favorable. Also is a response simpler molecules so the cells can use it to extract and obtain
to nutrient deprivation in which yeast (fungi) exits mitotic cell energy.
cycle and enters into meiosis, leading to spore formation to - Two types of metabolism:
maximize the remaining amount of nutrient for it to be able to  Anabolism
multiply faster. - To build-up molecules to be useful
- Spore are formed and contained in the sporangia/sporangium - Also known as endergonic process
which the burst and disperse the spore via air or water. - Builds complex molecules from simpler ones
- Uses adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
 Catabolism
- to breakdown macromolecules from extraction of energy
- breaks large molecules into smaller ones
- produces ATP
8. Homeostasis
- To obtain normal functioning of the body the different must work
harmoniously despite the changes on its external movement.
- The internal movement must be kept in normal state always
f. - This is the body’s way of staying in balance condition to assure
Vegetative Reproduction that everything is working perfectly.
- It occurs in plants in which a new plant - Body’s way of staying balance
grows from a fragment of the parent 9. Excretion
plant or grows from a specialized - Waste products are to be remove from an organism’s body; these
reproductive structure (stolon, rhizome, are by-products of metabolic activity.
tuber, corn, or bulb). - Removal of body waste which is accomplished by the following
- Special leaves are also form of this organs in different forms: kidney, liver, lungs and skin
reproduction - Ex.: urination, bowel movement, sweating, exhaling of CO2,
- an artificial way of this reproduction is excreting bile pigment
through cutting and grafting.
THE HISTORY OF CELL THEORY
Robert Hooke discovered
cellular composition of cork and
called them cells. This helped
develop one part of the cell
theory that says the cell is the
3. Growth and Development basic unit of structure.
- Living organisms increase in size. – this is possible because cells Evidence for claim #1 of cell
get bigger and divide, increase in number to create more cells theory begins with Robert
that makes an organism body increase in size and grow. Hooke’s observation of cork
o As the number of cells increase so as the complexity (from a tree) in 1665. His actual drawing is on the lower left.
of the organism. Hooke used the word cells for the small boxes he saw.
o But not all living organisms (microorganisms like 1. Robert Hooke (1165)
bacteria) increases in size. They only increase in - First person to see cells under a microscope, he was looking at
number. cork (dead cell walls) and noted that he saw many boxes that
4. Breathing look like prison cells.
- All organism require air to live. 2. Anton van Leeuwenhoek
- The biophysical process which involve inhaling and exhaling of - In 1673, he was the first to view living cells (organisms)
air out of the lungs. - He used a simple, handheld microscope to view pond water and
- Removes the carbon dioxide produced during respiration. scrapings from his teeth.
 Respiration - Discovered different magnifying lens and microscope
- process that involves the release of energy from food. - A Dutch microscope maker
- uses the oxygen absorbed during breathing. 3. Robert Hooke (1872-1833)
- Cellular breathing of our cells - Found the nucleus in plant cells
- Cellular respiration - Noticed that pollen grains in water jiggled around called
- Joint with metabolism “Brownian motion”
5. Responds/Adaptability - Discovered the nucleus
- The ability of an organism to react to external stimulus - Brownian movement – cytoplasm movement
- The ability to react to external stimulus such as hot temperature - Cyclosis movement
(sweat or perspire), during cold weather (shiver). 4. Matthias Schleiden (1838)
6. Nutrition - used the information and eventually determined that plants are
- All organisms need to acquire food and water to sustain the need made of cells
of cells and to live. - a botanist who concluded that all plants are made of cells
7. Metabolism 5. Theodore Schwann (1839)
- Discovered that animals are made up of cells as well, and then
combining his discovery with Schleiden’s. He determined all
things are made up of cells
- German scientist who studied animals (zoologist)
- Saw that all animals he studied were cellular so concluded “all
animals are made of cells.”
BEGINNING OF THE CELL THEORY
 In 1855, a German medical doctor named Rudolph Virchow
observed, under the microscope, cells dividing
 He reasoned that all cells come from pre-existing cells by cell
division
OLD CELL THEORY
 All living things are made up of cells
 Cells are the basic unit structure and function in living things
 Living cell come only from preexisting cells
MODERN CELL THEORY
It contains 4 statements, in addition to the original cell theory
 The cell contains hereditary information (DNA) which is
passed from cell to cell during cell division.
 All cells are basically the same in the chemical composition
and metabolic activities.
 All basic chemical and & physiological functions are carried
out inside the cells (movement, digestion, etc.).
 Cell activity depends on the activities of subcellular
structures within the cell (organelles, nucleus, plasma
membrane).
TYPES OF CELLS
 Based on nucleus
 Based on specialized organelles
 Based on specialized structures and functions
1. Prokaryotic Cells
- Are usually simple cells that do not possess a true nucleus
- have no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles
- Are usually single-celled and smaller than eukaryotic cell
- Ex.: bacteria
2. Eukaryotic Cells
- Are complex type of cell with true nucleus
- always have nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles,
meaning these organelles like mitochondria and lysosome are
surrounded by a phospholipid bilayer.
- Are bigger in size compare to prokaryotic cell
- Ex.: plant cell
and animal cell

Prokaryotes
vs. Eukaryotes

Prokaryotes: Basic Parts and Functions

 Three Basic Parts of a Cell

1. Cell Membrane Structures

Based on specialized organelles  Appendages
- These are organelles found only in plant cells but not in animal - Are the structure that are seen extending on the surface of the
cells cell wall/cell membrane performing a special function
Eukaryotes: Basic Parts and Functions 2. Cytoplasm
Animal Cell Parts - Is a gel like consistency that serves as assembly area of the cell
organelles
- Structures embedded in the cytoplasm:
 Nucleus
 Mitochondria
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Golgi bodies
 Plastids
 Ribosomes
 Peroxisomes
 Lysosomes
Some Parts and their Function  Plastids
 Vacuoles
3. Nucleus
- The control center/brain of the cell
- Largest organelle in animal cells
- Structure of the nucleus:
 Nuclear Envelope
 Nucleoplasm
 Chromatin with genetic material (DNA)
 Nucleolus which contain RNA
 Ribosome
Plant Cell Parts

Some Parts and their Function

Diagram of a Plant Cell

Based on specialized functions: Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic

Different cell in any living organism’s body perform their Prokaryotic
individual task  No nucleus
 No membrane enclosed organelles
 Single chromosome
 No streaming in the cytoplasm
 Cell division without mitosis
 Simple flagella
 Smaller ribosomes
 Simple cytoskeleton
 No cellulose in cell walls
  No histone proteins - The formation of identical pairs of DNA molecules (sister
Eukaryotic chromatids) attached at the centromeric region (centrosome)
 Nucleus which will give rise to spindle fiber/mitotic spindle which will
 Membrane enclosed organelle help the chromosomes move during cell division
 Chromosome in pairs - Chromosomes chromatids sister chromatids
 Streaming in the cytoplasm S DNA damage checkpoint
 Cell division by mitosis - Monitors the replication process during this phase
 Complex flagella 3. Gap2
 Larger ribosomes - Second gap
- Cell grows rapidly and protein synthesis continues.
 Complex cytoskeleton
- Additional growth
 Cellulose in cell walls
- The cell replenishes the store energy and synthesizes protein
 DNA bound to histone proteins
necessary for chromosome manipulation
G2 DNA checkpoint
CELL CYCLE
- Check activities in G2 to ensure its proper flow
- The continuity of life from one cell to another has its
- Ensures that DNA replication in S phase has been successfully
foundation in the reproduction of cells by of way of cell cycle.
completed.
- is an orderly sequence of events that describes a cell’s life
Unreplicated DNA checkpoint
from a single parent cell to the production of daughter cells.
- Ensures that DNA synthesis is completed before proceeding to
- This process is highly regulated to keep everything in proper
cell division
order, health and balance.
- Iniisa isa mga cells
- represents the entire phases in the life of the cell, from
- Mitochondira produce ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
preparatory phase up to the division phase.
- in order for a cell to move from interphase to division phase
many external and internal conditions must be met.
Critical Control Point (checkpoint)
- during the entire process of the cell cycle, this regulate the cycle
by providing “stop and go” signals every step of the way
2 PHASES OF THE CELL CYCLE
 Interphase
 Mitotic Phase
Before a cell reaches mitotic phase, there are three stages of
interphase it needs to pass before it can undergo cell division. Gap0
1. Gap1 - Referred to the G zero phase or resting phase
- Very little changes are visible, but cell is active at the biochemical - Is a period in the cycle in which tells exist in a quiescent state
level (matanda na) or period of inactivity or dormancy
- Cells grow, carry out normal functions, and replicate their - The cell is neither dividing nor preparing to divide
organelles - Cells then remain in the G0 phase until there is a reason for them
- Cell is accumulating the building blocks of chromosomal DNA to divide
- Synthesizes mRNA (messenger ribonucleic acid) associated
protein
- Accumulating energy reserves to complete the replication of each
chromosome in the nucleus
- The cell is diploid
G1 DNA damage checkpoint
- Evaluates the DNA’s integrity
- Damage DNA results in the accumulation of p53
- DNA with irreparable damage does not proceed to the next phase
P53
- Also known as TP53
- Is a tumor suppressing proteins that can rigger either cell cycle
arrest or apoptosis (cell death) Kinase
- Described as “the guardian of the genome” - A protein which activates or deactivates another protein by
- Conserves stability by preventing genome mutation phosphorylation (low quality of phosphate)
Restriction checkpoint - Gives the “go ahead “signal at the G1 and G2 checkpoints
- If the cell is ready, it will proceed to S phase, if not, cell goes to G 0 - Produces or stops the production of energy
(cells is in quiescent/ dormant stage [aging or deteriorating]) Cyclin
- Most of the cell in the body are not dividing and are at G 0 phase - Type of kinase which is the activating molecule; go molecule/
2. S phase go enzyme
- Chromosomes (DNA) are replicated, meaning the number is - a protein that derives its name from its cyclically fluctuating
twice the actual count concentration in the cell, because of this requirement these
- DNA synthesis kinases are called cyclin-dependent kinases or CDKs
- accumulate during G1, S and G2 phases of the cell cycle
- By the G2 check point enough Cyclin is available to form mitosis-
promoting factor (MPF) complexes which initiates mitosis
- Later in Mitosis, the MPF switches itself of by initiating a process
which leads to the destruction of the cycline
- CDK the non cycline part of the MPF, persist in the cell as an Meiosis
inactive form until it associates with the new cyclin molecules - From the Greek word meioun, meaning “to make small,” refers
synthesized during the interphase of the next round of cell to the specialized process by which germ cells divide to
cycle produce gametes
Cell Division Phase - Unlike the mitosis which doubles (diploid) the genetic material,
- This phase is the actual stage where cell begins to divide after it reduces the number into half
its long process of preparatory stage (interphase) and - It produces haploid gametes with only one set of chromosomes
accomplished its mission to produce a new daughter cells. - To accomplish meiosis, DNA replication followed two rounds of
- Responsible for the growth and development of the different cell division.
body parts and specialized cells in a living organism - Involves a process known as recombination, during which
- Longest stage chromosomes exchange segments with one another
Mitosis - During sexual reproduction, gametes are haploid and combine
- Is a multistep process which duplicated chromosomes are in fertilization to reconstitute the diploid complement found
aligned separated and move to opposite poles and then divide in parent cells.
into new identical daughter cells (2). - It is important that gametes are haploid since at fertilization half
- Involves all body cells or a somatic cell that are responsible for the chromosomes come from the male gamete (e.g. sperm cell)
all the growth and development of the body parts as well and half from the female gamete (e.g. ovum) in order to
as repair and maintenance produce a diploid zygote.
- It usually produces diploid cells (di-two; equally divided - produces four genetically different haploid cells during sexual
chromosomes into two daughter cells) reproduction and involves two consecutive divisions
- the cell division state - RULE: there should always be one pair of gene because it is
- cell division stops at this stage waiting for fertilization. If it exceeds or lacks genes, it will
- focused on the early division into two daughter cells cause abnormalities
- Metaphase checkpoint ensures that all cell is ready to complete Meiosis I
cell division - Where the chromosome number is reduced and crossing over
- process has several steps: (PMAT) prophase, metaphase, takes place
anaphase, telophase - Homologous chromosomes (homologues) become closely
- Involves two process: associated with each other which is known as synapsis.
1. Karyokinesis Meiosis II
- Nucleus is divided between 2 daughter cells - Where two new haploid nuclei divide again in a division identical
- Takes place during the late division of a cell nucleus at mitosis or to that of mitosis
meiosis - Faster than meiosis I
- this division and separation of chromosome into two equal - One set of genes
halves
2. Cytokinesis
- Process in which the cytoplasm of a single eukaryotic cell is
divided to form two daughter cells
- Usually initiates during the late stages of mitosis and meiosis
- the physical complete separation of the cytoplasmic
components into two new daughter cell
- In animals, cytokinesis is first apparent by contraction between
two poles of the cell.
- In plants, a cell plate grows in the approximate location of the
metaphase plate
- Cell plate – form in plant cell middle that forms a “bakod” to
divide
- House is divided fully (cytoplasm and membrane)
Centromere
- Nagdidikit sa dalawang kambal na cells
- belt
Prophase I – Synapsis
- Homologues become closely associated in synapsis
- Nuclear envelope disintegrates
- Synaptonemal complex
  If there is a damage in DNA during G1 and the P53 is not
present, the cell can’t stop entering into the next phase so, it
Metaphase will complete the cycle in an abnormal way. Then the cycle
- Shortest phase of mitosis will be uncontrolled.
- Critical stage; halfway  If the cell has extra protein BLC-2 (anti-apoptotic protein),
then it can absorb all death signal so the cell will prevent
death (apoptosis).
 That will lead to high rate of mutation and production of
that tend to become cancerous (tumor).
Normal human genes
- The normal human karyotype contain 22 pairs of autosomal
chromosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes
(allosomes).
 Normal karyotypes for female contain two X
chromosomes, and are denoted 22 pairs and XX
 Normal karyotypes for male have both X and Y
chromosome, denoted 22 pairs and XY.
- 22 sets of (autosomes/somatic cells) chromosomes + 1 set of
(allosomes/sex chromosomes) = 23 pairs

1. Meiosis takes a cell with two copies of every

chromosome (diploid) and makes cells with a single
copy of every chromosome (haploid).
2. Meiosis scrambles the specific forms of each gene that
each sex cell (egg or sperm) receives.
 This makes for a lot of genetic diversity. Genetic
diversity is important for the evolution of
populations and species. Common genetic problems that occurs or happens during cell
 This trick is accomplished through independent division that result to the variation of the normal number of
assortment and crossing-over. chromosomes
Nondisjunction
Plant Cell - In meiosis during anaphase one, when homologous
chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles of the cell,
sometimes, both chromosomes move to one pole of the cell.
- The result of this is a daughter cell with an extra chromosome
and a daughter cell with missing chromosome.
When gametes fuse during fertilization, you can end up with
an offspring with an extra chromosome, or an offspring with a
missing chromosome.
Ploidy
- the number of sets of homologous chromosomes in the genome
of a cell or an organism.
Diploidy
- in normal somatic (body) cells, the chromosomes exist in pairs
Haploid
 To identify if specimen is a plant or animal cell is the cell ‘s - during meiosis, the cell produces gametes, or germ cells, each
shape containing half the normal or somatic number of
 Plant cells are somewhat rectangular/square in shape chromosomes
while animal cells are somewhat round or spherical - when two germ cells (egg and sperm) unite, the diploid
condition is restored
ABBERATION IN PLOIDY (NUMERICAL)
 Polyploidy
- the nuclei which have three or more times the number of
chromosomes found in haploid cells.
- This condition frequently occurs in plants and may result from
chromosome duplication without division of the cytoplasm or
from the union of two diploid gametes.
- Polyploid animals, because they have more than the normal
number of sex chromosomes, are usually sterile.
 Aneuploidy
PROBLEMS INVOLVE IN CELL DIVISION - the abnormal number of chromosomes that is not a whole
multiple of the haploid number.
- Is most often caused by some error resulting in an unequal Turners Syndrome
distribution of chromosomes to the daughter cells. - 1 in 5,000 births
- Organisms in which aneuploidy occurs may deviate noticeably - 45 chromosomes X only
from the norm in appearance and behavior. - #23 monosomy disjunction
Partial Monosomy - 96 to 98% do not survive to birth
- Occurs when a portion of one chromosome in a pair is missing - No menstruation
Monosomy - No breast development
- Is a form of aneuploidy with the presence of only one - Narrow hips
chromosome from a pair - Broad shoulders and neck
Trisomy
- Is a type of polysomy in which there are three instances of a
particular chromosome, instead of the normal two.
- A type of aneuploidy (an abnormal number of chromosomes).

Membrane Transport
- How molecules enter and leave the cells
Cell membrane or plasma membrane
- Demarcates the internal from external environment
Trisomy 18 - A flexible selectively semipermeable structure
- Edward’s syndrome - Special feature of plasma membrane that carry a special protein
- Unusually small head that serves as markers which allows cells to recognize one
- Back of the head is prominent another which later plays a vital role in the ”self” and “non-
- Ears are malformed and low-set self” distinction of the immune response (Belardo, n.d.)
- Mouth and jaw are small (may also have cleft lip or cleft palate) - is very important because it regulates the substance that enters
- Hands are clenched into fists, and the index finger overlaps the and exits the cell and serves as solvent for important
other fingers membrane protein that runs across the entire lipid bilayer,
- Clubfeet (or rocker bottom feet) and toes may be webbed or this lipid molecule is fluid in form that move about relative to
fused) another in a flowing fluid manner.
- Cells must be selectively permeable, if they lose this property
Trisomy 13 cells would no longer sustain life and would be destroyed
- Patau Syndrome - Some cells require large amount biomolecules others do not, they
- Least common trisomy must have a special way of obtaining these molecules from the
- More female fetuses survive at external environment which may happen passively or by
birth facilitated transport
- Severe heart and kidney defects STRUCTURES AND MODELS OF CELL MEMBRANE
Trisomy 21 1. Evert Gorter and Francois Grendel Model
- Down syndrome - Cell membrane as bilipid layer (phospholipid layer)
- 47, XX, +21 or 47, XY, +21 (made up of phosphate and lipid)
- The result of an extra copy of - It is made up of:
chromosome 21  Hydrophobic layer
- Alters the child’s physical - is directed inward or towards the inside of the cell and
appearance either moderately away from the environment
or severely  Hydrophilic layer
- Characteristic facial features, short - Layer facing outward and exposed to the external
stature; heart defects, shorter aqueous environment
lifespan

ALLOSOME/SEX CHROMOSOMES ABBERATIONS

Klinefelter Syndrome
- Not inherited
- Genetic changes: boy with extra copy of X chromosome (XXY)
- Problem: nondisjunction causes polysomy
- Symptoms: low levels of testosterone; breast development;
decreased body and facial hair; abnormal sexual development;
learning disabilities
 Phosphate side –  Charactersitics (size, shape, type) of substances being
mga bilog sa dulo transported
 The direction of transport
Within the cell,  Solubility in lipids
there is water.
There are number of factors that determine whether a substance
can pass through a cell membrane easily without exerting any
effort or energy while some important substance the cell
membrane spend energy just to obtain these.
FACTORS THAT AFFECTS THE PERMEABILITY
 size of the molecule,
Phospholipid molecule  presence of functional groups and molecule charges
- Consists of a polar phosphate “head,” which is hydrophilic and KINDS OF CELL MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
a non-polar lipid “tail,” which is hydrophobic. Unsaturated I. Passive Transport
fatty acids result in kinks in the hydrophobic tails. - Cell doesn’t use energy; requires no
2. Hugh Davson and James Danielli energy
- Propose a sandwich like model - Naturally occurring
- Cell membrane as a phospholipid layer sandwich by a coat of - Molecules move from area of high to low
protein (membrane protein) on both surface concentration
- There are protein membrane at the top and below of the - Molecules simply diffuse through a
phosphate head semipermeable without any aid of
transport proteins (oxygen, carbon
dioxide)
- Defusing in oxygen, out - CO2
- The move of substances across the
membrane is thru a
concentration gradient wherein
there is a difference in the
concentration of the substance
(one particular substance only), from
Modified version of the sandwich model” an area of high concentration (more
Singer-Nicolson substance) going to lower
- Also known as the Fluid mosaic model concentration (lesser substance)
- Describe the plasma membrane as a mosaic protein that are  Concentration gradient
embedded or attached to a fluid bilayer of lipid - The area or space between the range of
- These concentrations of a particular
substance
a) Diffusion or Simple Diffusion
- Is a spontaneous movement of substance
and proceeds without requiring
energy from the cell
- A single substance tends to move from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration until the
concentration gradient is equal across the both area
(equilibrium)

proteins are globular entities, floating in and on the lipid layer

- Significance:
 It regulates the substance that enters and exits the cell
 Serves as solvent for important membrane protein that runs
across the entire lipid bilayer, this lipid molecule is fluid in
form that move about relative to another in a flowing fluid
matter FACTORS THAT AFFECTS THE RATE OF DIFFUSION
1. Extent of the concentration
- Concentration gradient is directly proportional to rate of
diffusion
- the greater the difference in concentration gradient the faster the
rate of diffusion, the lower the difference in concentration
gradient, the slower the rate of diffusion rate
2. Mass of the Molecule
- the heavy the molecules the slower the diffusion, the lighter the
CRITERIA KUNG PAPAPASUKIN O HINDI UNG CELL MEMRBANE molecule the faster the diffusion.
 3. Temperature FACTORS AFFECTING OSMOSIS
- Temperature and rate of diffusion is directly related to the  Diffusion distance
energy of the molecule  Concentration gradient
- higher temperature increases the energy of the molecules and  Temperature
therefore diffuses faster, lower temperature decreases the IMPORTANCE OF OSMOSIS
energy of the molecules therefore diffuses slowly 1. In animals for maintaining the water at the cellular level,
4. Solvent density also in transporting the nutrients, cell-cell diffusion.
- As the density if the solvent increases, the rate of diffusion 2. In plants, it is helpful in maintaining the turgidity, provides
decreases. mechanical support, prevents excess water loss, and
- Molecules are having difficulty getting through a denser medium responsible for absorption of water from the soil.
compare to a less dense medium where molecules can travel 3. In the distribution of nutrients and in a release of the
with ease. metabolic waste from the body, and in maintaining the
- Note: cells primarily diffuse molecules the keep them moving and concentration gradient inside and outside the cell.
keep the cell working at normal state. If cytoplasm’s density APPLICATION OF OSMOSIS
increase it will inhibit the movement of the vital molecules. 1. Transfusion
5. Solubility - used in hospitals for the treatment of burns, dehydration, etc.
- deals with the compatibility of the molecules with that of the cell 2. Fluid balance and blood volume
membrane’s component (non polar, lipid-soluble) - The fluid is balanced of each cell of the body due to the osmosis.
6. Surface area and thickness of the membrane 3. Edema due to hypoalbuminemia
- the grater the surface area the faster the rate of diffusion, while - Edema occurs due to the lower oncotic pressure of plasma,
as the thickness of the membrane increase the slower the rate resulting in accumulation of fluid in tissue spaces.
of diffusion 4. Red blood cells and fragility
7. Distance traveled - It prevent from rupturing the plasma membrane of the RBC, the
- this pertains to the distance from the outer surface going to the condition called as hemolysis.
center of the cell. 5. Osmotic Pressure
- The greater the distance travelled by the molecule the slower the - the pressure that would be required to stop water from diffusing
diffusion. through a barrier by osmosis. In other words, it refers to how
- This is the difference between the faster diffusion of simple cell hard the water would “push” to get through the barrier in
(prokaryotic cells) because of their small size compare to order to diffuse to the other side.
eukaryotic cells [plant and animal cell] - is determined by solute
APPLICATION OF DIFFUSION concentration – water will
1. Few nutrients are absorbed in gastrointestinal tract through “try harder” to diffuse into
diffusion only, like minerals, vitamins and pentose. an area with a high
2. Exchange of gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide in concentration of a solute,
lungs and tissues occurs through diffusion only. such as a salt, then into an
3. Passage of waste products in the renal tubules occurs due to area with a low
diffusion. concentration

b) TYPE OF SULTION THAT AFFECTS THE CELLS DUE TO THE

MOVEMENT OF THE MOLECULES (AMOUNT OF SOLUTE)
1. Isotonic Solution
- The one that has the same concentration of solutes both inside
and outside the cell
- No water movement
Osmosis - Cell remain at normal or flaccid condition
- Is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable diffusion 2. Hypertonic solution
- Considering the amount of solute present on both sides (inside - The one that has a higher solute concentration outside the cell
and outside of the cell) than inside
- Is a process where solvent like water move from a region of - There is no water movement; the external movement is the one
lesser concentration (solute or molecules) to a region of that’s changing
higher concentration (solute or molecules) - The inside always makes sure that movement is in normal state
- Important in distribution of nutrients and in a release of the (nagdodonate ng tubig palabas kasi kulang yung tubig sa
metabolic waste from the body, and in maintaining the labas; sobra yung asa loob ng cell)
concentration gradient inside and outside of the cell - Water moves out of the cell going to an area with low water and
- Water will from from the side with higher water concentration high solute concentration to achieve equilibrium
going to the side with lower water concentration, until both Cell loses water and it shrivel/crenate (animal) and cell
side reaches equilibrium and there is no net movement of membrane shrinks or plasmolysis for plants
water between them 3. Hypotonic Solution
- In order to keep the homeostasis, the water molecule move - The one that has a higher solute concentration inside the cell
sidelong from higher water than outside
concentration to the region - There is a water movement
of lower water
concentration
- Water from external environment move into the cell where - cells use active transport to get needed molecules across their
solute concentration is high cell membranes regardless of the concentration gradient to
- Cell gains water and it swell or become turgid (plant cell)(they maintain homeostasis
have water vacuole that absorbs and stores water), for animal - even if there is a lower concentration, the molecules can still
cell after reaching its maximum elasticity because of swelling move in and out irregardless of the concentration because
eventually will burst (lysed). there is another driving factor or force that causes these
c) molecules to move which is known as “attraction or affinity” to
F their charges which are formed as ions
- Since it is ACTIVE, work is done, when work is done energy or
ions are present
- Ions (positive or negative) move in and out the cell while the
cell contain mainly negatively charge proteins, an electrical
gradient exist between them
Electrochemical gradient
- Is a gradient of electrochemical potential, usually for an ion
that can move across a membrane (Belardo, 2017)
acilitated Diffusion - Combination of concentration gradient and electrical gradient
- A form of diffusion where material diffuse across the plasma To move against concentration or electrochemical gradient,
membrane with the help of membrane protein the cell must use energy
- Doesn’t require energy THE GRADIENT CONSISTS OF TWO PARTS:
- Uses transport/channel proteins to move high to low a. Chemical gradient
concentration (uses transport vehcicle) - Or difference in amount of solute concentration across a
- Particles always move with (down) a concentration gradient membrane
- Stops at equilibrium b. Electrical gradient
- The shape of molecule should fit in the shape of the transport - Or difference in charge across a membrane
vehicle - A difference of charge across the plasma membrane
- Ex.: glucose or amino acids, moving from blood into a cell - +ions are attracted to be drawn inside because the outer surface
TYPES OF TRANSPORT PROTEINS of CM negatively charge CM
1. Channel Proteins TWO THINGS TO CONSIDER
- interact with the solute to be transported much more weakly.  Attraction with the charges of the membrane
- They form aqueous pores that extend across the lipid bilayer;  Attraction with the charges of the molecules present inside
when these pores are open (aquaporin – pores na dinadaanan and outside the cell
ng molecules)
- they allow specific solutes (usually inorganic ions of appropriate
size and charge) to pass through them and thereby cross the
membrane
- there should be an interaction
- are embedded in the cell membrane and have a pore for
materials to cross

A1. Primary Active Transport

- Moves ions across a membrane, moves positively charged ions
like H, Ca, Na, K
- Creates a difference in charge across the membrane
2. Carrier Proteins - Directly independent on ATP
- bind the specific solute to be transported and undergo a series of - directly uses a source of chemical energy (e.g., ATP) derived from
conformational changes to transfer the bound solute across the breakdown of ATP to move molecules across a membrane
the membrane against their gradient
- can change shape to move material from one side to the - Positively charged molecules are vey important for the normal
membrane to the other continuous, contraction, relaxation of every muscles in our
body
II. Active Transport - pwersahan silang pwedeng papasukin kasi they are both positive
- Na-K Pump
Cells - keyplayer in the primary active transport
- To pump them, we need to generate energy in the form of ATP
- One of the most important
does use energy pumps in animal cell which
- Is the movement of molecules or solute across a membrane moves Na+ out of cells, and K+
against concentration gradient into them
- Plays a major role in generating the voltage across the cell the invagination of the membrane) is then captured (engulfed)
membrane in animal cells into the cell
- Transmitting impulses thru the nerve cells - Movement of material into the cell by pinching off of membrane
- Sodium consumes ATP, Potassium regenerate the energy from the surface
invagination pocket vesicles
- Process: the plasma membrane invaginates, forming pocket
around the target particle from the outside of the cell being
surrounded and contained inside the newly formed vesicle
(results from the invagination of the membrane) is then
captured (engulfed) into the cell
- Example for endocytosis are the leucocytes, neutrophils, and
monocytes (kinds of WBC) can engulf foreign substances like
A2. Secondary Active transport (co-transport) bacteria
- Energy is delivered secondarily from energy that has been stored
in the form of ionic concentration differences between two
sides of a membrane
- Attraction of opposite charges
- Does not require ATP
- It is the movement of material due to the electrochemical
gradient established by primary active transport
- Uses an electrochemical transport
- The two molecules being transported may move either in the - the vesicle (kung san natrap ung molecules) came from the
same direction, or in opposite structure of the cell membrane. There are conformational
 When they move in the same direction, the protein that changes happening in the membrane itself
transports them is called a symporter (one way; sabay B1.1 Phagocytosis
pumasok, sabay lumabas) - Cell eating (phagein), meaning ‘to eat’
 If they move in opposite direction, the protein is called - Large molecules that did not pass the criteria in the passive and
an antiporter active transport
- Chlorine, glucose, - Is the process by which a cell uses its plasma membrane to engulf
sodium a large particle (> 0.5 μm), giving rise to an internal
- Example: Transport of compartment called the phagosome (engulfing a particle into
glucose uses Na to a particular vesicle)
move glucose - The most common form of endocytosis, where large particles,
inside the cell molecules, cells part or whole cell or undissolved materials are
taken in by the cell
- The process of phagocytosis often happens when the cell is
trying to destroy something, like a virus or an infected cell,
and is often used by immune system cells
- Cell binds to the item it wants to engulf on the cell surface and
draws the item inward while engulfing around it
- Nonspecific molecules
- Intake of solids
- Phagosome will meet lysosome (phagolysosome) will merge to
release lysosome’s hydrolytic enzyme inside the phagosome
- Ex. Phagocytes- like the WBC’s macrophage that engulf or eat
B. Bulk Transport foreign microorganisms
- The movement of macromolecules such as proteins or Amoeba - are free living phagocytes that engulfs their food
polysaccharides into or out of the cell - Process: In preparation for phagocytosis the inner surface of the
- Two types: exocytosis and endocytosis and both require ATP plasma membrane is coated with clathrin (a type of protein)
- Large particle cannot pass through the membrane, even with which strengthens and stabilizes the surface of the membrane
energy supplied by the cell and so cell utilized bulk transport then extends to the body from the body of the cell and
mechanism eventually surrounds the particle and enclose it. The clathrin
- Cytosis – the cytoplasm itself will going to work detaches from the membrane and the vesicle merges with the
- Lymphatic system and white blood cells lysosome forming a new compartment called endosome for
B1. Endocytosis the breakdown of the material.
- Is the movement of large molecules, cell parts, even a whole cell Pinocytosis
like bacteria into the cells - Cell drinking
- Cell take in a molecule or another cell by means of plasma - Liquid molecules that did not meet the criteria from the passive
membrane invagination and active transport
- The plasma membrane invaginates, forming pocket around the - Nonspecific molecules
target particle from the outside of the cell being surrounded - Intake of small droplets
and contained inside the newly formed vesicle (results from - is a form of fluid endocytosis (fluid-phase) in which a cell takes
in small particles from extracellular fluid are brought into the
 cell through an invagination of the cell membrane, resulting in
a suspension of the particles within a small vesicle inside the Examples:
cell  Receptor mediated endocytosis for virus
- pinocytosis vesicles subsequently fuse with endosomes to  Receptor mediated endocytosis for cholesterol (Low
hydrolyze(breakdown) the particles. density lipoprotein/LDL)
- is initiated by the presence of desired molecules (proteins,
sugar molecules, and ions) in the extracellular fluid near the
cell membrane surface.
- Process:
 the plasma membrane folds inward (invaginates)
forming a depression or cavity that fills with
extracellular fluid and dissolved molecules.
 membrane folds back on itself until the ends of the
in-folded membrane meet which traps the fluid B2. Exocystosis (reverse endocytosis)
inside the vesicle - A process in which the membrane of the vacuole
 in-folded membrane fuse and cuts the vesicle off surrounding the material fuses with the cell membrane,
from the membrane and the vesicle to drift towards forcing the contents out of the cell
the center of the cell - this is the reverse process of moving material into the cell, it
 vesicle may traverse the cell and be recycled back expels out material out of the cell into the extracellular fluid
into the membrane by exocytosis or may fuse with a (ECF)
lysosome  It is the way how cell expels out metabolic waste and
B.1.3 Receptor-mediated endocytosis other waste material
- clathrin mediated endocytosis  by this process the substances are expelled from the cell
- is the main portal of entry into the cell for many soluble and without going through or across the cell membrane
membrane molecules  the merging process of the vesicle that envelop the
- is a targeted endocytosis that employs receptor proteins in granules and the cell membrane leads to the its opening
the plasma membrane molecules that have specific binding expelling out the waste material
affinity for certain substances o your nerve cells discharging transmitters.
- specific molecules called ligands bind to specific receptors o your T cells sending vesicles loaded up with proteins
on the surface of the membrane protein (receptor sa to viral tainted cells.
- labas)(may suporta sa labas na maghahatak na magfoform - is ejection of materials from the cell by fusion of a
ng pocket once na nahuli ung hinuhuli asa labas)- clathrin cytoplasmic vesicle with the plasma membrane
- ligand sa labas (nagaattract), clathrin sa loob (magpupull)  Contents of vesicle are released into extracellular
- nakakaattract ng ibang molecules (warranted or
fluid
unwarranted/harmful)
 Vesicle membrane
- endosome – pocket na nabuo ng ligand and clathrin
now part of plasma
(endocytosis)
membrane
- the endosome with LDL inside will fuse again with the
lysosome (endolysosome)
- process:
 Ligand-receptor complexes accumulate in the clathrin-
coated pit and the pit region forms an invagination that
is internalized by endocytosis.
 A clathrin-coated vesicle is formed, which encapsulates
the ligand-receptor complex and extracellular fluid.
 The clathrin-coated vesicle fuses with an endosome in
the cytoplasm then clathrin coating is removed.
 The receptor is enclosed in a lipid membrane and
recycled back to the plasma membrane.
 The ligand remains in the endosome and the endosome
fuses with a lysosome.
 Lysosomal enzymes degrade the ligand and deliver the
desired contents to the cytoplasm.